Maths Quest: Jacaranda

JACARANDA
MATHS QUEST
VICTORIAN CURRICULUM | REVISED EDITION 10+10A
JACARANDA
MATHS QUEST
VICTORIAN CURRICULUM | REVISED EDITION 10+10A
KYLIE BOUCHER | LYN ELMS | DOUGLAS SCOTT
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Brendan Owen | Margaret Swale | Ruth Bakogianis
Irene Kiroff | Robert Cahn | Coral Connor | Tobias Cooper
Revised edition published 2018 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2015
Typeset in 11/14 pt Times LT Std
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2018
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
ISBN: 978-0-7303-4856-6
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this
work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its
educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a
remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or
review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in
any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
Trademarks
Jacaranda, the JacPLUS logo, the learnON, assessON and studyON logos, Wiley and the Wiley logo, and any
related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons Inc. and/or its affiliates in
the United States, Australia and in other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other
trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Front cover image: tea maeklong/Shutterstock.com
Images: Shriro Australia Pty Ltd: All screenshots © CASIO. Classpad is a registered trademark of CASIO
Computer Co.,Ltd. Screenshots from TI Nspire reproduced with permission of Texas Instruments.
Cartography by Spatial Vision, Melbourne and MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane
Illustrated by various artists, diacriTech and the Wiley Art Studio.
Typeset in India by diacriTech
Printed in China by
Printplus Limited
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
About this resource ......��.................................................................................................................................................... xi
CAS support in Maths Quest�� xiii
Acknowledgements�� xiii
Topic 1 Indices1
1.1 Overview�� 1
1.2 Review of index laws�� 2
1.3 Negative indices�� 7
1.4 Fractional indices�� 11
1.5 Combining index laws�� 16
1.6 Review�� 21
Answers�� 26
Topic 2 Algebra and equations 31

2.2 Substitution�� 32
2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions�� 37
2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions�� 41
2.5 Solving simple equations�� 45
2.6 Solving multi-step equations�� 50
2.7 Literal equations�� 54
2.8 Review�� 57
Answers�� 61
Topic 3 Coordinate geometry 66

3.2 Sketching linear graphs�� 67
3.3 Determining linear equations�� 75
3.4 The distance between two points�� 82
3.5 The midpoint of a line segment�� 85
3.6 Parallel and perpendicular lines�� 88
3.7 Review�� 97
Answers�� 104
Topic 4 Simultaneous linear equations

and inequalities 112
4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations�� 113
4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution�� 119
CONTENTS v
4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination�� 122
4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations�� 127
4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations�� 131
4.7 Solving linear inequalities�� 138
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane�� 142
4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities�� 148
4.10 Review�� 152
Answers�� 158
Topic 5 Trigonometry I 167

5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem�� 168
5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions�� 175
5.4 Trigonometric ratios�� 180
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths�� 185
5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size�� 190
5.7 Angles of elevation and depression�� 196
5.8 Bearings�� 200
5.9 Applications�� 207
5.10 Review�� 212
Answers�� 218
Topic 6 Surface area and volume 224

6.2 Area�� 225
6.3 Total surface area�� 234
6.4 Volume�� 243
6.5 Review�� 254
Answers�� 261
Topic 7 Quadratic expressions 264

7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions�� 265
7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms�� 272
7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms�� 277
7.5 Factorising by completing the square�� 281
7.6 Mixed factorisation �� 286
7.7 Review�� 288
Answers�� 293
Topic 8 Quadratic equations 298

8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically�� 299
8.3 The quadratic formula�� 306
vi CONTENTS
8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically�� 310
8.5 The discriminant�� 315
8.6 Review�� 320
Answers�� 325
Topic 9 Non-linear relationships 329

9.2 Plotting parabolas�� 330
9.3 Sketching parabolas�� 337
9.4 Sketching parabolas in turning point form�� 343
9.5 Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c�� 350
9.6 Exponential functions and graphs�� 353
9.7 The hyperbola�� 359
9.8 The circle�� 362
9.9 Review�� 366
Answers�� 372
Topic 10 Deductive geometry 394

10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence�� 395
10.3 Similar triangles�� 405
10.4 Quadrilaterals�� 412
10.5 Polygons�� 422
10.6 Review�� 426
Answers�� 433
Project: Getting the budget in order 437
Topic 11 Probability439
11.2 Review of probability�� 440
11.3 Tree diagrams�� 456
11.4 Independent and dependent events�� 462
11.5 Conditional probability�� 468
11.6 Subjective probability�� 472
11.7 Review�� 475
Answers�� 481
Topic 12 Univariate data 491

12.2 Measures of central tendency�� 492
12.3 Measures of spread�� 503
12.4 Box-and-whisker plots�� 508
12.5 The standard deviation�� 517
12.6 Comparing data sets�� 526
CONTENTS vii
12.7 Review�� 532
Answers�� 539
Topic 13 Bivariate data 549

13.2 Bivariate data�� 550
13.3 Lines of best fit�� 557
13.4 Time series�� 569
13.5 Review�� 578
Answers�� 583
Topic 14 Statistics in the media 591

14.2 Populations and samples�� 592
14.3 Primary and secondary data�� 597
14.4 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports�� 606
14.5 Statistical investigations�� 618
14.6 Review�� 624
Answers�� 633
Project: Climate change 639
Topic 15 Financial mathematics 640

15.2 Purchasing goods�� 641
15.3 Buying on terms�� 645
15.4 Successive discounts�� 650
15.5 Compound interest�� 654
15.6 Depreciation�� 660
15.7 Loan repayments�� 663
15.8 Review�� 666
Answers�� 670
Topic 16 Real numbers 675

16.2 Number classification review�� 676
16.3 Surds�� 681
16.4 Operations with surds�� 684
16.5 Fractional indices�� 695
16.6 Negative indices�� 699
16.7 Logarithms�� 702
16.8 Logarithm laws�� 706
16.9 Solving equations�� 711
16.10 Review�� 716
Answers�� 722
viii CONTENTS
Topic 17 Polynomials728
17.2 Polynomials�� 729
17.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials�� 731
17.4 Long division of polynomials�� 733
17.5 Polynomial values�� 738
17.6 The remainder and factor theorems�� 741
17.7 Factorising polynomials�� 743
17.8 Solving polynomial equations�� 747
17.9 Review�� 750
Answers�� 754
Topic 18 Functions and relations 759

18.2 Functions and relations�� 760
18.3 Exponential functions�� 770
18.4 Cubic functions�� 779
18.5 Quartic functions�� 784
18.6 Transformations�� 787
18.7 Review�� 795
Answers��800
Topic 19 Circle geometry 807

19.2 Angles in a circle�� 808
19.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents�� 815
19.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals�� 823
19.5 Tangents, secants and chords�� 826
19.6 Review�� 832
Answers�� 838
Topic 20 Trigonometry II 842

20.2 The sine rule�� 843
20.3 The cosine rule�� 851
20.4 Area of triangles�� 855
20.5 The unit circle�� 861
20.6 Trigonometric functions�� 866
20.7 Solving trigonometric equations�� 871
20.8 Review�� 873
Answers�� 879
CONTENTS ix
Topic 21 Programming
21.2 Programs�� 890
21.3 Data structures�� 899
21.4 Algorithms�� 912
21.5 Matrices�� 926
21.6 Graphics�� 932
21.7 Simulations�� 943
21.8 Review�� 958
Answers��966
Appendix: CAS Calculator companion�� 887

Glossary��908
Index�� 921
x CONTENTS
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE
Jacaranda Maths Quest 10+10A Victorian Curriculum Third Edition has been completely revised to help
teachers and students navigate the Victorian Curriculum Mathematics syllabus. The suite of resources in the
Maths Quest series is designed to enrich the learning experience and improve learning outcomes for all students.
Maths Quest is designed to cater for students of all abilities: no student is left behind and none is held
back. Maths Quest is written with the specific purpose of helping students deeply understand mathematical
concepts. The content is organised around a number of features, in both print and online through Jacaranda’s
learnON platform, to allow for seamless sequencing through material to scaffold every student’s learning. The story of mathematics: Descartes
Topic NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Visit your

introductions learnON title to
TOPIC 8
RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY
watch videos
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Descartes (eles-1842)
put the topic

Quadratic equations 3.2 Sketching linear graphs which tell
into a real-world
context.
3.2.1 Linear graphs
the story of
8.1 Overview • If a series of points (x, y) is plotted using the rule y = mx + c, then the y
y = 2x + 5
mathematics.
10
points always lie in a straight line whose gradient equals m and whose
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where you need them, at the point of learning, in y-intercept equals c. Quadrant 2
5
Quadrant 1
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered • The rule y = mx + c is called the equation of a straight line written in
in this topic. ‘gradient–intercept’ form. –10 –5 0 5 10 x
Quadrant 3
–5
8.1.1 Why learn this? 3.2.2 Plotting linear graphs Quadrant 4
An extensive
–10
The Guggenheim Museum in • To plot a linear graph, complete a table of values to determine the points.
Bilbao (Spain) is covered with
thin metal plates like the scales
of a fish, each one designed
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Plot the linear graph defined by the rule y = 2x − 5 for the x-values −3, −2,−1, 0, 1, 2 and 3.
TI | CASIO
glossary of
and shaped by a computer. This
project required the solving THINK WRITE/DRAW mathematical
terms in print,
of thousands of non-linear 1 Create a table of values using the
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
equations. Parabolic shapes are given x-values.
y
widely used by engineers and
architects. 2 Find the corresponding y-values
by substituting each x-value into
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 and as a hover-
the rule.
3 Plot the points on a Cartesian
y −11
y
−9 −7 −5 −3 −1 1
over feature in
plane and rule a straight line
through them. Since the x-values
2
1
(3, 1)
your learnON title
8.1.2 What do you know? have been specified, the line –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3x
(2, –1)
1. THINK List what you know about quadratic equations. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to should only be drawn between the –2
–3 (1, –3)
show your list. x-values of –3 and 3. –4
2. PAIR Share what you know with a partner and then with a small group. –5 (0, –5)
The learning 3. SHARE As a class, create a thinking tool such as a large concept map that shows your class’s
knowledge of quadratic equations.
–6
(–1, –7) –7
–8
sequence at a LEARNING SEQUENCE

(–2, –9)
(–3, –11)
–9
–10
–11
y = 2x – 5
glance 8.1
8.2
Overview
Solving quadratic equations algebraically
4 Label the graph.
–12
8.3 The quadratic formula

8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically
8.5 The discriminant 3.2.3 Sketching straight lines
8.6 Review
• A minimum of two points are necessary to plot a straight line.
• Two methods can be used to plot a straight line:
– Method 1: The x- and y-intercept method.
– Method 2: The gradient–intercept method.
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: The Chinese Golden Age of Mathematics (eles-1847)
TOPIC 3 Coordinate geometry 67
298 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A
Fully worked WORKED EXAMPLE 14 TI | CASIO Investigation | Rich task

Documenting business expenses
Comparison of car hire companies Engaging
By considering transformations to the graph of y = 2x, sketch the graph of y = −2x + 1.
Investigations at the
Cost of car hire
examples
400
Plan 1
In business, expenses can be represented graphically, 300
200
Plan 2
so that relevant features are clearly visible. The fig- 100
THINK DRAW ure at right compares the costs of hiring cars from 0
250
throughout the text end of each topic to

Kilometres travelled
two different car rental companies. It will be cheaper
Start by sketching y = 2 . x
y
to use Plan 1 when travelling distances less than
5
It has a y-intercept of 1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 4 250 kilometres, and Plan 2 when travelling more
deepen conceptual
3
demonstrate key Sketch y = −2x by reflecting y = 2x about the x-axis. than 250 kilometres. Both plans cost the same when
2 y = 2x you are travelling exactly 250 kilometres.
It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 1 Jim works as a travelling sales representative. He needs to
understanding
–3 –1 1 2 3 x
0
concepts. Sketch y = −2x + 1 by translating y = −2x upwards by 1 unit. plan his next business trip to Port Hedland, which he antici-
–2 y = –2x +1 pates will take him away from the office for 3 or 4 days.
The graph has a y-intercept of 0 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 1. –3 Due to other work commitments, he is not sure whether he
–4
y = – 2x can make the trip by the end of this month or early next
month. He plans to fly to Port Hedland and use a hire car to
travel when he arrives. Jim’s boss has asked him to supply
documentation detailing the anticipated costs for the hire
car, based on the following quotes received.
Your FREE RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY
Try out this interactivity: Exponential graphs (int-1149)

A1 Rentals
Cut Price Rentals

$35 per day plus 28c per kilometre
of travel
$28 per day plus 30c per kilometre
online learnON of travel

Jim is aware that, although the Cut Price Rentals deal looks
cheaper, it could work out more expensive in the long run,
resources contain Exercise 9.6 Exponential functions and graphs because of the higher cost per kilometre of travel; he intends to
travel a considerable distance. Jim is advised by both rental companies that their daily hire charges
are due to rise by $2 per day from the first day of next month.
hundreds of videos, Individual pathways Assuming that Jim is able to travel this month and his trip will last 3 days, use the information
given to answer questions 1 to 3.
1. Write equations to represent the costs of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals. Use the
■ PRACTISE ■ CONSOLIDATE ■ MASTER
interactivities Questions:
1–16
Questions:
1–17
Questions:
1–18
pronumeral C to represent the cost (in dollars) and d to represent the distance travelled (in kilometres).
2. Plot the two equations from question 1 on the set of axes provided to show how the costs
compare over 1500 km.
and traditional    Individual pathway interactivity: int-4609 ONLINE ONLY

C
600
Comparison of cost of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals
WorkSHEETs To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
500
400
Cost ($)
and SkillSHEETs
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly. 300
200
Fluency
100
to support and 1. Complete the table below and use the table to plot the graph of y = 3x for −3 ≤ x ≤ +3.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
0
200 400 600 800 1000
Distance travelled (km)
1200 1400 1600 d
enhance learning. y
Reflection
How do the solutions for a system of equations differ from a system of inequations?
Each topic concludes
2. If x = 1, find the value of y when:
a. y = 2x b. y = 3x c. y = 4x d. y = 10x e. y = ax.
4.10 Review with comprehensive
3. Using a calculator or graphing program, sketch the graphs of y = 2x, y = 3x and y = 4x on the same
set of axes. 4.10.1 Review questions Review questions, in
Carefully graded a. What do the graphs have in common?
b. How does the value of the base (2, 3, 4) affect the graph?
Fluency
1. The inequality that is represented by the following region is:
a. y ≥ 2 − x b. y ≥ x − 2 c. y ≤ 2 − x d. y ≤ x − 2 e. y ≥ 2x both print and online.
questions cater c. Predict where the graph y = 8x would lie and sketch it in.
4. Using graphing technology, sketch the following graphs on one set of axes.
2. The equation of a linear graph which passes through the origin with gradient − 3 is:
a. y = −3 b. x = −3 c. y = −3x d. y = 3 − 3x e. y = 3x − 3
for all abilities. y = 3x, y = 3x + 2, y = 3x + 5, y = 3x − 3 y

3
a. What remains the same in all of these graphs? 2
1
Question types are

b. What is changed?
−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 x
c. For the graph of y = 3x + 10, write down: −1
−2
i. the y-intercept
classified according
−3
ii. the equation of the horizontal asymptote. Region required
to strands of
3. An online music shop charges a flat rate of +5 postage for 2 CDs and $11 for 5 CDs. The equation
that best represents this, if C is the cost and n is the number of CDs, is:
a. C = 5n + 11 b. C = 6n + 5 c. C = n + 2 d. C = 5n + 1 e. C = 2n + 1
the Victorian 4. During a walk-a-thon, Sarah receives $4 plus $3 per kilometre. The graph which best represents Sarah
walking up to 5 kilometres is:
a. $ b. $ c. $
Curriculum. Fully worked solutions
18
15
(5, 18) 24
20
(5, 24) 24
20 (5, 19)
Individual pathway
12 16 16
9 12 12
to every question are

6 8 8
interactivities in
3 4 4
0 d (km) 0 d (km) 0 d (km)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
each sub-topic provided online, and d. $

18
15
(5, 19)
e.
24
$
20
answers are provided

(5, 18)
12 16
ensure consolidation 9
6
12
8
at the end of each

3 4
of learning for every 0

1 2 3 4 5
d (km) 0 1 2 3 4 5 d (km)
skill level. print topic. 5. Which of the following pairs of coordinates is the solution to the given simultaneous equations?
2x + 3y = 18
5x − y = 11
a. (6, 2) b. (3, −4) c. (3, 9) d. (3, 4) e. (5, 11)
6. The graphical solution to the following pair of simultaneous equations is:
y = 5 − 2x
y = 3x − 10

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE xi
LearnON is Jacaranda’s immersive and flexible digital learning platform that transforms trusted Jacaranda
content to make learning more visible, personalised and social. Hundreds of engaging videos and inter-
activities are embedded just where you need them — at the point of learning. At Jacaranda, our ‘learning
made visible’ framework ensures immediate feedback for students and teachers, with customisation and
collaboration to drive engagement with learning.
Maths Quest contains a free activation code for learnON (please see instructions on the inside front cover),
so students and teachers can take advantage of the benefits of both print and digital, and see how learnON
enhances their digital learning and teaching journey.
includes:
•• Students and teachers connected in a class group
•• Hundreds of videos and interactivities to bring concepts to life
•• Fully worked solutions to every question
•• Immediate feedback for students
•• Immediate insight into student
progress and performance for
teachers
•• Dashboards to track progress
•• Collaboration in real time
through class discussions
•• Comprehensive summaries for
each topic
•• Code puzzles and dynamic
interactivities to help students
engage with and work through
challenging concepts
•• Formative and summative
assessments
•• And much more …
xii ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

c On the Main screen, c
complete the entry
line as:
√5 32
Then press EXE.
CAS SUPPORT IN
MATHS QUEST
A CAS appendix has been added to this text showing a selection of Worked Examples from the text pro-
duced with CAS instructions and screenshots. A more comprehensive guide to using5 CAS is included in the
√32 = 2
About this course/prelim section of your online course.
TOPIC 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Simplify 5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3.
TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE
In a new problem, on a Ensure the calculator is set to
Calculator page, complete Standard mode.
the entry line as: On the Main screen, complete
5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3 the entry line as:
Then press ENTER ·. 5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3
Then press EXE.
5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3

= 9√3 + 2√2
5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3

= 9√3 + 2√2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and individ-
uals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.
Images
• Alamy Stock Photo: 298/robertharding • Digital Vision: 247 • Getty Images: 770/Eraxion / iStockphoto • Getty Images
Australia: 276 (middle)/gmnicholas; 319/Martin Ruegner; 425 (top)/fsachs78 • NASA: 639 (bottom) • Photodisc: 173
(top), 173 (bottom), 198, 238, 304, 305 (top), 305 (bottom), 336, 336, 365, 465 (bottom), 566, 574, 729, 859 (top), 859
(bottom) • Shutterstock: 1/Lightspring; 6 (top)/ARTSILENSE; 6 (bottom)/JIANG HONGYAN; 15, 66/arbit; 21/Julianka;
25/agsandrew; 31/EmiliaUngur; 36 (top), 645/Rashevskyi Viacheslav; 36 (bottom)/Iscatel; 40/Megapixel; 44/debra hughes;
49/LAcoKozyna; 53 (middle)/Robyn Mackenzie; 53 (bottom)/Liv friis-larsen; 60 (right), top/davidundderriese; 60 (right),
middle/9lives; 60 (right), bottom/Photobank gallery; 60 (bottom)/Dennis Cox; 78/Maksym Dykha; 81/BlueSkyImage; 97,
343/Orla; 102/bannosuke; 112, 720/TnT Designs; 118/Crok Photography; 121/Lee Torrens; 126/trekandshoot; 126/Margaret
APPENDIX CAS Calculator companion 725
M Stewart; 128, 591/Oleksiy Mark; 129(A), 129 (bottom), 130, 142 (middle), 251 (top), 251 (bottom), 252, 253 (top), 253
(middle), 254, 422 (top), 711, 715, 716/Unknown; 130 (top)/CLS Design; 130 (bottom)/3445128471; 142 (top)/Darren
Brode; 147/Jayme Burrows; 151/Yuriy Rudyy; 156 (top)/Morphart Creation; 156 (middle)/stockshoppe; 156 (bottom)/
Maksim Toome; 167/CarpathianPrince; 174/Olga Danylenko; 194/Aleix Ventayol Farrés; 195 (bottom)/pichayasri; 199/
BMAppendix_VC.indd Page 725 11/10/17 10:07 PM
Bplanet; 205/Repina Valeriya; 206/GraphicsRF; 216/snapgalleria; 224/More Images; 250/Popartic; 251 (middle)/koya979;
253 (bottom)/Dmitry Morgan; 259 (top)/Poprotskiy Alexey; 259 (middle)/m.bonotto; 264/Ivan Pavlov; 271/Ivonne Wierink;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii
280/krechet; 281/dotshock; 288/Irina Voloshina; 291/Maxi_m; 302, 394/Neale Cousland; 312, 442/CHEN WS; 314/Diego
Barbieri; 323/Micha Klootwijk; 324/nito; 329/Christos Georghiou; 342/XiXinXing; 348/marco mayer; 353/Peter Barrett;
358/royaltystockphoto.com; 365/Mariya Dimova; 366/Creative Mood; 370/alean; 405/Dan Breckwoldt; 411/Vjom; 422
(bottom)/Frontpage; 425 (bottom)/Darios; 437/Robert Cumming; 438/© XuRa; 439/jordache; 450/Cheryl Ann Quigley; 453/
jabiru; 454 (top)/Viaceslav; 454 (bottom)/Vladyslav Starozhylov; 456/OlegDoroshin; 461/Lucky Business; 465 (top)/l i g h t
p o e t; 466 (top)/Astronoman; 466 (bottom)/Alexey Repka; 471/Suzanne Tucker; 471/Ollyy; 472 (top)/Ildar Akhmerov; 472
(bottom)/Adrian Niederhaeuser; 474/Aaron Amat; 475/abstract; 491/tovovan; 498 (top)/Omer N Raja; 498 (bottom)/Artazum;
500/TK Kurikawa; 501 (top)/spotmatik; 501 (bottom)/pkchai; 502 (top), 738/Andresr; 502 (bottom)/3d_kot; 506/Nadezda
Cruzova; 507/Piotr Zajc; 508/Elena Elisseeva; 510/topae; 512/Madlen; 514 (top)/Dudits; 514 (bottom)/Ariwasabi; 515 (top)/
psynovec; 515 (bottom), 528/Kzenon; 516/givaga; 520/AntonioDiaz; 524/mezzotint; 525/Barry Barnes; 515 (bottom), 528/
Kzenon; 529, 647 (bottom)/Monkey Business Images; 530/spfotocz; 531/Yellowj; 532/Nik Merkulov; 537/imagedb.com;
549/Rob Hyrons; 553 (top)/Sebastian Kaulitzki; 553 (bottom)/Champiofoto; 554/Matryoha; 556/Andrey_Kuzmin; 557/max
blain; 565/Max Earey; 567/asife; 568 (top)/Denis Tabler; 568 (bottom)/Denis Kuvaev; 569/Ain Mikail; 575/ibreakstock;
576/amasterphotographe; 577/Vectomart; 581/Aleksandr Bryliaev; 582 (middle)/Lorelyn Medina; 582 (bottom)/Pushkin;
592/Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH; 595/Alexander Raths; 596/homydesign; 597/PavleMarjanovic; 598 (top)/Maxx-Studio; 598
(middle)/Fotyma; 598 (bottom)/alexmillos; 599 (top)/mama_mia; 599 (middle)/Meder Lorant; 599 (bottom)/Tatyana Vyc;
604/OZ Photo; 607/CandyBox images; 615 (top)/Maria Maarbes; 615 (bottom)/Natali Glado; 618/Mint and Lemon; 623/
Twin Design; 624/fuyu liu; 638/© Mariia Sats; 639 (top)/LysFoto; 640/style_TTT; 641/Petar Milevski; 643/kavione; 647
(top)/Omegafoto; 648 (top)/Macrovector; 649/gst; 650 (middle)/Anteromite; 650 (bottom)/TW van Urk; 652/Altin Osmanaj;
653 (top)/Moving Moment; 653 (bottom)/Dionisvera; 658/Inked Pixels; 659/karamysh; 660/Natykach Nataliia; 661/
stefan11; 662/zefart; 663 (top)/David Malik; 663 (bottom)/zamanbeku; 665/emilie zhang; 669/a1b2c3; 675/Kudryashka;
676 (left)/© Johan Larson, used under licence from Shutterstock; 676 (right)/© R. Gino Santa Maria, used under license
from Shutterstock; 693/Jirsak; 698/Kathie Nichols; 710/gpointstudio; 112, 720/TnT Designs; 728/Sashkin; 731/BrunoRosa;
747/Syda Productions; 752/Keo; 759/Steven Fayers; 774/science photo; 775/KKulikov; 776/BARRI; 777 (top)/Soloviova
Liudmyla; 777 (bottom)/harper kt; 778/a40757; 798/DrHitch; 807/KRIS Beauty; 832/Ron Dale; 842/Fer Gregory; 850 (top)/
Alvov; 850 (middle)/Maridav; 850 (bottom)/Inu; 851/Jose Angel Astor Rocha; 854 (top)/Phovoir; 854 (bottom)/mooinblack;
877/Nomad_Soul; 129(B)/Hydromet; 330(a)/gui jun peng; 330(b)/Amy Johansson; 330(c)/Paul D Smith; 331(d)/albund;
331(e)/Petinov Sergey Mihilovich • Viewfinder Australia Photo Lib: 20 • WorldSat Royalty Free: 836/Copyright © Earth
Vistas/ WorldSat International Inc
Text
• Copyright Agency Limited: 613/“Sponges are toxic”, The Sunday Mail 5 September 2010 p36; 617/The Great Aussie Dads
survey, The Sunday Mail, 05/09/2010, David Briggs, Galaxy principal; 620/Source: The Courier Mail, 14–15 Aug. 2010,
p. 25.; 621 (middle)/“Single women earn more”, The Weekend Australian 4–5 Sept 2010 p20; 621 (bottom)/“Egg Shortage
is no yolk”, by Paddy Hintz, The Courier Mail 28–29 August 2010 • This may be a modified extract from the Victorian Cur-
riculum F-10 and may include the work of other authors. VCAA does not endorse nor verify the accuracy of the information
provided and accepts no responsibility for incomplete or inaccurate information. You can find the most up to date version of
the Victorian Curriculum at http://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/.
Every effort has been made to trace the ownership of copyright material. Information that will enable the
publisher to rectify any error or omission in subsequent reprints will be welcome. In such cases, please
contact the Permissions Section of John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 1
Indices
1.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded
just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will
help you to learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.
1.1.1 Why learn this?

Don’t you wish that your money could grow as
quickly as a culture of bacteria? Perhaps it can —
both financial investments and a culture of bacteria
can grow exponentially, that is, according to the laws
of indices. Indices are useful when a number is con-
tinually multiplied by itself, becoming very large, or
perhaps very small.
1.1.2 What do you know?

1. THINK List what you know about indices. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show your list.
2. PAIR Share what you know with a partner and then with a small group.
3. SHARE As a class, create a thinking tool such as a large concept map that shows your class’s
knowledge of indices.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview
1.2 Review of index laws
1.3 Negative indices
1.4 Fractional indices
1.5 Combining index laws
1.6 Review

Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Leibniz (eles-1840)
TOPIC 1 Indices 1
1.2 Review of index laws
1.2.1 Review of index laws
•• When a number or pronumeral is repeatedly multiplied by itself, it can be written in a shorter form
called index form.
•• A number written in index form has two parts, the base and the index, and is written as:
Base ax Index
(power or
exponent)
•• Another name for an index is an exponent or a power.
•• Performing operations on numbers or pronumerals written in index form requires the application of
the index laws.
First Index Law: When terms with the same base are multiplied, the indices are added.
am × an = am + n
Second Index Law: When terms with the same base are divided, the indices are subtracted.
am ÷ an = am − n
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 TI | CASIO
Simplify each of the following.

2x5y4
a m4n3p × m2n5p3 b 2 a 2 b 3 × 3 ab 4 c
10x2y3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a m4n3p × m2n5p3

2 Multiply the terms with the same base = m4 + 2n3 + 5p1 + 3
by adding the indices. Note: p = p1. = m6n8p4
b 1 Write the expression. b 2a2b3 × 3ab4

2 Simplify by multiplying the = 2 × 3 × a 2 + 1 × b3 + 4
coefficients, then multiply the terms = 6a3b7
with the same base by adding the
indices.
2x5y4
c 1 Write the expression. c
10x2y3
1x5 − 2y4 − 3
2 Simplify by dividing both of the =
coefficients by the same factor, then 5
x3y
divide terms with the same base by =
5
subtracting the indices.
Third Index Law: Any term (excluding 0) with an index of 0 is equal to 1.

a0 = 1, a ≠ 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

a (2b3) 0 b −4(a2b5) 0
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2b3) 0

2 Apply the Third Index Law, which states that any =1
term (excluding 0) with an index of 0 is equal to 1.
b 1 Write the expression. b −4(a2b5) 0
2 The entire term inside the brackets has an index of 0, = −4 × 1
so the bracket is equal to 1.
3 Simplify. = −4
Fourth Index Law: When a power (am) is raised to a power, the indices are multiplied.
(am) n = amn
Fifth Index Law: When the base is a product, raise every part of the product to the index outside the
brackets.
(ab) m = ambm
Sixth Index Law: When the base is a fraction, multiply the indices of both the numerator and denom-
inator by the index outside the brackets.
(b)
a m am
= m
b
( y4 )
2x3 4
a (2n4) 3 b (3a2b7) 3 c d (−4) 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the term. a (2n4) 3

2 Apply the Fourth Index Law and simplify. = 21 × 3 × n4 × 3
= 23n12
= 8n12
b 1 Write the expression. b (3a2b7) 3
2 Apply the Fifth Index Law and simplify. = 31 × 3 × a2 × 3 × b7 × 3
= 33a6b21
= 27a6b21
( y4 )
c 1 Write the expression. c 2x3 4
21 × 4 × x3 × 4
2 Apply the Sixth Index Law and simplify. =
y4 × 4
12
16x
=
y16
TOPIC 1 Indices 3
d 1 Write the expression. d (−4) 3
2 Write in expanded form. = −4 × −4 × −4
3 Simplify, taking careful note of the negative = −6 4
sign.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Index form (doc-5168)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Using a calculator to evaluate numbers given in index form (doc-5169)
Exercise 1.2 Review of index laws

Individual pathways
VV PRACTISE VV CONSOLIDATE VV MASTER

Questions: Questions: Questions:
1a–f, 2a–f, 3a–f, 4a–f, 6, 7a–f, 1d–i, 2d–i, 3a–f, 4e–l, 6, 7a–f, 1d–l, 2d–l, 3, 4d–o, 5, 6, 7d–i, 8–16
9, 10 9–11, 15
   Individual pathway interactivity: int-4562 ONLINE ONLY
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.
Fluency
1. WE1a, b Simplify each of the following.
a. a3 × a4 b. a2 × a3 × a c. b × b5 × b2
d. ab2 × a3b5 e. m2n6 × m3n7 f. a2b5c × a3b2c2
g. mnp × m5n3p4 h. 2a × 3ab i. 4a2b3 × 5a2b × 2b5
1
j. 3m3 × 2mn2 × 6m4n5 k. 4x2 × 2xy3 × 6x3y3 l. 2x3y2 × 4x × 12x4y4

1
2. WE1c Simplify each of the following.

a. a4 ÷ a3 b. a7 ÷ a2 c. b6 ÷ b3
4a7 21b6 48m8
d. e. f.
3a3 7b2 12m3
m7n3 2x4y3
g. h. i. 6x7y ÷ 8x4
m4n2 4x4y
20m5n3p4 14x3y4z2
j. 7ab5c4 ÷ ab2c4 k. l.
16m3n3p2 28x2y2z2
3. WE2 Simplify each of the following.
a. a0 b. (2b) 0 c. (3m2) 0
d. 3x0 e. 4b0 f. −3 × (2n) 0
(4)
g. 4a0 − a 0 h. 5y0 − 12
i. 5x0 − (5xy2) 0

(3)
m2 4
a. (a2) 3 b. (2a5) 4 c.
( 3 )
2n4 2
d. e. (a2b) 3 f. (3a3b2) 2
( 4 ) ( b3 )
3m2n 3 a2 2
g. (2m3n5) 4 h. i.
( n2 ) (2y5) (5b3)
5m3 4 7x 3 3a 4
j. k. l.
m. (−3) 5 n. (−7) 2 o. (−2) 5

5. MC a. 2m10n5 is the simplified form of:
( n3 )
6m10n4 2m5 2
a. m5n3 × 2m4n2 b. c. (2m5n2) 2 d. 2n(m5) 2 × n4 e.
3n
b. The value of 4 − (5a) is:
0
a. −1 b. 9 c. 1 d. 3 e. 5
6. MC a. 4a b × b × 5a b simplifies to:
3 4 2 3
a. 9a5b8 b. 20a5b7 c. 20a5b8 d. 9a5b7 e. 21a5b8
15x9 × 3x6
b. simplifies to:
9x10 × x4
a. 5x9 b. 9x c. 5x29 d. 9x9 e. 5x
3p7 × 8q9
c. simplifies to:
12p3 × 4q5
p4q4 q4 p4q4 q4
a. 2q4 b. c. d. e.
2 2 24 24
7a5b3 7b3a2
d. ÷ simplifies to:
5a6b2 5b5a4
49a3b 25a3b 25ab3
a. b. c. a3b d. ab3 e.
25 49 49
Understanding
7. Evaluate each of the following.
a. 23 × 22 × 2 b. 2 × 32 × 22 c. (52) 2
35 × 46
(5)
3 3
d. e. (23 × 5) 2 f.
34 × 44
44 × 56
g. h. (33 × 24) 0 i. 4(52 × 35) 0
43 × 55
8. Simplify each of the following.
a. (xy) 3z b. ab × (pq) 0 c. ma × nb × (mn) 0
( b3 )
n3m2
d.
a2 x e. p q f. (am + n) p
nm
Reasoning
9. Explain why a3 × a2 = a5 and not a6.
10. Is 2x ever the same as x2? Explain your reasoning using examples.
11. Explain the difference between 3x0 and (3x) 0.
TOPIC 1 Indices 5
12. a. In the following table, enter the values of 3a2 and 5a when a = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
a 0 1 2 3
2
3a
5a
3a2 + 5a
3a2 × 5a
b. Enter the values of 3a2 + 5a and 3a2 × 5a in the table.
c. What do you think will happen as a becomes very large?
13. Find algebraically the exact value of x if 4x+4 = 2x . Justify your answer.
2
14. Binary numbers (base 2 numbers) are used in computer operations. As the
name implies, binary uses only two types of numbers, 0 and 1, to express
all numbers. A binary number such as 101 (read one, zero, one) means
(1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20) = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5 (in base 10, the base we
are most familiar with).
The number 1010 (read one, zero, one, zero) means
(1 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (1 × 21) + (0 × 20) = 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10.
If we read the binary number from right to left, the index of 2
increases by one each time, beginning with a power of zero. Using this
information, write out the numbers 1 to 10 in binary (base 2) form.
Problem solving
15. Solve for x:
7x × 71+2x
a. = 16 807 b. 22x − 5(2x) = −4
(7x) 2
16. For the following:
a. calculate the correct answer
b. identify the error in the solution.
( a2b2 ) ( a2b3 ) ( b2 ) ( b3 )
a2b3c 3 a3b2c2 2 b3c 3 ab2c2 2
× = ×
(1) ( b )
3
ac2 2
= ×
bc
( b )
3 6
=
abc
( 1 )
ac3 6
=
= a6c18
Reflection
Why are these laws called index laws?
CHALLENGE 1.1
It was estimated that there were 4 × 1010 locusts in the largest swarm ever seen. If each
locust can consume 2 grams of grain in a day, how long would it take
the swarm to consume 1 tonne of grain?

1.3.1 Negative indices
a3
•• Consider the expression . This expression can be simplified in two different ways.
a5
a3 a×a×a
1. Written in expanded form: =
a 5 a×a×a×a×a
=
1
a×a
=
1
a2
3
2. Using the Second Index Law: a = a3−5
a5
= a−2
So, a−2 = .
1

a2
0
•• In general, 1 = a (1 = a0)
an an
= a0−n (using the Second Index Law)
= a−n
Seventh Index Law: a−n = n
1
a
•• The convention is that an expression should be written using positive indices and with p ronumerals
given in alphabetical order.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Express each of the following with positive indices.

4
a x−3 b 2m−4n2 c
a−3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x−3

2 Apply the Seventh Index Law.
=
1
x3
b 1 Write the expression. b 2m−4n2
2n2
2 Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =
expression with positive indices. m4
= 4 ÷ a−3
4
c 1 Write the expression and rewrite the fraction, c
−3
using a division sign. a
2 Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the
=4÷
1
expression with positive indices. a3
a3
3 To divide the fraction, change fraction =4×
division into multiplication. 1
= 4a3
= an.
1
•• Part c from Worked example 4 demonstrates the converse of the Seventh Index Law
a−n
TOPIC 1 Indices 7
Simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
( n−2 )
2x4y2 2m3 −2
a a2b–3 × a–5b b c
3xy5
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a a2b−3 × a−5b
2 Apply the First Index Law. Multiply terms with = a2+ −5b−3 + 1
the same base by adding the indices. = a−3b−2
3 Express the answer with positive indices.
=
1
3 2
ab
2x4y2
b 1 Write the expression. b
3xy5
2 Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms 2x4−1y2−5
with the same base by subtracting the indices. =
3
3 −3
2x y
=
3
3 Express the answer with positive indices. 2x3
=
3y3
2m3 −2
( n−2 )
2 Apply the Sixth Index Law. Multiply the 2−2m−6

=
indices of both the numerator and denominator by n4
the index outside the brackets.
3 Express all terms with positive indices.
=
1
2 m6n4
2
4 Simplify.
=
1
4m6n4
•• Numbers in index form can be easily evaluated if they are expressed with positive indices first.
Consider the following example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate 6 × 3 −3 without using a calculator.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the multiplication. 6 × 3−3
=6×
1
2 Apply the Seventh Index Law to write 3−3 with a positive
index. 33
6
3 Multiply the numerator of the fraction by the whole =
number. 33

6
4 Evaluate the denominator. =
27
=
5 Cancel by dividing both the numerator and 2
denominator by the highest common factor (3). 9
Try out this interactivity: Colour code breaker (int-2777)
Exercise 1.3 Negative indices

Individual pathways
 PRACTISE  CONSOLIDATE  MASTER

1a–i, 2a–i, 3a–f, 4, 5a–e, 6a–b, 1a–i, 2a–i, 3c–h, 4, 5a–g, 6, 7, 1, 2c–o, 3c–l, 4, 5d–j, 6, 7, 8c–f, 9–18
8a–c, 9, 11a, 12 8b–e, 9, 11a–b, 12, 13, 15, 18
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every q uestion, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.
Fluency
1. WE4 Express each of the following with positive indices.
a. x−5 b. y−4 c. 2a−9
d. 45a−3 e. 3x2y−3 f. 2−2m−3n−4
1 2
g. 6a3b−1c−5 h. i.
a−6 3a−4
6a 7a−4 2m3n−5
j. k. l.
3b−2 2b−3 3a−2b4
2. WE5 Simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
a. a3b−2 × a−5b−1 b. 2x−2y × 3x−4y−2 c. 3m2n−5 × m−2n−3
d. 4a3b2 ÷ a5b7 e. 2xy6 ÷ 3x2y5 f. 5x−2y3 ÷ 6xy2
6m4n 4x2y9 2m2n−4
g. h. i.
2n3m6 x7y−3 6m5n−1
j. (2a3m4) −5 k. 4(p7q−4) −2 l. 3(a−2b−3) 4
−3
a−4 2 6a2 −3
(3q3) (2b−3) (3b−2)
2p2
m. n. o.
3. WE6 Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

a. 2−3 b. 6−2 c. 3−4
d. 3−2 × 23 e. 4−3 × 22 f. 5 × 6−2
TOPIC 1 Indices 9
g.
6 4 × 3−3 i. 13 × 5−2 × 34
h.
2−3 2−3
160 × 24 53 × 250 34 × 42
j. k. l.
82 × 2−4 252 × 5−4 123 × 150
4. Write each of these numbers as a power of 2.
a. 8 b. 18 c. 32 1
d. 64
5. Complete each statement by writing the correct index.
a. 125 = 5 … 1
b. 16 = 4… c. 17 = 7 … d. 216 = 6 …
e. 0.01 = 10 … f. 1 = 8 … g. 64 = 4 … 1
h. 64 = 4…
1
i. 64 = 2… 1
j. 64 = 8…
6. Evaluate the following expressions.

