Module 2

SHASHIKUMAR S
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Jain (Deemed-to-be) University
STRESSES AND EQUILIBRIUM
A three dimensional body occupying a volume V and having a surface S is shown in Figure.

Points in the body are located by x, y, z coordinates.

The boundary is constrained on some region, where displacement is specified.

On part of the boundary, distributed force per unit area T, also called traction is applied.

Under the force, the body deforms.

𝑇
The deformation of a point 𝑋 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is given by the three components of its
displacement:
𝑢 = 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 𝑇 (eq. 1)
Figure 1

The distributed force per unit volume, for example.

𝑇
The weight per unit volume, is the vector f given by 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 , 𝑓𝑧 (𝑒𝑞. 2)
The body force acting on the elemental volume dV.

The surface traction T may be given by its component values at points on the surface:
𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑥 , 𝑇𝑦 , 𝑇𝑧 (𝑒𝑞. 3)
A load P acting at a point i is represented by its three components:
𝑇
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑥 , 𝑃𝑦 , 𝑃𝑧 (eq.4 )

The stresses acting on the elemental volume dV are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Equilibrium of elemental volume

When the volume dV shrinks to a point, the stress tensor is represented by placing its components in a (3 x 3)
symmetric matrix.

However, we represent stress by the six independent components as in

𝑇
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (eq.5 )

where 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 are normal stresses and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 are shear stresses.

Let us consider equilibrium of the elemental volume shown in Fig. 2.

First we get forces on faces by multiplying the stresses by the corresponding areas.

Writing σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 σ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧, we get the equilibrium equations,

𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + + 𝑓𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧

+ + + 𝑓𝑦 = 0 (eq.6 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧

+ + + 𝑓𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Referring to Fig.1, we find that there are displacement boundary conditions and surface loading
conditions.

If u is specified on part of the boundary denoted by 𝑆𝑢 , we have

𝑢 = 0 𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑢 (eq.7)

We can also consider boundary conditions such as u = a, where a is the given displacement.
STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS

We represent the strains in a vector form that corresponds to the stresses in eq.5
𝑇
ϵ = 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (eq.8)

where 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 are normal strains and 𝛾𝑦𝑧 , 𝛾𝑧𝑥 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are the shear strains.

Figure 3. Deformed elemental surface

Figure.3 gives the deformation of the dx-dy face for small deformations, which we consider here.

Also considering other faces, we can write

𝑇
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜖= , , , + , + , + (eq.9)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

These strain relations hold for small deformations

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS

For linear elastic materials, the stress-strain relations come from the generalized Hooke's law.

For isotropic materials, the two material properties are Young's modulus (or modulus of elasticity)
E and Poisson's ratio 𝜗.

Considering an elemental cube inside the body, Hooke's law gives

(eq.10)
The shear modulus (or modulus of rigidity), G, is given by

𝐸
𝐺= (eq.11)
2(1 + 𝜗)

From Hooke's law relationships (eq.10), note that

(1 − 2𝜗)
𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 (eq.12)
𝐸

Substituting for (𝜎𝑦 +𝜎𝑧 ) and so on into eq.10 we get the inverse relation,
𝜎 = 𝐷𝜖 (eq.13)

D is the symmetric (6 x 6) material matrix given by

One dimension.
In one dimension, we have normal stress 𝜎 along 𝑥 and the corresponding normal strain 𝜖 ,
Stress-strain relations are simply,
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 (eq.14)

Two dimensions.
In two dimensions, the problems are modeled as plane stress and plane strain.
Plane Stress:
A thin planar body subjected to in-plane loading on its edge surface is said to be in plane stress.

Here stresses 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 and 𝜏𝑦𝑧 are set as zero. The Hooke's law relations (eq.10) then give us

(eq.15)

Figure 4

The inverse relations are given as,

(eq.16)

which is used as, 𝜎 = 𝐷𝜖.

Plane Strain:
If a long body of uniform cross section is subjected to transverse loading along its length, a small
thickness in the loaded area, can be treated as subjected to plane strain.

Here 𝜖𝑧 , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 and 𝛾𝑥𝑧 are taken as zero. Stress 𝜎𝑧 may not be zero in this case. The stress-strain
relations can be obtained directly from eq.13

Figure 5

(eq.17)

which is used as, 𝜎 = 𝐷𝜖.

D here is a (3 X 3) matrix, which relates three stresses and three strains.
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIUM

 In mechanics of solids, our problem is to determine the displacement u of the body, satisfying
the equilibrium equations.

 Note that stresses are related to strains, which, in turn, are related to displacements.

 This leads to requiring solution of second order partial differential equations.