−1 −1 −1 −1
a. (23 ) b. (54 ) c. (3 12 ) d. (15 )
7. Write the following expressions with positive indices.

a −1 a2 −1 a−2 −1 m3 −1
(b) ( b3 ) (b−3) (n−2)
a. b. c. d.
8. Evaluate each of the following, using a calculator.

a. 3−6 b. 12−4 c. 7−5
−8 −7
d. (12 ) e. (34 )
f. (0.04)−5
9. MC a. x−5 is the same as:

a. −x5 b. −5x
1 1
c. 5x d. e.
1 x5 x−5
b. is the same as:
a−4
b. −4a e. −a4
1
a. 4a c. a4 d.
a4
c. 18 is the same as:
1
a. 23 b. 2−3 c. 32 d. 3−2 e.
2−3
3m4
10. MC a. Which of the following, when simplified, gives ?
4n2
3m−4n−2 3n−2
a. b. 3 × 2−2 × m4 × n−2 c.
4 2−2m−4
22n−2
d. e. 3m4 × 22n−2
3−1m−4
b. When simplified, 3a−2b−7 ÷ 34a−4b6 is equal to:
4 9b 9a2 4a2 4a2

a. b. c. d. e.
6 13
ab 4a6 4b b13 b
c. When (2x6y−4) −3 is simplified, it is equal to:
2x18 x18 y12 8y12 x18
a. b. c. d. e.
y12 8y12 8x18 x18 6y12

( by )
2ax 3 8b9
d. If is equal to , then x and y (in that order) are:
a6
a. −3 and −6 b. −6 and −3 c. −3 and 2
d. −3 and −2 e. −2 and −3
Understanding
11. Simplify, expressing your answer with positive indices.
m−3n−2 (m3n−2) −7 5(a3b−3) 2 (5a−2b) −1
a. b. c. ÷
m−5n6 (m−5n3) 4 (ab−4) −1 (a−4b) 3
12. Simplify, expanding any expressions in brackets.
a. (r3 + s3)(r3 − s3) b. (m5 + n5) 2
(xa+1) b × xa+b −4
(px−1)
px+1 p8(x+1) p2
c. d. × ×
xa(b+1)
×x2b
(p2x) 4 (p12x) 0
2r × 8r
(22r × 16)
13. Write in the form 2ar+b.
14. Write 2−m × 3−m × 62m × 32m × 22m as a power of 6.

15. Solve for x if 4x − 4x−1 = 48.
Reasoning
16. Explain why each of these statements is false. Illustrate each answer by substituting a value for the
pronumeral.
a. 5x0 = 1 b. 9x5 ÷ 3x5 = 3x c. a5 ÷ a7 = a2 d. 2c−4 =
1
2c4
Problem solving
17. Solve for x and y if 5x−y = 625 and 32x × 3y = 243.
35x
Hence, evaluate .
7−2y × 5−3y
18. Solve for n. Verify your answers.
(3n) n × (3n) −3
a. (2n) n × (2n) 3 × 4 = 1 b. =1
81
Reflection
Are there any index laws from Section 1.2 that do not apply to negative indices?

1.4.1 Fractional indices
•• Terms with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following laws:
1
1. an = √a
n
m
2. a n = √am
n
= (√a) m
n
•• To understand how these laws are formed, consider the following numerical examples.
1 1
We know 42 × 42 = 41
√4 × √4 = √16
and that
=4
TOPIC 1 Indices 11
1
It follows, then, that 42 = √4.
1 1 1
Similarly, we know that 83 × 83 × 83 = 81
and that √3 8 × √3 8 × √3 8 = √3 512
=8
1
It follows, then, that 83 = √3 8.
1
This observation can be generalised to an = √a.
n
m m×1 m 1×m
Now consider: a n = a or a = a
n n n
1 1
= (am) n = (an) m
= √am = (√a) m
n n
m
Eighth Index Law: a n = √am = (√a) m
n n
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 3
a 92 b 162
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Rewrite the number using the Eighth Index Law. a 92 = √ 9
2 Evaluate. =3
m 3
b 1 Rewrite the number using a = (√a) m. b 162 = (√16) 3
n n
= 43
2 Simplify and evaluate the result. = 64
Simplify each of the following. 1
( y34 )
2 2
1 2 1
m5 × m5 x3
a b (a2b3) 6 c
THINK WRITE
1 2
a 1 Write the expression. a m5 × m5
2 Apply the First Index Law to multiply terms with 3
the same base by adding the indices. = m5
1
b 1 Write the expression. b (a2b3) 6
2 Use the Fourth Index Law to multiply each index 2 3
inside the brackets by the index outside the brackets. = a6 b 6

1 1
3 Simplify. = a3 b 2

( y34 )
2 1
2
x3
2 Use the Sixth Index Law to multiply the index in both 1

x3
the numerator and denominator by the index outside the = 3
brackets. y8
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Addition of fractions (doc-5176)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Subtraction of fractions (doc-5177)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Multiplication of fractions (doc-5178)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing roots as fractional indices (doc-5179)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Index laws (doc-5180)
Exercise 1.4 Fractional indices

Individual pathways

1–5, 6a, d, g, 7a, d, 8a, d, g, 9a, 1–5, 6a, b, e, h, i, 7a, b, c, f, 8a, b, 1–5, 6c, f, i, 7c, f, 8c, f, i, 9b, c, e, f,
d, 10a, d, g, 11a, d, g, 12, 13, d, e, g, h, 9a, b, d, e, 10b, e, h, 11b, 10c, f, i, 11c, f, i, 12–19
14a, d, g, 15, 16 e, h, 12, 13, 14b, e, h, 15, 16, 17
Fluency
1 1 1 1 1 1
a. 162 b. 252 c. 812 d. 83 e. 643 f. 814
2. Write the following in surd form.
1 1 2 5
a. 152 b. m4 c. 75 d. 72
3 1
e. w8 f. w1.25 g. 533 h. a0.3
3. Write the following in index form.
a. √t b. √4 57 c. √6 611 d. √7 x6
6 7 5 10 10
e. √x f. √w g. √w5 h. √11n
4. Without using a calculator, find the exact value of each of the following.
2 4 3 4
a. 83 b. 83 c. 325 d. 325
3 2 −2 3
e. 252 f. 273 g. 27 3 h. 814
6 1 1 1
i. 102 j. 3612 k. 72 l. 123
TOPIC 1 Indices 13
5. Using a calculator, evaluate each of the following. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
1 1 1
a. 33 b. 52 c. 75
1 3 4
d. 89 e. 128 f. (0.6) 5
(3) (4) (5)

3 3 2
2 2 3 4 4 3
g. h. i.
6. WE8a Simplify each of the following.

3 1 1 3 1 1
a. 45 × 45 b. 28 × 28 c. a2 × a3
3 2 1 1 3 2
d. x4 × x5 e. 5m3 × 2m5 f. 12b7 × 4b7
2 3 3 1
g. −4y2 × y9 h. 25a8 × 0.05a4 i. 5x3 × x2
2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 4
a. a3b4 × a3b4 b. x5y9 × x5y3 c. 2ab3 × 3a5b5
3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3
d. 6m7 × 13m4n5 e. x3y2z3 × x6y3z2 f. 2a5b8c4 × 4b4c4
1 1 2 1 3
a. 32 ÷ 33 b. 53 ÷ 54 c. 122 ÷ 122
4
6 3 3 1
m5
d. a7 ÷ a7 e. x2 ÷ x4 f.
5
m9
3 3
2x4 7n2 25b5
g. h. i.
3 4 1
4x5 21n3 20b4
4 3 5 2 2 2 3 4 3
a. x3y2 ÷ x3y5 b. a9b3 ÷ a5b5 c. m8n7 ÷ 3n8
3 3 7 1
4 2 1
5a4b5 p8 q4
d. 10x5y ÷ 5x3y4 e. f.
1 1 2 1
20a5b4 7p3q6
3 1
3 5 2 4 1
4
a. (2 ) 3
b. (5 ) c. (75) 6
3 1
1 4 8 1 3
d. (a3) 10 9
e. (m ) 2
f. (2b )
14 n b
3 15 m p a c
7 n
g. 4(p ) h. (x ) i. (3mb)
11. WE8b, c Simplify each of the following.
1
1 1 2 3 3 7
a. (a2b3) b. (a4b) 4 c. (x5y8) 2
1 1 3 2
(b)
1 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3
a4
d. (3a3b5c4) e. 5(x2y3z5) f.
2 1 1
( ) ( ) ( 2y34 )
4 3 2 2
7
m5 b5 4x
g. h. i.
7 4
n8 c9

2
12. MC a. y5 is equal to:
1 1 1
b. y ×
2 5
a. (y2) 5 c. (y5) 2 d. 2√y e. (y5) 2
5
2
b. k3 is not equal to:
1 1 1
3 3
a. (k3) 2 b. √k2 c. (k2) 3 d. (√k) 2 e. (k2) 3
1
c. is equal to:
5 2
√g
2 −2 5 −5 1
a. g5 b. g 5 c. g2 d. g 2 e. 2g5
3 m 1
13. MC a. If (a4) n is equal to a4, then m and n could not be:
a. 1 and 3 b. 2 and 6 c. 3 and 8
d. 4 and 9 E. both C and D
p
m m
( p)
n
a
b. When simplified, n is equal to:
b p mp
m m2
p n n p np
a a a a a
a. n b. n c. n d. m e. nm
b
bm bm b m
bp
2

a. √a8 b. √3 b9 c. √4 m16
d. √16x4 e. √3 8y9 f. √4 16x8y12
g. √3 27m9n15 h. √5 32p5q10 i. √3 216a6b18
Understanding
15. The relationship between the length of a pendulum (L) in a grandfather clock and the time it takes to
complete one swing (T) in seconds is given by the following rule. Note that g is the acceleration due
to gravity and will be taken as 9.8.
( g)
1
T = 2π
L 2
a. Calculate the time it takes a 1 m long pendulum to complete one swing.

b. Calculate the time it takes the pendulum to complete 10 swings.
c. How many swings will be completed after 10 seconds?
Reasoning
16. Using the index laws, show that √5 32a5b10 = 2ab2 .
17. To rationalise a fraction means to remove all non-rational numbers from the
a2
denominator of the fraction. Rationalise by multiplying the numerator and
3 + √b3
denominator by 3 − √ b3, and then evaluate if b = a2 and a = 2. Show all of your
working.
Problem solving
2 1 1 2 2
m5 − 2m5n5 + n5 − p5
18. Simplify .
1 1 1
m5 − n5 − p5
TOPIC 1 Indices 15
19. A scientist has discovered a piece of paper with a complex formula written on it. She thinks that
someone has tried to disguise a simpler formula. The formula is:
( ab2 ) ( a2 b )
4
√a13a2√b3 √a3b 2 b2 3
× b3 × ×
√a1b √
a. Simplify the formula using index laws so that it can be worked with.
b. From your simplified formula, can a take a negative value? Explain.
c. What is the smallest value for a for which the expression will give a rational answer? Consider only
integers.
Reflection
Why is it easier to perform operations with fractional indices than with expressions using surds?
1.5 Combining index laws

1.5.1 Combining index laws
•• When several steps are needed to simplify an expression, expand brackets first.
•• When fractions are involved, it is usually easier to carry out all multiplications first, leaving one
division as the final process.
•• Final answers are conventionally written using positive indices.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9

(2a) 4b4 3n−2 × 9n+1
a b
6a3b2 81n−1
THINK WRITE
(2a) 4b4
a 1 Write the expression. a
6a3b2
2 Apply the Fourth Index Law to remove the 16a4b4
=
bracket. 6a3b2
3 Apply the Second Index Law for each number and 8a4−3b4−2
=
pronumeral to simplify. 3
4 Write the answer. 8ab 2
=
3
3n−2 × 9n+1
81n−1
3n−2 × (32) n+1
2 Rewrite each term in the expression so that it has a =
base of 3. (34) n−1
3n−2 × 32n+2
3 Apply the Fourth Index Law to expand the brackets. =
34n−4
33n
4 Apply the First and Second Index Laws to simplify =
and write your answer. 34n−4
=
1
n−4
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 10

7xy3 2m5n × 3m7n4
a (2a3b) 4 × 4a2b3 b c
(3x3y2) 2 7m3n3 × mn2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2a3b) 4 × 4a2b3

2 Apply the Fourth Index Law. Multiply each index inside = 24a12b4 × 4a2b3
the brackets by the index outside the brackets.
3 Evaluate the number. = 16a12b4 × 4a2b3
4 Multiply coefficients and multiply pronumerals. = 16 × 4 × a12+2b4+3
Apply the First Index Law to multiply terms with = 64a14b7
the same base by adding the indices.
7xy3
(3x3y2) 2
2 Apply the Fourth Index Law in the denominator. 7xy3
Multiply each index inside the brackets by the index =
9x6y4
outside the brackets.
3 Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms with the 7x−5y−1
same base by subtracting the indices. =
9

=
7
4 Use a−m = m to express the answer with positive
1
a 9x5y
indices.
2m5n × 3m7n4
7m3n3 × mn2
2 Simplify each numerator and denominator by multiply- 6m12n5
=
ing coefficients and then terms with the same base. 7m4n5
3 Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms with the 6m8n0
=
same base by subtracting the indices. 7
4 Simplify the numerator using a0 = 1. 6m8 × 1
=
7
6m8
=
7

(5a2b3) 2 a2b5 8m3n −4 4m −2n −4
a × b ÷
a10 (a3b) 7 (6mn2) 3 6m −5n
THINK WRITE
(5a2b3) 2 a2b5
a 1 Write the expression. a ×
a10 (a3b) 7
TOPIC 1 Indices 17
2 Remove the brackets in the numerator of the first 25a4b6 a2b5
= ×
fraction and in the denominator of the second fraction. a10 a21b7
3 Multiply the numerators and then multiply the 25a6b11
=
denominators of the fractions. (Simplify across.) a31b7
4 Divide terms with the same base by subtracting the = 25a−25b4
indices. (Simplify down.)
25b4
5 Express the answer with positive indices. =
a25
3 −4 −2 −4
b 1 Write the expression. b 8m n ÷ 4m n
(6mn2) 3 6m−5n
2 Remove the brackets. 8m3n−4 4m−2n−4
= ÷
216m3n6 6m−5n
3 Change the division to multiplication. 8m3n−4 6m−5n
= ×
216m3n6 4m−2n−4
4 Multiply the numerators and then multiply the 48m−2n−3
=
denominators. (Simplify across.) 864mn2
5 Cancel common factors and divide pronumerals with m−3n−5
=
the same base. (Simplify down.) 18
6 Simplify and express the answer with positive indices.
=
1
18m3n5
Note that the whole numbers in part b of Worked example 11 could be cancelled in step 3.
RESOURCES – ONLINE ONLY
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Combining index laws (doc-5181)
Exercise 1.5 Combining index laws

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–d, 5a–d, 6, 7, 1c–h, 2c–f, 3c–g, 4b–f, 5c–f, 6–10, 1f–j, 2e–i, 3f–i, 4d–f, 5e–h, 6–10,
9, 10, 11a, d, 12 11b–e, 12 11c–f, 12–15

Fluency
a. (3a2b2) 3 × 2a4b3 b. (4ab5) 2 × 3a3b6 c. 2m3n−5 × (m2n−3) −6
d. (2pq3) 2 × (5p2q4) 3 e. (2a7b2) 2 × (3a3b3) 2 f. 5(b2c−2) 3 × 3(bc5) −4
1 1 3 4 1 3 1 1 2 1 −3 1 −3 −1
g. 6x2y3 × (4x4y5) 2 h. (16m3n4) 4 × (m2n4) 3 i. 2(p3q3) 4 × 3(p4q 4) 3
1 2 −1 1 3 2
j. (8p5q3) 3 × (64p3q4) 3
2. WE10b Simplify each of the following.
5a2b3 4x5y6 (3m2n3) 3
a. b. c.
(2a3b) 3 (2xy3) 4 (2m5n5) 7
3a3b−5
( 2x7y4 ) ( 2g4h )
4x3y10 6 3g2h5 3
d. e. f.
(2a7b4) −3
3b2c3 −4
(5b−3c−4)
1 1 1 1
(5p6q3) 2 h. (x2y4z2) 2
g. i.
1 1 2 2 −1 1 −3
25(p2q4) 3 (x3y 4z3) 2
3. WE10c Simplify each of the following.

2a2b × 3a3b4 4m6n3 × 12mn5 10m6n5 × 2m2n3
a. b. c.
4a3b5 6m7n6 12m4n × 5m2n3
6x3y2 × 4x6y (6x3y2) 4 5x2y3 × 2xy5
d. e. f.
9xy5 × 2x3y6 9x5y2 × 4xy7 10x3y4 × x4y2
3 1 4 3
a3b2 × 2(ab5) 3 (p6q2) −3 × 3pq 6x2y2 × x5y5
g. h. i.
6(a2b3) 3 × a4b 2p−4q−2 × (5pq4) −2 1 1 1 1
2(x2y) 5 × 3x2y5
a3b2 2a6b (2a6) 2 4ab6 (m4n3) 2 (m3n3) 3
a. × b. × c. ×
5a4b7 a9b3 10a7b3 6a3 (m6n) 4 (2mn) 2
4x−5y−3
( 3mn5 ) (3x3y5) (2y10)
2m3n2 3 6m2n4 2xy2 4 x3y9 2 3x5y6
d. × e. × f. ×
4m3n10 (x2y2) −2 2−2x−7y
1 1 1 1 2 1 1
5p6q−5 −2
( 3p5 )
5p6q4 2a2b3 (4a4b) 2 3x3y5 4x2
g. × h. × i. ×
3q−4 1 1 1 1 1 3
6a3b2 b4 a 9x3y4 x4y
3a6b7 (2a6b4) ( b6 ) (2b5)

5a2b3 a9b4 7a2b4 3ab 3 4a9 3 3a7 4
a. ÷ b. ÷ c. ÷
6a7b5 3ab6
x5y−3 −4 4x6y−10 2m4n6 −2
( 2xy5 ) 2m−6n−5 ( m−1n )
5x2y6 (4x6y) 3 3m3n4
d. ÷ e. ÷ f. ÷
(2x4y5) 2 10xy3 (3x−2y2) −3
1 1 1
( )
1 3
6m3n4 4b3c3
1 −1 −3
g. 4m2n4 ÷ h. 2 ÷ (2b3c 5) 2
3 1 1
8m4n2 6c5b
TOPIC 1 Indices 19
Understanding
a. (52 × 2) 0 × (5−3 × 20) 5 ÷ (56 × 2−1) −3
(26 × 39) 0
b. (23 × 33) −2 ÷
26 × (3−2) −3
7. Evaluate the following for x = 8. (Hint: Simplify first.)
(2)
x 2 2x
(2x) −3 × ÷
(23) 4
a2y × 9by × (5ab) y
8. a. Simplify the following fraction.
(ay) 3 × 5(3by) 2
b.
Find the value of y if the fraction is equal to 125.
3
9. MC Which of the following is not the same as (4xy) 2?
3 3
a. 8x2y2 b. (√4xy) 3 c. √64x3y3
1
1 1
(2x3y3) 2
d. e. 4xy2 × (2xy2) 2
(√32) −1
x2y xy
10. MC The expression ÷ is equal to:
2 3
(2xy ) 16x0
2 2x2 2 1
a. b. c. 2x2y6 d. e.
x2y6 b6 xy6 128xy5
11. Simplify the following. 1
(n−3)
1
453
a. √m n ÷ √mn b. (g h) ×
3 2 3 −2 31 2
c.
3 3
94 × 152
a3b−2 −2 3−3a−2b 2
(3−3b−3) ( a4b−2 )
3 −1 −3
d. 22 × 4 × 16 ÷ f. (√5 d2) 2 × (√3 d5) 5
3 1
4 4
e.
Reasoning
12. In a controlled breeding program at the Melbourne Zoo, the population
(P) of koalas at t years is modelled by P = P0 × 10kt. Given P0 = 20 and
k = 0.3:
a. calculate the number of koalas after 2 years
b. determine when the population will be equal to 1000.
13. The decay of uranium is modelled by D = D0 × 2−kt. If it takes 6 years
for the mass of uranium to halve, find the percentage remaining after:
a. 2 years
b. 5 years
c. 10 years.
Give your answers to the nearest whole number.
Problem solving
72x+1 − 72x−1 − 48
14. Simplify .
36 × 72x − 252
z4 + z−4 − 3
15. Simplify .
1
z2 + z−2 − 52
Reflection
Do index laws need to be performed in a certain order?

CHALLENGE 1.2
Find an expression for x in terms of y, given that (√ay) x =ax × ay.
1.6 Review
1.6.1 Review questions
Fluency
1. 3d10e4 is the simplified form of:
( e2 )
6d10e5 d5 2
a. d 6e2 × 3d4e3 b. c. (3d5e2) 2 d. 3e (d5) 2 × e3 e. 3
2e2
2. 8m3n × n4 × 2m2n3 simplifies to:
a. 10m5n8 b. 16m5n7 c. 16m5n8 d. 10m5n7 e. 17m5n8
3. 8x3 ÷ 4x−3 is equal to:
2
a. 2 b. 2x0 c. 2x6 d. 2x−1 e.
x9
12x8 × 2x7
4. simplifies to:
6x9 × x5
a. 4x5 b. 8x c. 4x d. 8x5 e. 4x29
(a2b3) 5
5. The expression is equal to:
(2a2b) 2
a6b13 a3b6 a6b13 a3b6
a. b. 2a6b13 c. d. e.
4 2 2 4
(p2q) 4 (p5q2) 2
6. ÷ can be simplified to:
(2p5q2) 3 2pq5
1 22 1 1
a. b. c. d. e. 22p16q
4p16q p16q 4p8 2p16q
−3 3
7. 16 4÷ 92 can be simplified to:
1 8 3 1
a. 2 b. c. d. 3 e.
2 −3
216 27 8 2
( )
2l 9 m−1
8. can be simplified to:

8(16lm )
2
1 −2
8m7 2m7 4m7 16m7 m7

a. b. c. d. e.
11 7 8 5 7
l3 l3 l3 l3 2l3
10 5
√
9. 5 32i 7 j11k2 can be simplified to:
2 1 2 10 5 2 1 2
2 1 2 50 25
32i7j11k5 32i 7 j11k2 2i7j11k5
a. b. 2i7j11k5 c. d. 2i 7 j11k10 e.
5 5 5
TOPIC 1 Indices 21
( 6 ) (21q3)
3 26a4b6c5 20m5n2 3 14p7 4
a. 5x3 × 3x5y4 × x2y6 b. c. d.
5 12a3b3c3
(3)
2a 0 (4b) 0
a. 5a0 − + 12 b. −(3b) 0 −
2
12. Simplify each of the following and express your answer with positive indices.
a. 2a−5b2 × 4a−6b−4 b. 4x−5y−3 ÷ 20x12y−5 c. (2m−3n2) −4
13. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
1 −3
(2) (2)
9 2 5
a. b. 2 × (3) −3 × c. 4−3 × −5
8−2
3 1 1
4 1 1 3 3 2 1
43x4y 9
c. ( )2
4a3
a. 2a5b2 × ×
3a2b4 5a4b5
b.
16xy b3
15. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator. Show all working.
3 1
164 × 814 2 2 1
a. b. (1253 − 273) 2
1
6 × 16 2
16. Simplify:
a. √3 a9 + √4 16a8b2 − 3(√5 a) 15 b. √5 32x5y10 + √3 64x3y6
1
−
(5a−2b) −3 × 4a6b−2 2x4y−5 4xy−2
1 1
( ) ( )
−3
4m3n−2
(3x−6y3)
2m3n4
× ÷
3 2
a. b. c.
2a2b3 × 5−2a−3b−6 3y6x−2 1 2
5m2n 5−3
18. Simplify each of the following and then evaluate.
1 1
1 3 1
(32 × 63) 6
a. (3 × 56) 2 × 32 ×5 −2
+ (3 ×
6
5−2) 0 b. (6 × 3 ) −2 −1
÷
−62 × (3−3) 0
Problem solving
19. If m = 2, determine the value of:
6a3m × 2b2m × (3ab) −m
1
(4b) m × (9a4m) 2
20. Answer the following and explain your reasoning.
3
a. What is the tens digit of 33 ?
b. What is the ones digit of 6309?
c. What is the ones digit of 81007?
21. For the work shown below:
a. calculate the correct answer
b. identify where the student has made mistakes.
( 5a2b ) ( c )
2
3a3b5c3 2ab 3a6b10c6 2ab
÷ = ÷
10a4b2 c
6 10 6
3a b c
= ×
c
4 2
10a b 2ab
6 10 7
3a b c
=
20a5b3
3ab7c7
=
20
22. A friend is trying to calculate the volume of water in a reservoir amid fears there may be a severe
water shortage. She comes up with the following expression:
r4u2 ru × d2
W= × , where r is the amount of rain, d is how dry the area is, u is the usage of water by
3 3 4
2
r d √u
2
dr u
the townsfolk, and W is the volume of water in kL.
a. Help her simplify the expression by simplifying each pronumeral one at a time.
b. Does the final expression contain any potential surds?
c. Express the fraction with a rational denominator.
d. List the requirements for the possible values of r, u and d to give a rational answer.
e. Calculate the volume of water in the reservoir when r = 4, d = 60 and u = 9. Write your answer in:
i. kL ii. L iii. mL.
f. Does a high value for d mean the area is dry? Explain using working.
p2
23. The speed of a toy plane can be modelled by the equation S = , where
2 + √w3
w = wind resistance and
p = battery power (from 0 (empty) to 10 (full)).
a. Rationalise the denominator of the expression.
b. Using your knowledge of perfect squares, estimate the speed of a toy plane with its battery half full
and a wind resistance of 2. Check your answer with a calculator.
c. How does the speed of the toy plane change with increasing wind resistance? Explain providing
supportive calculations.
Try out this interactivity: Word search: Topic 1 (int-2826)
Try out this interactivity: Crossword: Topic 1 (int-2827)
Try out this interactivity: Sudoku: Topic 1 (int-3588)
Complete this digital doc: Concept map: Topic 1 (doc-13802)
Language
It is important to learn and be able to use correct mathematical language in order to communicate
effectively. Create a summary of the topic using the key terms below. You can present your summary
in writing or using a concept map, a poster or technology.
base index pronumeral
constant index law simplify
denominator negative substitute
evaluate numerator surd
exponent positive
expression power indices
TOPIC 1 Indices 23
Link to assessON for questions to test your
readiness FOR learning, your progress AS you
learn and your levels OF achievement.
assessON provides sets of questions for every
topic in your course, as well as giving instant
feedback and worked solutions to help improve
your mathematical skills.
www.assesson.com.au
Investigation | Rich Task

Digital world: ‘A bit of this and a byte of that’
‘The digital world of today is run by ones and zeros.’ What does this mean?
Data is represented on a modern digital computer using a base two (binary) system, that is, using the
two digits 1 and 0, thought of as ‘on’ and ‘off’. The smallest unit of data that is transferred on a com-
puter is a bit (an abbreviation of binary digit). Computer and storage mechanisms need to hold much
larger values than a bit. Units such as bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), and
terabytes (TB) are based on the conversion of 8 bits to 1 byte. Your text messages, graphics, music and
photos are files stored in sequences of bytes, each byte being 8 bits (8b = 1B).
You may have heard the terms ‘meg’ and ‘gig’. In computer terminology, these refer to gigabytes
and megabytes. In the digital world, the prefixes kilo-, mega- and giga- express powers of two, where
kilo- means 210, mega- means (210)2 and so on. Thus the number of bytes in a computer’s memory
builds in powers of 2, for example 1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes (210 bytes). (This differs from the decimal
system, in which the prefixes kilo-, mega- and giga- express powers of ten, with kilo- meaning 103,
mega- meaning (103)2 and so on.)
A byte (8 bits) is used to represent a single character. For example the letter ‘A’ is represented in
binary as 01000001. A book of a thousand pages in print can be stored in millions of bits, but more
commonly it would be described as being stored in megabytes with one byte per character.
1. Complete the table below to show the difference in value between the binary and decimal systems.
Unit Symbol Power of 2 and value in bytes Power of 10 and value in bytes
Byte B 20 = 1 100 = 1
Kilobyte KB 210 = 1024 103 = 1000
Megabyte 220 =
Gigabyte
Terabyte
2. The two numbering systems have led to some confusion, with some manufacturers of digital
products thinking of a kilobyte as 1000 bytes rather than 1024 bytes. Similar confusion arises
with megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes and so on. This means you might not be getting exactly the
amount of storage that you think.
If you bought a device quoted as having 16 GB memory, what would be the difference in
memory storage if the device had been manufactured using the decimal value of GB as opposed to
the binary system?
Many devices allow you to check the availability of storage. On one such device, the iPhone,
available storage is found by going to ‘General’ under the heading ‘Settings’.

3. How much storage is left in MB on the following iPhone?
4. If each photo uses 3.2 MB of memory, how many photos can be added?
General Usage
Storage
3.9 GB Available 9.5 GB Used
Photos & Camera 1.6 GB
Radio 1.6 GB
Maps 1.2 GB
My Movie 461 MB
Have you ever wondered about the capacity of our brain to store information and the speed at
which information is transmitted inside it?
5. Discuss how the storage and speed of our brains compares to our current ability to send and
store information in the digital world. The capacity of the human brain is 10−100 terabytes. On
average 20 million billion bits of information are transmitted within the brain per second.
6. Investigate which country has the fastest internet speed and compare this to Australia.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: What historical event took place in France in 1783?
TOPIC 1 Indices 25
Answers
TOPIC 1 Indices
Exercise 1.2 Review of index laws
1. a. a7 b. a6 c. b8 d. a4b7 e. m5n13 f. a5b7c3
6 4 5 2 4 9 8 7 6 6
g. m n p h. 6a b i. 10a b j. 36m n k. 12x y l. 4x8y6
4
2. a. a b. a5 c. b3 d. a4 e. 3b4 f. 4m5
3
1 3 5 1
g. m3n h. y2 i. x3y j. 7b3 k. m2p2 l. xy2
2 4 4 2
3. a. 1 b. 1 c. 1 d. 3 e. 4 f. −3
g. 3 h. −7 i. 4
1 4
4. a. a6 b. 16a20 c. m8 d. n8 e. a6b3 f. 9a6b4
81 9
27 6 3 a4 625m12 343x3 81a4
g. 16m12n20 h. mn i. j. k. l.
64 b6 n8 8y15 625b12
m. −243 n. 49 o. −32
5. a. D b. D
6. a. C b. E c. B d. D
27
7. a. 64 b. 72 c. 625 d. 48 e. 1600 f.
125
g. 20 h. 1 i. 4
a2x
8. a. x 3yz
b. a b
c. manb d. e. n3−pm2−q f. amp + np
b3x
9. a =a × a × a
3
a2 = a × a
a3 × a2 = a × a × a × a × a
= a5, not a6
Explanations will vary.
10. They are equal when x = 2. Explanations will vary.
11. 3x0 = 3 and (3x) 0 = 1. Explanations will vary.
12. a, b
a 0 1 2 3
3a2 0 3 12 27
5a 0 5 10 15
3a2 + 5a 0 8 22 42
3a2 × 5a 0 15 120 405
c 3a2 × 5a will become much larger than 3a2 + 5a.

13. x = −2 or 4
14. 1 ≡ 1 2 ≡ 10 3 ≡ 11 4 ≡ 100 5 ≡ 101 6 ≡ 110
7 ≡ 111 8 ≡ 1000 9 ≡ 1001 10 ≡ 1010
15. a. x = 4 b. x = 0, 2
16. a. a2bc7
b. The student made a mistake when multiplying the two brackets in line 3. Individual brackets should be expanded first.
Challenge 1.1
1.08 seconds

1 1 2 4 3x2 1
1. a. b. c. d. e. f.
4 9 3
5
x y a 5a y3 4m3n4
6a3 2a4 7b3 2m3a2
g. h. a6 i. j. 2ab2 k. l.
bc5 3 2a4 3b4n5

1 6 3 4 2y 5y
2. a. b. c. d. e. f.
a2b3 x6y n8 a2b5 3x 6x3
3 4y12 1 1 4q8 3
g. h. i. j. k. l.
2 2 3 3
mn x 5
3m n 32a m 15 20
p14 a8b12
27q9 b6 1
m. n. o.
8p6 4a8 8a6b6
3. a. 18 1
b. 36 1
c. 81 d. 89 1
e. 16 5
f. 36
32
g. 48 h. i. 27
25
= 1 25
2
j. 4 k. 125 l. 34
27
4. a. 23 b. 2−3 c. 25 d. 2−6
5. a. 3 b. −2 c. −1 d. 3 e. −2 f. 0
g. 3 h. −3 i. −6 j. −2
6. a. 32 b. 45 c. 27 d. 5
b b3 a2 1
7. a. b. c. d.
a a 2
b3 m3n2
1 1
8. a. 729 b. c. 0.000 059 499 or 16 1807
20 736
d. 256 e. 162187
384
f. 9 765 625
9. a. D b. C c. B
10. a. B b. D c. C d. E
m2 n2 25
11. a. b. c.
n8 m a7b6
12. a. r6 − s6 b. m10 + 2m5n5 + n10 c. 1 d. p2
13. 22r − 4
14. 63m
15. x = 3
16. Answers will vary; check with your teacher.
17. x = 3, y = −1; 7
18. a. n = −1, −2 b. n = −1, 4

1. a. 4 b. 5 c. 9 d. 2 e. 4 f. 3
2. a. √15 b. √4 m c. √5 72 d. √75 e. √8 w3 f. √4 w5
10 3
g. √3 510 h. √a
1 7 11 6 7
3. a. t2 b. 54 c. 6 6 d. x7 e. x6 f. w2
1 n
x
g. w2 h. 11
4. a. 4 b. 16 c. 8 d. 16 e. 125 f. 9
1
g. h. 27 i. 1000 j. 216 k. √7 l. √3 12
9
5. a. 1.44 b. 2.24 c. 1.48 d. 1.26 e. 2.54 f. 0.66
g. 0.54 h. 0.81 i. 0.86
4 1 5 23 8 5
6. a. 45 b. 22 c. a6 d. x20 e. 10m15 f. 2b7
20 9 7
g. −4y 9 h. 0.02a8 i. 5x2
3 4 5 8 17 19 2 19 5 5 2 9
7. a. ab2 b. x5y9 c. 6a5b15 d. 2m28n5 e. x 6 y6z6 f. 8a5b8c
1 5 1 3 5 11
8. a. 36 b. 512 c. 122 d. a7 e. x4 f. m45
1 3 1 2 5 7
g. x20 h. n3 i. b20
2 3 4
5 7 7 4
1 3 11 2 3
1 11 7 1 5 1
9. a. x3y5 b. a45b15 c. m8n56 d. 2x15y4 e. a20b20 f. p24q12
3 4 7
TOPIC 1 Indices 27
9 1 6 3 1 1 1
10. a. 220 b. 56 c. 75 d. a10 e. m6 f. 23b6
2 m b a
g. 4p5 h. x p i. 3c mc 1
1 1 3 6 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a2
11. a. a4b6 b. a3b4 c. x5y4 d. 33a9b5c4 e. 5x4y3z5 f.
2
8 2 1 7 b3
m5 b5 22x2
g. h. i.
7 8 3
n4 c27 y8
12. a. E b. C c. B
13. a. E b. B
14. a. a4 b. b3 c. m4 d. 4x2 e. 2y3 f. 2x2y3
g. 3m3n5 h. 2pq2 i. 6a2b6
15. a. 2.007 s b. 20.07 s c. 4.98 swings
1
= 2ab2
16. (25a5b10) 5
a (3 − √b ) 4
2 3
17. ;
9 − b3 11
1 1 1
18. m5 − n5 + p5
1 13
19. a. a−4 × b 2
b.
No, because you can’t take the fourth root of a negative number.
a=1
c.
Exercise 1.5 Combining index laws

2n13 15b2
1. a. 54a10b9 b. 48a5b16 c. d. 500p8q18 e. 36a20b10 f.
9
m c26
7 11 15 15 7 5
6
g. 12x8y15 h. 8m 4 n 4 i. j. 8p45q18
7
p12
5 x 27 64y36 27h12
2. a. b. c. d. e. 24a24b7 f.
8a7 4y6 128m29n26 x24 8g6
35 1 5 1 3
625
g. p 3 q2 h. i. x3y8z2
81b20c28
3a2 m2n4 4x5 36x6 y2
3. a. b. 8n2 c. d. e. f.
2 3 3y8 y x4
5 17 7
b7 75q
g. h. i. x10y10
3a4 2p11
2 4a3b3 n9 4m5 4
4. a. b. c. d. e. f. 48x11y6
5a b 4 7 15 4m9 9n 15
81x2y14
1 1
3p4 2b12 4x12
g. h. i.
17 21
5q9
3a24 3y20
5 56a11b6 1024b2 25 4y36
5. a. b. c. d. e. f. 6m19n19
2a 13 81 81a 128x y 23 4
27x16
11 11
16m12n 4b 2
g. h.
3 1 7
32c30
6. a. 125
8
b. 1
7. 1
8. a. 5y−1 b. y = 4
9. E
10. A

1 −7
6m
11. a. m6n 6 or √
3 n7 −7 −7 1 a6
b. g−6h3n2 c. 3 3 ×5 6 d. 2−2 or e. a6b−8 or
4 b8
14
15 14
f. d15 or √d
12. a. 80 koalas b. During the 6th year
13. a. 79% b. 56% c. 31%
4
14.
21
15. z2 + z−2 + √5
Challenge 1.2
2y
x=
y−z
1.6 Review
1. D
2. C
3. C
4. C
5. A
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. B
13ab3c2 1000 m15n6 16p28
10. a. 9x10y10 b. c. d.
6 27 81q12
3
11. a. 16 b. −
2
8 y2 m12
12. a. b. c.
a11b2 5x17 16n8
3
13. a. 8 b. c. 0
2 1
41 33
4 2a6
14. a. 30a20b20 b. c.
1 2 3
x20y9 b2
15. a. 1 b. 4
16. a. −2a3 + 2a2b

1
2 b. 6xy2
2a13 9y4 4
17. a. b. c. 23m
5b2 32x15
1
1 8. a. 46 b. −
1 18
19. 36
20. a. 8 b. 6 c. 2
9ab7c7
21. a.
50
b. The student has made two mistakes when squaring the left-hand bracket in line 1 : 32 = 9, 52 = 25.
TOPIC 1 Indices 29
√r Yes, √r, √u3
b. √ru3
22. a. c.
d√u3 du3
d.
r should be a perfect square, u should be a perfect cube and d should be a rational number.
i. 0.0012346 kL ii. 1.2346 L iii. 1234.6 mL
e. A high value for d causes the expression to be smaller, as d only appears on the denominator of the fraction. This means
that when d is high there is less water in the reservoir and the area is dry.
p2 (2 − √w3)
23. a.
4 − w3
b. Answers will vary; approximately 5.
c. speed decreases as wind resistance increases.
Investigation — Rich task
1.
Unit Symbol Power of 2 and value in bytes Power of 10 and value in bytes
Byte B 20 = 1 100 = 1
Kilobyte KB 210 = 1024 103 = 1000
Megabyte MB 220 = 1 048 576 106 = 1 000 000
Gigabyte GB 230 = 1 073 741 824 109 = 1 000 000 000
Terabyte TB 240 = 1 099 511 627 776 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000
2. Approximately 1.1 GB
3. 3993.6 MB
4. 1248 photos
5. Discuss with your teacher.
6. Discuss with your teacher. The discussion will depend on the latest information from the internet.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 2
Algebra and equations
2.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.

Do you speak mathematics? Algebra is the
language of mathematics; it holds the key
to understanding the rules, formulas and
relationships that summarise much of our
understanding of the universe. Every stu-
dent of mathematics needs a mathemati-
cal tool chest, a set of algebraic skills to
manipulate and process mathematical
information.

1. THINK List what you know about linear equations. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
knowledge of linear equations.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
2.1 Overview
2.2 Substitution
2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
2.5 Solving simple equations
2.6 Solving multi-step equations
2.7 Literal equations
2.8 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Al-Khwarizmi (eles-1841)
TOPIC 2 Algebra and equations 31

2.2 Substitution
2.2.1 Substitution
When the numerical values of pronumerals are known, they can be substituted into an algebraic expression
and the expression can then be evaluated. It can be useful to place any substituted values in brackets when
evaluating an expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
If a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7, evaluate the following expressions.

a a − b b a3 + 9b − c
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a a−b

2 Substitute a = 4 and b = 2 into the expression. =4−2
3 Simplify. =2
b 1 Write the expression. b a + 9b − c
3
2 Substitute a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7 into the expression. = (4) 3 + 9(2) − (−7)

3 Simplify. = 64 + 18 + 7
= 89
If c = √a2 + b2, calculate c if a = 12 and b = −5.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. c = √a2 + b2

2 Substitute a = 12 and b = −5 into the expression. = √(12) 2 + (−5) 2
3 Simplify. = √144 + 25
= √169
= 13
2.2.2 Number laws

•• Recall from previous studies that when dealing with numbers and pronumerals, particular rules must
be obeyed. Before progressing further, let us briefly review the Commutative, Associative, Identity and
Inverse Laws.
•• Consider any three pronumerals x, y and z, where x, y and z are elements of the set of Real numbers.
2.2.3 Commutative Law

1. x + y = y + x (example: 3 + 2 = 5 and 2 + 3 = 5)
2. x − y ≠ y − x (example: 3 − 2 = 1 but 2 − 3 = −1)
3. x × y = y × x (example: 3 × 2 = 6 and 2 × 3 = 6)
4. x ÷ y ≠ y ÷ x (example: 3 ÷ 2 = 32, but 2 ÷ 3 = 23)
Therefore, the Commutative Law holds true for addition and multiplication, since the order in which two
numbers or pronumerals are added or multiplied does not affect the result. However, the Commutative Law
does not hold true for subtraction or division.

2.2.4 Associative Law
1. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z [example: 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9 and
(2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9]
2. x − (y − z) ≠ (x − y) − z [example: 2 − (3 − 4) = 2 − −1 = 3 and
(2 − 3) − 4 = −1 − 4 = −5]
3. x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z [example: 2 × (3 × 4) = 2 × 12 = 24 and
(2 × 3) × 4 = 6 × 4 = 24]
4. x ÷ (y ÷ z) ≠ (x ÷ y) ÷ z [example: 2 ÷ (3 ÷ 4) = 2 ÷ 34 = 2 × 43 = 83 but
(2 ÷ 3) ÷ 4 = 23 ÷ 4 = 23 × 14 = 2
12
= 16]
The Associative Law holds true for addition and multiplication since grouping two or more numbers or
pronumerals and calculating them in a different order does not affect the result. However, the Associative
Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
2.2.5 Identity Law

The Identity Law states that in general: x+0=0+x=x
x×1=1×x=x
In both of the examples above, x has not been changed (that is, it has kept its identity) when zero is added
to it or it is multiplied by 1.
2.2.6 Inverse Law

The Inverse Law states that in general: x + −x = −x + x = 0
x× = ×x=1
1 1
x x
That is, when the additive inverse of a number or pronumeral is added to itself, it equals 0. When the mul-
tiplicative inverse of a number or pronumeral is multiplied by itself, it equals 1.
2.2.7 Closure Law

A law that you may not yet have encountered is the Closure Law. The Closure Law states that, when an
operation is performed on an element (or elements) of a set, the result produced must also be an element
of that set. For example, addition is closed on natural numbers (that is, positive integers: 1, 2, 3, …) since
adding a pair of natural numbers produces a natural number. Subtraction is not closed on natural numbers.
For example, 5 and 7 are natural numbers and the result of adding them is 12, a natural number. However,
the result of subtracting 7 from 5 is −2, which is not a natural number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the value of the following expressions, given the integer values x = 4 and y = −12.
Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds for each of the expressions when these
values are substituted.
a x + y b x − y c x × y d x ÷ y
THINK WRITE
a 1 Substitute each pronumeral into the expression. a x + y = 4 + −12
2 Evaluate and write the answer. = −8
3 Determine whether the Closure Law holds; that is, The Closure Law holds for these
is the result an integer? substituted values.

b Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. b x − y = 4 − −12
= 16
The Closure Law holds for these
substituted values.
c Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. c x × y = 4 × −12

= −48
The Closure Law holds for these
substituted values.
d Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. d x ÷ y = 4 ÷ −12
= 4
−12
= −13
The Closure Law does not hold for

these substituted values since the
answer obtained is a fraction, not an
integer.
•• It is important to note that, although a particular set of numbers may be closed under a given opera-
tion, for example multiplication, another set of numbers may not be closed under that same operation.
For example, in part c of Worked example 3, integers were closed under multiplication. However, in
some cases, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under multiplication, since √3 × √3 = √9 = 3.
In this example, two irrational numbers produced a rational number under multiplication.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Like terms (doc-5183)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Collecting like terms (doc-5184)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the highest common factor (doc-5185)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Order of operations (doc-5189)
Exercise 2.2 Substitution

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–f, 3c–d, 4a–c, 5a–c, 6a–e, 1c–i, 2a–f, 3c–d, 4, 5a–c, 6d–j, 1e–l, 2c–i, 3, 4, 5, 6d–j, 9–15
7, 8, 10, 14 9, 10, 14

Fluency
1. WE1 If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5, evaluate the following expressions.
a. a + b b. c − b c. c − a − b
d. c − (a − b) e. 7a + 8b − 11c f. + +
a b c
2 3 5
g. abc h. ab(c − b) i. a2 + b2 − c2
j. c2 + a k. −a × b × −c l. 2.3a − 3.2b
2. If d = −6 and k = −5, evaluate the following.
a. d + k b. d − k c. k − d
d. kd e. −d(k + 1) f. d2
k−1
g. k3 h. i. 3k − 5d
d
3. If x = 13 and y = 14, evaluate the following.
a. x + y b. y − x c. xy
x 9x
d. e. x2y3 f.
y y2
4. If x = 3, find the value of the following.
a. x2 b. −x2 c. (−x) 2
d. 2x2 e. −2x2 f. (−2x) 2
5. If x = −3, find the value of the following.
a. x2 b. −x2 c. (−x) 2
d. 2x2 e. −2x2 f. (−2x) 2
6. WE2 Calculate the unknown variable in the following real-life mathematical formulas.
a. If c = √a2 + b2, calculate c if a = 8 and b = 15.
b. If A = 12 bh, determine the value of A if b = 12 and h = 5.
c. The perimeter, P, of a rectangle is given by P = 2L + 2W. Calculate the perimeter, P, of a rectangle,
given L = 1.6 and W = 2.4.
d. If T = , determine the value of T if C = 20.4 and L = 5.1.
C
L
n+1
e. If K = , determine the value of K if n = 5.
n−1
9C
f. Given F = + 32, calculate F if C = 20.
5
g. If v = u + at, evaluate v if u = 16, a = 5, t = 6.
h. The area, A, of a circle is given by the formula A = πr2. Calculate the area of a circle, correct to
1 decimal place, if r = 6.
i. If E = 12 mv2, calculate m if E = 40, v = 4.
j. Given r = √ , evaluate A to 1 decimal place if r = 14.1.

A
π
7. MC a. If p = −5 and q = 4, then pq is equal to:

5
a. 20 b. 1 c. −1 d. −20 e. −
4
b. If c2 = a2 + b2, and a = 6 and b = 8, then c is equal to:
a. 28 b. 100 c. 10 d. 14 e. 44
c. Given h = 6 and k = 7, then kh2 is equal to:
a. 294 b. 252 c. 1764 d. 5776 e. 85

Understanding
8. Knowing the length of two sides of a right-angled triangle, the third side can be calculated using
Pythagoras’ theorem. If the two shorter sides have lengths of 1.5 cm and 3.6 cm, calculate the length
of the hypotenuse.
9. The volume of a sphere can be calculated using the formula 43πr3. What is
the volume of a sphere with a radius of 2.5 cm? Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places. 2.5 cm
10. A rectangular park is 200 m by 300 m. If Blake runs along the diagonal of the
park, how far will he run? Give your answer to the nearest metre.
Reasoning
11. WE3 Determine the value of the following expressions, given the integer
values x = 1, y = −2 and z = −1. Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds true for
each of the expressions when these values are substituted.
a. x + y b. y − z c. y × z
d. x ÷ z e. z − x f. x ÷ y
12. Find the value of the following expressions, given the natural number values x = 8, y = 2 and z = 6.
Comment on whether the Closure Law for natural numbers holds true for each of the expressions.
a. x + y b. y − z c. y × z
d. x ÷ z e. z − x f. x ÷ y
13. For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law. Justify your reasoning.
a. (a + 2b) + 4c = _____________ Associative Law
b. (x × 3y) × 5c = _____________ Associative Law
c. 2p ÷ q ≠ ___________________ Commutative Law
d. 5d + q = ___________________ Commutative Law
e. 3z + 0 = ___________________ Identity Law
f. 2x × _________ = ___________ Inverse Law
g. (4x ÷ 3y) ÷ 5z ≠ _____________ Associative Law
h. 3d − 4y ≠ __________________ Commutative Law
Problem solving
14. s = ut + 12 at2
where t is the time in seconds, s is the displacement in metres, u is
the initial velocity and a is the acceleration due to gravity.
a. Calculate s when u = 16.5 m/s, t = 2.5 seconds and a = 9.8 m/s2.
b. A body has an initial velocity of 14.7 m/s and after t seconds has a
displacement of 137.2 metres. Find the value of t if a = 9.8 m/s2.
15. Find the value of m if n = p√ 1 + , when n = 6 and p = 4.

1
m
Reflection
Why is understanding of the Commutative Law useful?

CHALLENGE 2.1
The lowest common multiple of four terms is 24a3bc2d. Three of the terms are 12a2bc, 8ab and 4a2cd. The
fourth term contains only two pronumerals, and its coefficient is an odd prime number. What is the fourth term?
2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions

2.3.1 Algebraic fractions
•• In an algebraic fraction, the denominator, the numerator or both are algebraic expressions. For example,
x 3x + 1 1
, and are all algebraic fractions.
2 2x − 5 x +5
2
•• As with all fractions, algebraic fractions must have a common denominator if they are to be added or
subtracted, so an important step is to find the lowest common denominator (LCD).
Simplify the following expressions.

2x x x+1 x+4
a − b +
3 2 6 4
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 2x − x

3 2
2 Rewrite each fraction as an 2x 2 x 3
= × − ×
equivalent fraction using the LCD of 3 2 2 3
4x 3x
3 and 2, which is 6. = −
6 6
3 Express as a single fraction. 4x − 3x
=
6
=
4 Simplify the numerator. x
6
b 1 Write the expression. b x+1+x+4
6 4
2 Rewrite each fraction as an x+1 2 x+4 3
= × + ×
equivalent fraction using the LCD 6 2 4 3
2(x + 1) 3(x + 4)
of 6 and 4, which is 12. = +
12 12
3 Express as a single fraction. 2(x + 1) + 3(x + 4)
=
12
4 Simplify the numerator by 2x + 2 + 3x + 12
=
expanding brackets and collecting 12
5x + 14
like terms. =
12

2.3.2 Pronumerals in the denominator
•• If pronumerals appear in the denominator, the process involved in adding and subtracting the fractions
is to find a lowest common denominator as usual.
•• When there is an algebraic expression in the denominator of each fraction, we can obtain a common
denominator by writing the product of the denominators. For example, if x + 3 and 2x − 5 are in the
denominator of each fraction, then a common denominator of the two fractions will be (x + 3)(2x − 5).
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
2 1
Simplify − .
3x 4x
THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression.
−
2 1
3x 4x
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent 3
= × − ×
2 4 1
fraction using the LCD of 3x and 4x, which 3x 4 4x 3
8 3
is 12x.
2
= −
Note: 12x is not the lowest LCD. 12x 12x
3 Express as a single fraction. 8−3
=
12x
4 Simplify the numerator. 5
=
12x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
x + 1 2x − 1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x+3 x+2
THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. x + 1 2x − 1
+
x+3 x+2
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent (x + 1) (x + 2) (2x − 1) (x + 3)
= × + ×
fraction using the LCD of x + 3 (x + 3) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 3)
and x + 2, which is the product (x + 1)(x + 2) (2x − 1)(x + 3)
= +
(x + 3)(x + 2). (x + 3)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x + 2)
3 Express as a single fraction. (x + 1)(x + 2) + (2x − 1)(x + 3)

=
(x + 3)(x + 2)
4 Simplify the numerator by expanding (x2 + 2x + x + 2) + (2x2 + 6x − x − 3)

=
brackets and collecting like terms. (x + 3)(x + 2)
Note: The denominator is generally (x2 + 3x + 2 + 2x2 + 5x − 3)
=
kept in factorised form. That is, it is (x + 3)(x + 2)
not expanded. 2 + 8x − 1
3x
=
(x + 3)(x + 2)

x+2 x−1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x−3 (x − 3) 2
THINK WRITE
x+2 x−1
1 Write the expression. +
x − 3 (x − 3) 2
x+2 x−3 x−1

2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent = × +
fraction using the LCD of x − 3 and x − 3 x − 3 (x − 3) 2
(x − 3) 2, which is (x − 3) 2. (x + 2)(x − 3) x−1
= +
(x − 3) 2 (x − 3) 2
x −x−6
2
x−1
= +
(x − 3) 2 (x − 3) 2
x2 − x − 6 + x − 1
3 Express as a single fraction. =
(x − 3) 2
x2 − 7
4 Simplify the numerator. =
(x − 3) 2
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Addition and subtraction of fractions (doc-5186)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing equivalent algebraic fractions with the lowest common
denominator (doc-5190)
Exercise 2.3 Adding and subtracting

algebraic fractions
Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–f, 3a–f, 4–6 1d–i, 2a–f, 3a–i, 4–7, 9 1g–i, 2e–j, 3d–i, 4–10
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
Fluency
5 3 6
a. + b. + c. +
4 2 1
7 3 8 9 5 15
3 3
d. − e. − f. −
4 2 1 x
9 11 7 5 5 6
5x 3 2x 5
g. − h. − i. −
4 2
9 27 8 5 x 3

2. WE4 Simplify the following expressions.
2y y y y 4x x
a. − b. − c. −
3 4 8 5 3 4
8x 2x 2w y y
d. + − f. −
w
e.
9 3 14 28 20 4
12y y 10x 2x x+1 x+3
g. + h. + i. +
5 7 5 15 5 2
x+2 x+6 2x − 1 2x + 1 3x + 1 5x + 2
j. + k. − l. +
4 3 5 6 2 3
3. WE5 Simplify the following.
3 5
a. + b. − +
2 1 1 1
c.
4x 8x 4x 3x 3x 7x
9 9
d. + e. + f. −
12 4 1 1
5x 15x 6x 8x 4x 5x
5 3
+ + i. −
2 7 1 4
g. h.
100x 20x 10x x 3x 2x
4. WE6, 7 Simplify the following by writing as single fractions.
3x 2x 5 5
+ + +
2 x
a. b. c.
x+4 x−2 x+5 x−1 2x + 1 x − 2
2x 3 4x 3x x+2 x−1
d. − e. + f. +
x + 1 2x − 7 x+7 x−5 x+1 x+4
x + 8 2x + 1 x+5 x−1 x + 1 2x − 5
g. − h. − i. −
x+1 x+2 x+3 x−2 x + 2 3x − 1
3 3 3
− + −
2 4 1
j. k. l.
x−1 1−x (x + 1) 2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1) 2
Understanding
5. A classmate attempted to complete an algebraic fraction subtraction problem.
a. What mistake did she make? b. What is the correct answer?

Reasoning
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions can become more
complicated if you add a third fraction into the expression.
6. Simplify the following.

+ + + +
1 2 1 1 4 2
a. b.
x+2 x+1 x+3 x−1 x+2 x−4
3 3 5
+ − − +
2 1 2
c. d.
x+1 x+3 x+2 x−4 x−1 x+3
7. Why is the process that involves finding the lowest common denominator important in question 6?

8. The reverse process of adding or subtracting algebraic fractions is quite complex. Use trial and error,
7x − 4 3
= +
a
or technology, to determine the value of a if .
(x − 8)(x + 5) x − 8 x + 5
Problem solving
3
− +
1 2
9. Simplify .
x + 7x + 12 x + x − 6 x + 2x − 8
2 2 2
x2 + 3x − 18 x2 − 3x + 2
10. Simplify − .
x2 − x − 42 x2 − 5x + 4
Reflection
Why can’t we just add the numerators and the denominators of fractions; for example,
a c a+c
+ = ?
b d b+d
2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions

2.4.1 Simplifying algebraic fractions
•• Algebraic fractions can be simplified using the index laws and by cancelling factors common to the
numerator and denominator.
•• A fraction can only be simplified if:
– there is a common factor in the numerator and the denominator
– the numerator and denominator are both written in factorised form, that is, as the product of two or
more factors.
3ab 13 × 1a × b product of factors 3a + b 3 × a + b not a product of factors
= =
12a 4
12 × 1a product of factors 12a 12 × a product of factors
b
= Cannot be simplified
4
2.4.2 Multiplying algebraic fractions

•• Multiplication of algebraic fractions follows the same rules as multiplication of numerical fractions:
multiply the numerators, then multiply the denominators.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8

5y 6z 2x x+1
a × b ×
3x 7y (x + 1)(2x−3) x
THINK WRITE
5y 6z
a 1 Write the expression. a ×
3x 7y
2 Cancel common factors in the numerator 5y1 62z
and denominator. The y can be cancelled = ×
13x 7y1
in the denominator and the numerator. 5 2z
= ×
Also, the 3 in the denominator can divide x 7
into the 6 in the numerator.

3 Multiply the numerators, then multiply 10z
=
the denominators. 7x
2x x+1
b 1 Write the expression. b ×
(x + 1)(2x − 3) x
2 Cancel common factors in the numerator 2x1 x + 11
= ×
and the denominator. (x + 1) and the x 1
(x + 1)(2x − 3) x1
are both common in the numerator and
= ×
2 1
the denominator and can therefore be 2x − 3 1
cancelled.
3 Multiply the numerators, then multiply
=
2
the denominators. 2x − 3
2.4.3 Dividing algebraic fractions

•• When dividing algebraic fractions, follow the same rules as for division of numerical fractions: write
the division as a multiplication and invert the second fraction. This process is sometimes known as
multiplying by the reciprocal.
Simplify the following expressions.

3xy 4x 4 x−7
a ÷ b ÷
2 9y (x + 1)(3x − 5) x+1
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 3xy ÷ 4x

2 9y
2 Change the division sign to a multiplication sign 3xy 9y
= ×
and write the second fraction as its reciprocal. 2 4x
3 Cancel common factors in the numerator and 3y 9y
= ×
denominator and cancel. The pronumeral x is 2 4
common to both the numerator and denominator
and can therefore be cancelled.
4 Multiply the numerators, then multiply the 27y2
denominators. =
8
x−7
÷
b 1 Write the expression. b 4
(x + 1)(3x − 5) x + 1
2 Change the division sign to a multiplication sign x+1
= ×
4
and write the second fraction as its reciprocal. (x + 1)(3x − 5) x − 7
3
= ×
Cancel common factors in the numerator and 4 1
denominator and cancel. (x + 1) is common to both 3x − 5 x−7
the numerator and denominator and can therefore
be cancelled.
4
=
Multiply the numerators, then multiply the 4
denominators. (3x − 5)(x − 7)

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Multiplication of fractions (doc-5187)

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Division of fractions (doc-5188)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Simplification of algebraic fractions (doc-5191)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Algebraic fractions (doc-13847)
Exercise 2.4 Multiplying and dividing

algebraic fractions
Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–f, 3a–i, 4a–b 1d–i, 2a–f, 3a–i, 4, 5, 7 1g–l, 2e–j, 3d–l, 4–8
Fluency
x 20 y 16
a. × b. × c. ×
x 12
5 y 4 y 4 x
9 −25 3w −7
d. × e. × ×
x x
f.
2 2y 10 2y −14 x
3y 8z −y 6z −9z
g. × × i. ×
x
h.
4x 7y 3x −7y 3z 2y
5y −20y −21z y
j. × × ×
x x
k. l.
3x 8y 7x 5y −3w 2y
2. WE8b Simplify the following expressions.
2x x−1 5x 4x + 7
a. × b. ×
(x − 1)(3x − 2) x (x − 3)(4x + 7) x
9x 5x + 1 (x + 4) x+1
c. × d. ×
(5x + 1)(x − 6) 2x (x + 1)(x + 3) x + 4
2x x−1 x(x + 1)
× ×
2
e. f.
x + 1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x(2x − 3) 4
2x 3a 15c 21d
g. × h. ×
4(a + 3) 15x 12(d − 3) 6c
6x2 15(x − 2) 7x (x − 3)
2
3(x − 3)(x + 1)
i. × j. ×
20(x − 2) 2 16x4 5x(x + 1) 14(x − 3) 2 (x − 1)
3. WE9a Simplify the following expressions.
3 5 2 9
a. ÷ b. ÷ c. ÷
4 12
x x x x x x
20 20 5 3
d. ÷ ÷ f. ÷
1 7
e.
y 3y 5w w 2x 5x

3xy 3x 2xy 5x 6y 3x
g. ÷ h. ÷ i. ÷
7 4y 5 y 9 4xy
8wx 3w 2xy 3xy 10xy 20x
j. ÷ k. ÷ l. ÷
5 4y 5 5 7 14y
4. WE9b Simplify the following expressions.
9 x+3 x−9
÷ ÷
1
a. b.
(x − 1)(3x − 7) x − 1 (x + 2)(2x − 5) 2x − 5
12(x − 3) 2 4(x − 3) 13 3(x + 1)
c. ÷ d. ÷
(x + 5)(x − 9) 7(x − 9) 6(x − 4) 2 (x − 1) 2(x − 4)(x − 1)
Reasoning
3
+ +
1 1 1
5. Is the same as ? Explain your reasoning.
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2
(x − 4)(x + 3) x2 − x
6. a. Simplify × .
4x − x2 (x + 3)(x − 1)
b.
Find and describe the error in the following reasoning.
(x − 4)(x + 3) x2 − x
×
4x − x2 (x + 3)(x − 1)
(x − 4)(x + 3) x(x − 1)
= ×
x(4 − x) (x + 3)(x − 1)
=1
Problem solving
x2 − 2x − 3 x2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 7x + 10
7. Simplify × ÷ .
x4 − 1 x2 − 5x + 6 x4 − 3x2 − 4
x+1 x−1
8. Simplify where a = .
x−
x x+1
x
a
Reflection
How are multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions different to adding and subtracting them?
CHALLENGE 2.2
1 1
( 1) ( 1)
x x
Simplify the expression: 1+ × 1+ .
1+ 1−
x x

2.5 Solving simple equations
2.5.1 Equations
•• Equations show the equivalence of two expressions.
•• Equations can be solved using inverse operations.
•• When solving equations, the last operation performed on
the pronumeral when building the equation is the first oper-
+ and − are inverse operations
ation undone by applying inverse operations to both sides of
× and ÷ are inverse operations
the equation. For example, the equation 2x + 3 = 5 is built 2
and √ are inverse operations
from x by multiplying x by 2 and then adding 3 to give the
result of 5. To solve the equation, undo the adding 3 by sub-
tracting 3, then undo the multiplying by 2 by dividing by 2.
2.5.2 One-step equations

•• Equations that require one step to solve are called one-step equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Solve the following equations.

d 4
a a + 27 = 71 b = 3 14 c √e = 0.87 d f 2 =
16 25
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a a + 27 = 71
2 27 has been added to a resulting in 71. The addition of 27 a + 27 − 27 = 71 − 27
has to be reversed by subtracting 27 from both sides of the a = 44
equation to obtain the solution.
= 314
b 1 Write the equation. b d
16
13
=
1 d
2 Express 34 as an improper fraction.
16 4
3 The pronumeral d has been divided by 16 resulting d 13
× 16 = × 16

in 13 . Therefore the division has to be reversed by 16 4
4 d = 52
multiplying both sides of the equation by 16 to obtain d.
c 1 Write the equation. c √e = 0.87
(√e)
2 The square root of e has been taken to result in 0.87. 2 = 0.872
Therefore, the square root has to be reversed by squaring e = 0.7569
both sides of the equation to obtain e.
d 1 Write the equation. d f2= 4
25
f=±
4
√
4
2 The pronumeral f has been squared, resulting in 25. 25
f = ± 25
Therefore the squaring has to be reversed by taking the
square root of both sides of the equation to obtain f .
Note that there are two possible solutions, one positive
and one negative, since two negative numbers can also
be multiplied together to produce a positive result.

2.5.3 Two-step equations
•• Two-step equations involve the inverse of two operations in their solutions.

4x
a 5y − 6 = 7 b =5
9
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5y − 6 = 79
2 Step 1: Add 6 to both sides of the 5y − 6 + 6 = 79 + 6
equation. 5y = 85
3 Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation 5y 85
=
by 5 to obtain y. 5 5
y = 17
4x
b 1 Write the equation. b =5
9
2 Step 1: Multiply both sides of the 4x
×9=5×9
equation by 9. 9
4x = 45
4x 45
3 Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation =
by 4 to obtain x. 4 4
45
x=
4
4 Express the improper fraction as a mixed x = 1114
number.
2.5.4 Equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides

•• In solving equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides, subtract the smaller pronumeral
term so that it is eliminated from both sides of the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12

a 5h + 13 = 2h − 2 b 14 − 4d = 27 − d c 2(x − 3) = 5(2x + 4)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5h + 13 = 2h − 2
2 Eliminate the pronumeral from the right-hand side 3h + 13 = −2
by subtracting 2h from both sides of the equation.
3 Subtract 13 from both sides of the equation. 3h = −15
4 Divide both sides of the equation by 3 and write h = −5
your answer.
b 1 Write the equation. b 14 − 4d = 27 − d
2 Add 4d to both sides of the equation. 14 = 27 + 3d
3 Subtract 27 from both sides of the equation. −13 = 3d
4 Divide both sides of the equation by 3. 13
− =d
3

5 Express the improper fraction as a mixed number. − 413 = d
6
Write your answer so that d is on the left-hand side. d = −413
c 1 Write the equation. c 2(x − 3) = 5(2x + 4)
2
Expand the brackets on both sides of the equation. 2x − 6 = 10x + 20
3 Subtract 2x from both sides of the equation. 2x − 2x − 6 = 10x − 2x + 20
4 Subtract 20 from both sides of the equation. − 6 − 20 = 8x + 20 − 20
−26 = 8x
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 8. 26
− = x
8
6 Simplify and write your answer with the pronumeral x = −13
4
on the left-hand side.
Exercise 2.5 Solving simple equations

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–e, 3a–f, 4a–b, 5a–b, 6a–b, 1d–i, 2d–i, 3a–f, 4, 5a–b, 6a–b, 3–6, 7d–i, 8c–f, 9e–i, 10d–f, 11d–f,
7a–f, 8a–d, 9a–b, 10a–b, 11a–c, 7d–i, 8c–f, 9c–g, 10a–d, 11c–f, 12, 12, 14, 15g–i, 16g–i, 17g–i, 18–26
12a–b, 13a–c, 15a–d, 16a–d, 13d–i, 15c–f, 16c–f, 17c–f, 19–21,
17a–d, 19–21, 25 23, 25, 26
Fluency
1. WE10a Solve the following equations.
a. a + 61 = 85 b. k − 75 = 46 c. g + 9.3 = 12.2
d. r − 2.3 = 0.7 e. h + 0.84 = 1.1 f. i + 5 = 3
g. t − 12 = −7 h. q + 13 = 1
2
i. x − 2 = −2
2. WE10b Solve the following equations.
f
a. = 3 b. = −6 c. 6z = −42
i
4 10
d. 9v = 63 e. 6w = −32 f. = 56
k
12
y
g. 4a = 1.7 = i. = 5 38
m 7
h.
19 8 4
3. WE10c, d Solve the following equations.
a. √t = 10 b. y2 = 289 c. √q = 2.5
d. f = 1.44 e. √h = f. p2 =
2 4 9
7 64
g. √g = 15
22
h. j = 961
2 196
i. a2 = 2 79
4. Solve the following equations.
a. √t − 3 = 2 b. 5x2 = 180 c. 3√m = 12
d. −2t2 = −18 e. t2 + 11 = 111 f. √m + 5 = 0

a. √x = 2 b. x3 = −27 c. √3 m = 1
3
2
d. x3 = 27
e. √3 m = 0.2 f. w3 = 15 58
64

a. x3 + 1 = 0 b. 3x3 = −24 c. √3 m + 5 = 6
d. −2 × √3 w = 16 e. √3 t − 13 = −8 f. 2x3 − 14 = 2
7. WE11a Solve the following.
a. 5a + 6 = 26 b. 6b + 8 = 44 c. 8i − 9 = 15
d. 7f − 18 = 45 e. 8q + 17 = 26 f. 10r − 21 = 33
g. 6s + 46 = 75 h. 5t − 28 = 21 i. 8a + 88 = 28
8. Solve the following.
f g
a. + 6 = 16 b. + 4 = 9 +6=5
r
c.
4 6 10
p
d. − 12 = −10 e. + 5 = 8.5 f. − 1.8 = 3.4
m n
9 8 12
a. 6(x + 8) = 56 b. 7(y − 4) = 35
c. 5(m − 3) = 7 d. 3(2k + 5) = 24
e. 5(3n − 1) = 80 f. 6(2c + 7) = 58
g. 2(x − 5) + 3(x − 7) = 19 h. 3(x + 5) − 5(x − 1) = 12
i. 3(2x − 7) − (x + 3) = −60
10. WE11b Solve the following.
3k 9m 7p
a. = 15 b. = 18 c. = −8
5 8 10
8u 11x 4v
d. = −3 e. =2 f. = 0.8
11 4 15
x−5 2m + 1 3w − 1
a. =7 b. = −3 c. =6
3 3 4
t−5 6−x 3n − 5
d. =0 e. = −1 f. = −6
2 3 4
p
12. MC a. The solution to the equation + 2 = 7 is:
5
a. p = 5 b. p = 25 c. p = 45 d. p = 10 e. p = 1
b. If 5h + 8 = 53, then h is equal to:
1
a. b. 12.2 c. 225 d. 10 e. 9
5
c. The exact solution to the equation 14x = 75 is:
a. x = 5.357 142 857 b. x = 5.357 (to 3 decimal places)
c. x = d. x = 5.4
5
5 14
e. x = 5.5
a. −x = 5 b. 2 − d = 3 c. 5 − p = −2
d. −7 − x = 4 e. −5h = 10 f. −6t = −30
g. − = 4 h. − = 14 i. −4g = 3.2
v r
5 12

a. 6 − 2x = 8 b. 10 − 3v = 7 c. 9 − 6l = −3
3e
d. −3 − 2g = 1 e. −5 − 4t = −17 f. − = 14
5
8j 4f
=9 h. − − 3 = 6 i. − + 1 = 8
k
g. −
3 4 7
15. WE12a Solve the following equations.
a. 6x + 5 = 5x + 7 b. 7b + 9 = 6b + 14 c. 11w + 17 = 6w + 27
d. 8f − 2 = 7f + 5 e. 10t − 11 = 5t + 4 f. 12r − 16 = 3r + 5
g. 12g − 19 = 3g − 31 h. 7h + 5 = 2h − 6 i. 5a − 2 = 3a − 2
16. WE12b Solve the following equations.
a. 5 − 2x = 6 − x b. 10 − 3c = 8 − 2c c. 3r + 13 = 9r − 3
d. k − 5 = 2k − 6 e. 5y + 8 = 13y + 17 f. 17 − 3g = 3 − g
g. 14 − 5w = w + 8 h. 4m + 7 = 8 − m i. 14 − 5p = 9 − 2p
17. WE12c Solve the following equations.
a. 3(x + 5) = 2x b. 8(y + 3) = 3y c. 6(t − 5) = 4(t + 3)
d. 10(u + 1) = 3(u − 3) e. 12( f − 10) = 4( f − 5) f. 2(4r + 3) = 3(2r + 7)
g. 5(2d + 9) = 3(3d + 13) h. 5(h − 3) = 3(2h − 1) i. 2(4x + 1) = 5(3 − x)
18.  MC a. The solution to 8 − 4k = −2 is:
a. k = 2 b. k = −2 c. k = 1 d. k = −1 e. k =
1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 5
b. The solution to −6n

5
+ 3 = −7 is:
a. n = 3 b. n = −3 c. n = d. n = 8 e. n = −8
1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3
c. The solution to p − 6 = 8 − 4p is:

a. p = b. p = 2 c. p = 4 d. p = e. p =
2 4 2 2 4
5 5 3 3 5
Understanding
19. If the side length of a cube is x cm, then its volume V is given by V = x3. What is
the side length (correct to the nearest cm) of a cube that has a volume of:
x
a. 216 cm3 b. 2 m3?
20. The surface area of a cube with side length x cm is given by A = 6x2. Find the
side length (correct to the nearest cm) of a cube that has a surface area of:
a. 37.5 cm2 b. 1 m2.
21. A pebble is dropped down a well. In time t seconds it falls a distance of
d metres, given by d = 5t2.
a. How far does the pebble fall in 1 s?
b. How many seconds will it take the pebble to fall 40 m?
(Answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
22. The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula A = 4πr2, where r is
the radius of the sphere.
a. Find the surface area of a sphere that has a radius of 5 cm.
b. What is the radius of a sphere that has a surface area equal to 500 cm2?
(Answer correct to the nearest mm.)
Reasoning
23. Find the radius of a circle of area 10 cm2.
24. The volume of a sphere is given by the formula V = 43πr3, where r is the radius of the sphere. If the
sphere can hold 1 litre of water, what is its radius correct to the nearest mm?

Problem solving
25. The width of a room is three-fifths of its length. When the width is
increased by 2 metres and the length is decreased by 2 metres, the resultant
shape is a square. Find the dimensions of the room.
26. A target board for a dart game has been designed as three concentric circles
where each coloured region is the same area. If the radius of the purple
circle is r cm and the radius of the outer circle is 10 cm, find the value of r.
Reflection
Describe in one sentence what it means to solve linear equations.
2.6 Solving multi-step equations

2.6.1 Equations with multiple brackets
Many equations need to be simplified by expanding brackets and collecting like terms before they are
solved. Doing this reduces the equation to one of the basic types covered in the previous exercise.
Solve each of the following linear equations.

a 6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0 b 7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0
2 Expand all the brackets. (Be careful with the −4.) 6x + 6 − 4x + 8 = 0
3 Collect like terms. 2x + 14 = 0
4 Subtract 14 from both sides of the equation. 2x = −14
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 2 to find the x = −7
value of x.
b 1 Write the equation. b 7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
2 Expand all the brackets. 35 − 7x = 3x + 3 − 10
3 Collect like terms. 35 − 7x = 3x − 7
4 Create a single pronumeral term by adding 7x to 35 = 10x − 7
both sides of the equation.
5 Add 7 to both sides of the equation. 42 = 10x
6
=x
Divide both sides of the equation by 10 to solve 42
for x and simplify. 10
=x
21
5
7 Express the improper fraction as a mixed number 415 = x
fraction.
8 Rewrite the equation so that x is on the left-hand x = 415
side.
2.6.2 Equations involving algebraic fractions

•• To solve an equation containing algebraic fractions, multiply both sides of the equation by the lowest
common multiple (LCM) of the denominators. This gives an equivalent form of the equation without
fractions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14
x−5 x+7
Solve the equation = and verify the solution.
3 4
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. x−5 x+7
=
3 4
2 The LCM is 3 × 4 = 12. Multiply both sides of the 412(x − 5) 312(x + 7)
=
equation by 12. 1
3 1
4
3 Simplify the fractions. 4(x − 5) = 3(x + 7)
4 Expand the brackets. 4x − 20 = 3x + 21
5 Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation. x − 20 = 21
6 Add 20 to both sides of the equation and write the answer. x = 41
7 To verify, check that the answer x = 41 is true for both the
left-hand side (LHS) and the right-hand side (RHS) of the
equation by substitution.
41 − 5
Substitute x = 41 into the LHS. LHS =
3
36
=
3
= 12
41 + 7
Substitute x = 41 into the RHS. RHS =
4
48
=

4
= 12
8 Write your answer. Because the LHS = RHS, the solution
x = 41 is correct.
Solve each of the following equations.

5(x + 3) 3(x − 1) 4 1
a = 4+ b =
6 5 3(x − 1) x+1
THINK WRITE
5(x + 3) 3(x − 1)
a 1 Write the equation. a =4+
6 5
2 The lowest common denominator of 5 and 6 is 30. 25(x + 3) 120 18(x − 1)
= +
Write each term as an equivalent fraction with a 30 30 30
denominator of 30.
3 Multiply each term by 30. This effectively removes 25(x + 3) = 120 + 18(x − 1)
the denominator.
4 Expand the brackets and collect like terms. 25x + 75 = 120 + 18x − 18
25x + 75 = 102 + 18x
5 Subtract 18x from both sides of the equation. 7x + 75 = 102

6 Subtract 75 from both sides of the equation. 7x = 27
7 Divide both sides of the equation by 7 to solve for x.
x=
27
7
8 Express the improper fraction as a mixed number. x = 367
=
b 1 Write the equation. b 4 1
3(x − 1) x + 1
2 The lowest common denominator of 3, x + 1 and x − 1 4(x + 1) 3(x − 1)
=
is 3(x − 1)(x + 1). Write each term as an equivalent 3(x − 1)(x + 1) 3(x − 1)(x + 1)
fraction with a common denominator of 3(x − 1)(x + 1).
3 Multiply each term by the common denominator. 4(x + 1) = 3(x − 1)
4 Expand the brackets. 4x + 4 = 3x − 3
5 Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation. x + 4 = −3
6 Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation to solve for x. x + 4 − 4 = −3 − 4
= −7
Try out this interactivity: Solving equations (int-2778)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Solving equations with fractions (doc-13848)
Exercise 2.6 Solving multi-step equations

Individual pathways

1, 2a–c, 3a–e, 4a–d, 5, 6, 9 1, 2a–f, 3b–i, 4c–g, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 1, 2c–h, 3g–l, 4g–l, 7–13
Fluency
1. WE13 Solve each of the following linear equations.
a. 6(4x − 3) + 7(x + 1) = 9 b. 9(3 − 2x) + 2(5x + 1) = 0
c. 8(5 − 3x) − 4(2 + 3x) = 3 d. 9(1 + x) − 8(x + 2) = 2x
e. 6(4 + 3x) = 7(x − 1) + 1 f. 10(4x + 2) = 3(8 − x) + 6
2. WE14 Solve each of the following equations and verify the solutions.
x+1 x+3 x−7 x−8 x−6 x−2
a. = b. = c. =
2 3 5 4 4 2
8x + 3 2x − 1 x − 3 4x + 1 x + 2
d. = 2x e. = f. =
5 5 4 3 4
6 − x 2x − 1 8 − x 2x + 1
g. = h. =
3 5 9 3
3. Solve each of the following linear equations.
x 4x 1 x x 3 x 4x
a. + = b. − = c. − =2
3 5 3 4 5 4 4 7

−3x x 1 2x x 3
+ = − =−
5x 2x
d. e. f. −8=
5 8 4 3 6 4 8 3
2 x 3x 15
g. − = h. − = i. − 4 =
4 1 2 2
7 8 8 x 6 x x x
1 4 5 2x − 4 4x − 1 2x + 5
j. + = +6= − =0
x
k. l.
3 x x 5 2 2 3
4. WE15 Solve each of the following linear equations.
3(x + 1) 5(x + 1) 2(x + 1) 3(2x − 5) 2(4x + 3) 6(x − 2) 1
a. + =4 b. + =0 c. − =
2 3 7 8 5 2 2
8(x + 3) 3(x + 2) 5(7 − x) 2(2x − 1) 2(6 − x) 9(x + 5) 1
d. = e. = +1 f. = +
5 4 2 7 3 6 3
−5(x − 2) 6(2x − 1) 1 9(2x − 1) 4(x − 5) 3 8
− = = + =
1
g. h. i.
3 5 3 7 3 x−1 x+1 x+1
3 5 5 3 −1 5 −1
+ = − = − =
1 4
j. k. l.
x+1 x−4 x+1 x−1 x x−1 2x − 1 x x
Understanding
5. Last week Maya broke into her money box. She spent one-
quarter of the money on a birthday present for her brother and
one-third of the money on an evening out with her friends,
leaving her with $75. How much money was in her money box?
6. At work Keith spends one-fifth of his time in planning and
buying merchandise. He spends seven-twelfths of his time in
customer service and one-twentieth of his time training the
staff. This leaves him ten hours to deal with the accounts. How
many hours does he work each week?
7. Last week’s school fete was a great success, raising a good deal of money. Three-eighths of the profit
came from sales of food and drink, and the market stalls recorded one-fifth of the total. A third of the
profit came from the major raffle, and the jumping castle raised $1100. How much money was raised
at the fete?
8. Lucy had half as much money as Mel, but since Grandma gave them each $20 she now has three-fifths
as much. How much money does Lucy have?
Reasoning
9. a. Which numbers smaller than 100 have exactly 3 factors (including 1 and the number itself)?
b. Which two numbers smaller than 100 have exactly 5 factors?
c. Which number smaller than 100 has exactly 7 factors?
10. To raise money for a charity, a Year 10 class has decided to
organise a school lunch. Tickets will cost $6 each. The students
have negotiated a special deal for delivery of drinks and pizzas,
and they have budgeted $200 for drinks and $250 for pizzas. If
they raise $1000 or more, they qualify for a special award.
a. Write an equation to represent the minimum number of
tickets required to be sold to qualify for the award.
b. Solve the equation to find the number of tickets they must sell
to qualify for the award. Explain your answer.
x+7
≡ −
a 4
11. If , explain why a must be equal to 5.
(x + 2)(x + 3) x + 2 x + 3

(Note: ‘≡’ means identically equal to.)

Problem solving
12. Solve for x:
2
9
(x − 1) − 58 (x − 2) = 25 (x − 4) − 7
12
.
2(4x + 3)
≡ +
a b
13. If , find the values of a and b.
(x − 3)(x + 7) x − 3 x + 7
Reflection
Do the rules for the order of operations apply to algebraic fractions? Explain.
2.7 Literal equations

2.7.1 Literal equations
•• Literal equations are equations that include several pronumerals or variables. Solving literal equa-
tions involves changing the subject of the equation to a particular pronumeral.
•• A formula is a literal equation that records an interesting or important real‐life relationship.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Solve the following literal equations for x.

a ax2 + bd = c b ax = cx + b
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a ax2 + bd = c
2 Subtract bd from both sides of the equation. ax2 = c − bd
c − bd
3 Divide both sides by a. x2 =
a
4 To solve for x, take the square root of both sides. This gives c − bd
both a positive and negative result for x. x = ±√
a
b 1 Write the equation. b ax = cx + b
2 Subtract cx from both sides. ax − cx = b
3 Factorise by taking x as a common factor. x(a − c) = b
4 To solve for x, divide both sides by a − c.
x=
b
a−c
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Make b the subject of the formula D = √b2 − 4ac.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula. D = √b2 − 4ac
2 Square both sides. D2 = b2 − 4ac
3 Add 4ac to both sides of the equation. D2 + 4ac = b2
4 Take the square root of both sides. ±√D2 + 4ac = b
5 Make b the subject of the formula by solving for b. b = ±√D2 + 4ac

2.7.2 Restrictions on variables
•• Some variables may have implicit restrictions on the values that they may be assigned in an equation
or formula. For example:
–– if V = , then t cannot equal zero, otherwise the value of V would be undefined.
d
t
–– if d = √x − 9, then:
•• the value of d will be restricted to positive values or 0
•• the value of x − 9 must be greater than or equal to zero because the square root of a negative
number cannot be found.
x−9≥0
x ≥ 9 (Hence x must be greater than or equal to 9.)
•• Other restrictions may arise once a formula is rearranged. For example, if we look at the formula
V = ls2, there are no restrictions on the values that the variables l and s can be assigned. (However,
the sign of V must always be the same as the sign of l because s2 is always positive.) If the formula is
transposed to make s the subject, then:
V = ls2
s
= s2
V
l
√l
or s = ±
V s
l
This shows the restrictions that l ≠ 0 and ≥ 0.