 Solution of this set of equations is generally referred to as an exact solution. Such exact
solutions are available for simple geometries and loading conditions.

 For problems of complex geometries and general boundary and loading conditions, obtaining
such solutions is an almost impossible task.

 Approximate solution methods usually employ potential energy or variational methods, which
place less stringent conditions on the functions.
Potential Energy, 𝝅

The total potential energy 𝝅 of an elastic body, is defined as the sum of total strain energy (U)
and the work potential:
𝜋 = Strain energy + Work potential
(eq.18)
(U) (WP)

1 𝑇
For linear elastic materials., the strain energy per unit volume in the body is 𝜎 𝜖 .
2

For the elastic body shown in Fig. 1, the total strain energy U is given by,
(eq.19)
1
𝑈 = න 𝜎 𝑇 𝜖𝑑𝑉
2 𝑉

The work potential WP is given by,

(eq.20)
𝑊𝑃 = − ‫ 𝑉𝑑𝑓 𝑇𝑢 𝑉׬‬− ‫ 𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇𝑢 𝑆׬‬− σ𝑖 𝑢𝑖𝑇 𝑃𝑖
The total potential for the general elastic body shown in Figure 1 is

1
𝜋 = න 𝜎 𝑇 𝜖𝑑𝑉 − න 𝑢𝑇 𝑓𝑑𝑉 − න 𝑢𝑇 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − ෍ 𝑢𝑖𝑇 𝑃𝑖 (eq.21)
2 𝑉 𝑉 𝑆 𝑖

We consider conservative systems here, where the work potential is independent of the path
taken.

In other words, if the system is displaced from a given configuration and brought back to this
state, the forces do zero work regardless of the path. The potential energy principle is now stated
as follows:

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

For conservative systems, of all the kinematically admissible displacement fields, those
corresponding to equilibrium extremize the total potential energy. If the extremum condition is a
minimum. the equilibrium state is stable.
Example .1

Figure shows a system of springs.

1 1 1 1
The total potential energy is given by 𝜋 = 𝑘1 𝛿12 + 𝑘2 𝛿22 + 𝑘3 𝛿32 + 𝑘4 𝛿42 − 𝐹1 𝑞1 − 𝐹3 𝑞3
2 2 2 2

where 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 , 𝛿3 , and 𝛿4 are extensions of the four springs. Since 𝛿1 = 𝑞1 - 𝑞2 , 𝛿2 = 𝑞2 ,

𝛿3 = 𝑞3 - 𝑞2 and 𝛿4 = 𝑞3 , we have

1 1 1 1
𝜋 = 𝑘1 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 2
+ 𝑘2 𝑞2 + 𝑘3 (𝑞3 − 𝑞2 ) + 𝑘4 𝑞32 − 𝐹1 𝑞1 − 𝐹3 𝑞3
2 2
2 2 2 2
where 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 are the displacements of nodes 1,2, and 3, respectively.
For equilibrium of this three degrees of freedom system, we need to minimize 𝜋 with respect to 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 .

𝜕𝜋
The three equations are given by =0 𝑖 = 1,2,3
𝜕𝑞𝑖

which are
𝜕𝜋
= 𝑘1 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 − 𝐹1 = 0
𝜕𝑞1

𝜕𝜋
= −𝑘1 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 + 𝑘2 𝑞2 − 𝑘3 (𝑞3 − 𝑞2 ) = 0
𝜕𝑞2

𝜕𝜋
= 𝑘3 (𝑞3 − 𝑞2 ) + 𝑘4 𝑞4 − 𝐹3 = 0
𝜕𝑞𝑖

These equilibrium equations can be put in the form of 𝑘𝑞 − 𝑓 as follows:

Flexibility method and the stiffness method

Statically indeterminate structures can be analyzed by using the flexibility method or the stiffness method.

• Flexibility Method

 The flexibility method is based upon the solution of equilibrium equations and compatibility equations.

 It is called the flexibility method because flexibilities appear in the equations of compatibility.

 Another name for the method is the force method because forces are the unknown quantities in equations of
compatibility.

• Stiffness Method

 In the stiffness method, displacements (rather than forces) are taken as the unknown quantities.

 For this reason, the method is also called the displacement method.

 The unknown displacements are obtained by solving equations of equilibrium (rather than equations of
compatibility) that contain coefficients in the form of stiffness's.
 Analysis of a statically indeterminate bar using the flexibility method

The prismatic bar is attached at both ends to rigid supports and is axially loaded by the force P at point C

From the equation of equilibrium,

𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 − 𝑃 = 0 (eqn.1)
A second equation must be obtained from the displacements of the bar.

Designate one of the unknown reactions as the statically redundant, or the force that is in excess of those that can
be obtained by statics alone.