V
l
If the formula V = ls2 represents the volume of the rectangular prism shown, additional restrictions
become evident: the variables l and s represent a length and must be positive numbers. Hence, when
√l
we make s the subject we get s =
V
.
Exercise 2.7 Literal equations

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–d, 5, 7 1a–g, 2a–f, 3a–f, 4a–f, 5, 7, 8 1d–i, 2c–j, 3c–h, 4–8
Fluency
1. WE16 Solve the following literal equations for x.
a. = d b. − bc = d c. √x + n = m d. acx2 = w
ax x
bc a
x+m
e. = =w g. ab(x + b) = c h. = + m
a b a b
f.
x y n x c
i. mx = ay − bx j. + a =
x c
m d
2. WE17 Rearrange each of the following literal equations to make the variable in brackets the subject.
a. V = lbh [l] b. P = 2l + 2b [b] c. A = 12bh [h]
9C
d. c = √a2 + b2 [a] e. F = + 32 [C] f. A = πr2 [r]
5

g. v = u + at h. I =
PRN
[a] [N] i. E = 12mv2 [m]
100
j. E = 12mv2 [v] k. v2 = u2 + 2as [a] l. v2 = u2 + 2as [u]
nx1 + mx2
m. = + n. x =
1 1 1
[a] [x1]
x a b m+n
3. Complete the following.
a. If c = √a2 + b2, calculate a if c = 13 and b = 5.
b. If A = 12bh, find the value of h if A = 56 and b = 16.
9C
c. If F = + 32, find the value of C if F = 86.
5
d. If v = u + at, find the value of a if v = 83.6, u = 15 and t = 7.
e. If V = ls2, find the value of s if V = 2028 and l = 12.
f. If v2 = u2 + 2as, find the value of u if v = 16, a = 10 and s = 6.75.
g. If A = 12h(a + b), find the value of a if A = 360, b = 15 and h = 18.
nx + mx2
h. If x = 1 , find the value of x2 if x = 10, m = 2, n = 1 and x1 = 4.
m+n
Understanding
4. For the following equations:
i. list any restrictions on the variables in the equation.
ii. rearrange the equation to make the variable in brackets the subject.
iii. list any new restrictions on the variables in the equation formed in part ii.
a. y = x2 + 4 [x] b. y =
2
[x]
x−3
c. v = u + at [t] d. c = √a2 + b2 [b]
pb + qa
e. s = f. m =
a
[r] [b]
1−r p+q
−b ± √b2 − 4ac pb + qa
g. x = h. m = [p]
p+q
[c]
2a
Reasoning
5. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = πr2h, where r is the radius and h is the height of the
cylinder.
a. State any restrictions on the values of the variables in this formula.
b. Make r the subject of the formula.
c. List any new restrictions on the variables in the formula.
6. T is the period of a pendulum whose length is l and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The formula
relating these variables is T = 2π√ .

l
g
a. What restrictions are applied to the variables T and l?
b. Make l the subject of the equation.
c. Do the restrictions stated in part a still apply?
d. Find the length of a pendulum that has a period of 3 seconds,
given that g = 9.8 m/s2. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

Problem solving
7. F = 32 + 95C is the formula relating degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Fahrenheit (F).
a. Transform the equation to make C the subject.
b. Find the temperature when degrees Celsius is equal to degrees Fahrenheit.
8. Jing Jing and Pieter live on the same main road but Jing Jing lives a kilometres to the east of Pieter.
Both Jing Jing and Pieter set off on their bicycles at exactly the same time and both ride in a westerly
direction. Jing Jing rides at j kilometres per hour and Pieter rides at p kilometres per hour. It is known
that j > p. Find an equation in terms of a, j and p for the distance Jing Jing has ridden in order to
catch up with Pieter.
Reflection
Why is it important to consider restrictions on variables when solving literal equations?
2.8 Review
Fluency
1. Given E = 12mv2 where m = 0.2 and v = 0.5, the value of E is:
a. 0.000 625 b. 0.1 c. 0.005 d. 0.025 e. 0.0025
2. The expression −6d + 3r − 4d − r simplifies to:
a. 2d + 2r b. −10d + 2r c. −10d − 4r d. 2d + 4r e. −8dr
3. The expression 5(2f + 3) + 6(4f − 7) simplifies to:
a. 34f + 2 b. 34f − 4 c. 34f − 27 d. 34f + 14 e. 116f − 14
4. The expression 7(b − 1) − (8 − b) simplifies to:
a. 8b − 9 b. 8b − 15 c. 6b − 9 d. 6b − 15 e. 8b + 1
5. If 14p − 23 = 6p − 7 then p equals:
a. −3 b. −1 c. 1 d. 2 e. 4
6. Simplify the following by collecting like terms.
a. 3c − 5 + 4c − 8 b. −3k + 12m − 4k − 9m
c. −d + 3c − 8c − 4d d. 6y2 + 2y + y2 − 7y
7. If A = 12bh, determine the value of A if b = 10 and h = 7
8. For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law.
a. (a + 3b) + 6c = ___________ Associative Law
b. 12a − 3b ≠ _______________ Commutative Law
c. 7p × _____ = _____________ Inverse Law
d. (x × 5y) × 7z = ____________ Associative Law
e. 12p + 0 = ________________ Identity Law
f. (3p ÷ 5q) ÷ 7r = ___________ Associative Law
g. 9d + 11e = _______________ Commutative Law
h. 4a ÷ b ≠ __________________ Commutative Law
9. Find the value of the following expressions given the natural number values x = 12, y = 8 and
z = 4. Comment on whether the Closure Law holds for each of the expressions when the values are
substituted.
a. x × y b. z ÷ x c. y − x
5y y x+4 x+2 5 x − 1 2x − 5
+ c. − +
1
a. − b. d.
3 2 5 2 3x 5x x+3 x+2

y 32 20y 35z x+6 5(x + 1)
a. × b. × c. ×
4 x 7x 16y (x + 1)(x + 3) x+6
25 30 xy 10x 2x 9x + 1
d. ÷ e. ÷ f. ÷
x x 5 y (x + 8)(x − 1) x+8
a. p − 20 = 68 b. s − 0.56 = 2.45 c. 3b = 48
d. 7r = −5 e. √x = 12 f. 2(x + 5) = −3
y
g. − 3 = 12 h. a2 = 36 i. 5 − k = −7
4
a. 42 − 7b = 14 b. 12t − 11 = 4t + 5 c. 2(4p − 3) = 2(3p − 5)
14. Solve each of the following linear equations.
a. 5(x − 2) + 3(x + 2) = 0 b. 7(5 − 2x) − 3(1 − 3x) = 1
c. 5(x + 1) − 6(2x − 1) = 7(x + 2) d. 8(3x − 2) + (4x − 5) = 7x
e. 7(2x − 5) − 4(x + 20) = x − 5 f. 3(x + 1) + 6(x + 5) = 3x + 40
15. Solve each of the following equations.
a. + = 3 b. − = 3
x x x x
2 5 5 3 5
3 2 5
c. − = −
1 x x d. + =
x 5 x
21 7 6
2x − 3 3 x + 3 2(x + 2) 3 5(x + 1)
e. − = f. = +
2 5 5 3 7 3
16. a. Make x the subject of bx + cx = . b. Make r the subject of V = 4πr3.

d
2 3
Problem solving
17. A production is in town and many parents are taking their children. An adult ticket costs $15 and a
child’s ticket costs $8. Every child must be accompanied by an adult and each adult can have no more
than 4 children with them. It costs the company $12 per adult and $3 per child to run the production.
There is a seating limit of 300 people and all tickets are sold.
a. Determine how much profit the company makes on each adult ticket and on each child’s ticket.
b. To maximise profit, the company should sell as many children’s tickets as possible. Of the 300
available seats, determine how many should be allocated to children if there is a maximum of
4 children per adult.
c. Using your answer to part b, determine how many adults would make up the remaining seats.
d. Construct an equation to represent the profit that the company can make depending on the number of
children and adults attending the production.
e. Substitute your values to calculate the maximum profit the company can make.
18. You are investigating prices for having business cards printed for your new games store. A local
printing company charges a flat rate of $250 for the materials used and $40 per hour for labour.
a. If h is the number of hours of labour required to print the cards, construct an equation for the cost of
the cards, C.
b. You have budgeted $1000 for the printing job. How many hours of labour can you afford? Give your
answer to the nearest minute.
c. The printer estimates that it can print 1000 cards per hour of labour. How many cards will be printed
with your current budget?

d. An alternative to printing is photocopying. The company charges 15 cents per side for the first
10 000 cards and then 10 cents per side for the remaining cards. Which is the cheaper option for
18 750 single-sided cards and by how much?
19. A scientist tried to use a mathematical formula to predict people’s moods based on the number of hours
of sleep they had the previous night. One formula that he used was what he called the ‘grumpy formula’,
g = 0.16(h − 8) 2, which was valid on a ‘grumpy scale’ from 0 to 10 (least grumpy to most grumpy).
a. Calculate the number of hours needed to not be grumpy.
b. Evaluate the grumpy factor for somebody who has had:
i. 4 hours of sleep ii. 6 hours of sleep iii. 10 hours of sleep.
c. Calculate the number of hours of sleep required to be most grumpy.
20. Another scientist already had his own grumpy formula and claims that the scientist from question 19
stole his idea and has just simplified it. The second scientist’s grumpy formula was
0.16(h − 8) 2(8 − h) 2h
g= × ÷ .
8−h 3(h − 8) 3(h − 8) 2
a. Write the second scientist’s formula in simplified form.
b. Are the second scientist’s claims justified? Explain.
Language
algebra formula simplify
denominator literal substitution
equation multiple undefined
evaluate numerator variable
expression pronumeral
factor restriction

readiness FOR learning, your progress AS
you learn and your levels OF achievement.
assessON provides sets of questions for
every topic in your course, as well as giving
instant feedback and worked solutions to
help improve your mathematical skills.
www.assesson.com.au

Checking for data entry errors
When entering numbers into an electronic device, or even writing numbers
down, errors frequently occur. A common type of error is a transposition error,
which occurs when two digits are written in the reverse order. Take the number
2869, for example. With this type of error, it could be written as 8269, 2689 or
2896. A common rule for checking these errors is as follows.
If the difference between the correct number and the recorded
number is a multiple of 9, a transposition error has occurred.
We can use algebraic expressions to check this rule. Let
the digit in the thousands position be represented by a, the digit
in the hundreds position by b, the digit in the tens position by c
and the digit in the ones position by d. So the real number can
be represented as 1000a + 100b + 10c + d.
1. If the digits in the ones position and the tens position
were written in the reverse order, the number would be
1000a + 100b + 10d + c. The difference between the
correct number and the incorrect one would then be:
1000a + 100b + 10c + d − (1000a + 100b + 10d + c).
a. Simplify this expression.
b. Is the expression a multiple of 9? Explain.
2. If a transposition error had occurred in the tens and
hundreds position, the incorrect number would be
1000a + 100c + 10b + d. Perform the procedure shown in
question 1 to determine whether the difference between the
correct number and the incorrect one is a multiple of 9.
3. Consider, lastly, a transposition error in the thousands and
hundreds positions. Is the difference between the two numbers
a multiple of 9?
4. Comment on the checking rule for transposition errors.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: In which country was the first practical ice-making machine and
refrigerator produced in 1856? (doc-15919)

Answers
Topic 2 Algebra and equations
Exercise 2.2 Substitution
1. a. 5 b. 2 c. 0 d. 6 e. −17 f. 3
g. 30 h. 12 i. −12 j. 27 k. 30 l. −5
2. a. −11 b. −1 c. 1 d. 30 e. −24
f. 36 g. −125 h. 1 i. 15
7 1 1
3. a. 12 b. −12 c. 12 d. 113 1
e. 576 f. 48
4. a. 9 b. −9 c. 9 d. 18 e. −18 f. 36
5. a. 9 b. −9 c. 9 d. 18 e. −18 f. 36
6. a. 17 b. 30 c. 8 d. 4 e. 1.5 f. 68
g. 46 h. 113.1 i. 5 j. 624.6
7. a. D b. C c. B
8. 3.9 cm
9. 65.45 cm3
10. 361 m
11. a. −1 — in this case, addition is closed on integers.
b. −1 — in this case, subtraction is closed on integers.
c. 2 — in this case, multiplication is closed on integers.
d. −1 — in this case, division is closed on integers.
e. −2 — in this case, subtraction is closed on integers.
f. −12 — in this case, division is not closed on integers.
12. a. 10 — in this case, addition is closed on natural numbers.
b. −4 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural numbers.
c. 12 — in this case, multiplication is closed on natural numbers.
d. 43 — in this case, division is not closed on natural numbers.
e. −2 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural numbers.
f. 4 — in this case, division is closed on natural numbers.
13. a. (a + 2b) + 4c = a + (2b + 4c) b. (x × 3y) × 5c = x × (3y × 5c)
c. 2p ÷ q ≠ q ÷ 2p d. 5d + q = q + 5d
e. 3z + 0 = 0 + 3z = 3z f. 2x ×
1
=
1
× 2x = 1
2x 2x
g. (4x ÷ 3y) ÷ 5z ≠ 4x ÷ (3y ÷ 5z) h. 3d − 4y ≠ 4y − 3d
14. a. s = 71.875 metres b. t = 4 seconds
15. m = 45
Challenge 2.1
3a3c2
Exercise 2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
1. a. 26
21
5
or 1 21 b. 49
72
c. 1
d. 17
99
1
e. 35 f. 6 − 5x
30
15x − 4 15 − 16x 15 − 2x
f. g. h.
27 40 3x
5y 3y 13x 14x 3w y
2. a. b. − c. d. e. f. −
12 40 12 9 28 5
89y 32x 7x + 17 7x + 30 2x − 11 19x + 7
g. h. i. j. k. l.
35 15 10 12 30 6

5 5 38 8 7 9
3. a. b. c. d. e. f.
8x 12x 21x 3x 24x 20x
37 51 1
g. h. i. −
100x 10x 6x
3x2 + 14x − 4 2x2 + 3x + 25 2x2 + 6x − 10 4x2 − 17x − 3
4. a. b. c. d.
(x + 4) (x − 2) (x + 5) (x − 1) (2x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (2x − 7)
7x2 + x 2x2 + 6x + 7 −x2 + 7x + 15 x−7
e. f. g. h.
(x + 7) (x − 5) (x + 1) (x + 4) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x − 2)
5 − 5x 3x + 7 3x − 4
i. x + 3x + 9
5
=
2
j. k. l.
(x + 2) (3x − 1) (x − 1) (1 − x) x − 1 (x + 1) 2 (x − 1) 2
5. a. The student transcribed the denominator incorrectly and wrote (x + 2) instead of (x − 2) in line 2.

Also, the student forgot that multiplying a negative number by a negative number gives a positive number.
Line 3 should have +3 in the numerator, not −1. They didn’t multiply.

x2 − 5x + 3
b.
(x − 1) (x − 2)
4x2 + 17x + 17 7x2 − 20x + 4
6. a. b.
(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 4)
4x2 + 17x + 19 2(2x2 − 9x + 25)
c. d.
(x + 1) (x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 4) (x − 1) (x + 3)
7. The lowest common denominator may not always be the product of the denominators. Each fraction must be multiplied by the
correct multiple.
4(x − 1) 2(x − 1)
8. a = 4 9. 10.
(x + 3) (x + 4) (x − 2) (x − 7) (x − 4)
Exercise 2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
4x 3x 4y 9x −5x 3w
1. a. b. c. d. e. f.
y y x 4y 4y 2x
6z 2z −3x 5
j. 24 12z −x
g. h. i. k. l.
7x 7x 2y x 6w
2 5 9 1 2x x+1
2. a. b. c. d. e. f.
3x − 2 x−3 2(x − 6) x+3 (x + 1) 2 2(2x − 3)
a 35d 9 3x
g. h. i. j.
10(a + 3) 8(d − 3) 32x2 (x − 2) 10(x − 1)
3. a. 35 b. 29 c. 13 d. 3 1
e. 25 f. 35 or 5 56
6
4y2 2y2 8y2 32xy

g. h. i. j. k. 23 l. y2
7 25 9 15
9 1 21(x − 3) 13
4. a. b. c. d.
(3x − 7) (x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 9) x+5 9(x − 4) (x + 1)
5. Yes, because all of the fractions have the same denominator and therefore can be added together.
6. a. −1
4 − x considered to be the same as x − 4
b.
7. 1
(x + 1) 2
8.
x2 + 1
Challenge 2.2
x(x + 2) x(x + 2)
or
(x − 1) (x + 1) x2 − 1
Exercise 2.5 Solving simple equations
1. a. a = 24 b. k = 121 c. g = 2.9 d. r = 3 e. h = 0.26 f. i = −2
g. t = 5 q=
h. 1
6
i. x = 0

1
2. a. f = 12 b. i = −60 c. z = −7 d. v = 7 e. w = −5 f. k = 10
3
g. a = 0.425 h. m = 16 5
8
i. y = 21 1
2
3. a. t = 100 b. y = ±17 c. q = 6.25 d. f = ±1.2 e. h = 16

49
f. p = ±38
g. g = 225
484
h. j = ±14
31
i. a = ±1 23
4. a. t = 25 b. x = ±6 c. m = 16 d. t = ±3 e. t = ±10 f. m = 25
5. a. x = 8 b. x = −3 c. m = 1
8
d. x = 3
4
e. m = 0.008 f. w = 2 12
6. a. x = −1 b. x = −2 c. m = 1 d. w = −512 e. t = 125 f. x = 2
7. a. a = 4 b. b = 6 c. i = 3 d. f = 9 e. q = 1 1
8
f. r = 5 25
g. s = 4 56 h. t = 9 45 i. a = −7 12
8. a. f = 40 b. g = 30 c. r = −10 d. m = 18 e. n = 28 f. p = 62.4
9. a. x = 1 13 b. y = 9 c. m = 4 25 d. k = 1 12 e. n = 5 23 f. c = 1 13
g. x = 10 h. x = 4 i. x = −7 15
10. a. k = 25 b. m = 16 c. p = −11 37 d. u = −4 18 e. x = 11
8
f. v = 3
11. a. x = 26 b. m = −5 c. w = 25
3
d. t = 5 e. x = 9 f. n = −19
3
12. a. B b. E c. C
13. a. x = −5 b. d = −1 c. p = 7 d. x = −11 e. h = −2 f. t = 5
g. v = −20 h. r = −3 i. g = −0.8
14. a. x = −1 b. v = 1 c. l = 2 d. g = −2 e. t = 3 f. e = −23 13
g. j = −3 3
8
h. k = −36 i. f = −12 1
4
15. a. x = 2 b. b = 5 c. w = 2 d. f = 7 e. t = 3 f. r = 2 13
g. g = −1 1
h. h = −2 1
i. a = 0
3 5
16. a. x = −1 b. c = 2 c. r = 2 23 d. k = 1 e. y = −1 18 f. g = 7
g. w = 1 h. m = 1
5
i. p = 1 2
3
17. a. x = −15 b. y = −4 4
5
c. t = 21 d. u = −2 57 e. f = 12 12 f. r = 7 12
g. d = −6 h. h = −12 i. x = 1
18. a. A b. D c. B
19. a. 6 cm b. 1.26 m
20. a. 2.5 cm b. 41 cm
21. a. 5 m b. 2.8 s
22. a. 314 cm2 b. 6.3 cm
23. 1.8 cm
24. 6.2 cm
25. Dimensions are 10 m by 6 m.
10√3
26. cm
3
Exercise 2.6 Solving multi-step equations
29
1. a. x = 20
31
b. x = 3 58 x=
c. d. x = −7 e. x = −2 11
8
f. x = 10
43
36
2. a. x = 3 b. x = 12 c. x = −2 d. x = 32 e. x = −11
3
or x = −3 23
5
f. x = 13
2
g. x = 3 h. x =
7
3. a. x = 17
5
b. x = 15 c. x = −6 29 d. x = −10
19
e. x = −1 12 f. x = −192
4
g. x = h. x = 12 i. x = 3 14 j. x = 3 k. x = 52 l. x = 1 58
7

4. a. x = 19
5
b. x = 1 31
58
c. x = 4 11
14
d. x = −3 15
17
e. x = 5 20
43
f. x = −1 10
13
g. x = 1 61
2
h. x = −4 26
9
i. x = 1.5 j. x = −4 13 k. x = 3 l. x = 1
5. $180
6. 60 hours
7. $12 000
8. $60
9. a. 4, 9, 25, 49 b. 16, 81 b. 64
10. a. 6x − 450 = 1000
b. 241 13 tickets. This means they need to sell 242 tickets to qualify, as the number of tickets must be a whole number.
11. Teacher to check
12. 4
13. a = 3, b = 5
Exercise 2.7 Literal equations
bcd w ay
1. a. x = b. x = a(d + bc) c. x = (m − n) 2 d. x = ± e. x = f. x = nw − m
a ac b
c ac ay mc − amd
g. x = −b h. x = i. x = j. x =
ab b + mc m+b d
V P − 2l c. h =
2A
d. a = ±√c2 − b2 e. C = 59 (F − 32) f. r = ±√
A
2. a. l = b. b = π
bh 2 b
v−u v2 − u2
j. v = ±√
100I 2E 2E
g. a = h. N = i. m = k. a =
t PR v2 m 2s
xb x(m + n)−mx2
l. u = ±√v2 − 2as m. a = n. x1 =
b−x n
3. a. a = ±12 b. h = 7 c. C = 30 d. a = 9.8 e. s = ±13 f. u = ±11
g. a = 25 h. x2 = 13
4. a. i. No restrictions on x ii. x = ±√y − 4 iii. y ≥ 4
2
b. i. x ≠ 3 ii. x = + 3 iii. y ≠ 0
y
v−u
c. i. No restrictions ii. t = iii. a ≠ 0
a
d. i. c ≥ 0 ii. b = ±√c2 − a2 iii. |c| ≥ |a|
s−a
e. i. r ≠ 1 ii. r = iii. s ≠ 0
s
m(p + q) − qa
f. i. p ≠ −q ii. b = iii. p ≠ 0
p
b2 − (2ax + b) 2
g. i. a ≠ 0, b2 ≥ 4ac ii. c = or c = −ax2 − bx iii. No new restrictions
4a
q(a − m)
h. i. p ≠ −q ii. p = iii. m ≠ b

m−b
5. a. No restrictions, all values must be positive for a cylinder to exist.
b. r = √
V
πh
c. h ≠ 0, no new restrictions
6. a. T and l must be greater than zero.
T2g
b. l = c. The restrictions still hold. d. 2.2 m
4π2
5
7. a. C = (F − 32) b. −40°
9
ja
8. Distance Jing Jing has ridden is kilometres.
j−p

2.8 Review
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. B
5. D
6. a. 7c − 13 b. −7k + 3m c. −5c − 5d d. 7y2 − 5y
7. 35
8. a. (a + 3b) + 6c = a + (3b + 6c) b. 12a − 3b ≠ 3b − 12a c. 7p ×
1
=
1
× 7p = 1
7p 7p
d. (x × 5y) × 7z = x × (5y × 7z) e. 12p + 0 = 0 + 12p = 12p f. (3p ÷ 5q) ÷ 7r ≠ 3p ÷ (5q ÷ 7r)
g. 9d + 11e = 11e + 9d h. 4a ÷ b ≠ b ÷ 4a
9. a. 96 — in this case, multiplication is closed on natural numbers.
1
b. — in this case, division is not closed on natural numbers.
3
c. −4 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural numbers.
7y 7x + 18 22 3x2 + 2x − 17
10. a. b. c. d.
6 10 15x (x + 3) (x + 2)
8y 25z 5 5 y2 2x
11. a. b. c. d. f.
(x − 1) (9x + 1)
e.
x 4x x+3 6 50
13
12. a. p = 88 b. s = 3.01 c. b = 16 d. r = −35 e. x = 144 f. x = −
2
g. y = 60 h. a = ±6 i. k = 12
13. a. b = 4 b. t = 2 c. p = −2
1 1 3 2 1
14. a. x = b. x = 6 c. x = − d. x = 1 e. x = 12 f. x = 1
2 5 14 9 6
6 1 3 16
15. a. x = b. x = 22 c. x = 2 d. x = 5 e. x = 3 f. x = −
7 2 8 21
d
16. a. x =
√
b. r = 3V
2(b + c)
4π
17. a. $3 per adult ticket; $5 per child’s ticket
b. 240
c. 60
d. P = 3a + 5c, where a = number of adults and c = number of children
e. $1380
18. a. C = 250 + 40h
b. 18 hours 45 minutes
c. 18750
d. Printing is the cheaper option by $1375.
19. a. 8 hours
b. i. 2.56 ii. 0.64 iii. 0.64
c.
0.094 hours or 15.9 hours
0.16(h − 8) 2
20. a. g = b. No, the formula is not the same.
h
1. a. 9(c − d)
b. Yes, this is a multiple of 9 as the number that multiples the brackets is 9.
2. 90(b − c); 90 is a multiple of 9 so the difference between the correct and incorrect one is a multiple of 9.
3. 900(a − b); again 900 is a multiple of 9.
4. If two adjacent digits are transposed, the difference between the correct number and the transposed number is a multiple of 9.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 3
Coordinate geometry
3.1 Overview
your learn ON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered
in this topic.

What did you weigh as a baby, and how tall were you? Did you grow at a steady (linear) rate, or were there
periods in your life when you grew rapidly? What is the relationship between your height and your weight?
We constantly seek to find relationships between variables, and coordinate geometry provides a picture, a
visual clue as to what the relationships may be.

1. THINK List what you know about linear graphs and their equations. Use a thinking tool such as a
concept map to show your list.
3. SHARE As a class, create a large concept map that shows your class’s knowledge of linear graphs and
their equations.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
3.1 Overview
3.2 Sketching linear graphs
3.3 Determining linear equations
3.4 The distance between two points
3.5 The midpoint of a line segment
3.6 Parallel and perpendicular lines
3.7 Review

Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Descartes (eles-1842)
3.2 Sketching linear graphs

3.2.1 Linear graphs
•• If a series of points (x, y) is plotted using the rule y = mx + c, then the y
y = 2x + 5
10
points always lie in a straight line whose gradient equals m and whose
y-intercept equals c. Quadrant 2
5
Quadrant 1
•• The rule y = mx + c is called the equation of a straight line written in

‘gradient–intercept’ form. –10 –5 0 5 10 x
Quadrant 3
–5
3.2.2 Plotting linear graphs Quadrant 4
–10
•• To plot a linear graph, complete a table of values to determine the points.
Plot the linear graph defined by the rule y = 2x − 5 for the x-values −3, −2,−1, 0, 1, 2 and 3.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
−3 −2 −1
1 Create a table of values using the 0 1 2 3
x
given x-values.
y
−3 −2 −1
2 Find the corresponding y-values 0 1 2 3
x
by substituting each x-value into
the rule. y −11 −9 −7 −5 −3 −1 1
3 Plot the points on a Cartesian y
plane and rule a straight line 2
(3, 1)
1
through them. Since the x-values
have been specified, the line –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3x
(2, –1)
should only be drawn between the –2
–3 (1, –3)
x-values of –3 and 3. –4
–5 (0, –5)
–6
(–1, –7) –7
–8
(–2, –9) –9
–10
(–3, –11) y = 2x – 5
–11
–12
4 Label the graph.
3.2.3 Sketching straight lines

•• A minimum of two points are necessary to plot a straight line.
•• Two methods can be used to plot a straight line:
–– Method 1: The x- and y-intercept method.
–– Method 2: The gradient–intercept method.

3.2.4 Method 1: Sketching a straight line using the x- and y-intercepts
•• As the name implies, this method involves plotting the x- and y-intercepts, then joining them to sketch
the straight line.
•• The line cuts the y-axis where x = 0 and the x-axis where y = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a 2x + y = 6 b y = −3x − 12
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a 2x + y = 6
2 Find the x-intercept by substituting y = 0. x-intercept: when y = 0,
2x + 0 = 6
2x = 6
x=3
x-intercept is (3, 0).
3 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0. y-intercept: when x = 0,
2(0) + y = 6
y=6
y-intercept is (0, 6).
4 Plot both points and rule the line. y
2x + y = 6
(0, 6)
0 (3, 0) x
5 Label the graph.

b 1 Write the equation. b y = −3x −12
2 Find the x-intercept by substituting y = 0 x-intercept: when y = 0,
i. Add 12 to both sides of the equation. −3x − 12 = 0
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by −3. −3x = 12
x = −4
x-intercept is (−4, 0).
3 Find the y-intercept. The equation is in the form c = −12
y = mx + c, so compare this with our equation to y-intercept is (0, −12).
find the y-intercept, c.
4 Plot both points and rule the line. y
(–4, 0)
0 x
(0, –12) y = –3x – 12
5 Label the graph.

3.2.5 Method 2: Sketching a straight line using the gradient–intercept
method
•• This method is often used if the equation is in the form y = mx + c, where m represents the gradient
(slope) of the straight line, and c represents the y-intercept.
•• The steps below outline how to use the gradient–intercept method to sketch a linear graph.
Step 1: Plot a point at the y-intercept.
rise
Step 2: Write the gradient in the form m = . (To write a whole number as a fraction, place it
run
over a denominator of 1.)
Step 3: Starting from the y-intercept, move up the number of units suggested by the rise (move
down if the gradient is negative).
Step 4: Move to the right the number of units suggested by the run and plot the second point.
Step 5: Rule a straight line through the two points.

2
Sketch the graph of y = 5
x−3 using the gradient–intercept method.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation of the line. y = 25x − 3
2 Identify the value of c (that is, the y-intercept) c = −3, so y-intercept: (0, −3).
and plot this point.
m=
2
3 Write the gradient, m, as a fraction.
5
rise
4 m = run , note the rise and run. So, rise = 2; run = 5.
5 Starting from the y-intercept at (0, −3), move y
2 units up and 5 units to the right to find the 0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
second point (5, −1). We have still not found the –2 (5, –1)
x-intercept. –3 (0, –3)
–4
3.2.6 Sketching linear graphs of the form y = mx

•• Graphs given by y = mx pass through the origin (0, 0), since c = 0.
•• A second point may be determined using the rule y = mx by substituting a value for x to find y.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Sketch the graph of y = 3x.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. y = 3x
2 Find the x- and y-intercepts. x-intercept: when y = 0,
Note: By recognising the form of 0 = 3x
this linear equation, y = mx you can x=0
simply state that the graph passes y-intercept: (0, 0)
through the origin, (0, 0). Both the x- and y-intercepts are at (0, 0).

3 Find another point to plot by finding When x = 1, y=3×1
the y-value when x = 1. =3
Another point on the line is (1, 3).

4 Plot the two points (0, 0) and (1, 3) y
y = 3x
and rule a straight line through them.
3 (1, 3)
(0, 0) x
1
5 Label the graph.
3.2.7 Sketching linear graphs of the form y = c and x = a

•• The line y = c is parallel to the x-axis, having a gradient of zero and a y-intercept of c.
•• The line x = a is parallel to the y-axis and has an undefined (infinite) gradient.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations.

a y = −3 b x = 4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = −3
2 The y-intercept is −3. As x does not appear in y-intercept = −3, (0, −3)
the equation, the line is parallel to the
x-axis, such that all points on the line have a
y-coordinate equal to −3. That is, this line is
the set of points (x, −3) where x is an element
of the set of real numbers.
3 Sketch a horizontal line through y
(0, −3).
0 x
(0, –3) y = –3
4 Label the graph.

b 1 Write the equation. b x=4
2 The x-intercept is 4. As y does not appear in x-intercept = 4, (4, 0)
the equation, the line is parallel to the
y-axis, such that all points on the line have an
x-coordinate equal to 4. That is, this line is the
set of points (4, y) where y is an element of
the set of real numbers.

3 Sketch a vertical line through (4, 0). y x=4
0 (4, 0) x
4 Label the graph.
3.2.8 Using linear graphs to model real-life contexts

•• If a real-life situation involves a constant increase or decrease at regular intervals, then it can be
modelled by a linear equation. Examples include water being poured from a tap into a container at a
constant rate, or money being deposited into a savings account at regular intervals.
•• To model a linear situation, we first need to determine which of the two given variables is the inde-
pendent variable and which is the dependent variable.
•• The independent variable does not depend on the value of the other variable, whereas the dependent
variable takes its value depending on the value of the other variable. When plotting a graph of a linear
model, the independent variable will be on the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable will be
on the y-axis (vertical).
•• The following table contains a list of situations, with the independent and dependent variable being
identified in each instance.
Situation Independent variable Dependent variable

Money being deposited into a savings Time Money in account
account at regular intervals
The age of a person in years and their Age in years Height in cm
height in cm
The temperature at a snow resort and the Temperature Depth of snow
depth of the snow
The length of Pinocchio’s nose and the Amount of lies Length of
amount of lies he told Pinocchio told Pinocchio’s nose
The number of workers building a house Number of workers Time
and the time taken to complete the project
•• Note that if time is one of the variables, it will usually be the independent variable. The final exam-
ple above is a rare case of time being the dependent variable. Also, some of the above cases can’t be
modelled by linear graphs, as the increases or decreases aren’t necessarily happening at constant rates.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Water is leaking from a bucket at a constant rate. After 1 minute there is 45 litres in the bucket;
after 3 minutes there is 35 litres in the bucket; after 5 minutes there is 25 litres in the bucket; and
after 7 minutes there is 15 litres in the bucket.
a Define two variables to represent the given information.
b Determine which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable.
c Represent the given information in a table of values.
d Plot a graph to represent how the amount of water in the bucket is changing.
e Use your graph to determine how much water was in the bucket at the start and how long it
will take for the bucket to be empty.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Determine which two values change a The two variables are ‘time’ and ‘amount of water in
in the relationship given. bucket’.
b The dependent variable takes its b Independent variable = time
value depending on the value of the Dependent variable = amount of water in bucket
independent variable.
In this situation the amount of
water depends on the amount of time
elapsed, not the other way round.
c The independent variable should c Time (minutes) 1 3 5 7
appear in the top row of the table of
values, with the dependent variable Amount of water in
45 35 25 15
appearing in the second row. bucket (litres)
d The values in the top row of the d

Amount of water in bucket (litres)
50
table represent the values on the 45
horizontal axis, and the values in the 40
35
bottom row of the table represent 30
the values on the vertical axis. As 25
20
the value for time can’t be negative 15
and there can’t be a negative 10
5
amount of water in the bucket, only
0 x
the first quadrant needs to be drawn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (minutes)
for the graph. Plot the 4 points
and rule a straight line through
them. Extend the graph to meet the
vertical and horizontal axes.
e The amount of water in the bucket e There was 50 litres of water in the bucket at the start, and it
at the start is the value at which will take 10 minutes for the bucket to be empty.
the line meets the vertical axis, and
the time taken for the bucket to be
empty is the value at which the line
meets the horizontal axis.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Describing the gradient of a line (doc-5197)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Plotting a line using a table of values (doc-5198)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Stating the y-intercept from a graph (doc-5199)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts
(doc-5200)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Using Pythagoras’ theorem (doc-5201)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5202)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Transposing linear equations to standard form (doc-5203)

Exercise 3.2 Sketching linear graphs
Individual pathways

1, 2, 3a–h, 4a–e, 5a–d, 6a–f, 1, 2, 3f–m, 4a–e, 5a–d, 6a–f, 1, 2, 3h–o, 4d–i, 5c–f, 6e–i, 7d–h,
7a–d, 8a–d, 9, 10, 12 7c–f, 8a–f, 9–12 8c–h, 9–13
Fluency
1. WE1 Generate a table of values and then plot the linear graphs defined by the following rules for the
given range of x-values.
Rule x-values
a. y = 10x + 25 −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1
b. y = 5x − 12 −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
c. y = −0.5x + 10 −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4
d. y = 100x − 240 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
e. y = −5x + 3 −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
f. y = 7 − 4x −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
2. Plot the linear graphs defined by the following rules for the given range of x-values.
Rule x-values
a. y = −3x + 2 x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
y
b. y = −x + 3 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y
c. y = −2x + 3 x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
y
3. WE2 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a. 5x − 3y = 10 b. 5x + 3y = 10 c. −5x + 3y = 10
d. −5x − 3y = 10 e. 2x − 8y = 20 f. 4x + 4y = 40
g. −x + 6y = 120 h. −2x + 8y = −20 i. 10x + 30y = −150
j. 5x + 30y = −150 k. −9x + 4y = 36 l. 6x − 4y = −24
m. y = 2x − 10 n. y = −5x + 20 o. y = −12x − 4
4. WE3 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations using the gradient–intercept method.
a. y = 4x + 1 b. y = 3x − 7 c. y = −2x + 3
d. y = −5x − 4 e. y = 12x − 2 f. y = − 27 x + 3
g. y = 0.6x + 0.5 h. y = 8x i. y = x − 7
5. WE4 Sketch the graphs of the following linear equations.
a. y = 2x b. y = 5x c. y = −3x
d. y = 12x e. y = 23x f. y = −52x

6. WE5 Sketch the graphs of the following linear equations.
a. y = 10 b. y = −10 c. x = 10
d. x = −10 e. y = 100 f. y = 0
g. x = 0 h. x = −100 i. y = −12
7. Transpose each of the equations to standard form (that is, y = mx + c). State the x- and y-intercept for
each.
a. 5(y + 2) = 4(x + 3) b. 5(y − 2) = 4(x − 3) c. 2(y + 3) = 3(x + 2)
d. 10(y − 20) = 40(x − 2) e. 4(y + 2) = −4(x + 2) f. 2(y − 2) = −(x + 5)
g. −5(y + 1) = 4(x − 4) h. 5(y + 2.5) = 2(x − 3.5) i. 2.5(y − 2) = −6.5(x − 1)
Understanding
8. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the following lines.
a. −y = 8 − 4x b. 6x − y + 3 = 0 c. 2y − 10x = 50
9. Explain why the gradient of a horizontal line is equal to zero and the gradient of a vertical line is
undefined.
Reasoning
x y 7
10. Determine whether − = is the equation of a straight line by rearranging into an appropriate
3 2 6
form and hence sketch the graph, showing all relevant features.
11. WE6 Your friend loves to download music. She earns $50 and spends some of it buying music online
at $1.75 per song. She saves the remainder. Her saving is given by the function f(x) = 50 − 1.75x.
a. Determine which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable.
b. Sketch the function.
c. How many songs can she buy and still save $25?
Problem solving
12. A straight line has a general equation defined by y = mx + c. This line intersects the lines defined
by the rules y = 7 and x = 3. The lines y = mx + c and y = 7 have the same y-intercept while
y = mx + c and x = 3 have the same x-intercept.
a. On the one set of axes, sketch all three graphs.
b. Determine the y-axis intercept for y = mx + c.
c. Determine the gradient for y = mx + c.
d. MC The equation of the line defined by y = mx + c is:
a. x + y = 3 b. 7x + 3y = 21 c. 3x + 7y = 21
d. x + y = 7 e. 7x + 3y = 7
13. Water is flowing from a tank at a constant rate. The equation relating the volume of water in the tank,
V litres, to the time the water has been flowing from the tank, t minutes, is given by V = 80 − 4t, t ≥ 0.
a. Determine which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable.
b. How much water is in the tank initially?
c. Why is it important that t ≥ 0?
d. At what rate is the water flowing from the tank?
e. How long does it take for the tank to empty?
f. Sketch the graph of V versus t.
Reflection
What types of straight lines have an x-and y-intercept of the same value?

3.3 Determining linear equations
3.3.1 Finding a linear equation given two points
•• The gradient of a straight line can be calculated from the y
coordinates of two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) that lie on the line. y2 B
(x2, y2)
rise
Gradient = m = Rise = y2 – y1
run
A
y − y1 y1 (x1, y1)
= 2 Run = x2 – x1
x2 − x1

x1 x2 x
•• The equation of the straight line can then be found in the form
y = mx + c, where c is the y-intercept.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the equation of the straight line shown in the graph.
y
0 3 x
THINK WRITE
1 There are two points given on the straight line: (3, 0), (0, 6)
the x-intercept (3, 0) and the y-intercept (0, 6).
rise
2 Find the gradient of the line by applying m=
rise y2 − y1 run
the formula m = = , where y − y1
run x2 − x1 = 2
(x1, y1) = (3, 0) and (x2, y2) = (0, 6). x2 − x1
6−0
=
0−3
6
=
−3
= −2
The gradient m = −2.
3 The graph has a y-intercept of 6, so c = 6. y = mx + c
Substitute m = −2, and c = 6 into y = mx + c y = −2x + 6
to find the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the equation of the straight line shown in the graph.

y
1 (2, 1)
0 2 x
THINK WRITE
1 There are two points given on the straight (0, 0), (2, 1)
line: the x- and y-intercept (0, 0) and another
point (2, 1).
rise
2 Find the gradient of the line by applying m=
rise y2 − y1 run
the formula m = = , where y2 − y1
run x2 − x1 =
(x1, y1) = (0, 0) and (x2, y2) = (2, 1). x2 − x1
1−0
=
2−0
=
1
2
The gradient m = 12.
he y-intercept is 0, so c = 0. Substitute
3 T y = mx + c
m = 12 and c = 0 into y = mx + c to determine y = 12x + 0
the equation.
y = 12x
Find the equation of the straight line passing through (−2, 5) and (1, −1).
THINK WRITE
1 Write the general equation of a straight line. y = mx + c
y − y1
2 Write the formula for calculating the gradient m= 2
x2 − x1
of a line between two points.
−1 − 5
3 Let (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) be the two points (−2, 5) m=
1 − −2
and (1, −1) respectively. Substitute the values of the
−6
pronumerals into the formula to calculate the gradient. =
3
= −2
4 Substitute the value of the gradient into the general rule. y = −2x + c
5 Select either of the two points, say (1, −1), and Point (1, −1):
substitute its coordinates into y = −2x + c. −1 = −2 × 1 + c
6 Solve for c; that is, add 2 to both sides of the equation. −1 = −2 + c
1=c
7 State the equation by substituting the value of c into y = −2x + c. The equation of the line is
y = −2x + 1.

3.3.2 Finding the equation of a straight line using the
gradient and one point
•• If the gradient of a line is known, only one point is needed to determine the equation of the line.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient of 2 and y-intercept of −5.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the known information. The other point is Gradient = 2,
the y-intercept, which makes the calculation of c y-intercept = −5
straightforward.
2 State the values of m and c. m = 2, c = −5
3 Substitute these values into y = mx + c to find the y = mx + c
equation. y = 2x − 5
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (5, −1) with a gradient of 3.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the known information. Gradient = 3,
point (5, −1).
2 State the values of m, x and y. m = 3, (x, y) = (5, −1)
3 Substitute the values m = 3, x = 5 and y = −1 y = mx + c
into y = mx + c and solve to find c. −1 = 3(5) + c
−1 = 15 + c
−16 = c
4 Substitute m = 3 and c = −16 into The equation of the line is y = 3x − 16.
y = mx + c to determine the equation.
3.3.3 A simple formula

•• The diagram shows a line of gradient m passing through y
(x, y)
the point (x1, y1). y
•• If (x, y) is any other point on the line, then:
(x1, y1)
rise
m=
y1
run
y − y1
m=
x − x1
m(x − x1) = y − y1
y − y1 = m(x − x1)
•• The formula y − y1 = m(x − x1) can be used to write 0 x1 x x
down the equation of a line, given the gradient and the

coordinates of one point.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Find the equation of the line with a gradient of −2 which passes through the point (3, −4) .
Write the equation in general form, that is in the form ax + by + c = 0.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1) . Write the values of m = −2, x1 = 3, y1 = −4
x1, y1, and m. y − y1 = m(x − x1)
2 Substitute for x1, y1, and m into the equation. y − (− 4) = − 2(x − 3)
y + 4 = − 2x + 6
3 Transpose the equation into the form y + 4 + 2x − 6 = 0
ax + by + c = 0. 2x + y − 2 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
A printer prints pages at a constant rate. It can print 165

pages in 3 minutes and 275 pages in 5 minutes.
a Determine which variable is the independent variable
(x) and which is the dependent variable (y) .
b Determine the gradient of the equation and explain
what this means in the context of the question.
c Write an equation, in algebraic form, linking the
independent and dependent variables.
d Rewrite your equation in words.
e Using the equation, determine how many pages can be
printed in 11 minutes.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a The dependent variable takes its value depending a Independent variable = time
on the value of the independent variable. In this Dependent variable = number of pages
situation the number of pages depends on the time
elapsed, not the other way round.
b 1 Determine the two points given by the information b (x1, y1) = (3, 165)
in the question. (x2, y2) = (5, 275)
y − y1
2 Substitute the values of these two points into the m= 2
formula to calculate the gradient. x2 − x1
275 − 165
=
5−3
110
=
2
= 55
3 The gradient states how much the dependent In the context of the question, this
variable increases for each increase of 1 unit in the means that each minute 55 pages are
independent variable. printed.
c The graph travels through the origin, as the time c y = mx
elapsed for the printer to print 0 pages is 0 seconds. y = 55x
Therefore, the equation will be in the form y = mx.
Substitute in the value of m.

d Replace x and y in the equation with the independent d Number of pages = 55 × time
and dependent variables.
e 1 Substitute x = 11 into the equation. e y = 55x
= 55 × 11
= 605
2 Write the answer in words. The printer can print 605 pages in
11 minutes.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5196)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the gradient given two points (doc-5204)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Gradient (doc-13849)
Exercise 3.3 Determining linear equations

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2, 3, 4, 5a–d, 7 1a–f, 2, 3, 4, 5c–g, 7, 9 1d–h, 2, 3, 4, 5e–j, 6–10
Fluency
1. WE7 Determine the equation for each of the straight lines shown.
a. y b. y c. y
4 12 5
−2 0 x 0 x
5
0 4 x
d. y e. y f. y
−16 0 x
0 4 x −6 0 x
−4
−8

g. y h. y
−5 0 x
0 –5 x
7
−5 −15
2. WE8 Determine the equation of each of the straight lines shown.

a. y b. y
(−4, 12) 12
6 (3, 6)
0 3 x
x
−4 0
c. y d. y
6
(−8, 6)
−4 0 x
(−4, −2) −2 x
−8 0
3. WE9 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through each pair of points.
a. (1, 4) and (3, 6) b. (0, −1) and (3, 5) c. (−1, 4) and (3, 2)
d. (3, 2) and (−1, 0) e. (−4, 6) and (2, −6) f. (−3, −5) and (−1, −7)
4. WE10 Find the linear equation given the information in each case below.
a. Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 3 b. Gradient = −3, y-intercept = 4
c. Gradient = −4, y-intercept = 2 d. Gradient = 4, y-intercept = 2
e. Gradient = −1, y-intercept = −4 f. Gradient = 0.5, y-intercept = −4
g. Gradient = 5, y-intercept = 2.5 h. Gradient = −6, y-intercept = 3
i. Gradient = −2.5, y-intercept = 1.5 j. Gradient = 3.5, y-intercept = 6.5
5. WE11, 12 For each of the following, find the equation of the straight line with the given gradient and
passing through the given point.
a. Gradient = 5, point = (5, 6) b. Gradient = −5, point = (5, 6)
c. Gradient = −4, point = (−2, 7) d. Gradient = 4, point = (8, −2)
e. Gradient = 3, point = (10, −5) f. Gradient = −3, point = (3, −3)
g. Gradient = −2, point = (20, −10) h. Gradient = 2, point = (2, −0.5)
i. Gradient = 0.5, point = (6, −16) j. Gradient = −0.5, point = (5, 3)
Understanding
6. WE13 a. Determine which variable (time or cost) is
the independent variable and which is the dependent variable. Save $$$ with Supa-Bowl!!!
b. If t represents the time in hours and C represents cost ($), NEW Ten-Pin Bowling Alley
construct a table of values for 0–3 hours for the cost of Shoe rental just $2 (fixed fee)
playing ten-pin bowling at the new alley. Rent a lane for ONLY $6/hour!

c. Use your table of values to plot a graph of time versus cost. (Hint: Ensure your
time axis (horizontal axis) extends to 6 hours and your cost axis (vertical axis)
extends to $40.)
d. i. What is the y-intercept?
ii. What does the y-intercept represent in terms of the cost?
e. Calculate the gradient and explain what this means in the context of the
question.
f. Write a linear equation to describe the relationship between cost and time.
g. Use your linear equation from part f to calculate the cost of a 5-hour
tournament.
h. Use your graph to check your answer to part g.
Reasoning
7. When using the gradient to draw a line, does it matter if you rise before you run or run before you
rise? Explain your answer.
8. a. Using the graph at right, write a general formula for the gradient m in y
y
terms of x, y and c. (0, c)
b. Transpose your formula to make y the subject. What do you notice? (x, y)
0 x x
Problem solving
9. The points A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and P (x, y) are co-linear. P is a general y
B (x2, y2)
point that lies anywhere on the line.
Show that an equation relating these three points is given by
P (x, y)
y − y1
y − y1 = 2 (x − x1).
x2 − x1
A (x1, y1)
10. Show that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. x
0
y
8
C (7, 8)
7
B (3, 6)
6
5
4
D (5, 4)
3
2
A (1, 2)
1
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Reflection
What problems might you encounter when calculating the equation of a line whose graph is actually
parallel to one of the axes?
CHALLENGE 3.1 y
The graph of the straight line crosses the y-axis at (0, 2). The shaded section Area = 17.5 units2
represents an area of 17.5 square units. Use this information to determine the 2
equation of the line.
0 x
5

3.4 The distance between two points
3.4.1 The distance between two points
•• The distance between two points can be calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem.
•• Consider two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) on the Cartesian plane as shown below.
y
y2 B (x2, y2)
y1 A C
(x1, y1)
0 x1 x2 x
•• If point C is placed as shown, ABC is a right-angled triangle and AB is the hypotenuse.

AC = x2 − x1
BC = y2 − y1
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
= (x2 − x1) 2 + (y2 − y1) 2
Hence AB = √(x2 − x1) 2 + (y2 − y1) 2
The distance between two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is:
AB = √(x2 − x1) 2 + (y2 − y1) 2
•• This distance formula can be used to calculate the distance between any two points on the Cartesian plane.
•• The distance formula has many geometric applications.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Find the distance between the points A and B in the figure below.
Answer correct to two decimal places.
y B
4
3
2
A 1
−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4x
THINK WRITE
1 From the graph, locate points A and B. A (−3, 1) and B (3, 4)
2 Let A have coordinates (x1, y1). Let (x1, y1) = (−3, 1)
3 Let B have coordinates (x2, y2). Let (x2, y2) = (3, 4)
4 Find the length AB by applying the AB = √(x2 − x1) 2 + (y2 − y1) 2
formula for calculating the distance = √[3 − (−3)] 2 + (4 − 1) 2
between two points. = √(6) 2 + (3) 2
= √36 + 9
= √45
= 3√5
= 6.71 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Note: If the coordinates were named in the reverse order, the formula would still give the
same answer. Check this for yourself using (x1, y1) = (3, 4) and (x2, y2) = (−3, 1).

Find the distance between the points P (−1, 5) and Q (3, −2).
THINK WRITE
1 Let P have coordinates (x1, y1) . Let (x1, y1) = (−1, 5)
2 Let Q have coordinates (x2, y2) . Let (x2, y2) = (3, −2)
3 Find the length PQ by applying PQ = √(x2 − x1) 2 + (y2 − y1) 2
the formula for the distance = √[3 − (−1)] 2 + (−2 − 5) 2
between two points. = √(4) 2 + (−7) 2
= √16 + 49
= √65
= 8.06 (correct to 2 decimal places)
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Prove that the points A (1, 1), B (3, −1) and (−1, −3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Plot the points and draw the triangle. y A
1
Note: For triangle ABC to be isosceles, two sides 0 x
must have the same magnitude. –1–1 1 3
B
C
–3
2 AC and BC seem to be equal. Find the length AC. AC = √[1 − (−1)] 2 + [1 − (−3)] 2
A (1, 1) = (x2, y2) = √(2) 2 + (4) 2
C (−1, −3) = (x1, y1) = √20
= 2√5
3 Find the length BC. BC = √[3 − (−1)] 2 + [−1 − (−3)] 2
B (3, −1) = (x2, y2) = √(4) 2 + (2) 2
C (−1, −3) = (x1, y1) = √20
= 2√5
4 Find the length AB. AB = √[3 − (1)] 2 + [−1 − (1)] 2
A (1, 1) = (x1, y1) = √(2) 2 + (−2) 2
B (3, −1) = (x2, y2) = √4 + 4
= 2√2
5 State your proof. Since AC = BC ≠ AB, triangle ABC is an
isosceles triangle.
Complete this digital doc: Spreadsheet: Distance between two points (doc-5206)

Exercise 3.4 The distance between two points
Individual pathways

1, 2a–d, 5, 8, 9 1, 2c–f, 5, 7, 9, 11 1, 2e–h, 3–7, 9–12
Fluency
1. WE14 Find the distance between each pair of points shown at right. y
7 O
2. WE15 Find the distance between the following pairs of points. G
6
K B
a. (2, 5), (6, 8) b. (−1, 2), (4, 14) 5
c. (−1, 3), (−7, −5) d. (5, −1), (10, 4)

4 P
3
e. (4, −5), (1, 1)
C
f. (−3, 1), (5, 13) E H
2 A
N
h. (1, 7), (1, −6)
L 1
g. (5, 0), (−8, 0) –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
i. (a, b), (2a, −b) j. (−a, 2b), (2a, −b) F –2
–3
Understanding I
M
–4 J D
3. MC If the distance between the points (3, b) and (−5, 2) is –5
–6
10 units, then the value of b is: –7
a. −8 b. −4 c. 4 –8
d. 0 e. 2
4.   MC A rhombus has vertices A (1, 6), B (6, 6), C (−2, 2) and D (x, y). The coordinates of D are:
a. (2, −3) b. (2, 3) c. (−2, 3) d. (3, 2) e. (3, −2)
5. The vertices of a quadrilateral are A (1, 4), B (−1, 8), C (1, 9) and D (3, 5).
a. Find the lengths of the sides.
b. Find the lengths of the diagonals.
c. What type of quadrilateral is it?
Reasoning
6. WE16 Prove that the points A (0, −3), B (−2, −1) and C (4, 3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
7. The points P (2, −1), Q (−4, −1) and R (−1, 3√3 − 1) are joined to form a triangle. Prove that
triangle PQR is equilateral.
8. Prove that the triangle with vertices D (5, 6), E (9, 3) and F (5, 3) is a right-angled triangle.
9. A rectangle has vertices A (1, 5), B (10.6, z), C (7.6, −6.2) and D (−2, 1). Find:
a. the length of CD b. the length of AD
c. the length of the diagonal AC d. the value of z.
10. Show that the triangle ABC with coordinates A (a, a), B (m, −a)
y
and C (−a, m) is isosceles.
Problem solving A (a, 3a)
11. Triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle where AB = AC, B is the
point (−1, 2), C is the point (6, 3) and A is the point (a, 3a) Find
the value of the integer constant a.
C (6, 3)
B (–1, 2)
0 x

12. ABCD is a parallelogram. y
a. Find the gradients of AB and BC. B (3, 8)
b. Find the coordinates of the point D (x, y).
c. Show that the diagonals AC and BD bisect each other.
A (1, 6)
C (6, 1)
0 x
D (x, y)
Reflection
How could you use the distance formula to show that a series of points lay on the circumference of a
circle with centre C?
3.5 The midpoint of a line segment

3.5.1 Midpoint of a line segment
•• The midpoint of a line segment is the halfway point.
•• The x- and y-coordinates of the midpoint are halfway between those of the coordinates of the end
points.
•• The following diagram shows the line interval AB joining points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2).
The midpoint of AB is P, so AP = PB.
Points C (x, y1) and D (x2, y) are added to the diagram and are used to make the two right-angled
triangles ΔABC and ΔPBD.
The two triangles are congruent:
y
y2 B (x2, y2)
y P
D
(x, y)
y1 A
(x1, y1) C
0 x1 x x2 x
AP = PB (given)
∠APC = ∠PBD (corresponding angles)
∠CAP = ∠DPB (corresponding angles)
So ΔAPC = ΔPBD (ASA)
This means that AC = PD;
i.e. x − x1 = x2 − x (solve for x)
i.e. 2x = x1 + x2
x + x2
x = 1
2
In other words x is simply the average x1 and x2.
y1 + y2
Similarly, y = .
2

In general, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining the points y
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be found by averaging the x- and y-coordinates of the (x2, y2)
end points, respectively. M
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (x1, y1) and
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(x_____,
1 2
2 )
+ x _____
y +y 1 2
( 2 )
2
(x1, y1)
(x2, y2) are: , .
2 0 x
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (−2, 5) and (7, 1).
THINK WRITE
1 Label the given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). Let (x1, y1) = (−2, 5) and (x2, y2) = (7, 1)
x + x2
2 Find the x-coordinate of the midpoint. x= 1
2
= − 22 + 7
5
=
2
1
= 22
y + y2
3 Find the y-coordinate of the midpoint. y= 1
2
5+1
=
6 2
= 2
= 3
4 Give the coordinates of the midpoint. The midpoint is (212, 3).
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (7, 2). If the coordinates of A are
(1, −4), find the coordinates of B.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Let the start of the line segment be (x1, y1) and the Let (x1, y1) = (1, −4) and
midpoint be (x, y). (x, y) = (7, 2)
x + x2
2 The average of the x-coordinates is 7. Find the x-coordinate x= 1
2
of the end point. 1 + x2
7=
2
14 = 1 + x2
x2 = 13
3 The average of the y-coordinates is 2. Find the y-coordinate y = y1 + y2

of the end point. 2
− 4 + y2
2 =
2
4 = − 4 + y2
y2 = 8
4 Give the coordinates of the end point. The coordinates of the point B are
(13, 8).

5 Check that the coordinates are feasible by drawing a y B (13, 8)
8
diagram. 6
4
2 M
(7, 2)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x
−4
A (1, −4)
Complete this digital doc: Spreadsheet: Midpoint of a segment (doc-5207)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Midpoint of a line segment (doc-13850)
Exercise 3.5 The midpoint of a line segment

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2, 3a, 4, 9, 11 1a–d, 2–6, 9, 11 1a–f, 2–12
Fluency
1. WE17 Use the formula method to find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining the
following pairs of points.
a. (−5, 1), (−1, −8) b. (4, 2), (11, −2) c. (0, 4), (−2, −2)
d. (3, 4), (−3, −1) e. (a, 2b), (3a, −b) f. (a + 3b, b), (a − b, a − b)
2. WE18 The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (2, −3). If the coordinates of
A are (7, 4), find the coordinates of B.
Understanding
3. A square has vertices A (0, 0), B (2, 4), C (6, 2) and D (4, −2). Find:
a. the coordinates of the centre b. the length of a side
c. the length of a diagonal.
4. MC The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−2, 1) and (8, −3) is:
a. (6, −2) b. (5, 2) c. (6, 2) d. (3, −1) e. (5, −2)
5. MC If the midpoint of AB is (−1, 5) and the coordinates of B are (3, 8), then A has coordinates:
a. (1, 6.5) b. (2, 13) c. (−5, 2) d. (4, 3) e. (7, 11)
6. a. The vertices of a triangle are A (2, 5), B (1, −3) and C (−4, 3). Find:
i. the coordinates of P, the midpoint of AC
ii. the coordinates of Q, the midpoint of AB
iii. the length of PQ.
b. Show that BC = 2 PQ.
7. a. A quadrilateral has vertices A (6, 2), B (4, −3), C (−4, −3) and D (−2, 2). Find:
i. the midpoint of the diagonal AC
ii. the midpoint of the diagonal BD.
b. What can you infer about the quadrilateral?

8. a. The points A (−5, 3.5), B (1, 0.5) and C (−6, −6) are the vertices of a triangle. Find:
i. the midpoint, P, of AB
ii. the length of PC
iii. the length of AC
iv. the length of BC.
b. Describe the triangle. What does PC represent?
Reasoning
9. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A (−2, 5) and B (−2, 3), and
has a gradient of −3.
10. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A (−1, −3) and B (3, −5),
and has a gradient of 23.
Problem solving
11. The points A (2m, 3m), B (5m, −2m) and C (−3m, 0) are the vertices of a triangle. Show that this is a
right-angled triangle.
y
A (2m, 3m)
C (–3m, 0) 0 x
B (5m, –2m)
12. Write down the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining the points (3k − 1, 4 − 5k) and
(5k − 1, 3 − 5k). Show that this point lies on the line with equation 5x + 4y = 9.
Reflection
If the midpoint of a line segment is the origin, what are the possible values of the x- and
y-coordinates of the end points?
3.6 Parallel and perpendicular lines

y
3.6.1 Parallel lines
15
•• Lines that have the same gradient are parallel
lines. The three lines on the graph at right all 10 y=x+2
have a gradient of 1 and are parallel to each
5 y=x
other.
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–5
y = x − 10
–10
–15

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Show that AB is parallel to CD given that A has coordinates (−1, −5), B has coordinates
(5, 7), C has coordinates (−3, 1) and D has coordinates (4, 15).
THINK WRITE
1 Find the gradient of AB by applying the formula Let A (−1, −5) = (x1, y1) and
y − y1 B (5, 7) = (x2, y2)
m= 2
x2 − x1. y − y1
Since m = 2
x2 − x1
7 − (−5)
mAB =
5 − (−1)
=
12
6
= 2
2 Find the gradient of CD. Let C (−3, 1) = (x1, y1) and
D (4, 15) = (x2, y2)
15 − 1
mCD =
4 − (−3)
=
14
7
= 2
3 Draw a conclusion. (Note: || means ‘is parallel to’.) Since mAB = mCD = 2, then AB || CD.
3.6.2 Collinear points y
•• Collinear points are points that all lie on the same straight line.
•• If A, B and C are collinear, then mAB = mBC.
C
0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Show that the points A (2, 0), B (4, 1) and C (10, 4) are collinear.
THINK WRITE
1 Find the gradient of AB. Let A (2, 0) = (x1, y1)
and B (4, 1) = (x2, y2)
y2 − y1
Since m =
x2 − x1
1− 0
mAB =
4− 2
= 12

2 Find the gradient of BC. Let B (4, 1) = (x1, y1)
and C (10, 4) = (x2, y2)
4−1
mBC =
10 − 4
= 36
= 1
2
Since mAB = mBC = 2 and B is common to both line

1
3 Show that A, B and C are collinear.
segments, A, B and C are collinear.
3.6.3 Perpendicular lines

y = −x + 2 6 y = 2x − 6
•• There is a special relationship between the gradients of two 2
perpendicular lines. 4
The graph at right shows two perpendicular lines. What do you 2
notice about their gradients?
•• Consider the diagram shown below, in which the line segment –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
AB is perpendicular to the line segment BC, AC is parallel to –2
the x-axis, and BD is the perpendicular height of the resulting –4
triangle ABC.
In ΔABD, letmAB = m1
–6
=
a
b
= tan (θ ) y
In ΔBCD, letmBC = m2 B
=−
a αθ
c
= −tan (α)
In ΔABC, tan (α) =
b a
a
m2 = −
b
So
a A θ α C
−1 D
= b c
m1
−1
0 x
Hence m2 =
m1
or m1m2 = −1
•• Hence, if two lines are perpendicular to each other, then the product of their gradients is −1. Two lines
are perpendicular if and only if:
m1m2 = −1
•• If two lines are perpendicular, then their gradients are and − respectively.
a b
b a
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Show that the lines y = −5x + 2 and 5y − x + 15 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
THINK WRITE
1 Find the gradient of the first line. y = −5x + 2
Hence m1 = −5

2 Find the gradient of the second line. 5y − x + 15 = 0
Rewrite in the form y = mx + c:
5y = x − 15
y = −3
x
5
Hence m2 = 15
m1m2 = −5 × 15
= −1
3 Test for perpendicularity. (The two lines are Hence, the two lines are perpendicular.
perpendicular if the product of their gradients is −1.)
3.6.4 Determining the equation of a line parallel or perpendicular to

another line
•• The gradient properties of parallel and perpendicular lines can be used to solve many problems.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (3, −1) and is parallel to the straight
line with equation y = 2x + 1.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the general equation. y = mx + c
2 Find the gradient of the given line. The two lines y = 2x + 1 has a gradient of 2
are parallel, so they have the same gradient. Hence m = 2
3 Substitute for m in the general equation. so y = 2x + c
4 Substitute the given point to find c. (x, y) = (3, −1)
∴ −1 = 2(3) + c
−1 = 6 + c
c = −7
y = 2x−7
5 Substitute for c in the general equation. y = 2x − 7

or
2x − y − 7 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (0, 3) and is perpendicular to a
straight line with a gradient of 5.
THINK WRITE
1 For perpendicular lines, m1 × m2 = −1. Find the Given m1 = 5
gradient of the perpendicular line. m2 = −15

2 Use the equation y − y1 = m (x − x1) where Since y − y1 = m(x − x1)
m = −15 and (x1, y1) = (0, 3). and (x1, y1) = (0, 3)
then y − 3 = −15 (x − 0)
y−3 =−
x
5
5(y − 3) = −x
5y − 15 = −x
x + 5y − 15 = 0
3.6.5 Horizontal and vertical lines

•• Horizontal lines are parallel to the x-axis, have a gradient of zero, are y x=4
4
expressed in the form y = c and have no x-intercept.
2 y=2
•• Vertical lines are parallel to the y-axis, have an undefined (infinite)
gradient, are expressed in the form x = a and have no y-intercept.
–2 0 2 4 6 x
–2
–4
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Find the equation of:

a the vertical line that passes through the point (2, −3)
b the horizontal line that passes through the point (−2, 6).
THINK WRITE
a The equation of a vertical line is x = a. The x-coordinate of the a x=2
given point is 2.
b The equation of a horizontal line is y = c. The y-coordinate of b y=6
the given point is 6.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (0, −4) and (6, 5).
(A bisector is a line that crosses another line at right angles and cuts it into two equal lengths.)
THINK WRITE
1 Find the gradient of the line joining the given points Let (0, −4) = (x1, y1).
by applying the formula. Let (6, 5) = (x2, y2).
y − y1 y − y1
m= 2 m1 = 2
x2 − x1
. x2 − x1
5 − (−4)
m1 =
6−0
=69
= 3
2
2 Find the gradient of the perpendicular line. m1 = 3
2
m1 × m2 = −1 m2 = −23

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
3 Find the midpoint of the line joining the given points. x= y=
2 2
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 0+6 −4 + 5
( 2 2 )
M= , where (x1, y1) = (0, −4) = =
2 2
=3 = 12
and (x2, y2) = (6, 5).
Hence (3, 12) are the coordinates of the
midpoint.
4 Find the equations of the line with gradient −23 that Since y − y1 = m(x − x1),
passes through (3, 12). then y − 12 = −23 (x − 3)

5 Simplify by removing the fractions. 3(y − 12) = −2(x − 3)

Multiply both sides by 3. 3y − 32 = −2x + 6
Multiply both sides by 2. 6y − 3 = −4x + 12
4x + 6y − 15 = 0
Try out this interactivity: Parallel and perpendicular lines (int-2779)
Complete this digital doc: Spreadsheet: Perpendicular checker (doc-5209)
Complete this digital doc: Spreadsheet: Equation of a straight line (doc-5210)
Exercise 3.6 Parallel and perpendicular lines

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2, 5, 6a–c, 7, 8, 9a–c, 12, 13, 1a–d, 2–5, 6c–d, 7, 8, 9a–c, 12, 13, 1c–f, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6e–f, 7–19, 20b, 21,
16a–b, 18, 20a, 21, 23, 26a, 27 15, 16a–b, 17a, 18, 20a, 21–23, 22, 24–31, 33–37
26–28, 30, 32
Fluency
1. WE19 Find whether AB is parallel to CD given the following sets of points.
a. A (4, 13), B (2, 9), C (0, −10), D (15, 0)
b. A (2, 4), B (8, 1), C (−6, −2), D (2, −6)
c. A (−3, −10), B (1, 2), C (1, 10), D (8, 16)
d. A (1, −1), B (4, 11), C (2, 10), D (−1, −5)
e. A (1, 0), B (2, 5), C (3, 15), D (7, 35)
f. A (1, −6), B (−5, 0), C (0, 0), D (5, −4)

2. Which pairs of the following straight lines are parallel?
a. 2x + y + 1 = 0 b. y = 3x − 1
c. 2y − x = 3 d. y = 4x + 3
e. y = − 1 f. 6x − 2y = 0
x
2
g. 3y = x + 4 h. 2y = 5 − x
3. WE20 Show that the points A (0, −2), B (5, 1) and C (−5, −5) are collinear.
4. Show that the line that passes through the points (−4, 9) and (0, 3) also passes through the point (6, −6).
5. WE21 Show that the lines y = 6x − 3 and x + 6y − 6 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
6. Determine whether AB is perpendicular to CD, given the following sets of points.
a. A (1, 6), B (3, 8), C (4, −6), D (−3, 1)
b. A (2, 12), B (−1, −9), C (0, 2), D (7, 1)
c. A (1, 3), B (4, 18), C (−5, 4), D (5, 0)
d. A (1, −5), B (0, 0), C (5, 11), D (−10, 8)
e. A (−4, 9), B (2, −6), C (−5, 8), D (10, 14)
f. A (4, 4), B (−8, 5), C (−6, 2), D (3, 11)
7. WE22 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (4, −1) and is parallel to the line with
equation y = 2x − 5.
8. WE23 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 7) and is perpendicular to a line
with a gradient of 23.
9. Find the equations of the following lines.
a. Gradient 3 and passing through the point (1, 5)
b. Gradient −4 and passing through the point (2, 1)
c. Passing through the points (2, −1) and (4, 2)
d. Passing through the points (1, −3) and (6, −5)
e. Passing through the point (5, −2) and parallel to x + 5y + 15 = 0
f. Passing through the point (1, 6) and parallel to x − 3y − 2 = 0
g. Passing through the point (−1, −5) and perpendicular to 3x + y + 2 = 0
10. Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 1) and is:
a. parallel to the line with equation 2x − y − 3 = 0
b. perpendicular to the line with equation 2x − y − 3 = 0.
11. Find the equation of the line that contains the point (1, 1) and is:
a. parallel to the line with equation 3x − 5y = 0
b. perpendicular to the line with equation 3x − 5y = 0.
12. WE24 Find the equation of:
a. the vertical line that passes through the point (1, −8)
b. the horizontal line that passes through the point (−5, −7).
13. MC a. The vertical line passing through the point (3, −4) is given by:
a. y = −4 b. x = 3 c. y = 3x − 4
d. y = −4x + 3 e. x = −4
b. Which of the following points does the horizontal line given by the equation y = −5 pass through?
a. (−5, 4) b. (4, 5) c. (3, −5)
d. (5, −4) e. (5, 5)
c. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Vertical lines have a gradient of zero.
b. The y-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
c. Horizontal lines have an undefined gradient.
d. The x-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
e. A horizontal line has the general equation x = a.

d. Which of the following statements is false?
a. Horizontal lines have a gradient of zero.
b. The line joining the points (1, −1) and (−7, −1) is vertical.
c. Vertical lines have an undefined gradient.
d. The line joining the points (1, 1) and (−7, 1) is horizontal.
e. A horizontal line has the general equation y = c.
14. The triangle ABC has vertices A (9, −2), B (3, 6), and C (1, 4).
a. Find the midpoint, M, of BC.
b. Find the gradient of BC.
c. Show that AM is the perpendicular bisector of BC.
d. Describe triangle ABC.
15. WE25 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (1, 2) and (−5, −4).
16. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (−2, 9) and (4, 0).
17. ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates of A, B and C are (4, 1), (1, −2) and (−2, 1) respectively.
Find:
a. the equation of AD b. the equation of DC
c. the coordinates of D.
Understanding
18. In each of the following, show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
a. A (2, 0), B (4, −3), C (2, −4), D (0, −1)
b. A (2, 2), B (0, −2), C (−2, −3), D (0, 1)
c. A (2.5, 3.5), B (10, −4), C (2.5, −2.5), D (−5, 5)
19. In each of the following, show that ABCD is a trapezium.
a. A (0, 6), B (2, 2), C (0, −4), D (−5, −9)
b. A (26, 32), B (18, 16), C (1, −1), D (−3, 3)
c. A (2, 7), B (1, −1), C (−0.6, −2.6), D (−2, 3)
20. MC The line that passes through the points (0, −6) and (7, 8) also passes through:
a. (4, 3) b. (5, 4) c. (−2, 10) d. (1, −8) e. (1, 4)
21. MC The point (−1, 5) lies on a line parallel to 4x + y + 5 = 0. Another point on the same line as
(−1, 5) is:
a. (2, 9) b. (4, 2) c. (4, 0) d. (−2, 3) e. (3, −11)
22. Find the equation of the straight line given the following conditions.
a. Passes through the point (−1, 3) and parallel to y = −2x + 5
b. Passes through the point (4, −3) and parallel to 3y + 2x = −3
23. Determine which pairs of the following lines are perpendicular.
a. x + 3y − 5 = 0 b. y = 4x − 7 c. y = x
d. 2y = x + 1 e. y = 3x + 2 f. x + 4y − 9 = 0
g. 2x + y = 6 h. x + y = 0
24. Find the equation of the straight line that cuts the x-axis at 3 and is perpendicular to the line with
equation 3y − 6x = 12.
25. Calculate the value of m for which lines with the following pairs of equations are perpendicular to
each other.
a. 2y − 5x = 7 and 4y + 12 = mx b. 5x − 6y = −27 and 15 + mx = −3y
26. MC The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line with equation 3x − 6y = 2 is:
b. −6 e. −2
1
a. 3 c. 2 d.
2
27. MC Triangle ABC has a right angle at B. The vertices are A (−2, 9), B (2, 8) and C (1, z). The value
of z is:
e. −4
1 3
a. 8 b. 4 c. 12 d. 7
4 4

Reasoning
28. The map shows the proposed course for a yacht race. Buoys have been y Scale: 1 unit ⇐
⇒1 km N
positioned at A (1, 5), B (8, 8), C (12, 6), and D (10, w). 11
10
a. How far is it from the start, O, to buoy A? 9 Buoy B
b. The race marshall boat, M, is situated halfway between buoys A 8
7
Buoy
and C. What are the coordinates of the boat’s position? 6 A Buoy C
M
5
c. Stage 4 of the race (from C to D) is perpendicular to stage 3 (from B 4
to C). What is the gradient of CD? 3 E
H2 Buoy D
d. Find the linear equation that describes stage 4. 1
O
e. Hence determine the exact position of buoy D. (Start) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
f. An emergency boat is to be placed at point E, (7, 3). How far is the
emergency boat from the hospital, located at H, 2 km north of the start?
29. Show that the following sets of points form the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
a. A (1, −4), B (2, −3), C (4, −7)
b. A (3, 13), B (1, 3), C (−4, 4)
c. A (0, 5), B (9, 12), C (3, 14)
30. Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle when A is (2, 5), B (6, 1), C (3, −2) and
D (−1, 2).
31. Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus, given A (2, 3), B (3, 5), C (5, 6) and D (4, 4).
Hint: A rhombus is a parallelogram with diagonals that intersect at right angles.
32. a. A square has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0). Where are the other 2 vertices? (There are 3 sets of
answers.)
b. An equilateral triangle has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0). Where is the other vertex? (There are
2 answers.)
c. A parallelogram has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0). and (1, 1). Where is the other vertex? (There are
3 sets of answers.)
33. A is the point (0, 0) and B is the point (0, 2).
a. Find the perpendicular bisector of AB.
b. Show that any point on this line is equidistant from A and B.
Questions 34 and 35 relate to the diagram. y
M is the midpoint of OA. A (4, 6)
N is the midpoint of AB. 6
P is the midpoint of OB. 5
34. A simple investigation: 4
a. Show that MN is parallel to OB.
3 M N
b. Is PN parallel to OA?
2
c. Is PM parallel to AB?
35. A difficult investigation: 1
P B
a. Find the perpendicular bisectors of OA and OB.
0 x
b. Find the point W where the two bisectors intersect. 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Show that the perpendicular bisector of AB also passes
through W.
d. Explain why W is equidistant from O, A and B.
e. W is called the circumcentre of triangle OAB. Using W as the centre, draw a circle through O, A
and B.

Problem solving y l1
36. The lines l1 and l2 are at right angles to each other. The line l1 has the
equation px + py + r = 0. Show that the distance from M to the origin is
r
given by .
√p + p2
2
37. Line A is parallel to the line with equation 2x − y = 7 and passes

through the point (2, 3) . Line B is perpendicular to the line with equation M
4x − 3y + 3 = 0 and also passes through the point (2, 3) . Line C
intersects with line A where it cuts the y-axis and intersects with line B
0 x
where it cuts the x-axis.
l2
a. Determine the equations for all three lines. Give answers in the form
ax + by + c = 0.
b. Sketch all three lines on the one set of axes.
c. Determine whether the triangle formed by the three lines is scalene, isosceles or equilateral.
Reflection
How could you use coordinate geometry to design a logo for an organisation?
CHALLENGE 3.2
The first six numbers of a particular number pattern are 1, 2, 3, 6, 11 and 20.
Given that this pattern continues, what will be the next four numbers? Describe
the pattern.
3.7 Review
Fluency
1. The equation of the following line is:
y
3
0 2 x
a. 3x + 2y = 6 b. 3x − 2y = 6 c. 2x + 3y = 6
d. 2x − 3y = 6 e. 2x − 3y = −6
2. The equation of a linear graph with gradient −3 and x-intercept of 4 is:
a. y = −3x − 12 b. y = −3x + 4 c. y = −3x − 4
d. y = −3x + 12 e. y = 4x − 3
3. The equation of a linear graph which passes through (2, −7) and (−2, −2) is:
a. 4x − 5y + 18 = 0 b. 5x + 4y + 18 = 0 c. 5x + 4y − 18 = 0
d. 5x − 4y − 18 = 0 e. 4x + 5y + 18 = 0
4. The distance between the points (1, 5) and (6, −7) is:
a. √53 b. √29 c. 13 d. √193 e. 12
5. The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−4, 3) and (2, 7) is:
a. (−1, 5) b. (−2, 10) c. (−6, 4) d. (−2, 4) e. (−1, 2)

6. If the midpoint of the line segment joining the points A (3, 7) and B (x, y) has coordinates (6, 2), then
the coordinates of B are:
a. (15, 3) b. (0, −6) c. (9, −3) d. (4.5, 4.5) e. (−9, 3)
7. If the points (−6, −11), (2, 1) and (x, 4) are collinear, then the value of x is:
a. 4 b. 3.2 c. 14 5
d. 16 e. 3
8. The gradient of the line perpendicular to 3x − 4y + 7 = 0 is:
a. 34 b. 43 c. −43 d. 3 e. −4
9. The equation of the line perpendicular to 2x + y − 1 = 0 and passing through the point (1, 4) is:
a. 2x + y − 6 = 0 b. 2x + y − 2 = 0 c. x − 2y + 7 = 0
d. x + 2y + 9 = 0 e. x − 2y = 0
10. Produce a table of values, and sketch the graph of the equation y = −5x + 15 for values of x between
−10 and + 10.
11. Sketch the graph of the following linear equations, labelling the x- and y-intercepts.
a. y = 3x − 2 b. y = −5x + 15 c. y = −23x + 1 d. y = 7x − 3 5
12. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the following straight lines.
a. y = −7x + 6 b. y = 38x − 5 c. y = 47x − 3
4
d. y = 0.5x + 2.8
13. Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a. 2x − 3y = 6 b. 3x + y = 0 c. 5x + y = −3 d. x + y + 3 = 0
14. Sketch the graph of each of the following.
a. y = 12x b. y = −4x c. x = −2 d. y = 7
15. Sketch the graph of the equation 3(y − 5) = 6(x + 1).
16. Find the equations of the straight lines in the following graphs.
a. y b. y c. y
−4 0 x
x 2
0 1 x
0 6
−4
−2
d. y e. y f. y
• (2, 8)
0 x
0 x – –3
4 0 5 x
17. Find the linear equation given the information in each case below.
a. gradient = 3, y-intercept = −4 b. gradient = −2, y-intercept = −5
c. gradient = 12, y-intercept = 5 d. gradient = 0, y-intercept = 6
18. For each of the following, find the equation of the straight line with the given gradient and passing
through the given point.
a. gradient = 7, point (2, 1) b. gradient = −3, point (1, 1)
c. gradient = 12, point (−2, 5) d. gradient = 35, point (1, −3)
19. Find the distance between the points (1, 3) and (7, −2) in exact form.
20. Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles given A (3, 1), B (−3, 7) and C (−1, 3).

21. Show that the points A (1, 1), B (2, 3) and C (8, 0) are the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
22. The midpoint of the line segment AB is (6, −4). If B has coordinates (12, 10), find the coordinates
of A.
23. Show that the points A (3, 1), B (5, 2) and C (11, 5) are collinear.
24. Show that the lines y = 2x − 4 and x + 2y − 10 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
25. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (6, −2) and parallel to the line
x + 2y − 1 = 0.
26. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 3x − 2y + 6 = 0 and having the same y-intercept.
27. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (−2, 7) and (4, 11).
28. Find the equation of the straight line joining the point (−2, 5) and the point of intersection of the
straight lines with equations y = 3x − 1 and y = 2x + 5.
29. Using the information given in the diagram:
a. find:
i. the gradient of AD ii. the gradient of AB
iii. the equation of BC iv. the equation of DC
v. the coordinates of C. y B (4, 9)
9
C
A
4
D
0 x
45 9
b. describe quadrilateral ABCD.

30. In triangle ABC, A is (1, 5), B is (−2, −3) and C is (8, −2).
a. Find:
i. the gradient of BC ii. the midpoint, P, of AB iii. the midpoint, Q, of AC.
b. Hence show that:
i. PQ is parallel to BC ii. PQ is half the length of BC.
Problem solving
31. John has a part-time job working as a gardener and is paid $13.50 per hour.
a. Complete the following table of values relating the amount of money received to the number of hours
worked.
Number of hours 0 2 4 6 8 10
Pay ($)
b. Find a linear equation relating the amount of money received to the number of hours worked.
c. Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane over a suitable domain.
d. Using algebra, calculate the pay that John will receive if he works for 6 34 hours.
32. A fun park charges a $12.50 entry fee and an additional $2.50 per ride.
a. Complete the following table of values relating the total cost to the number of rides.
Number of rides 0 2 4 6 8 10
Cost ($)
b. Find a linear equation relating total cost to the number of rides.
c. Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane over a suitable domain.
d. Using algebra, calculate the cost for 7 rides.