Choose 𝑅𝑎 as the redundant reaction.

If 𝑅𝑎 can be determined, then the other reaction 𝑅𝑏 can be obtained from (eqn. 1)

When the unknown reaction 𝑅𝑎 is removed from the structure, the effect is to release the support at end A ,
thereby producing the statically determinate and stable structure shown in Fig (b)
Thus, from the standpoint of having a structure that is capable of supporting loads, the reaction at end A is not
needed; i.e., it is redundant.

The structure that remains after releasing the redundant is called the released structure or the primary structure.

Consider the effect of the load P on the displacement of point A in the released structure (Fig. b).

𝑃𝑏
This displacement is, 𝛿𝑃 = (eqn.2)
𝐸𝐴

Next, consider the effect of the redundant force Ra on the displacement of point A (Fig. (c)).

Note that, although it is an unknown quantity, 𝑅𝑎 is now visualized as a load acting on the released structure. The
displacement of point A due to 𝑅𝑎 is,

𝑅𝑎 𝐿
𝛿𝑅 = (eqn.3)
𝐸𝐴
The final displacement d of point A due to both P and 𝑅𝑎 acting simultaneously is found by combining 𝛿𝑃 and 𝛿𝑅 .
Taking downward displacements as positive,

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑃 − 𝛿𝑅

Since the actual displacement d of point A is equal to zero (Fig. a),

𝛿 = 0, i.e., 𝛿𝑃 = 𝛿𝑅 (eqn.4)

Substituting from eqns (2) and (3) into eqn (4),

𝑅𝑎 𝐿 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏
= 𝑅𝑎 = (eqn.5)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐿

Thus, the redundant reaction has been calculated from an equation related to the displacements of the bar (eqn.4).

Knowing the redundant, from (eqn.1),

𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
𝑅𝑏 = 𝑃 − 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃 − =
𝐿 𝐿

The flexibility method can be used for different types of structures and for structures having many redundant forces.
The flexibility method for analyzing the statically indeterminate bar may be summarized as follows.

First, one of the unknown reactions is selected as the redundant and then released from the structure by cutting
through the bar and removing the support.

The released structure, which is statically determinate and stable, is then loaded separately by the actual load P and
by the redundant itself.

Next, the displacements caused by these two quantities are calculated from the properties of the bar and the
material.

Then the two displacements are combined into an equation of compatibility (eqn.4).

The equation of compatibility expresses a condition pertaining to the original structure, namely, that the
displacement 𝛿 at end A is zero.

The equation of compatibility can be solved for the redundant force 𝑅𝑎 . Finally, the remaining unknown force is
found from an equation of equilibrium.

The flexibility method can be used for different types of structures and for structures having many redundant forces.
 Analysis of a statically indeterminate bar using the stiffness method

The vertical displacement 𝛿𝐶 of point C , is taken as the unknown quantity.

The axial forces 𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑏 in the upper and lower parts of the bar can be expressed in terms of 𝛿𝐶 .

To accomplish this step assume that point C is moved downward by the distance 𝛿𝐶 . Then the upper part of the bar
elongates and the lower part shortens by that amount.

The axial forces in the two parts are equal to their respective stiffness's multiplied by the displacement,

(eqn.6)

In writing (eqn.6), it is assumed that 𝛿𝐶 is positive downward, thereby producing tension in the upper part of the bar
and compression in the lower part.
The next step is to isolate point C in the body as a free body (Fig. b).

Acting on the free body are the downward load P ,

the tensile force 𝑅𝑎 in the upper part, and the compressive force 𝑅𝑏 in the lower part.

From equilibrium,
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 − 𝑃 = 0 (eqn.7)

Substituting from (eqn.6),

(eqn.8)

which yields,

(eqn.9)

Hence, from (eqn.6),

(eqn.10)
The stiffness method for analyzing the statically indeterminate bar may be summarized as follows.

 First, select a suitable displacement as the unknown quantity. A displacement will be suitable, if the forces in the
individual parts of the structure can be expressed in terms of that displacement.

 Next, the forces are related by an equation of equilibrium (eqn.7).

 Then the expressions giving the forces in terms of the unknown displacement are substituted into the equation
of equilibrium, thereby producing an equation with only the selected displacement as an unknown (eqn.8).

 Note the coefficients of 𝛿𝐶 in this equation are the stiffness's. This equation is solved for the unknown
displacement (eqn.9), and finally, the forces are found from the displacement (eqn.10).

When comparing the flexibility and stiffness methods, it is seen that the flexibility method requires the solution of
equations of compatibility for unknown forces whereas the stiffness method requires the solution of equations of
equilibrium for unknown displacements.