33. The cost of hiring a boat is $160 plus $22.50 per hour.
a. Sketch a graph showing the total cost for between 0 and 12 hours.
b. State the equation relating cost to time rented.
c. Predict the cost of hiring a boat for 12 hours and 15 minutes.
34. ABCD is a quadrilateral with vertices A (4, 9), B (7, 4), C (1, 2) and D (a, 10). Given that the
diagonals are perpendicular to each other, find:
a. the equation of the diagonal AC
b. the equation of the diagonal BD
c. the value of a.
35. An architect decides to design a building with a 14-metre-square base such that the external walls are
initially vertical to a height of 50 metres, but taper so that their separation is 8 metres at its peak height
of 90 metres. A profile of the building is shown with the point (0, 0) marked as a reference at the
centre of the base.
a. Write the equation of the vertical line connecting A and B.
b. Write the coordinates of B and C.
c. Find the length of the tapered section of wall from B to C.
y
8m
C
B
90 m
50 m
0
A 14 m x
36. In a game of lawn bowls, the object is to bowl a biased ball so that it gets as close as possible to a
smaller white ball called a jack. During a game, a player will sometimes bowl a ball quite quickly so
that it travels in a straight line in order to displace an opponents ‘guard balls’. In a particular game,
player X has 2 guard balls close to the jack. The coordinates of the jack are (0, 0) and the coordinates
of the guard balls are A (–1, 45) and B (–12, 57
40
). Player Y bowls a ball so that it travels in a straight line
toward the jack. The ball is bowled from the position S, with the coordinates (−30, 24).
y
S (–30, 24) 24
B (– 1–2 , 57
—)
40
57
–
40
A (–1, 4–5 ) 4–
5
–30 –1 – 1–2 0 x
(Not to scale)
a. Will player Y displace one of the guard balls? If so, which one?
b. Due to bias, the displaced guard ball is knocked so that it begins to travel in a straight line (at right
angles to the path found in part a). Find the equation of the line of the guard ball.

c. Show that guard ball A is initially heading directly toward guard ball B.
d. Given its initial velocity, guard ball A can travel in a straight line for 1 metre before its bias affects it
path. Calculate and explain whether guard ball A will collide with guard ball B.
37. The graph shows the line p passing through the points A (–1, 1) and B (5, 5). Given that C is the
point (4, 1), find:
a. the gradient of p
b. the equation of p
c. the area of ΔABC
d. the length BC, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
y
6
B (5, 5)
5
4
3
2
A (–1, 1) 1 C (4, 1)
–4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 5 6x
–2
–3
–4
38. The temperature of the air (T °C) is related to the height above sea level (h metres) by the formula
T = 18 − 0.005h.
a. What is the temperature at the heights of:
i. 600 m
ii. 1000 m
iii. 3000 m?
b. Draw a graph using the results from part a.
c. Use the graph to find the temperature at 1200 m and 2500 m.
d. Predict the height at which the temperature is 9 °C.
39. An old theory on the number of hours of sleep (h) that a child of c years of age should have each
night is h = 8 + 18 2− c.
a. How many hours should a 10-year-old have?
b. How old is a child that requires 10 hours sleep?
c. For every year, how much less sleep does a child require?

Language
axes horizontal rise
bisect independent variable run
Cartesian plane linear graph segment
collinear midpoint substitute
coordinates origin trapezium
dependent variable parallel vertical
diagonal parallelogram vertices
general form perpendicular x-intercept
gradient quadrilateral y-intercept
gradient–intercept form rhombus

www.assesson.com.au

What common computer symbol is this?
On computer hardware, and on many different
software applications, a broad range of sym-
bols is used. These symbols help us to identify
where things need to be plugged into, what
buttons we need to push, or what option needs
to be selected. The main focus of this task
involves constructing a common symbol found
on the computer. The instructions are given
below. Grid lines have been provided on the
opposite page for you to construct the symbol.
The construction part of this task requires you to graph nine lines to reveal a common
computer symbol. Draw the scale of your graph to accommodate x- and y-values in the
following ranges: −10 ≤ x ≤ 16 and −10 ≤ y ≤ 16. Centre the axes on the grid lines provided.
• Line 1 has an equation y = x − 1. Graph this line in the range −7 ≤ x ≤ −2.
• Line 2 is perpendicular to line 1 and has a y-intercept of −5. Determine the equation of this line,
and then draw the line in the range −5 ≤ x ≤ −1.
• Line 3 is parallel to line 1, with a y-intercept of 3. Determine the equation of the line, and then
graph the line in the range −9 ≤ x ≤ −4.

•• Line 4 is parallel to line 1, with a y-intercept of −3. Determine the equation of the line, and then
graph the line in the range −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
•• Line 5 has the same length as line 4 and is parallel to it. The point (−2, 3) is the starting point of
the line, which decreases in both x- and y-values from there.
•• Line 6 commences at the same starting point as line 5, and then runs at right angles to line 5. It
has an x-intercept of 1 and is the same length as line 2.
•• Line 7 commences at the same starting point as both lines 5 and 6. Its equation is y = 6x + 15.
The point (−1, 9) lies at the midpoint.
•• Line 8 has the equation y = −x + 15. Its midpoint is the point (7, 8) and its extremities are the
points where the line meets line 7 and line 9.
•• Line 9 has the equation 6y − x + 8 = 0. It runs from the intersection of lines 4 and 6 until it
meets line 8.

1. What common computer symbol have you drawn?
2. The top section of your figure is a familiar geometric shape. Use the coordinates on your graph,
together with the distance formula to determine the necessary lengths to calculate the area of
this figure.
3. Using any symbol of interest to you, draw your symbol on grid lines and provide instructions
for your design. Ensure that your design involves aspects of coordinate geometry that have
been used throughout this task.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Who won the inaugural 875 km Sydney to Melbourne marathon in 1983?
(doc-15921)

Answers
Topic 3 Coordinate geometry
Exercise 3.2 Sketching linear graphs
y y
1 a. x y 35 b. x y y = 5x – 12
y = 10x + 25 30 10
–5 –25 25 −1 −17 5
20
−4 −15 15 0 −12
–2 –1–5 1 2 3 4 5 x
10 –10
−3 −5 5 1 –7 –15
–20
−2 5 –5 –4
–3
–2 –1–5 1 2 x
2 –2
–10
−1 15 –15 3 3
–20
0 25 –25 4 8
1 35
y y
c. x y 14 y = –0.5x + 10 d. x y 300 y = 100x – 240
−6 −240
12 250
13 10
0
200
−4 12 8
1 −140
150
6 100
–2 11 4 2 −40 50
2
0 10 0 12 3 4 5 x
3 60 –50
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
–100
2 9 4 160 –150
–200
4 8 5 260 –250
y y
e. x y 20 f. x y 20
15 y = –5x + 3 15 y = 7 – 4x
−3 18 10 −3 19 10
5 5
–2 13 −2 15
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–5 –5
−1 8 –10 −1 11
0 3 0 7
1 −2 1 3
2 −7 2 −1
y y
2 a. x y 20 b. x y
−6 −3
15 y = –3x + 2 6
20 10
6 5
−4 14 5 −2 5 4
3 y = –x + 3
–10 –5 0 x
−2 −1
5 10
8 –5 4 2
–10 1
0 2 –15 0 3
–20 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
2 −4 1 2
4 −10 2 1
6 −16 3 0

y
c. x y 20
−6
15 y = –2x + 3
15 10
−4
5
11
–10 –5–50 5 10 x
−2 7
–10
0 3
2 −1
4 −5
6 −9
3 a y 5x – 3y = 10 b y
y = 5x c y d y
4 4 4
5
2 2 2
0 x 0 x x
–2
–2 2 4 –4 –2
–2 2 4 –4 –2–20 2 4
–4 0 1 x –4
–5x + 3y = 10
–5x – 3y = 10
e y f y g y h y
5 10 4x + 4y = 40 20 –2x + 8y = –20
–x + 6y = 120
x 5 10 5
–10 –5–50 5 10
–5–50 x x 5 10 x
5 10 –100–100 50 –10 –5–50
2x – 8y = 20
i y j y k y l y
5 10 10 10
x 5 5 5 6x – 4y = –24
–15–10 –5–50 5 10
x x x
–10 –30 –20–10 0 10 20 –10 –5–50 5 10 –10 –5–50 5 10
–5
–10
10x + 30y = –150 –9x + 4y = 36
5x + 30y = –150
m y y = 2x – 10 n y o y = – 1–2 x – 4 y
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
x y = –5x + 20 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–10
x
–1 18
–2 16 –2
–3 14 –3
–4 12 –4
–5 10
–6 8
–7 6
–8 4
–9 2
–10 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
4 a y y = 4x + 1 b y y = 3x – 7 c y d y
5 (1, 5) x 4 0 1 2 3 4 x
0 1 2 3 4 –1
4 –1 3
–2
3 –2 2 –3
2 –3 1 (1, 1) –4 y = –5x – 4
1 –4 (1, –4) –5
x
–5 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 –6
0 1 2 3 4 x –7
–6 –2
y = –2x + 3 –8
–7
–9 (1, –9)
e y f y g y h y
2 y = 0.6x + 0.5 8 (1, 8)
y = 1–2 x – 2 y= – 2–7 x +3 3.5
1 3 7
(5, 3.5)
0 x 2 (7, 1) 6
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 1.5
–1 (2, –1) 1 5
–2 x 4 y = 8x
0
–3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x 1 2 3 4 5 3
(1, –9)
2
1
0 1 2 3x

i y y=x–7
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
(1, –6)
–7
5 a y y = 2x b y c y d y
y = 1–2 x
y = 5x
2 5 1–
2
0 1 x
0 x
1
0 1 x –3
0 1 x
y = –3x
e y y = 2–3 x f y
2
0 x
1
0 x y = –2 x
5
3 – –25
–
6 a y y = 10 b y c y d y
10 5 10 10
5 x 5 5
–10 –5 0 5 10
x –5 x x
–10 –5–50 5 10 –10 –5
–5
0 5 10 –10 –5 0 5
y = –10 –5
–10 x = 10 –10
x = –10
e y y = 100 f y g y h x = –100 y
100 5 10 x = 0 10
y=0
50 x 5 5
–10 –5 0 5 10
x –5 x x
–10 –5 0 5 10 –5
–5
0
5 –100 –50 0 50
–50 –5
–10 –10
i y
0 x
–12 y = –12
7 a x-intercept: −0.5; y-intercept: 0.4

b x-intercept: 0.5; y-intercept: −0.4
c x-intercept: 0; y-intercept: 0
d x-intercept: −3; y-intercept: 12
e x-intercept: −4; y-intercept: −4
f x-intercept: −1; y-intercept: −0.5
g x-intercept: 2.75; y-intercept: 2.2
h x-intercept: 9.75; y-intercept: −3.9
i x-intercept: 23
13
≈ 1.77; y-intercept: 4.6
8 a (2, 0), (0, −8) b (−12, 0), (0, 3) c (–5, 0), (0, 25)
9 Answers will vary.
10 y = 23x − 73
1 x-intercept
(3.5, 0)
0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
y-intercept
–3 (0, –2.3)

11 a Independent variable = number of songs bought, dependent variable = amount of money saved
b y
50 (0, 50)
40
30
y = 50 – 1.75x
20
10
(0, 28.57)
0 10 20 30 40 50 x
c 14 songs
12 a y
8
y-intercept
7 (0, 7) y=7
6
5
4
x=3
3
2
1 x-intercept
(3, 0)
0 x
1 2 3 4
b 7
7
c −
3
d B
13 a Independent variable = time, dependent variable = amount of water in the tank
b Initially there are 80 litres of water.
c Time cannot be negative.
d 4 litres per minute
e 20 minutes
f
80
V minutes
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
t minutes
Exercise 3.3 Determining linear equations

1. a. y = 2x + 4 b. y = −3x + 12 c. y = −x + 5 d. y = 2x − 8
e. y = 12x + 3 f. y = −14x − 4 g. y = 7x − 5 h. y = −3x − 15
2. a. y = 2x b. y = −3x c. y = 1
2
x d. y = −34x
3. a. y = x + 3 b. y = 2x − 1 c. y = −12x + 7
2
d. y = 12x + 12
e. y = −2x − 2 f. y = −x − 8
4. a. y = 3x + 3 b. y = −3x + 4 c. y = −4x + 2 d. y = 4x + 2
e. y = −x − 4 f. y = 0.5x − 4 g. y = 5x + 2.5 h. y = −6x + 3
i. y = −2.5x + 1.5 j. y = 3.5x + 6.5
5. a. y = 5x − 19 b. y = −5x + 31 c. y = −4x − 1 d. y = 4x − 34 e. y = 3x − 35
f. y = −3x + 6 g. y = −2x + 30 h. y = 2x − 4.5 i. y = 0.5x − 19 j. y = −0.5x + 5.5

6. a. Independent variable = time (in hours), dependent variable = cost (in $)
b. t 0 1 2 3
C 2 8 14 20
c. C
40
(6, 38)
36
C = 6t + 2
32
28
24
Cost ($)
20
16
12
8
4
(0, 2)
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours)
d. i. (0, 2)
ii. The y-intercept represents the initial cost of bowling at the alley, which is the shoe rental.
e. m = 6, which represents the cost to hire a lane for an additional hour.
f. C = 6t + 2
g. $32
h. Answers will vary.
7. It does not matter if you rise before you run or run before you rise, as long as you take into account whether the rise or run is
negative.
y−c
8. a. m = b. y = mx + c
x
9. Teacher to check
1
10. mAB = mCD = 2 and mBC = mAD = . As opposite sides have the same gradients, this quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
2
Challenge 3.1
y = 35x + 2
Exercise 3.4 The distance between two points

1. AB = 5, CD = 2√10 or 6.32, EF = 3√2 or 4.24, GH = 2√5 or 4.47, IJ = 5, KL = √26 or 5.10, MN = 4√2 or 5.66,
OP = √10 or 3.16
2. a. 5 b. 13 c. 10 d. 7.07 e. 6.71
f. 14.42 g. 13 h. 13 i. √a2 + 4b2 j. 3√a2 + b2
3. B
4. D
5. a. AB = 4.47, BC = 2.24, CD = 4.47, DA = 2.24
b. AC = 5, BD = 5
c. Rectangle
6, 7 and 8 Answers will vary.
9. a. 12 b. 5 c. 13 d. −2.2
10. Answers will vary.
11. a = 2
12. a. mAB = 1 and mBC = −73 b. D (4, −1) c. Teacher to check
Exercise 3.5 The midpoint of a line segment

1. a. (−3, −3 12) b. (7 12, 0) c. (−1, 1) d. (0, 1 12) e. (2a, 12b) f. (a + b, 12a)
2. (−3, −10)
3. a. (3, 1) b. 4.47 b. 6.32
4. D
5. C

1
6. a. i. (−1, 4)
ii. (1 , 1) iii. 3.91
2
b. BC = 7.8 = 2 PQ
7. a. i. (1, −0.5) ii. (1, −0.5)
b. The diagonals bisect each other, so it is a parallelogram.
8. a. i. (−2, 2) ii. 8.94
iii. 9.55 iv. 9.55
a. Isosceles. PC is the perpendicular height of the triangle.
9. y = −3x − 2
10. 3y − 2x + 14 = 0
12. (4k − 1, 3.5 − 5k)
Exercise 3.6 Parallel and perpendicular lines

1. a. No b. Yes c. No d. No e. Yes f. No
2. b, f; c, e
6. a. Yes b. Yes c. No d. Yes e. Yes f. No
7. y = 2x − 9
8. 3x + 2y − 8 = 0
9. a. y = 3x + 2 b. y = −4x + 9 c. 3x − 2y − 8 = 0 d. 5y + 2x + 13 = 0 e. x + 5y + 5 = 0
f. x − 3y + 17 = 0 g. x − 3y − 14 = 0
10. a. 2x − y + 5 = 0 b. x + 2y = 0
11. a. 3x − 5y + 2 = 0 b. 5x + 3y − 8 = 0
12. a. x = 1 b. y = −7
13. a. B b. C c. D d. B
14. a. (2, 5) b. 1 c. Answers will vary. d. Isosceles triangle
15. y = −x − 3
16. 4x − 6y + 23 = 0
17. a. y = −x + 5 b. y = x + 3 c. (1, 4)
20. B
21. E
22. a. y = −2x + 1 b. 3y + 2x + 1 = 0
23. a, e; b, f; c, h; d, g
24. y = −12x + 32
25. a. m = −85 b. m = 18
5
26. E
27. B
28. a. 5.10 km b. (6.5, 5.5) c. 2 d. y = 2x − 18 e. (10, 2) f. 7.07 km
29, 30, 31 Answers will vary.
32. a. (2, 0), (2, 2) or (−2, 0), (−2, 2) or (1, 1), (1, −1)
b. (1, √3) or (1, −√3) c. (3, 1), (−1, 1) or (1, −1)
33. a. x = 1 b. Answers will vary.
34. a. Answers will vary. b. Yes c. Yes
7
35. a. OA: 2x + 3y − 13 = 0; OB: x = 3 b. (3, ) c, d. Answers will vary.
3
37. a. Line A: 2x − y − 1 = 0, Line B: 3x + 4y − 18 = 0, Line C: x − 6y − 6 = 0

b. y
5
4
3 A (2, 3)
2
1
B (6, 0)
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
C (0, –1)
–2
c. Scalene
Challenge 3.2
37, 68, 125, 230. To find the next number, add the three preceding numbers.
3.7 Review
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. C
10.
x −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
y 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 −5 −15 −25 −35
y
80
60
40
20
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–20
–40
–60
–80
11. a. y
b. y c. y d. y
y = 3x – 2 y = –5x + 15 (0, 1) 4
15
( 2– , 0) 1 (1, 1) (0, 15) y = –2–3 x + 1
3
0 x 10 (1, 10) 1 ( 3– , 0)
1 2
x (2 1– , 0)
0 7
–2 (0, –2) –1 3
(3, –1) 0 5
x
(3, 0) y = 7–5 x – 3
0 1
x –3 (0, –3)
12. a. x- intercept = 67, y- intercept b = 6 b. x- intercept = 40 , ( = 13 13), y- intercept b = −5

3
c. x- intercept = 21
16
, (= 5
1 16 ), y- intercept b = −34 d. x- intercept = −5.6, y- intercept b = 2.8
13. a. y b. y c. y d. y
2x – 3y = 6 3 5x + y = –3 x+y+3=0
0 3 x – –53 0 x –3 0 x
–2 –1 0 x
y = –3x –3
–3

14. a. y b. y c. y d. y
x = –2
7 y=7
(1, 1–2 ) x
1–
0 1 x –2 0
0 x
2
0 1 x y = – 4x
–4
y = 1–2 x
15. y
7 (0, 7)
– –7 0 x
2
3(y – 5) = 6(x + 1)
1 3
15. a. y = 2x − 2 b. y = −x − 4 c. y = − x + 2 d. y = 4x e. y = − f. x = 5
3 4
1
16. a. y = 3x − 4 b. y = −2x − 5 c. y = x + 5 d. y = 6
2
1 3 18
17. a. y = 7x − 13 b. y = −3x + 4 c. y = x + 6 d. y = x −
2 5 15
18. √61
21. (0, −18)
24. x + 2y − 2 = 0
25. 2x + 3y − 9 = 0
26. 3x + 2y − 21 = 0
27. 3x − 2y + 16 = 0
4 5
28. a. i. − ii. iii. 4x + 5y − 61 = 0 iv. 5x − 4y − 25 = 0 v. (9, 5)
5 4
b. Square
1 1 1 1
29. a. i. ii. (− , 1) iii. (4 , 1 )
10 2 2 2
b. Answers will vary.

y
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
‒8 ‒6 ‒4 ‒2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
‒2
‒4
‒6
‒8
1. The symbol is the one used to represent a speaker.

2. The shape is a trapezium.
1
Area = (length line 6 + length line 8) ×
2
perpendicular distance between these lines.
1
= (4√2 + 14√2) × 7√2
2
= 126 units2
3. Teacher to check

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 4
Simultaneous linear
equations and inequalities
4.1 Overview
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered
in this topic.

Picture this — you own a factory that produces two
different products, and you are planning to buy some new
machines. The big machines are more expensive than the
small ones, take up more floor space and need more staff
to operate, but they can produce more. Which machines
should you buy?
Solving simultaneous equations will help you determine
feasible solutions to questions like this.

1. THINK List what you know about linear equations and linear inequations. Use a thinking tool such as
a concept map to show your list.
3. SHARE As a class, create a thinking tool such as a large concept map that shows your class’s knowledge
of linear equations and linear inequations.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
4.1 Overview
4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations
4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution
4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination
4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations
4.7 Solving linear inequalities
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane
4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities
4.10 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Khayyam (eles-1843)

4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations
4.2.1 Simultaneous linear equations
•• Simultaneous means occurring at the same time.
•• When a point belongs to more than one line, the coordinates of the point satisfy all equations. The
equations of the lines are called simultaneous equations. An example is shown below.
•• A system of equations is a set of two or more equations with the same y
variables. 3 y=x+2
•• To solve simultaneous equations is to calculate the values of the variables 2
1
that satisfy all equations in the system.
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 x
•• Any two linear graphs will meet at a point, unless they are parallel. –1 1 2 3 4
•• At this point, the two equations simultaneously share the same x- and –2 y = –x
y-coordinates, which are referred to as the solution. –3
•• Simultaneous equations can be solved graphically or algebraically.
4.2.2 Graphical solution

•• The solution to a pair of simultaneous equations can be found by graphing the two equations and
identifying the coordinates of the point of intersection.
•• An accurate solution depends on drawing an accurate graph.
•• Graph paper or graphing software can be used.
Use the graphs of the given simultaneous equations to determine y

the point of intersection and, hence, the solution of the 3 y = 2x – 3
simultaneous equations. 2
x = 2y = 4 1 x + 2y = 4
y = 2x − 3
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equations and number them. x + 2y = 4 [ 1]
y = 2x − 3 [ 2]
2 Locate the point of intersection of the two lines. Point of intersection (2, 1)
This gives the solution. Solution: x = 2 and y = 1
y
3 y = 2x – 3
2
1 (2, 1) x + 2y = 4
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
TOPIC 4 Simultaneous linear equations and inequalities 113

3 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and Check equation [1]:
y = 1 into the given equations. Comment on LHS = x + 2y RHS = 4
the results obtained. = 2 + 2(1)
= 4
LHS = RHS
Check equation [2]:
LHS = y RHS = 2x − 3
= 1 = 2(2) − 3
= 4−3
= 1
LHS = RHS
In both cases LHS = RHS, therefore the solution
set (2, 1) is correct.
Check whether the given pair of coordinates, (5, −2), is the solution to the following pair of
simultaneous equations.
3x − 2y = 19
4y + x = −3
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations and number them. 3x − 2y = 19 [1]
4y + x = −3 [2]
2 Substitute x = 5 and y = −2 into Check equation [ 1] :
equation [ 1] . LHS = 3x − 2y RHS = 19
= 3(5) − 2(−2)
= 15 + 4
= 19
LHS = RHS
3 Substitute x = 5 and y = −2 into Check equation [ 2] :

equation [2]. LHS = 4y + x RHS = −3
= 4(−2) + 5
= −8 + 5
= −3
LHS = RHS
Therefore, the solution set (5, −2) is a solution to
both equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.

x+y= 6
2x + 4y = 20
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equations, one under the other and x + y = 6 [1]
number them. 2x + 4y = 20
[2]

2 Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for Equation [ 1]
equation [ 1] . For the x-intercept, substitute x-intercept: when y = 0,
y = 0 into equation x+0=6
x=6
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into The x-intercept is at (6, 0).
equation [1]. y-intercept: when x = 0,
0+y=6
y=6
The y-intercept is at (0, 6).
3 Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation Equation [ 2]
[2]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into 2x + 0 = 20
equation [2]. 2x = 20
Divide both sides by 2. x = 10
The x-intercept is at (10, 0).
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into y-intercept: when x = 0,
equation [2]. 0 + 4y = 20
4y = 20
y=5
Divide both sides by 4. The y-intercept is at (0, 5).
4 Use graph paper to rule up a set of axes and
y
label the x-axis from 0 to 10 and the y-axis
6
from 0 to 6. 5 (2, 4)
4
5 Plot the x- and y-intercepts for each equation. 3 2x + 4y = 20
2
6 Produce a graph of each equation by ruling a 1 x
straight line through its intercepts. –3–2–1 0
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
–2 x+y=6
–3
7 Label each graph.

8 Locate the point of intersection of the lines. The point of intersection is (2, 4).
9 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and Check [1]: LHS = x+y RHS = 6
y = 4 into each equation. = 2+4
= 6
LHS = RHS
Check [2]: LHS = 2x + 4y RHS = 20
= 2(2) + 4(4)
= 4 + 16
= 20
LHS = RHS
10 State the solution. In both cases, LHS = RHS. Therefore, the solution
set (2, 4) is correct.
The solution is x = 2, y = 4.

4.2.3 Equations with multiple solutions
•• Two lines are coincident if they lie one on top of the other. For exam- y
ple, the line in blue and line segment in red at right are coincident. 4
•• There are an infinite number of solutions to coincident equations. 3
Every point where the lines coincide satisfies both equations and 2 y = 2x, 0.5 < x <1.5
hence is a solution to the simultaneous equations. 1
y = 2x
•• Coincident equations have the same equation, although the equa- –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
tions may have been transposed so they look different. For example, –1
y = 2x + 3 and 2y − 4x = 6 are coincident equations.
4.2.4 Equations with no solutions y

•• If two lines do not intersect, there is no simultaneous solution to the 12
equations. For example, the lines at right do not intersect, so there is no 10
point that belongs to both lines. 8 y = 2x – 1
•• Parallel lines have the same gradient but a different y-intercept. 6
y = 2x + 1
•• For straight lines, the only situation in which the lines do not cross is if 4
the lines are parallel and not coincident. 2
•• Writing both equations in the form y = mx + c confirms that the lines are 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
parallel since the gradients are equal. –2
2x − y = 1 [1] 4x − 2y = −2 [2]
−y = 1 − 2x −2y = −2 − 4x
−y = −2x + 1 −2y = −4x − 2
y = 2x − 1 y = 2x + 1
Gradient m = 2 Gradient m = 2
4.2.5 Perpendicular lines y
•• Perpendicular lines meet at right angles (90°). 2 y = 2x + 1
−1
•• Perpendicular lines have negative reciprocal gradients: m1 = or m1m2 = −1, 1
m2
0 3 x
where m1 is the gradient of the first line and m2 is the gradient of the second line. –2 –1–1 1 2
For example, for the two lines at right, m1 = 2 and m2 = −1 . –2 –1

2 y= 2
x +1
–3
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept
method (doc-5217)
Exercise 4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear

equations
Individual pathways

1, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–d, 7 1, 2c–g, 3a–d,, 4a–f, 5, 7, 9 1, 2e–j, 3–10

Fluency
1. WE1 Use the graphs to find the solution of the simultaneous equations.
a. x + y = 3 b. x + y = 2
x−y=1 3x − y = 2
y y
6
x–y=1 3x – y = 2
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1 x
–3 –2–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –0.5 –10 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
–1 –2
–2 x+y=2
–3
–3 x+y=3 –4
c. y − x = 4 d. y + 2x = 3
3x + 2y = 8 2y + x = 0
y y
6 3
3x + 2y = 8 y–x=4
4 2 y + 2x = 3
2 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –1
–4 –2
–6 –3 2y + x = 0
e. y − 3x = 2 f. 2y − 4x = 5
x−y=2 4y + 2x = 5
y y
6
y – 3x = 2 6
4
4
2y – 4x = 5
2 x–y=2
x 2
4y + 2x = 5
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–2 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 x
–2
–4
–4
–6
–6
2. WE2 For the following simultaneous equations, use substitution to check if the given pair of
coordinates is a solution.
a. (7, 5) 3x + 2y = 31 b. (3, 7) y−x=4
2x + 3y = 28 2y + x = 17
c. (9, 1) x + 3y = 12 d. (2, 5) x−y=7
5x − 2y = 43 2x + 3y = 18
e. (4, −3) y = 3x − 15 (6, −2)
f. x − 2y = 2
4x + 7y = −5 3x + y = 16
g. (4, −2) 2x + y = 6 h. (5, 1) y − 5x = −24
x − 3y = 8 3y + 4x = 23
i. (−2, −5) 3x − 2y = −4 j. (−3, −1) y−x=2
2x − 3y = 11 2y − 3x = 7

3. WE3 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.
a. x + y = 5 b. x + 2y = 10 c. 2x + 3y = 6
2x + y = 8 3x + y = 15 2x − y = −10
x − 3y = −8
d. e. 6x + 5y = 12 f. y + 2x = 6
2x + y = −2
5x + 3y = 10 2y + 3x = 9
g. y = 3x + 10 h. y = 8 i. 4x − 2y = −5
y = 2x + 8 3x + y = 17 x + 3y = 4
j. 3x + y = 11 k. 3x + 4y = 27 l. 3y + 3x = 8
4x − y = 3 x + 2y = 11 3y + 2x = 6
Understanding
4. Using technology, determine which of the following pairs of simultaneous equations have no
solutions. Confirm by finding the gradient of each line.
a. y = 2x − 4 b. 5x − 3y = 13 c. x + 2y = 8 d. y = 4x + 5
3y − 6x = 10 4x − 2y = 10 5x + 10y = 45 2y − 10x = 8
e. 3y + 2x = 9 f. y = 5 − 3x g. 4y + 3x = 7 h. 2y − x = 0
6x + 4y = 22 3y = −9x + 18 12y + 9x = 22 14y − 6x = 2
5. Two straight lines intersect at the point (3, −4). One of the lines has a y-intercept of 8. The second
line is a mirror image of the first in the line x = 3. Determine the equation of the second line.
(Hint: Draw a graph of both lines.)
Reasoning
6. At a well-known beach resort it is possible to hire a jet-ski by the hour in two different locations. On
the northern beach the cost is $20 plus $12 per hour, while on the southern beach the cost is $8 plus
$18 per hour. The jet-skis can be rented for up to 5 hours.
a. Write the rules relating cost to the length of rental.
b. On the same set of axes sketch a graph of cost (y-axis) against
length of rental (x-axis) for 0–5 hours.
c. For what rental times, if any, is the northern beach rental cheaper than
the southern beach rental? Use your graph to justify your answer.
d. For what length of rental time are the two rental schemes identical?
Use the graph and your rules to justify your answer.
7. For each of the pairs of simultaneous equations below, determine
whether they are the same line, parallel lines, perpendicular lines or intersecting lines. Show your working.
a. 2x − y = −9 b. x − y = 7 c. x + 6 = y d. x + y = −2
−4x − 18 = −2y x+y=7 2x + y = 6 x+y=7
8. Which of the following problems has one solution, an infinite number of solutions or no solution?
Explain your answers.
a. x − y = 1 b. 2x − y = 5 c. x − 2y = −8
2x − 3y = 2 4x − 2y = −6 4x − 8y = −16
Problem solving
9. Line A is parallel to the line with equation y − 3x − 3 = 0 and passes through the point (1, 9). Line B
is perpendicular to the line with equation 2y − x + 6 = 0 and passes through the point (2, −3).
a. Find the equation of line A.
b. Find the equation of line B.
c. Sketch both lines on the one set of axes to find where they intersect.
10. Solve the system of three simultaneous equations graphically.
3x − y = 2 y + 3x = 4 2y − x = 1
Reflection
What do you think is the major error made when solving simultaneous equations graphically?

4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using
substitution
4.3.1 Solving simultaneous linear equations
•• There are two algebraic methods that are commonly used to solve simultaneous equations.
•• They are the substitution method and the elimination method.
4.3.2 Substitution method
•• The substitution method is particularly useful when one (or both) of the equations is in a form where
one of the two variables is the subject.
•• This variable is then substituted into the other equation, producing a third equation with only one variable.
•• This third equation can then be used to determine the value of the variable.
Solve the simultaneous equations y = 2x − 1 and 3x + 4y = 29 using the substitution method.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number y = 2x − 1 [1]
them. 3x + 4y = 29 [2]
2 y and 2x − 1 are equal so substitute expression Substituting (2x − 1) into [ 2] :
(2x − 1) for y into equation [ 2] . 3x + 4(2x − 1) = 29
3 Solve for x.
i Expand the brackets on the LHS of the equation. 3x + 8x − 4 = 29
ii Collect like terms.
iii Add 4 to both sides of the equation. 11x − 4 = 29
iv Divide both sides by 11. 11x = 33
x=3
4 Substitute x = 3 into either of the equations, say [ 1] , Substituting x = 3 into [ 1] :
to find the value of y. y = 2(3) − 1
=6−1
=5
5 Write your answer. Solution: x = 3, y = 5 or (3, 5)
6 Check the solution by substituting (3, 5) into Check: Substitute (3, 5) into
equation [ 2] . 3x + 4y = 29.
LHS = 3(3) + 4(5) RHS = 29
= 9 + 20
= 29
As LHS = RHS, the solution is correct.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations y = 5x − 8 and y = −3x + 16 using the substitution
method.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number y = 5x − 8 [1]
them. y = −3x + 16 [2]
2 Both equations are written with y as the subject, so 5x − 8 = −3x + 16
equate them.

3 Solve for x.
i Add 3x to both sides of the equation. 8x − 8 = 16
ii Add 8 to both sides of the equation. 8x = 24
iii Divide both sides of the equation by 8. x=3
4 Substitute the value of x into either of the original Substituting x = 3 into [1]:
equations, say [ 1] , and solve for y. y = 5(3) − 8
= 15 − 8
=7
5 Write your answer. Solution: x = 3, y = 7 or (3, 7)
6 Check the answer by substituting the point of Check: Substitute into y = −3x + 16.
intersection into equation [ 2] . LHS = y
=7
RHS = −3x + 16
= −3(3) + 16
= −9 + 16
=7
Exercise 4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations

using substitution
Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 4, 6, 8 1a–d, 2c–f, 5–9 1–11
Fluency
1. WE4 Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method. Check your solutions
using technology.
a. x = −10 + 4y b. 3x + 4y = 2 c. 3x + y = 7 d. 3x + 2y = 33
3x + 5y = 21 x = 7 + 5y x = −3 − 3y y = 41 − 5x
e. y = 3x − 3 f. 4x + y = 9 g. x = −5 − 2y h. x = −4 − 3y
−5x + 3y = 3 y = 11 − 5x 5y + x = −11 −3x − 4y = 12
i. x = 7 + 4y j. x = 14 + 4y k. 3x + 2y = 12 l. y = 2x + 1
2x + y = −4 −2x + 3y = −18 x = 9 − 4y −5x − 4y = 35
2. WE5 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations using the substitution method. Check your
solutions using technology.
a. y = 2x − 11 and y = 4x + 1 b. y = 3x + 8 and y = 7x − 12
c. y = 2x − 10 and y = −3x d. y = x − 9 and y = −5x
e. y = −4x − 3 and y = x − 8 f. y = −2x − 5 and y = 10x + 1
g. y = −x − 2 and y = x + 1 h. y = 6x + 2 and y = −4x

i. y = 0.5x and y = 0.8x + 0.9 j. y = 0.3x and y = 0.2x + 0.1
k. y = −x and y = −27x + 4
7
l. y = −x and y = −34x − 1
4
Understanding
3. A small farm has sheep and chickens. There are twice as many chicken
as sheep, and there are 104 legs between the sheep and the chickens.
How many chickens are there?
4. Use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous
equations.
a. 5x + 2y = 17 b. 2x + 7y = 17
3x − 7 1 − 3y
y= x =
2 4
c. 2x + 3y = 13 d. −2x − 3y = −14
4x − 15 2 + 5y
y= x=
5 3
e. 3x + 2y = 6 f. −3x − 2y = −12
5x 5x − 20
y=3− y=
3 3
5. Use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations for x and y in terms of
m and n.
a. mx + y = n b. x + ny = m c. mx − y = n
y = mx y = nx y = nx
d. mx − ny = n e. mx − ny = −m f. mx + y = m
y = x x=y−n y+m
x=
n
6. Determine the values of a and b so that the pair of equations ax + by = 17 and 2ax − by = −11 has a
unique solution of (−2, 3).
7. The earliest record of magic squares is from China in about 2200 BC. In magic squares the sums of the
numbers of each row, column and diagonal are all equal to a magic number. Let z be the magic number.
By creating a set of equations, solve to find the magic number and the missing values in the magic square.
m 11 7
9
n 5 10
Reasoning
8. a. For the pair of simultaneous equations:
8x − 7y = 9
x + 2y = 4,
which of the equations is the logical choice to make x the subject of the equation?
b. Use the substitution method to solve the system of equations. Show all your working.
9. A particular chemistry book costs $6 less than a particular physics book, while two such chemistry
books and three such physics books cost a total of $123. Construct two simultaneous equations and
solve them using the substitution method. Show your working.
Problem solving
10. Use the substitution method to solve the following.
2x + y – 9 = 0
4x + 5y + 3 = 0

11. Use the substitution method to solve the following.
y−x x+y 1
− =
2 3 6
x y 1
+ =
5 2 2
Reflection
When would you choose the substitution method in solving simultaneous equations?
4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using

elimination
4.4.1 The elimination method
•• The elimination method is an algebraic method to solve simultaneous 2x + y 5
equations without graphing. 1
1
•• If two balanced equations contain the same variables, the equations can y
x
1
1
be added or subtracted to eliminate one of the variables. For example, the x 1
equations 2x + y = 5 and x + y = 3 are shown at right on balance scales.

If the left-hand side of the second equation is subtracted from the
Subtract
left-hand side of the first equation, and the right-hand side of the second
equation is subtracted from the right-hand side of the first equation, the x+y 3
variable y is eliminated, leaving x = 2. y
1
1
x 1
Another way to represent this situation is:
2x + y = 5
− (x + y = 3)
x =2
x 2
In this example, the variable is eliminated by subtraction to reveal the 1
value of x. The value of y can then be calculated by substituting x = 2

x 1
into either equation.

2(2) + y = 5 ⇒ y = 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using the elimination method.
−2x − 3y = −9 2x + y = 7
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number −2x − 3y = −9 [1]
them. 2x + y = 7 [2]
2 Look for an addition or subtraction that will eliminate [1] + [2]:
either x or y. −2x − 3y + (2x + y) = −9 + 7
Note: Adding equations [ 1] and [ 2] in order will −2x − 3y + 2x + y = −2
eliminate x. −2y = −2

3 Solve for y by dividing both sides of the equation by −2. y=1
4 Substitute the value of y into equation [ 2] . Substituting y = 1 into [2]:
Note: y = 1 may be substituted into either equation. 2x + 1 = 7
5 Solve for x.
i Subtract 1 from both sides of the equation. 2x = 6
ii Divide both sides of the equation by 2. x=3

6 Write the solution. Solution: x = 3, y = 1 or (3, 1)
7 Check the solution by substituting (3, 1) into equation [ 1] Check: Substitute into −2x − 3y = −9.
since equation [ 2] was used to find the value of x. LHS = −2(3) − 3(1)
= −6 − 3
= −9
RHS = −9
LHS = RHS, so the solution is correct.
•• If a variable is not eliminated when the equations are simply added or subtracted, it may be necessary
to multiply one or both equations by some number or numbers so that when the equations are added,
one of the variables is then eliminated.
•• If two equal quantities are multiplied by the same number, the results remain equal.
3x + 1 4 6x + 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
Double both sides and it
remains balanced.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
x − 5y = −17 2x + 3y = 5
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number them. x − 5y = −17 [ 1]
2x + 3y = 5 [ 2]
2 Look for a single multiplication that will create the same [1] × 2: 2x − 10y = −34 [ 3]
coefficient of either x or y. Multiply equation [1] by 2 and
call the new equation [3].
3 Subtract equation [ 2] from [ 3] in order to eliminate x. [ 3] − [ 2] :
2x − 10y − (2x + 3y) = −34 − 5
2x − 10y − 2x − 3y = −39
−13y = −39
4 Solve for y by dividing both sides of the equation by −13. y=3
5 Substitute the value of y into equation [ 2] . Substituting y = 3 into [2]:
2x + 3(3) = 5
6 Solve for x. 2x + 9 = 5
i Subtract 9 from both sides of the equation. 2x = −4
ii Divide both sides of the equation by 2. x = −2
7 Write the solution. Solution: x = −2, y = 3 or (−2, 3)
8 Check the solution by substituting into equation [ 1] . Check: Substitute into x − 5y = −17.
LHS = (−2) − 5(3)
= −2 − 15
= −17
RHS = −17

Note: In this example, equation [ 1] could have been multiplied by −2 (instead of by 2), then the two equa-
tions added (instead of subtracted) to eliminate x.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
6x + 5y = 3 5x + 4y = 2
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number 6x + 5y = 3 [1]
them. 5x + 4y = 2 [2]
2 Decide which variable to eliminate, say y. Eliminate y.
Multiply equation [ 1] by 4 and call the new [1] × 4: 24x + 20y = 12 [3]
equation [ 3] .
Multiply equation [ 2] by 5 and call the new [2] × 5: 25x + 20y = 10 [4]
equation [ 4] .
3 Subtract equation [ 3] from [ 4] in order to eliminate y. [ 4] − [ 3] :
25x + 20y − (24x + 20y) = 10 − 12
25x + 20y − 24x − 20y = −2
x = −2
4 Substitute the value of x into equation [ 1] . Substituting x = −2 into [ 1] :
6(−2) + 5y = 3
−12 + 5y = 3
5 Solve for y.
i Add 12 to both sides of the equation. 5y = 15
ii Divide both sides of the equation by 5. y=3
6 Write your answer. Solution x = −2, y = 3 or (−2, 3)
7 Check the answer by substituting the solution into Check: Substitute into 5x + 4y = 2.
equation [ 2] . LHS = 5(−2) + 4(3)
= −10 + 12
=2
RHS = 2
Note: Equation [ 1] could have been multiplied by −4 (instead of by 4), then the two equations added
(instead of subtracted) to eliminate y.
Try out this interactivity: Simultaneous linear equations (int-2780)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Simultaneous equations I (doc-13851)

Exercise 4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations
using elimination
Individual pathways

1, 2, 3a–c, 4a–c, 5a–c, 6, 7 1, 2, 3a–d, 4a–e, 5a–d, 7, 8, 9 1, 2, 3d–f, 43e–i, 5c–f, 6–10
Fluency
1. WE6 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by adding equations to eliminate
either x or y.
a. x + 2y = 5 b. 5x + 4y = 2 c. −2x + y = 10
−x + 4y = 1 5x − 4y = −22 2x + 3y = 14
2. Solve the following pairs of equations by subtracting equations to eliminate either x or y.
a. 3x + 2y = 13 b. 2x − 5y = −11 c. −3x − y = 8
5x + 2y = 23 2x + y = 7 −3x + 4y = 13
3. Solve each of the following equations using the elimination method.
a. 6x − 5y = −43 b. x − 4y = 27 c. −4x + y = −10
6x − y = −23 3x − 4y = 17 4x − 3y = 14
d. −5x + 3y = 3 e. 5x − 5y = 1 f. 4x − 3y − 1 = 0
−5x + y = −4 2x − 5y = −5 4x + 7y − 11 = 0
4. WE7 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a. 6x + y = 9 b. x + 3y = 14 c. 5x + y = 27
−3x + 2y = 3 3x + y = 10 4x + 3y = 26
d. −6x + 5y = −14 e. 2x + 5y = 14 f. −3x + 2y = 6
−2x + y = −6 3x + y = −5 x + 4y = −9
g. 3x − 5y = 7 h. 2x + 3y = 9 i. −x + 5y = 7
x + y = −11 4x + y = −7 5x + 5y = 19
5. WE8 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a. −4x + 5y = −9 b. 2x + 5y = −6 c. 2x − 2y = −4
2x + 3y = 21 3x + 2y = 2 5x + 4y = 17
d. 2x − 3y = 6 x y
e. + = 2 f. x + y = 3
4x − 5y = 9 2 3 3 2 2
x y
+ =4 x y
+ = −12
4 3 2 5
Understanding
6. Solve the following simultaneous equations using an appropriate method. Check your answer using
technology.
a. 7x + 3y = 16 b. 2x + y = 8 c. −3x + 2y = 19
y = 4x − 1 4x + 3y = 16 4x + 5y = 13
d. −3x + 7y = 9 e. −4x + 5y = −7 f. y = −x
4x − 3y = 7 x = 23 − 3y y = −25x − 15

Reasoning
7. Ann, Beth and Celine wanted to weigh themselves, but the scales
they had were broken and would only give readings over 100 kg.
They decided to weigh themselves in pairs and calculate their
weights from the results.
• Ann and Beth weighed 119 kg
• Beth and Celine weighed 112 kg
• Celine and Ann weighed 115 kg
How much did each of the girls weigh? Show your working.
8. a. For the general case ax + by = e [1]
cx + dy = f [2]
y can be found by eliminating x.
i. Multiply equation [ 1] by c to create equation 3.
ii. Multiply equation [ 2] by a to create equation 4.
iii. Use the elimination method to find a general solution for y.
b. Use a similar process to that outlined above to find a general solution for x.
c. Use the general solution for x and y to solve each of the following.
i. 2x + 5y = 7 ii. 3x − 5y = 4
7x + 2y = 24 x + 3y = 5
Choose another method to check that your solutions are correct in each part.
d. For y to exist, it is necessary to state that bc − ad ≠ 0. Why?
e. Is there a necessary condition for x to exist? Explain.
Problem solving
9. Use the method of elimination to solve
x−4
+ y = −2
3
2y − 1
+ x = 6.
7
10. Use an appropriate method to solve
2x + 3y + 3z = –1
3x – 2y + z = 0
z + 2y = 0.
Reflection
How does eliminating one variable help to solve simultaneous equations?
CHALLENGE 4.1
If x + y = 17, y + z = 15 and x + z = 14, what is the
value of z?

4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
4.5.1 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
•• There are many practical applications of simultaneous equations, some examples of which are shown
below.
•• When solving practical problems, the following steps can be useful.
– Define the unknown quantities using appropriate pronumerals.
– Use the information given in the problem to form two equations in terms of these pronumerals.
– Solve these equations using an appropriate method.
– Write the solution in words.
– Check the solution.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Ashley received better results for his Mathematics test than for his English test. If the
sum of the two marks is 164 and the difference is 22, calculate the mark he received for
each subject.
THINK WRITE
1 Define the two variables. Let x = the Mathematics mark.
Let y = the English mark.
2 Formulate two equations from the information x + y = 164 [1]
given and number them. x − y = 22 [2]
The sum of the two marks is x + y.
The difference of the two marks is x − y.
3 Use the elimination method by adding equations [ 1] [1] + [2]: 2x = 186
and [ 2] to eliminate y.
4 Solve for x by dividing both sides of the equation x = 93
by 2.
5 Substitute the value of x into equation [ 1] . Substituting x = 93 into [ 1] :
x + y = 164
93 + y = 164
6 Solve for y by subtracting 93 from both sides y = 71
of the equation.
7 Write the solution. Solution:
Mathematics mark (x) = 93
English mark (y) = 71
8 Check the solution by substituting x = 93 and y = 71 Check: Substitute into x + y = 164.
into equation [ 1] . LHS = 93 + 71 RHS = 164
= 164
As LHS = RHS, the solution
is correct.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
To finish a project, Genevieve buys a total of 25 nuts and bolts

from a hardware store. If each nut costs 12 cents, each bolt costs
25 cents and the total purchase price is $4.30, how many nuts
and how many bolts does Genevieve buy?
THINK WRITE
1 Define the two variables. Let x = the number of nuts.
Let y = the number of bolts.
2 Formulate two equations from the information given x + y = 25 [1]
and number them. 12x + 25y = 430 [2]
Note: The total number of nuts and bolts is 25. Each
nut cost 12 cents, each bolt cost 25 cents and the total
cost is 430 cents ($4.30) .
3 Solve simultaneously using the substitution method,
since equation [ 1] is easy to rearrange.
4 Rearrange equation [ 1] to make x the subject by Rearrange equation [ 1] :
subtracting y from both sides of equation [ 1] . x + y = 25
x = 25 − y
5 Substitute the expression (25 − y) for x into Substituting (25 − y) into [2]:
equation [ 2] . 12(25 − y) + 25y = 430
6 Solve for y. 300 − 12y + 25y = 430
300 + 13y = 430
13y + 300 = 430
13y = 130
y = 10
7 Substitute the value of y into the rearranged equation Substituting y = 10 into x = 25 − y:
x = 25 − y from step 4. x = 25 − 10
x = 15
8 Write the solution. Solution:
The number of nuts (x) = 15.
The number of bolts (y) = 10.
9 Check the solution by substituting x = 15 and y = 10 Check: Substitute into x + y = 25.
into equation [ 1] . LHS = 15 + 10 RHS = 25
= 25
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Simultaneous equations II (doc-13852)

Exercise 4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
Individual pathways

1–3, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, 19 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 17, 19 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15–20
Fluency
1. WE9 Rick received better results for his Maths test than for his English test. If the sum of his two
marks is 163 and the difference is 31, find the mark for each subject.
2. WE10 Rachael buys 30 nuts and bolts to finish a project. If each nut costs 10 cents, each bolt costs
20 cents and the total purchase price is $4.20, how many nuts and how many bolts does she buy?
Understanding
3. Find two numbers whose difference is 5 and whose sum is 11.
4. The difference between two numbers is 2. If three times the larger number minus twice the smaller
number is 13, find the two numbers.
5. One number is 9 less than three times a second number. If the first number plus twice the second
number is 16, find the two numbers.
6. A rectangular house has a perimeter of 40 metres and the length is 4 metres more than the width.
What are the dimensions of the house?
7. Mike has 5 lemons and 3 oranges in his shopping basket. The cost of the fruit is $3.50. Voula, with 2
lemons and 4 oranges, pays $2.10 for her fruit. How much does each type of fruit cost?
8. A surveyor measuring the dimensions of a block of land finds that the length of the block is three
times the width. If the perimeter is 160 metres, what are the dimensions of the block?
9. Julie has $3.10 in change in her pocket. If she has only 50 cent and 20 cent pieces and the total
number of coins is 11, how many coins of each type does she have?
10. Mr Yang’s son has a total of twenty-one $1 and $2 coins in
his moneybox. When he counts his money, he finds that its total value is
$30. How many coins of each type does he have?
11. If three Magnums and two Paddlepops cost $8.70 and the difference in
price between a Magnum and a Paddlepop is 90 cents, how much does
each type of ice-cream cost?
12. If one Redskin and 4 Golden Roughs cost $1.65, whereas 2 Redskins
and 3 Golden Roughs cost $1.55, how much does each type of sweet
cost?
13. A catering firm charges a fixed cost for overheads and a price per
person. It is known that a party for 20 people costs $557, whereas a
party for 35 people costs $909.50. What is the fixed cost and the
cost per person charged by the company?

14. The difference between Sally’s PE mark and Science mark is 12, and the sum
of the marks is 154. If the PE mark is the higher mark, what did Sally get for
each subject?
15. Mozza’s Cheese Supplies sells six Mozzarella cheeses and eight Swiss cheeses to
Munga’s deli for $83.60, and four Mozzarella cheeses and four Swiss cheeses to
Mina’s deli for $48. How much does each type of cheese cost?
Reasoning
16. If the perimeter of the triangle in the diagram is 12 cm and the length of the
rectangle is 1 cm more than the width, find the value of x and y. Show your
working.
x cm
2x cm
y cm
m
5c
(y + 3) cm
17. Mr and Mrs Waugh want to use a caterer for a birthday party for their twin sons. The manager says the
cost for a family of four would be $160. However, the sons want to invite 8 friends, making 12 people in
all. The cost for this would be $360. If the total cost in each case is made up of the same cost per person
and the same fixed cost, find the cost per person and the fixed cost. Show your working.
18. Joel needs to buy some blank DVDs and zip disks to back up a large amount of data that has been
generated by an accounting firm. He buys 6 DVDs and 3 zip disks for $96. He later realises these are
not sufficient and so buys another 5 DVDs and 4 zip disks for $116. How much did each DVD and
each zip disk cost? (Assume the same rate per item was charged for each visit.) Show your working.
Problem solving
19. At the football hot chips are twice as popular as meat pies and three times as popular as hot dogs.
Over the period of half an hour during half time, a fast-food outlet serves 121 people who each bought
one item. How many serves of each of the foods were sold during this half-hour period?
20. Three jet-skis in a 300 kilometre handicap race leave at two hour intervals. Jet-ski 1 leaves first and
has an average speed of 25 kilometres per hour for the entire race. Jet-ski 2 leaves two hours later and
has an average speed of 30 kilometres per hour for the entire race. Jet-ski 3 leaves last, two hours after
jet-ski 2 and has an average speed of 40 kilometres per hour for the entire race.
a. Sketch a graph to show each jet-ski’s journey on the one set of axes.
b. Determine who wins the race.
c. Check your findings algebraically and describe what happened to each jet-ski during the course of the race.
Reflection
How do you decide which method to use when solving problems using simultaneous linear
equations?
CHALLENGE 4.2
1 At a fun park, the cost of a rollercoaster ride and a Ferris wheel ride is
$10. The cost of a Gravitron ride and a Ferris wheel ride is $12. The cost
of a rollercoaster ride and a Gravitron ride is $14. What is the cost of each
ride?
2 A number has five digits. The digit 6 is three places to the right of the digit 9.
The digit 4 is somewhere to the left of digit 6 and to the right of digit 2.
The digit 8 is three places to the left of the digit 4. What is the number?

4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear
equations
4.6.1 Solving simultaneous linear and quadratic equations
•• The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.
•• A parabola and a straight line may:
– intersect at only one point, as shown in red
y y
x=1
6 8
y = x2 – 2
4 6
2 4
y = x2 – 2
2
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
( –1, –1)
–2
–4 –2 0 2 4 6x
y = –2x – 3 (1, –1)
–4 –2
–4
– intersect at two points, as shown in blue
y
y = x2 – 2
8 y = 2x + 1
(3, 7)
6
–4 –2 0 2 4 6x
(–1, –1)
–2
–4
– not intersect at all, as shown in green.
y
6
y = x2 – 2
4
–4 –2 0 2 4 6x
–2
y = –x – 3
–4

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Find the points of intersection of y = x2 + x − 6 and y = 2x − 4:

a algebraically b graphically.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Number the equations. a y = x2 + x − 6 [1]
Equate [ 1] and [ 2] . y = 2x − 4 [2]
x2 + x − 6 = 2x − 4
2 Collect all the terms on one side and x2 + x − 6 − 2x + 4 = 2x − 4 − 2x + 4
simplify. x2 + x − 6 − 2x + 4 = 0
x2 − x − 2 = 0
3 Factorise and solve the quadratic equation, (x − 2)(x + 1) = 0
using the null factor law. x − 2 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
x=2 x = −1
4 Identify the y-coordinate for each point of When x = 2,
intersection by substituting each y = 2(2) − 4
x-value into one of the equations. =4−4
=0
Intersection point (2, 0)
When x = −1
y = 2(−1) − 4
= −2 − 4
= −6
5 Write the solution. Intersection point(−1, −6)
b 1 To sketch the graph of y = x + x − 6, x-intercepts: y = 0
2
b
find the x- and y-intercepts and the turning 0 = x2 + x − 6
point. 0 = (x + 3)(x − 2)
x = −3, x = 2
The x-intercepts are (−3, 0) and (2, 0).
y-intercept: x = 0
y = −6
The y-intercept is (0, −6).
−3 + 2
x-value of TP: = −0.5
2
y = (−0.5) 2 + (−0.5) − 6
y = −6.25
The TP is (−0.5, −6.25).
2 To sketch the graph of y = 2x − 4, find x-intercept: y = 0
the x- and y-intercepts. 0 = 2x − 4
x =2
The x-intercept is (2, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0
y = −4
The y-intercept is (0, −4)

3 On the same set of axes, sketch the y
graphs of y = x + x − 6 and y = 2x − 4,
2 10
8
labelling both.
6
4 y = 2x ‒ 4
2
(2, 0)
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
–4 y = x2 + x ‒ 6
(–1, –6) –6
–8
–10
4 On the graph, locate the points of The points of intersection are (2, 0) and
intersection and write the solutions. (−1, −6).
4.6.2 Solving simultaneous linear and hyperbolic equations

•• A hyperbola and a straight line may:
– intersect at only one point, as shown in red. In the first case, the line is a tangent to the curve.
y y
10 10
8 8
1 1
y = –x + 2 6 y= x 6 y= x
4 4
y=1
2 (1, 1) 2 (1, 1)
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10
y
10 y=x
8
1
6 y= x
4
2 (1, 1)
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
(–1, –1) –2
–4
–6
–8
–10

y
10
8
1
6 y= x
y = –x
4
2
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
6
Find the point(s) of intersection between y = x + 5 and y = :
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Number the equations. a y=x+5 [1]
6
Equate [ 1] and [ 2] . y= [2]
x
6
x+5=
x
x(x + 5) = 6
2 Collect all terms on one side, x2 + 5x − 6 = 0
factorise and simplify. (x + 6)(x − 1) = 0
x = −6, x = 1
3 To find the y-coordinates of x = −6
the points of intersection, y = −6 + 5
substitute the values of y = −1
x into [ 1] .
x=1
y=1+5
y=6
4 Write the solutions. The points of intersection are (−6, −1) and (1, 6).
b 1 To sketch the graph of y = 6, b x −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
x
draw a table of values.
y −1 −1 1 −1 12 −2 −3 −6 Undef. 6 3
5
2 To sketch the graph of x-intercept: y = 0

y = x + 5, find the x- and 0 = x+5
y-intercepts. x = −5
The x-intercept is (−5, 0).
y-intercept: x = 0
y=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).

3 On the same set of axes, y
y = 6x
sketch the graphs of y = x + 5 10
6 8 y=x+5
and y = , labelling both. 6
x (1, 6)
4
2
(–6, –1)
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
4 On the graph, locate the points The points of intersection are (1, 6) and (−6, −1).
of intersection and write the
solutions.
4.6.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations and circles

•• A circle and a straight line may:
– intersect at only one point, as shown in red. In this case, the line is a tangent to the curve.
y
4
3 (0, 2) y=2
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 2 2
x +y =4
–3
–4

y
4
y=x
3
2
1 ( 2, 2)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
(– 2,– 2) –1
–2 2 2
x +y =4
–3
–4

y
4
3
y = –x + 4
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 2 2
x +y =4
–3
–4

Exercise 4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and
non-linear equations
Individual pathways

1, 2a–c, 4, 5, 7a–b, 8a–b, 9, 12 1, 2, 3c–e, 4–6, 7b–d, 8b–d, 9, 12 1, 2, 3d–f, 4–6, 7c–d, 8c–d, 9–12
Fluency
1. Describe how a parabola and straight line may intersect. Use diagrams to illustrate your explanation.
2. WE11 Find the points of intersection of the following:
i. using algebra
ii. algebraically using a calculator
iii. graphically using a calculator.
a. y = x2 + 5x + 4 and y = −x − 1 b. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = −2x + 7
c. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = −6
3. Find the points of intersection of the following.
a. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = 3x − 8 b. y = −(x − 1) 2 + 2 and y = x − 1
c. y = x2 + 3x − 7 and y = 4x + 2 d. y = 6 − x2 and y = 4
3 −
e. y = 4 + x − x2 and y = f. x = 3 and y = 2x2 + 7x − 2
x
2
4. MC Which of the following graphs shows the parabola y = x2 + 3x + 2, x ∈ R, and the straight line
y = x + 3?
a. y b. y c. y
0 x 0 x 0 x
d. y e. y
0 x 0 x

5. MC The diagram below could show which of the following?
y
2
1
–3 –1 0 4 x
a. y = 0.5(x + 1.5) 2 + 4 and y = − x + 1

1
3
b. y = −0.5(x + 1.5) 2 − 4 and y = − x + 1
1
3
c. y = −0.5(x − 1.5) 2 + 4 and y = x + 1
1
3
d. y = 0.5(x − 1.5) 2 + 4 and y = −13x +1
e. y = 0.5(x − 1.5) 2 + 4 and y = −13x
+1
6. Determine whether the following graphs intersect.
a. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = x − 4
b. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = 2x + 5
c. y = −(x + 1) 2 + 3 and y = −4x − 1
d. y = (x − 1) 2 + 5 and y = −4x − 1
7. WE12 Find the point(s) of intersection between the following.
a. y = x b. y = x − 2 c. y = 3x d. y = 6
x
5
y= y= y=
1 1
y= +2
x x x x
Understanding 2
8. Find the point(s) of intersection between the following.
a. y = 3x b. x2 + y2 = 25 c. x2 + y2 = 50 d. x2 + y2 = 9
x + y = 10
2 2
3x + 4y = 0 y = 5 − 2x y=2−x
Reasoning
9. Show that there is at least one point of intersection between the parabola y = −2(x + 1) 2 − 5, where
y = f(x), and the straight line y = mx − 7, where y = f(x).
Problem solving
10. a. Find the point(s) of intersection between the circle x2 + y2 = 50 and the linear equation y = 2x − 5.
b. Confirm your solution to part a by plotting the equation of the circle and the linear equation on the
same graph.
11. The sum of two positive numbers is 21. Twice the square of the larger number minus three times the
square of the smaller number is 45. Find the value of the two numbers.
Reflection
WHOLE CLASS
What does it mean if a straight line touches a curve only once?

4.7 Solving linear inequalities
4.7.1 Inequalities between two expressions
•• An equation is a statement of equality such as x = 2; an inequation is a statement of inequality
between two expressions such as x < 2 (x is less than 2).
•• The solution to a linear equation is a single point on a number line, but the solution to an inequation is
a portion of the number line. That is, there are an infinite number of solutions to an inequality.
•• The following table shows examples of four types of simple inequalities and their corresponding rep-
resentation on a number line.
•• Note that an open circle placed over the 2 indicates that 2 is not included; that is, 2 does not satisfy
the inequality. A closed or solid circle indicates that 2 is included; that is, it does satisfy the inequality.
Mathematical statement English statement Number line diagram

x>2 x is greater than 2
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
x≥2 x is greater than or equal to 2

x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x<2 x is less than 2

x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x≤2 x is less than or equal to 2

x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
4.7.2 Solving inequalities

•• The following things may be done to both sides of an inequality without affecting its truth.
– A number can be added or subtracted from both sides of the inequality.
Adding or subtracting a number:
e.g. 6 > 2 Add 3 to +3 +3
both sides:
9 > 5 True) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
e.g. 6 ≥ −2 Subtract 3
from both sides: –3 –3
3 ≥ −1 (True)
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Adding or subtracting moves both numbers the same distance along the number line.
– A number can be multiplied or divided by a positive number.
Multiplying or dividing by a positive number:

e.g. 6 > 2 Multiply both
× 12
sides by 12: × 12
3>1 (True)
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The distance between the numbers has changed, but their relative position has not.

•• Care must be taken when multiplying or dividing by a negative number.
Multiplying or dividing by a negative number:

e.g. 6>2 Multiply both x –1
sides by −1: x –1
−6 < −2 (False)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Multiplying or dividing by a negative number reflects numbers about x = 0. Their relative positions are
reversed.
•• When solving inequalities, if both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the
inequality sign must be reversed.
For example, 6 > 2 implies that −6 < −2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Solve each of the following linear inequalities and show the solution on a number line.
a 4x − 1 < −2 b 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the inequality. a 4x − 1 < −2
2 Add 1 to both sides of the inequality. 4x − 1 + 1 < −2 + 1
4x < −1
3 Obtain x by dividing both sides of the 4x
<−
1
inequality by 4. 4 4
x <−
1
4
x < –14
x
–2 –1 –14 0 1
b 1 Write the inequality. b 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5

2 Subtract 3x from both sides of the 6x − 7 − 3x ≥ 3x + 5 − 3x
inequality. 3x − 7 ≥ 5
3 Add 7 to both sides of the inequality. 3x − 7 + 7 ≥ 5 + 7
3x ≥ 12
4 Obtain x by dividing both sides of the 3x 12
inequality by 3. ≥
3 3
x≥4
x≥4
x
0 2 4 6 8 10
Solve each of the following linear inequalities.

a −3m + 5 < −7 b 5(x − 2) ≥ 7(x + 3)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the inequality. a −3m + 5 < −7

2 Subtract 5 from both sides of the inequality. −3m + 5 − 5 < −7 − 5
(No change to the inequality sign.) −3m < −12
3 Obtain m by dividing both sides of the inequation −3m −12

>
by −3. Reverse the inequality sign, since you are −3 −3
dividing by a negative number. m>4
b 1 Write the inequality. b 5(x − 2) ≥ 7(x + 3)

2 Expand both brackets. 5x − 10 ≥ 7x + 21
3 Subtract 7x from both sides of the inequality. 5x − 10 − 7x ≥ 7x + 21 − 7x
−2x − 10 ≥ 21
4 Add 10 to both sides of the inequation. −2x − 10 + 10 ≥ 21 + 10
−2x ≥ 31
5 Divide both sides of the inequality by −2. Since −2x 31
≤
we need to divide by a negative number, reverse −2 −2
−31
the direction of the inequality sign. x≤
2
x ≤ −15 12
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Checking whether a given point makes the inequation a true
statement (doc-5218)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing equations from worded statements (doc-5219)
Exercise 4.7 Solving linear inequalities

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2, 3a–f, 4a–f, 5a–c, 6a–g, 7, 1e–l, 2, 3d–i, 4d–i, 5a–c, 6a–l, 7, 1j–l, 2g–l, 3g–l, 4d–l, 5d–f, 6f–o,
8a–c, 9a–f, 10, 13 8a–c, 9a–i, 10, 12, 13 8d–f, 9–14
Fluency
1. WE13a Solve each of the following inequalities.
a. x + 1 > 3 b. a + 2 > 1 c. y − 3 ≥ 4 d. m − 1 ≥ 3 e. p + 4 < 5
f. x + 2 < 9 g. m − 5 ≤ 4 h. a − 2 ≤ 5 i. x − 4 > −1 j. 5 + m ≥ 7
k. 6 + q ≥ 2 l. 5 + a > −3
2. Solve each of the following inequalities. Check your solutions by substitution.
a. 3m > 9 b. 5p ≤ 10 c. 2a < 8 d. 4x ≥ 20 e. 5p > −25
i. > 6 j. < 4
m x
f. 3x ≤ −21 g. 2m ≥ −1 h. 4b > −2
3 2
k. ≤ −2 l. ≥ 5
a m
7 5

3. WE13a Solve each of the following inequalities.
a. 2m + 3 < 12 b. 3x + 4 ≥ 13 c. 5p − 9 > 11 d. 4n − 1 ≤ 7 e. 2b − 6 < 4
f. 8y − 2 > 14 g. 10m + 4 ≤ −6 h. 2a + 5 ≥ −5 i. 3b + 2 < −11 j. 6c + 7 ≤ 1
k. 4p − 2 > −10 l. 3a − 7 ≥ −28
4. WE13b Solve each of the following inequalities.
a. 2m + 1 > m + 4 b. 2a − 3 ≥ a − 1 c. 5a − 3 < a − 7
d. 3a + 4 ≤ a − 2 e. 5x − 2 > 40 − 2x f. 7x − 5 ≤ 11 − x
g. 7b + 5 < 2b + 25 h. 2(a + 4) > a + 13 i. 3(m − 1) < m + 1
j. 5(2m − 3) ≤ 3m + 6 k. 3(5b + 2) ≤ −10 + 4b l. 5(3m + 1) ≥ 2(m + 9)
5. Solve each of the following inequalities.
x+1 x−2 x+7
a. ≤4 b. ≥ −4 c. < −1
2 5 3
2x + 3 3x − 1 5x + 9
d. > 6 e. ≥2 f. <0
4 7 6
6. WE14 Solve each of the following inequalities.
a. −2m > 4 b. −5p ≤ 15 c. −2a ≥ −10 d. −p − 3 ≤ 2
e. 10 − y ≥ 13 f. 14 − x < 7 g. 1 − 6p > 1 h. 2 − 10a ≤ 0
i. 2(3 − x) < 12 j. −4(a + 9) ≥ 8 k. −15 ≤ −3(2 + b) l. 2x − 3 > 5x + 6
m. k + 5 < 2k − 3 n. 3(x − 4) < 5(x + 5) o. 7(a + 4) ≥ 4(2a − 3)
7. MC When solving the inequality −2x > −7 we need to:
a. change the sign to ≥ b. change the sign to < c. change the sign to =
d. change the sign to ≤ e. keep the sign unchanged
2−x 5−m −3 − x
a. >1 b. ≥2 c. < −4
3 4 5
3 − 8a 4 − 3m −2m + 6
d. < −1 e. ≤0 f. ≤3
2 2 10
a. 3k > 6 b. −a − 7 < −2 c. 5 − 3m ≥ 0 d. x + 4 > 9
7p
g. ≥ −2 1−x
e. 10 − y ≤ 3 f. 5 + 3d < −1 h. ≤2
3 3
−4 −2m j. 5a − 2 < 4a + 7 k. 6p + 2 ≤ 7p − 1 l. 2(3x + 1) > 2x − 16
i. >0
5
Understanding
10. Write linear inequalities for the following statements, using x to represent the unknown. (Do not
attempt to solve the equations.)
a. The product of 5 and a certain number is greater than 10.
b. When three is subtracted from a certain number the result is less than or equal to 5.
c. The sum of seven and three times a certain number is less than 42.
Reasoning
11. Given the positive numbers a, b, c and d and the variable x, there is the following relationship:
−c < ax + b < −d.
a. Find the possible range of values of x if a = 2, b = 3, c = 10 and d = 1.
b. Rewrite the original relationship in terms of x only (x by itself between the < signs), using
a, b, c and d.

12. Two speed boats are racing along a section of Lake Quikalong.
The speed limit along this section of the lake is 50 km/h. Ross is
travelling 6 km/h faster than Steven and the sum of the speeds at
which they are travelling is greater than 100 km/h.
a. Write an inequation and solve it to describe all possible speeds
that Steven could be travelling at.
b. At Steven’s lowest possible speed, is he over the speed limit?
c. The water police issue a warning to Ross for exceeding the speed
limit on the lake. Show that the police were justified in issuing a warning to Ross.
Problem solving
13. Mick the painter has fixed costs (e.g. insurance, equipment, etc) of $3400 per year. His running cost to
travel to jobs is based on $0.75 per kilometre. Last year Mick had costs that were less than $16 000.
a. Write an inequality to show this information and solve it to find how many kilometres Mick travelled
for the year.
b. Explain the information you have found.
14. I have $40 000 to invest. Part of this I intend to invest in a stable 5% simple interest account. The
remainder will be invested in my friend’s I.T. business. She has said that she will pay me 7.5% interest
on any money I give to her. I am saving for a European trip so want the best return for my money.
What is the least amount of money I should invest with my friend so that I receive at least $2500
interest per year from my investments?
Reflection
What is similar and different when solving linear inequations to linear equations?
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

4.8.1 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane Inequality symbols
•• A solution to a linear inequality is any ordered pair that makes the < less than
inequality true.
> greater than
•• When graphing a linear inequality on a Cartesian plane, the
solution is a region on one side of the line called a half plane. ≤ less than or equal to
≥ greater than or equal to

•• There are an infinite number of solutions to a linear inequality. For example, some of the solu-
tions to the inequality x + y < 16 are (5, 1), (8, 7) and (0, −2), whereas the point (9, 10) is not a
solution.
•• To indicate whether the points on a line satisfy the inequality, a specific type of boundary line is
used.
Points on the line Symbol Type of boundary line used

Do not satisfy the < or > Dashed
inequality ---------------------
Satisfy the inequality ≤ or ≥ Solid
_______________
•• The required region is the region that contains the points that satisfy the inequality.
•• Shading or no shading is used to indicate which side of the line is the required region, and a key is
shown to indicate the region.
y y
3 3
2 2
y > 2x − 2 1 y ≤ 2x − 2 1
−4−3−2−1
−1
0 1 2 3 x −4−3−2−1
−1
0 1 2 3 x
−2 −2
−3 −3
The required region is . The required region is .
•• Consider the line x = 2. It divides the Cartesian plane into two distinct regions or half-planes.
y
4
x<2 3 x>2
2
x=2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
–1
–2
–3
–4
•• The region on the left (shaded yellow) contains all the points whose x-coordinate is less than 2, for
example (1, 3), so this region is given the name x < 2.
•• The region on the right (shaded purple) contains all the points whose x-coordinate is greater than 2,
for example (3, −2), so this region is given the name x > 2.
•• There are three distinct parts to the graph:
– the boundary line, where x = 2
– the yellow region, where x < 2
– the purple region, where x > 2.

Sketch a graph of each of the following regions.

a x ≥ –1 b y < 3
THINK DRAW
a 1 x ≥ −1 includes the line x = −1 and the region a y
x > −1. 4
2 On a neat Cartesian plane sketch the line x = −1. 3
Because the line is required, it will be drawn as a
x = –1
2
continuous (unbroken) line. 1 (2, 1)
3 Find a point where x > −1, say (2, 1).
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
4 Shade the region that includes this point. –1
Label the graph x ≥ −1.
–2
x ≥ –1
–3
–4
b 1 The line y = 3 is not included. b y

4
2 Sketch the line y = 3. Because the line is not y=3
3
included, show it as a dashed (broken) line.
2 (1, 2)
3 Find a point where y < 3, say (1, 2). 1
4 Shade the region where y < 3.
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
5 Label the graph. –1
–2
y<3
–3
–4
•• Note that the boundary line is drawn as a continuous line if it is included in the inequality (e.g. x ≤ 5)
but as a broken line if it is not included (e.g. x < 5).
•• For more complex regions, first sketch the boundary line, then decide which half-plane satisfies the
inequality.
•• Choose a point and decide whether it satisfies the rule or not. The origin (0, 0) is often an easy point
to use.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Determine whether the points (0, 0) and (3, 4) satisfy either of the following inequalities.
a x − 2y < 3 b y > 2x − 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Substitute (0, 0) for x and y. a x − 2y < 3
Substitute (0, 0):
2 Since the statement is true, (0, 0) satisfies the 0−0<3
inequality. 0 < 3 True

3 Substitute (3, 4) for x and y. x − 2y < 3
Substitute (3, 4):
3 − 2(4) < 3
3−8<3
−5 < 3 True
4 Since the statement is true, (3, 4) satisfies the The points (0, 0) and (3, 4)
inequality. both satisfy the inequality.
b 1 Substitute (0, 0) for x and y. b y > 2x − 3
Substitute (0, 0):
0>0−3
0 > −3 True
2 Since the statement is true, (0, 0) satisfies the
inequality.
3 Substitute (3, 4) for x and y. y > 2x − 3
Substitute (3, 4):
4 > 2(3) − 3
4>6−3
4>3 True
4 Since the statement is true, (3, 4) satisfies the The points (0, 0) and (3, 4)
inequality. both satisfy the inequality.
Sketch a graph of the region 2x + 3y < 6.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Locate the boundary line 2x + 3y = 6 by x = 0: 0 + 3y = 6
finding the x- and y-intercepts. y=2
y = 0: 2x + 0 = 6
x=3
2 The line is not required, so rule a broken
line.
3 Test with the point (0, 0). Does (0, 0) satisfy Test (0, 0): 2(0) + 3(0) = 0
2x + 3y = 6? As 0 < 6, (0, 0) is in the required region.
4 Shade the region that includes (0, 0).
5 Label the graph. 2
y
x+
3y 4
=6
3
2
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
2x + 3y < 6
–3
–4

Exercise 4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane
Individual pathways

1–8 1–8, 10 1–11
Fluency
1. WE15 Sketch a graph of each of the following regions.
a. x < 1 b. y ≥ −2 c. x ≥ 0 d. y < 0
2. WE16 Determine which of the points A (0, 0), B (1, −2) and C (4, 3) satisfy each of the following
inequalities.
a. x + y > 6 b. x − 3y < 2 c. y > 2x − 5 d. y < x + 3
3. WE17 Sketch the graphs for the regions given by each of the following inequations.
a. y ≥ x + 1 b. y < x − 6 c. y > −x − 2 d. y < 3 − x
e. y > x − 2 f. y < 4 g. 2x − y < 6 h. y ≤ x − 7
i. x − y > 3 j. y < x + 7 k. x + 2y ≤ 5 l. y ≤ 3x
4. Verify your solutions to question 3 using technology.
5. MC a. The shaded region satisfying the inequality y > 2x − 1 is:
A. y B. y C. y
(1–2, 0) (1–2, 0) (1–2, 0)

x x x
(0, –1) (0, –1) (0, –1)
D. y E. y
(1–2, 0) ( – –12 , 0)
x x
(0, –1) (0, –1)
The shaded region satisfying the inequality y ≤ x + 4 is:

b.
A. y B. y C. y
(0, 4) (0, 4) (0, 4)
(–4, 0) x (–4, 0) x (–4, 0) x

D. y E. y
(0, 4) (0, 4)
(4, 0)
(–4, 0) x x
The region satisfying the inequality y < −3x is:

c.
A. y B. y C. y
(1, 3) (–1, 3)
(0, 0)
x (0, 0) x (0, 0) x
(1, –3)
D. y E. y
(0, 3)
(–1, 0) (0, 1)
(–1, 0) x x
Understanding y
10
6. a. Find the equation of the line l shown in the diagram at right. 9
l
b. Write down three inequalities that define the region R. 8
7
6 R
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7. Happy Yaps Dog Kennels charges $35 per day for large dogs (dogs
over 20 kg) and $20 per day for small dogs (less than 20 kg). On
any day, Happy Yaps Kennels can only accommodate a maximum
of 30 dogs.
a. If l represents the number of large dogs and s represents the
number of small dogs, write an inequality in terms of l and s that
represents the total number of dogs at Happy Yaps.
b. Another inequality can be written as s ≥ 12. In the context of this
problem, write down what this inequality represents.
c. The inequality l ≤ 15 represents the number of large dogs that Happy Yaps can accommodate on any
day. Draw a graph that represents this situation.
d. Explore the maximum number of small and large dogs Happy Yaps Kennels can accommodate to
receive the maximum amount in fees.

Reasoning y
3
8. a. Given the following graph, state the inequality it represents. 2
b. Choose a point from each half plane and show how this point confirms your 1
answer to part a. −4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3
The required region is .
9. a. Find the equation of the line, l. y

4
b. Write an inequation to represent the unshaded region. 3 Line l
c. Write an inequation to represent the shaded region. 2
d. Rewrite the answer for part b if the line was not broken. 1
Problem solving −5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

−1
10. a. Sketch the graph of b.
Shade the region that represents −2
−3
x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1
− = 2 − y. − ≤ 2 − y. −4
2 3 2 3
11. Use your knowledge about linear inequations to sketch the region defined by
y ≥ x2 + 4x + 3.
Reflection
Think of some real-life situations where inequalities could be used to help solve a problem.
4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities

4.9.1 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities
•• The graph of a linear inequality represents a region of the Cartesian plane.
•• Two linear inequalities drawn on the same set of axes will represent two regions on the graph.
•• If these regions intersect, they have an infinite number of points in common.
•• To graph simultaneous inequalities:
Step 1: Sketch each inequality on the same axes.
Step 2: Identify the required region that satisfies both inequalities.
Step 3: Select a point from the required region and check that the ordered pair satisfies all linear
inequalities.
Identify the required region in the following pair of linear inequalities.

2x + 3y ≥ 6, y < 2x − 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 •• To sketch each inequality, the boundary line 2x + 3y ≥ 6 y < 2x − 3
needs to be drawn first. For the line 2x + 3y = 6, For the line y = 2x − 3,
•• To draw each line, identify two points on x-intercept: let y = 0 let x = 0
each line. 2x + 0 = 6 y = 2(0) − 3
– Use the intercepts method for 2x + 3y ≥ 6. x=3 y = −3
y-intercept: Let x = 0 Let x = 2
– Use substitution of values for y < 2x − 3.
0 + 3y = 6 y = 2(2) − 3
•• Write the coordinates. y=2 y=4−3
Note: The intercepts method could also y=1
have been used for the second equation. (3, 0), (0, 2) (0, −3), (2, 1)

2 Plot the two points for each line. y
•• Plot the x- and y-intercepts for 2x + 3y = 6, 5
as shown in blue. 4
y = 2x − 3
•• Plot the two points for y = 2x − 3, as shown 2x + 3y = 6
3
2
in orange.
1
3 Draw the boundary lines.
•• For 2x + 3y ≥ 6, the points on the line are −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
included. The boundary line is solid, as −2
shown in red. −3
•• For y < 2x − 3, the points on the line are not −4
included. The boundary line is dashed, as −5
shown in green.
4 To determine which side of the line is the Check the point (3, 1):
x = 3, y = 1
required region, select a point on one side of
2x + 3y ≥ 6 y < 2x − 3
the line and check to see whether the point
LHS = 2x + 3y LHS = y
satisfies the equation. Choose the point (3, 1) = 2(3) + 3(1) =1
to substitute into the equation. =6+3 RHS = 2(3) − 3
=9 =6−3
RHS = 6 = −3
LHS > RHS LHS < RHS
The point (3, 1) The point (3, 1) satisfies
satisfies the the inequality and is in
inequality and is in the required region for
the required region y < 2x − 3.
for 2x + 3y ≥ 6.
5 •• The region not required for: 2x + 3y ≥ 6 y

2x + 3y ≥ 6 is shaded orange 5
y < 2x − 3 is shaded green. 4
•• Since the point (3, 1) satisfies both 3
2
inequalities, it is in the required region. The (3, 1)
1
required region is the unshaded section of the
graph. Write a key. −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
−2
y < 2x − 3
−3
−4
−5
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Simultaneous equations III (doc-13853)

Exercise 4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities
Individual pathways

1–4, 5, 7 1, 2, 4–7, 9 1–10
Fluency
1. WE18 Identify the required region in the following pair of inequalities.
4x + 7y ≥ 21
10x − 2y ≥ 16
2. Given the graph shown, determine the inequalities that represent the shaded region.
y
5
4
3
(0, 3)
2
(−1, 1)
1
(3, 0)
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
−1
−2
(0, −2)
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
3. Solve the following pairs of inequalities.

a. y < 4 b. y + 3x > 6 c. 5y − 3x ≥ −10 d. 3y + 2x ≤ 4
1
y ≤ −x y − 2x < 9 6y + 4x ≥ 12 y − 4x ≥ −8
Understanding
4. MC Which system of inequalities represents y
8
the required region on the graph at right?
7
a. y ≤ x − 2 6
y > −3x − 6 5
b. y ≥ x − 2
4
3
y ≥ −3x − 6 2
c. y ≤ x − 2 1
y≤ −3x − 6 −8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x
−1
d. y ≥ x+3 −2
y≤ −3x − 6 −3
e. y > x+2
−4
−5
y< −3x + 6 −6
−7
−8

5. Given the diagram at right, write the inequalities that y
created the shaded region. 5
6. a. Graph the following system of inequalities: 4.5
y ≥ −3, x + 2 ≥ 0, 2y + 5x ≤ 7 4
3.5 ( 12 , 10
b. Calculate the coordinates of the vertices of the required 3 )
3
region.
2.5
Reasoning 2
7. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle 1.5 (2, 43 )
must be greater than the third side. 1
a. Given a triangle with sides x, 9 and 4, draw diagrams 1
( 2 , 1) 0.5
to show the possible triangles, using the above statement −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 x
to establish inequalities. −1
−2 (1, 0) (2, 0)
b. Find the possible solutions for x and explain how you
determined this.
8. Create a triangle with the points (0, 0), (0, 8) and (6, 0).
a. Calculate the equations of the lines for the three sides.
b. If you shade the interior of the triangle (including the boundary lines), what inequalities would create
the shaded region?
c. What are the side lengths of this triangle?
Problem solving
9. a. Find the equations of the two lines in the diagram y
4
shown at right. 3
A
a. Find the coordinates of the point A. 2
b. Write a system of inequations to represent the shaded 1
region. –1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x
10. The Ecofriendly company manufactures two different –2
detergents. Shine is specifically for dishwashers while –3
Motherearth is a washing machine detergent. For the first –4
week of June, the production manager has specified that
the total amount of the two products produced should be at least 400 litres as one client has already
pre-ordered 125 litres of Shine for that week. The time that is required to process one litre of Shine is
30 minutes while one litre of Motherearth requires 15 minutes. During the week mentioned, the
factory can process the detergents for up to 175 hours. If x represents the number of litres of Shine
produced and y represents the number of litres of Motherearth produced, formulate the constraints as
linear inequations and show the feasible region. Also state the coordinates of the vertices of the region.

Reflection
How do the solutions for a system of equations differ from a system of inequations?
4.10 Review
Fluency
1. The inequality that is represented by the following region is:
a. y ≥ 2 − x b. y ≥ x − 2 c. y ≤ 2 − x d. y ≤ x − 2 e. y ≥ 2x
2. The equation of a linear graph which passes through the origin with gradient − 3 is:
a. y = −3 b. x = −3 c. y = −3x d. y = 3 − 3x e. y = 3x − 3
y
3
2
1
−4−3−2−1
−1
0 1 2 3 x
−2
−3
Region required
3. An online music shop charges a flat rate of +5 postage for 2 CDs and $11 for 5 CDs. The equation
that best represents this, if C is the cost and n is the number of CDs, is:
a. C = 5n + 11 b. C = 6n + 5 c. C = n + 2 d. C = 5n + 1 e. C = 2n + 1
4. During a walk-a-thon, Sarah receives $4 plus $3 per kilometre. The graph which best represents Sarah
walking up to 5 kilometres is:
a. $ b. $ c. $
18 (5, 18) 24 (5, 24) 24
15 20 20 (5, 19)
12 16 16
9 12 12
6 8 8
3 4 4
0 d (km) 0 d (km) 0 d (km)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
d. $ e. $
18 (5, 19) 24
15 20
(5, 18)
12 16
9 12
6 8
3 4
0 d (km) 0 1 2 3 4 5 d (km)
1 2 3 4 5
5. Which of the following pairs of coordinates is the solution to the given simultaneous equations?
2x + 3y = 18
5x − y = 11
a. (6, 2) b. (3, −4) c. (3, 9) d. (3, 4) e. (5, 11)
6. The graphical solution to the following pair of simultaneous equations is:
y = 5 − 2x
y = 3x − 10

a. y b. y c. y
10 10 10
8 8 8
6 5 6 6
1 1 5
4 1
22 33 –3 3 2 1 4 4
2
2 2 2 (3, 1)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
–2
–4 (3, –1) (–3, –1) –4 1
–4 2 33
1
–6 –6 –6 –5 2
–8 –8 –8
–10 –10 –10
d. y e. none of the above

10
8
6
4
(–3, –1) 2
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5x
–3 3 –2 2 –4 –5
1 1
–6
–8
–10
7. Sketch the half plane given by each of the following inequalities.

a. y ≤ x + 1 b. y ≥ 2x + 10 c. y > 3x − 12
d. y < 5x e. x ≥ 7 f. y ≤ 12x + 1
g. 2x + y$9 h. 4x − 3y ≥ 48 i. y > −12
8. Use the graphs below, showing the given simultaneous equations, to write the point of intersection of
the graphs and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations.
a. x + 3y = 6 y a. 3x + 2y = 12 y
y = 2x − 5 10 2y = 3x 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
–4 –3 –2 –1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7x –4 –3 –2 –1
–2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7x
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10
9. Use substitution to check if the given pair of coordinates is a solution to the given simultaneous
equations.
a. (7, 1) x − 2y = 5 b. (4, 3) y = 7 − x
5y + 2x = 18 5y − 2x = 7
10. Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.
a. 4y − 2x = 8 b. y = 2x − 2 c. 2x + 5y = 20
x + 2y = 0 x − 4y = 8 y=7
11. Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
a. y = 3x + 1 b. y = 2x + 7 c. 2x + 5y = 6
x + 2y = 16 3y − 4x = 11 y = 32x + 5
d. y = −x e. y = 3x − 11 f. y = 4x − 17
y = 8x + 21 y = 5x + 17 y = 6x − 22

12. Solve the following simultaneous equations using the elimination method.
a. 3x + y = 17 b. 4x + 3y = 1 c. 3x − 7y = −2
7x − y = 33 −4x + y = 11 −2x − 7y = 13
d. 4y − 3x = 9 e. 5x + 2y = 6 f. x − 4y = −4
y + 3x = 6 4x + 3y = 2 4x − 2y = 12
13. Solve the following simultaneous equations using an appropriate method.
a. 3x + 2y = 6 b. 6x − 4y = −6 c. 6x + 2y = 14
3y + 5x = 9 7x + 3y = −30 x = −3 + 5y
14. Solve the following simultaneous inequations.
a. y ≤ x + 4 b. 2y − 3x ≥ 12 c. 5x + y < 10
y≥3 y + 3x > 0 x + 2y < 11
15. Find the point(s) of intersection for each of the following pairs of lines.
a. y = x2 − 6 b. y = 2 c. x2 + y2 = 2
y = 5x − 3 x y = 5x − 3
y = 5x − 3
Problem solving
16. Write the following as a pair of simultaneous equations and solve.
a. Find two numbers whose difference is 5 and whose sum is 23.
b. A rectangular house has a total perimeter of 34 metres and the width is 5 metres less than the length.
What are the dimensions of the house?
c. If two Chupa Chups and three Wizz Fizzes cost $2.55, but five Chupa Chups and seven Wizz Fizzes
cost $6.10, find the price of each type of lolly.
17. Laurie buys milk and bread for his family on the way home from school each day, paying with a $10
note. If he buys three cartons of milk and two loaves of bread, he receives 5 cents in change. If he buys
two cartons of milk and one loaf of bread, he receives $4.15 in change. How much does each item cost?
18. A paddock contains some cockatoos (2-legged) and kangaroos (4-legged). The total number of ani-
mals is 21 and they have 68 legs in total. Using simultaneous equations, determine how many cocka-
toos and kangaroos there are in the paddock.
19. Warwick was solving a pair of simultaneous equations using the elimination method and reached the
result that 0 = −5. Suggest a solution to the problem, giving a reason for your answer.
20. There are two sections to a concert hall. Seats in the ‘Dress circle’ are arranged in rows of 40 and cost
$140 each. Seats in the ‘Bleachers’ are arranged in rows of 70 and cost $60 each. There are 10 more
rows in the ‘Dress circle’ than in the ‘Bleachers’ and the capacity of the hall is 7000.
a. If d represents the number of rows in the ‘Dress circle’ and b represents the number of rows in the
‘Bleachers’ then write an equation in terms of these two variables based on the fact that there are 10
more rows in the ‘Dress circle’ than in the ‘Bleachers’.
b. Write an equation in terms of these two variables based on the fact that the capacity of the hall is
7000 seats.
c. Solve the two equations from a and b simultaneously using the method of your choice to find the
number of rows in each section.
d. Now that you have the number of rows in each section, calculate the number of seats in each section.
e. Hence, calculate the total receipts for a concert where all tickets are sold.
21. John is comparing two car rental companies, Golden Ace Rental Company and Silver Diamond Rental
Company. Golden Ace Rental Company charges a flat rate of $38 per day and $0.20 per kilometre.
The Silver Diamond Rental Company charges a flat rate of $30 per day plus $0.32 per kilometre.
a. Write an algebraic equation for the cost of renting a car for three days from the Golden Ace Rental
Company in terms of the number of kilometres travelled, k.
b. Write an algebraic equation for the cost of renting a car for three days from the Silver Diamond
Rental Company in terms of the number of kilometres travelled, k.

c. How many kilometres would John have to travel so that the cost of hiring from each company for
three days is the same?
d. Write an inequation that, when solved, will tell you the number of kilometres for which it is cheaper
to use Golden Ace Rental Company when renting for three days.
e. For what number of kilometres will it be cheaper to use Silver Diamond Rental Company for three
days’ hire?
22. Frederika has $24 000 saved for a holiday and a new stereo. Her travel expenses are $5400 and her
daily expenses are $260.
a. Write down an equation for the cost of her holiday if she stays for d days. Upon her return from
holidays Frederika wants to purchase a new stereo system that will cost her $2500.
b. How many days can she spend on her holiday if she wishes to purchase a new stereo upon her return?
Language
It is important to learn and be able to use correct mathematical language in order to communicate effec-
tively. Create a summary of the topic using the key terms below. You can present your summary in writing
or using a concept map, a poster or technology.
collinear infinite reverse
elimination intersection simultaneous
equation number line solution
half-plane parallel substitution
inequality perpendicular tangent

www.assesson.com.au

Investigation | Rich task
Comparison of car hire companies
Documenting business expenses
Cost of car hire

400
Plan 1
In business, expenses can be represented graphically, 300
200
Plan 2
so that relevant features are clearly visible. The fig- 100
0
ure at right compares the costs of hiring cars from 250
Kilometres travelled
two different car rental companies. It will be cheaper
to use Plan 1 when travelling distances less than
250 kilometres, and Plan 2 when travelling more
than 250 kilometres. Both plans cost the same when
you are travelling exactly 250 kilometres.
Jim works as a travelling sales representative. He needs to
plan his next business trip to Port Hedland, which he antici-
pates will take him away from the office for 3 or 4 days.
Due to other work commitments, he is not sure whether he
can make the trip by the end of this month or early next
month. He plans to fly to Port Hedland and use a hire car to
travel when he arrives. Jim’s boss has asked him to supply
documentation detailing the anticipated costs for the hire
car, based on thefollowing quotes received.
A1 Rentals $35 per day plus 28c per kilometre
of travel
Cut Price Rentals $28 per day plus 30c per kilometre
of travel
Jim is aware that, although the Cut Price Rentals deal looks
cheaper, it could work out more expensive in the long run,
because of the higher cost per kilometre of travel; he intends to
travel a considerable distance. Jim is advised by both rental companies that their daily hire charges
are due to rise by $2 per day from the first day of next month.
Assuming that Jim is able to travel this month and his trip will last 3 days, use the information
given to answer questions 1 to 3.
1. Write equations to represent the costs of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals. Use the
pronumeral C to represent the cost (in dollars) and d to represent the distance travelled (in kilometres).
2. Plot the two equations from question 1 on the set of axes provided to show how the costs
C
600
500
400
Cost ($)
300
200
100
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

3. Use the graph to determine how many kilometres Jim would have to travel to make the hire costs
the same for both rental companies.
4. Assume Jim’s trip is extended to four days. Use an appropriate method to show how this changes
the answer found in question 3.
For questions 5 to 7, assume that Jim has delayed his trip until next month when the hire
charges have increased.
5. Write equations to show the cost of hiring a car from both car rental companies for a trip lasting:
a. 3 days
b. 4 days.
6. Plot the four equations from question 5 on the set of axes provided to show how the costs
C
600
500
400
Cost ($)
300
200
100
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
7. Comment on the results displayed in your graph.

8. Jim needs to provide his boss with documentation of the hire car costs, catering for all options.
On a separate sheet of paper, prepare a document for Jim to hand to his boss.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: This world-first medical event took place in 1986 (doc-15923)

Answers
Topic 4 Simultaneous linear equations and inequalities
Exercise 4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations
1. a. (2, 1) b. (1, 1) c. (0, 4) d. (2, −1) e. (−2, −4) f. (−0.5, 1.5)
2. a. No b.
Yes c.
Yes d.
No e.
Yes
f.
No g.
No h.
Yes i.
No j.
Yes
3. a.(3, 2) b. (4, 3) c. (−3, 4) d. (−2, 2) e. (2, 0) f. (3, 0)
g. (−2, 4) h. (3, 8) i. (−12, 1 12) j. (2, 5) k. (5, 3) l. (2, 23)
4. a. No solution b. (2, −1) c. No solution d. (1, 9) e. (3, 1) f. No solution
g. No solution h. (2, 1)
5. y = 4x − 16
6. a. Northern beach
120
C = 20 + 12t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 D
100
Southern beach C
80
D = 8 + 18t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5
Cost
60
b. Northern beaches in red, southern beaches in blue
40
c. Time > 2 hours C = 20 + 12t
20
d. Time = 2 hours, cost = $44
D = 8 + 18t
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours)
7. a. Same line b. Perpendicular c. Intersecting d. Parallel

8. a. 1 solution b. No solution (parallel lines) c.
No solution (parallel lines)
9. a. y = 3x + 6 b. y = −2x + 1 c. y
y = –2x + 1 7 y = 3x + 6
6
5
Point of 4
intersection 3
2
(–1, 3) 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x
–2
–3
–4
10. y
7
6
5 3x – y = 2
Point of 4
intersection 3
(1, 1) 2
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x
–2
2y – x = 1 –3 y + 3x = 4
–4
Exercise 4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution

1. a. (2, 3) b. (2, −1) c. (3, −2) d. (7, 6) e. (3, 6) f. (2, 1)
g. (−1, −2) h. (−4, 0) i. (−1, −2) j. (6, −2) k. (3, 1 12) l. (−3, −5)
2. a. (−6, −23) d. (32, −15 f. (−12, −4)

2)
b. (5, 23) c. (2, −6) e. (1, −7)
g. (−32, −12 ) h. (−15, 45 ) i. (−3, −1.5) j. (1, 0.3) k. (−45, 45 ) l. (1, −1)
3. 26 chickens

4. a. (3, 1) b. (−2, 3) c. (5, 1) d. (4, 2) e. (0, 3) f. (4, 0)
n n m mn n n2
5. a. x = ,y = b. x = , y= c. x = ,y =
2m 2 n2 + 1 n2 + 1 m−n m−n
n n −(m − n )2
m(n − 1) 2m m(n − m)
d. x = ,y = e. x = ,y = f. x = ,y =
m−n m−n m−n m−n m+n m+n
6. a = −1, b = 5
7. z = 24, m = 6, n = 9
m 11 7
9 8 7
n 5 10
8. a. x + 2y = 4 b. x = 2, y = 1
9. Chemistry $21, physics $27
10. x = 8, y = −7
11. x = 0, y = 1
Exercise 4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination

1. a. (3, 1) b. (−2, 3) c. (−2, 6)
2. a. (5, −1) b. (2, 3) c. (−3, 1)
3. a. (−3, 5) b. (−5, −8) c. (2, −2) d. (1 12, 3 12 ) e. (2, 1 45 ) f. (1, 1)
4. a. (1, 3) b. (2, 4) c. (5, 2) d. (4, 2) e. (−3, 4) f. (−3, −1 12 )
g. (−6, −5) h. (−3, 5) i. (2, 1.8)
5. a. (6, 3) b. (2, −2) c. (1, 3) d. (−1.5, −3) e. (−8, 18) f. (− 3, 5)
6. a. (1, 3) b. (4, 0) c. (−3, 5) d. (4, 3) e. (8, 5) f. (13, − 13 )
7. Ann 61 kg, Beth 58 kg, Celine 54 kg
ce − af
8. a. i. acx + bcy = ce (3) ii. acx + ady = af (4) iii. y =
bc − ad
de − bf
b. x =
ad − bc
c. i. (106
31 31 )
,1 ii. (37
14 14 )
, 11
d. Because you cannot divide by 0
e. ad − bc ≠ 0
9. x = 7, y = −3
10. x = 4, y = 3, z = −6
Challenge 4.1
z=6
Exercise 4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations

1. Maths mark = 97, English mark = 66
2. 18 nuts, 12 bolts
3. 8 and 3
4. 9 and 7
5. 6 and 5
6. Length = 12 m and width = 8 m
7. Lemons cost 55 cents and oranges cost 25 cents.
8. Length 60 m and width 20 m
9. Eight 20-cent coins and three 50-cent coins
10. Twelve $1 coins and nine $2 coins
11. Paddlepops cost $1.20 and a Magnum costs $2.10.
12. Cost of the Golden Rough = 35 cents and cost of the Redskin = 25 cents
13. Fixed costs = $87, cost per person = $23.50

14. PE mark is 83 and Science mark is 71.
15. Mozzarella costs $6.20, Swiss cheese costs $5.80.
16. x = 3 and y = 4
17. Fixed costs = $60, cost per person = $25
18. $4 each for DVDs and $24 each for zip disks
19. 66 cups of hot chips, 33 meat pies and 22 hot dogs were sold during the half-hour period.
20. a. 350
Winner
300 (11.5, 300) Point of
250 Jet-ski 2 intersection
d (kilometres)
d = 30(t – 2) (12, 300)

200
Jet-ski 3
150 d = 40(t – 4)
100 Jet-ski 1
d = 25t
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
t (hours)
b. Jet-ski 3 wins the race.
c. Jet-ski 1 and 2 reach the destination at the same time although jet-ski 2 started two hours after jet-ski 1. Jet-ski 3
overtakes jet-ski 1 6 hours and 40 minutes after its race begins or 10 hours and 40 minutes after jet-ski 1 starts
the race. Jet-ski 3 overtakes jet-ski 2 6 hours after it starts the race or 8 hours after jet-ski 2 started the race.
Challenge 4.2
1. Rollercoaster = $6, Ferris wheel = $4, Gravitron = $8
2. 89 246
Exercise 4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations

1. A parabola may intersect with a straight line twice, once or not at all.
2. a. (−5, 4) and (−1, 0) b. (2, 3) c. (1 − √10, −6) and (1 + √10, −6)
3. a. (−1
2
− 3√5
2
, −19
2 2 )
− 9√5 and (−1
2
+ 3√5
2
, −19
2 2 )
+ 9√5 (−1, −2) and (2, 1)
b.
(−2.54, −8.17) and (3.54, 16.17)

c. d. (−1.41, 4) and (1.41, 4)
(2, 4 )
5 1
e.
(−1, 2) and f. (3, 37)
4. B 5. C
6. a. Yes b. No c. Yes d. No
7. a. (1, 1), (−1, −1) b. (1 + √2, −1 + √2), (1 − √2, −1 − √2)
( 3 , −√15), ( 3 , √15)
−√15
c. √15
d. (−6, −1), (2, 3)
8. a. (−1, −3), (1, 3) b. (−4, 3), (4, −3) c. (−1, 7), (5, −5)
d. ( (−1√142 − 2) , (√142+ 2) ), ( (√142+ 2) , −(√142 − 2) )

9. The straight line crosses the parabola at (0, −7), so no matter what value m takes, there will be at least one intersection point.
10. a. (5, 5), (−1, −7) b. y
10 y = 2x – 5
8
x2 + y2 = 50
6
(5, 5)
4
2
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
–4
–6
(–1, –7)
–8
–10
11. 9, 12

Exercise 4.7 Solving linear inequalities
1. a. x > 2 b. a > −1 c. y ≥ 7 d. m ≥ 4 e. p < 1 f. x < 7
g. m ≤ 9 h. a ≤ 7 i. x > 3 j. m ≥ 2 k. q ≥ −4 l. a > −8
2. a. m > 3 b. p ≤ 2 c. a < 4 d. x ≥ 5 e. p > −5 f. x ≤ −7
g. m ≥ −0.5 h. b > −0.5 i. m > 18 j. x < 8 k. a ≤ −14 l. m ≥ 25
3. a. m < 4.5 b. x ≥ 3 c. p > 4 d. n ≤ 2 e. b < 5 f. y > 2
g. m ≤ −1 h. a ≥ −5 i. b < −4 13 j. c ≤ −1 k. p > −2 l. a ≥ −7
4. a. m > 3 b. a ≥ 2 c. a < −1 d. a ≤ −3 e. x > 6 f. x ≤ 2
g. b < 4 h. a > 5 i. m < 2 j. m ≤ 3 k. b ≤ −1611
l. m ≥ 1
5. a. x ≤ 7 b. x ≥ −18 c. x < −10 d. x > 10 12 e. x ≥ 5 f. x < −1 45

6. a. m < −2 b. p ≥ −3 c. a ≤ 5 d. p ≥ −5 e. y ≤ −3 f. x > 7
g. p < 0 h. a ≥ 1
5
i. x > −3 j. a ≤ −11 k. b ≤ 3 l. x < −3
m. k > 8 n. x > −18 12 o. a ≤ 40
7. B
8. a. x < −1 b. m ≤ −3 c. x > 17 d. a > 58 e. m ≥ 1 13 f. m ≥ −12
9. a. k > 2 b. a > −5 c. m ≤ 1 23 d. x > 5 e. y ≥ 7 f. d < −2
−6
g. p ≥ 7
h. x ≥ −5 i. m < −2 j. a < 9 k. p ≥ 3 l. x > −4 12
10. a. 5x > 10 b. x − 3 ≤ 5 c. 7 + 3x < 42
−c − b −d − b
11. a. −6.5 < x < −2 b. <x<
a a
12. a. S > 47 b. No c. Answers will vary.
13. a. n < 16 800 km b. Mick travelled less than 16 800 km for the year and his costs stayed below $16 000.
14. $20 000
Exercise 4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

1. a. y b. y c. y d. y
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
x<1 y ≥ –2 x≥0
x=1
2 2 x=0 2 2
1 1 1 y=0 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 2 3 4 5x
–2 –2 –2 –2
y = –2
–3 –3 –3 –3 y<0
–4 –4 –4 –4
2. a. C b. A, C c. A, B d. A, B, C
3, 4
a. y ≥ x + 1 b. y < x − 6 c. y > −x − 2
y y
(6, 0) (–2, 0)
0 x 0 x
(0, –2)
(0, –6)
d. y < 3 − x e. y > x − 2 f. y < 4

y y y
(0, 4)
(0, 3)
(2, 0)
0 (3, 0) x 0 x 0 x
(0, –2)

g. 2x − y < 6 h. y ≤ x − 7 i. x − y > 3
y y y
2x – y < 6
(0, 3)
(3, 0) (7, 0) 0 x
0 x 0 x
(–3, 0)
x–y > 3
(0, –6)
(0, –7)
j. y < x + 7 k. x + 2y ≤ 5 l. y ≤ 3x
y y y
(0, 7)
(1, 3)
(0, 2.5)
(0, 0)
(–7, 0) 0 x 0 (5, 0) x 0 x
x + 2y ≤ 5
5. a. B b. D c. A
6. a. y = 1
2
x +3 b. y ≥ 1
2
x + 3, x > 2, y ≤ 7
7. a. l + s ≤ 30
b. c.
At least 12 small dogs l d. 15 large and 15 small dogs
30
15
0 s
12 30
8. a. y ≤ 2x − 2 b. Answers will vary.
9. a. y = −23x + 3 b. y > −23x + 3 c. y < −23x + 3 d. y ≥ −23x + 3

10. a. y = 11
6
− 16x b. The unshaded region is the required region.
y y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
11. The unshaded region is the required region.

y
4
3
2
1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
0 1 x
Local
–2
minimum
–3
(–2, –1)
–4
Exercise 4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities

1. y (0, 3)
4 ( 85 , 0)
2 (21 , 0)
4
–4 –2–20 2 4 6 x
–4
–6
–8 (0, –8)
–10
Required region is
2. y ≤ 2x + 3 and y ≥ 23x − 2

3. a. y b. y
4 10
2 8
6
–4 –2 0 2 4x 4
–2
–4 2
Required region is –4 –2 0 2 4x
–2
–4
Required region is
c. y d. y
4 10
2 5
–4 –2 0 2 4x 4 20 2 4x
–2 5
–4 10
Required region is Required region is
4. B
5. 12 ≤ x ≤ 2, y ≥ 0, 2x + y ≥ 2, 4x + 3y ≤ 12
6. a. y b. (−2, 8.5), (−2, −3), (2.6, −3)
10
5
‒10 ‒5 5 10
0 x
‒5
‒10
Required region is
7. a. 4 x 4
x 4
x
9 9 9
x x x
4 4 4
9 9 9
x
4
9
c. 5 < x < 13
8. y
8 B
6
4 c a
2
A b C
‒‒1 20 2 4 6 8 10 x
AB: x = 0, AC: y = 0, BC: 3y + 4x = 24

a.
b. x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, 3y + 4x ≤ 24
c. a = 10 units, b = 6 units, c = 8 units
9. a. y = −14x + 3 or x + 4y = 12 and y = −12x + 4 or x + 2y = 8.
b. A(4, 2)
y ≤ −14x + 3 or x + 4y ≤ 12
c.
y ≥ −12x + 4 or x + 2y ≥ 8
x≥4
y≥0
10. y ≥ 0
x + y ≥ 400
x ≥ 125
1
2
x + 14y ≤ 175 or 2x + y ≤ 700

y
700
600 Point of
intersection
500 (125, 450)
400
300 Point of
Point of intersection
200 intersection (300, 100)
(125, 275)
100
x
0 100 200 300 400
Vertices are (125, 275), (125, 450) and (300, 100).
4.10 Review
1. A
2. C
3. E
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. Note: The shaded region is the region required.
a. y b. y c.
y
1 y≤x+1 10
y ≥ 2x + 10
y > 3x –12
–1 0 x –5 0 x
0 4 x
–12
d. y y = 5x e. y x=7 f y
5 1
y ≤ –21 x + 1
0 1 x 0 7 x –2 0 x
x≥7
y < 5x
g.
y h. y i.
y
5 y > –12
9 2x + y ≥ 9
• 0 x
0 –9 x 0 12 x
2 –12
–16• 4x – 3y ≥ 48
8. a. (3, 1) b. (2, 3)
9. a. No b. Yes
10. a. (−2, 1) b. (0, −2) c. (−7.5, 7)
11. a. (2, 7) b. (−5, −3) c. (−2, 2) d. (−73, 73 ) e. (−14, −53) f. (52, −7)
12. a. (5, 2) b. (−2, 3) c. (−3, −1) d. (1, 3) e. (2, −2) f. (4, 2)

13. a. (0, 3) b. (−3, −3) c. (2, 1)
14. Note: The shaded region is the region required.
a. 6
y b. y c. 5x + y < 10 y
7 10
9
y≥3 4 2y – 3x ≥ 12 6
8
5
4 7
2 6
3
2 5
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6x 1 4
3
–2
y≤x+4 –6 –4 –2 –10 2 4 6x 2
–2 1
–4
–3 y + 3x > 0 0 x
–8 –6 –4 –2
–1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
–6 –4
–2
x + 2y < 11

15. a. (5 − √37 19 − 5√37
2
, 2 ), ( 2 ,
5 + √37 19 + 5√37
2 )
b. (−25, −5), (1, 2)

( ), ( 26 , )
15 + √43 −3 + 5√43 15 − √43 −3 − 5√43
c. 26
, 26 26
16. a. Numbers are 9 and 14.

b. Length = 11 metres, width = 6 metres

c.
Chupa-chups cost 45 cents and Whizz fizzes cost 55 cents.
17. Milk $1.75, bread $2.35
18. 13 kangaroos and 8 cockatoos
19. Any false statement that occurs during the solving of simultaneous equations indicates the lines are parallel, and have no
points of intersection.
20. a. d = b + 10
b. 7000 = 70b + 40d

c. b = 60 and d = 70

d.
Number of seats in ‘Bleachers’ is 4200; the number of seats in the ‘Dress circle’ is 2800.
e. $644 000
21. a. CG = 114 + 0.2k b. CS = 90 + 0.32k c.
200 km d. 114 + 0.2k < 90 + 0.32k e. k < 200
22. a. 5400 + 260d = CH
b. 61 days

1. A1 Rentals: C = $35 × 3 + 0.28d
Cut Price Rentals: C = $28 × 3 + 0.3d
2. Comparison of cost of hiring a car from
A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals
C
600
500
Cost ($)
400 C = 105 + 0.28 d

300 (A1 Rentals)
200 C = 84 + 0.30 d
100 (Cut Price Rentals)
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 d
3. 1050 km
4. 1400 km
5. a. A1 Rentals: C = $37 × 3 + 0.28d A1 Rentals: C = $37 × 4 + 0.28d
b.
Cut Price Rentals: C = $30 × 3 + 0.3d Cut Price Rentals: C = $30 × 4 + 0.3d
6. Comparison of cost of hiring a car from
A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals
C Cut Price Rentals (4-day hire)
600
500
Cost ($)
400
A1 Rentals A1 Rentals
300 (4-day hire) (3-day hire)
200
100 Cut Price Rentals
(3-day hire)
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 d
7. The extra cost of $2 per day for both rental companies has not affected the charges they make for the distances travelled.
However, the overall costs have increased.
8. Presentation of the answers will vary. Answers will include:
Travelling 3 days this month:
• If Jim travels 1050 km, the cost will be the same for both rental companies; that is, $399.
• If he travels less than 1050 km, Cut Price Rentals is cheaper.
• If he travels more than 1050 km, A1 Rentals is cheaper.

Travelling 4 days this month:
Travelling 3 days next month:
Travelling 4 days next month:

MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY
TOPIC 5
Trigonometry I
5.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are
embedded just where you need them, at the
point of learning, in your learnON title at
www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to
learn the content and concepts covered in this
topic.

Nearly 2000 years ago, Ptolemy of Alexandria
published the first book of trigonometric
tables, which he used to chart the heavens
and plot the courses of the Moon, stars and
planets. He also created geographical charts and provided instructions on how to create maps. Trigonometry
is the branch of mathematics that makes the whole universe more easily understood.

1. THINK List what you know about trigonometry. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
3. SHARE As a class, create a thinking tool such as a large concept map that shows your class’s knowl-
edge of trigonometry.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
5.1 Overview
5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem
5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
5.4 Trigonometric ratios
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
5.7 Angles of elevation and depression
5.8 Bearings
5.9 Applications
5.10 Review

Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Hypatia (eles-1844)
TOPIC 5 Trigonometry I 167

5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem
5.2.1 Similar right-angled triangles
In the two similar right-angled triangles shown below, the angles are the same and the corresponding sides
are in the same ratio.
D
A 6 cm 10 cm
3 cm 5 cm
B 4 cm C E 8 cm F
The corresponding sides are in the same ratio.

AB AC BC
= =
DE DF EF
To write this using the side lengths of the triangles gives:
AB 3
= =
1
DE 6 2
AC 5
= =
1
DF 10 2
BC 4
= =
1
EF 8 2
This means that for right-angled triangles, when the angles are fixed, the ratios of the sides in the triangle
are constant.
We can examine this idea further by completing the following activity.
Using a protractor and ruler, draw an angle of 70°, measuring horizontal distances of 3 cm, 7 cm and
10 cm as demonstrated in the diagram below.
c
b
a
70°
3 cm
7 cm
10 cm
Note: Diagram not drawn to scale.

Measure the perpendicular heights a, b and c.
a ≈ 8.24 cm b ≈ 19.23 cm c ≈ 27.47 cm
To test if the theory for right-angled triangles, that when the angles are fixed the ratios of the sides in the
triangle are constant, is correct, calculate the ratios of the side lengths.

a 8.24 b 19.23 27.47
≈ ≈ 2.75 ≈ ≈ 2.75 ≈ ≈ 2.75
c
3 3 7 7 10 10
The ratios are the same because the triangles are similar.
This important concept forms the basis of trigonometry.
5.2.2 Review of Pythagoras’ theorem

•• The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle and is always the
c
side that is opposite the right angle. a
•• Pythagoras’ theorem states that in any right-angled triangle, the square of the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The rule is b
written as c = a + b where a and b are the two shorter sides and c is the
2 2 2
hypotenuse.
•• Pythagoras’ theorem gives us a way of finding the length of the third side in a triangle, if we know
the lengths of the two other sides.
5.2.3 Finding the hypotenuse

•• To calculate the length of the hypotenuse when given the length of the two shorter sides, substitute the
known values into the formula for Pythagoras’ theorem, c2 = a2 + b2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
For the triangle at right, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, x,

correct to 1 decimal place. x
5
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c. Remember to
label the hypotenuse as c.
a=5 c=x
b=8
2 Write Pythagoras’ theorem. c2 = a2 + b2

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and simplify. x2 = 52 + 82
= 25 + 64
= 89
4 Take the square root of both sides. Round the positive answer x = ±√89
correct to 1 decimal place, since x > 0. x ≈ 9.4
5.2.4 Finding a shorter side

•• Sometimes a question will give you the length of the hypotenuse and ask you to find one of the shorter
sides. In such examples, we need to rearrange Pythagoras’ formula. Given that c2 = a2 + b2, we can
rewrite this as:
a2 = c2 − b2
or b2 = c2 − a2.

Calculate the length, correct to 1 decimal place, of the unmarked

side of the triangle at right.
14 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c.
Remember to label the hypotenuse as c; it does not matter a
which side is a and which side is b. c = 14
b=8

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and solve 142 = a2 + 82
for a. 196 = a2 + 64
2
a = 196 − 64
= 132
4 Find a by taking the square root of both sides and round a = ±√132
to 1 decimal place (a > 0). ≈ 11.5 cm
•• Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to solve many practical problems.

First model the problem by drawing a diagram, then use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve the
right-angled triangle. Use the result to give a worded answer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A ladder that is 5.5 m long leans up against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is 1.5 m from
the wall. How far up the wall does the ladder reach? Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram and label the sides a, b and c.
Remember to label the hypotenuse as c.
c = 5.5 m
a
b = 1.5 m

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and 5.52 = a2 + 1.52
simplify. 30.25 = a2 + 2.25
a2 = 30.25 − 2.25
= 28
4 Find a by taking the square root of 28. Round to a = ±√28
1 decimal place, a > 0. ≈ 5.3
5 Answer the question in a sentence using words. The ladder reaches 5.3 m up the wall.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Determine the unknown side lengths of the triangle, correct to 2 decimal places.
3x
78 m
2x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c.
b = 3x
c = 78 m
a = 2x

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and 782 = (3x) 2 + (2x) 2
simplify. 6084 = 9x2 + 4x2
6084 = 13x2
4 Rearrange the equation so that the pronumeral is on the 13x2 = 6084

left-hand side of the equation.
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 13. 13x2 6084
=
13 13
x2 = 468
6 Find x by taking the square root of both sides. Round x = ±√468
the answer correct to 2 decimal places. ≈ 21.6333
7 Substitute the value of x into 2x and 3x to find the 2x ≈ 43.27 m
length of the unknown sides. 3x ≈ 64.90 m

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Rounding to a given number of decimal places (doc-5224)
Exercise 5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem

Individual pathways

1–4, 6, 12–15, 17, 20 1–3, 5–8, 12, 15–18, 20, 22 1, 2, 5, 7, 9–11, 19–23

Fluency
1. WE1 For each of the following triangles, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, giving answers correct
to 2 decimal places.
a. 4.7 b. 19.3 c.
804
6.3 27.1
562
d. e. 0.9 f. 152
7.4
87
10.3
2.7
2. WE2 Find the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.

a. s b. c.
u
1.98 8.4
30.1
47.2
2.56 17.52
d. 0.28 e. 2870 f.
v
468
1920 x
0.67 w
114
3. WE3 The diagonal of the rectangular sign at right is 34 cm. If the
height of this sign is 25 cm, find the width.
4. A right-angled triangle has a base of 4 cm and a height of 12 cm.
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse to 2 decimal places.
5. Calculate the lengths of the diagonals (to 2 decimal places) of
squares that have side lengths of:
a. 10 cm b. 17 cm c. 3.2 cm.
6. The diagonal of a rectangle is 90 cm. One side has a length of
50 cm. Determine:
a. the length of the other side
b. the perimeter of the rectangle
c. the area of the rectangle.
7. WE4 Find the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places for each of the following.
a. b. c. 2x
3x 3x
25
4x
18 6x
30
x

Understanding
8. An isosceles triangle has a base of 25 cm and a height of 8 cm. Calculate the length of the two equal
sides.
9. An equilateral triangle has sides of length 18 cm. Find the height of the triangle.
10. A right-angled triangle has a height of 17.2 cm, and a base that is half the height. Calculate the length
of the hypotenuse, correct to 2 decimal places.
11. The road sign shown below is based on an equilateral triangle. Find the height of the sign and, hence,
find its area.
84 cm
12. A flagpole, 12 m high, is supported by three wires, attached from the top of the pole to the ground.
Each wire is pegged into the ground 5 m from the pole. How much
wire is needed to support the pole?
13. Sarah goes canoeing in a large lake. She paddles 2.1 km to the north, 3.8 km
then 3.8 km to the west. Use the triangle at right to find out how far
she must then paddle to get back to her starting point in the shortest
2.1 km
possible way.
Starting point
14. A baseball diamond is a square of side length 27 m. When a runner on first base tries to steal second
base, the catcher has to throw the ball from home base to second base. How far is that throw?
Second base
27 m
First
base
Home base
Catcher
15. A rectangle measures 56 mm by 2.9 cm. Calculate the length of its diagonal in millimetres to
2 decimal places.

16. A rectangular envelope has a length of 24 cm and a diagonal measuring 40 cm. Calculate:
a. the width of the envelope
b. the area of the envelope.
17. A swimming pool is 50 m by 25 m. Peter is bored by his usual
training routine, and decides to swim the diagonal of the pool.
How many diagonals must he swim to complete his normal
distance of 1500 m? Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
18. A hiker walks 2.9 km north, then 3.7 km east. How far in
metres is she from her starting point? Give your answer to
2 decimal places.
19. A square has a diagonal of 14 cm. What is the length of each
side?
Reasoning
20. The triangles below are right-angled triangles. Two possible measurements have been suggested for
the hypotenuse in each case. For each triangle, complete calculations to determine which of the
lengths is correct for the hypotenuse in each case. Show your working.
a. b. c.
60 or 65 273
33 185 or 195
305 or 308
56 175 136
60
21. Four possible side length measurements are 105, 208, 230 and 233. Three of them together produce a
right-angled triangle.
a. Which of the measurements could not be the hypotenuse of the triangle? Explain.
b. Complete as few calculations as possible to calculate which combination of side lengths will produce
a right-angled triangle.
Problem solving
22. The area of the rectangle MNPQ is 588 cm2. Angles M 28 cm N
MRQ and NSP are right angles. y cm
a. Find the integer value of x. R
b. Find the length of MP.
x cm
c. Find the value of y and hence determine the
length of RS.
S
y cm
Q P
23. Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle of side length x cm. B 16 cm E

Angles ADB and DBE are right angles. Find the value of x,
correct to 2 decimal places.
x cm 20 cm
A D C
Reflection
The square root of a number usually gives us both a positive and negative answer. Why do we take
only the positive answer when using Pythagoras’ theorem?

5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
5.3.1 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
•• Many real-life situations involve 3-dimensional (3-D) objects: objects with length, width and height.
Some common 3-D objects used in this section include cuboids, pyramids and right-angled wedges.
Cuboid Pyramid Right-angled wedge
•• In diagrams of 3-D objects, right angles may not look like right angles, so it is important to redraw
sections of the diagram in two dimensions, where the right angles can be seen accurately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Determine the length AG in this rectangular prism (cuboid), correct A B

to two decimal places.
5 cm
C
D
F
E
9 cm
H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw the diagram in three dimensions. A B

Draw the lines AG and EG.
∠AEG is a right angle.
5 cm
C
D
F
E
9 cm
H 10 cm G
2 Draw ΔAEG, showing the right angle. Only 1 side is known, A

so EG must be found.
5
E G
3 Draw EFGH in two dimensions and label the diagonal E F

EG as x.
x
9 9
H G
10
4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate x. (c2 = a2 + b2) x2 = 92 + 102

= 81 + 100
= 181
x= √181

5 Place this information on triangle AEG. Label the side AG as y. A
y
5
E G
√181
6 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find y. (c2 = a2 + b2) y2 = 52 + (√181) 2

= 25 + 181
= 206
y= √206
≈ 14.35
7 Answer the question in a sentence. The length of AG is

14.35 cm.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge sits on a table. It has a rectangular base
measuring 14 cm by 8 cm, and is 4 cm high at the thickest point. An ant crawls diagonally
across the sloping face. How far, to the nearest millimetre, does the ant walk?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram in three dimensions and label the vertices. Mark B C
BD, the path taken by the ant, with a dotted line. ∠BED is a right E 4 cm
F
angle. A 14 cm D
8 cm
2 Draw ΔBED, showing the right angle. Only one side is known, B
so ED must be found.
4
D
E
3 Draw EFDA in two dimensions, and label the diagonal ED. Label E F
the side ED as x in both diagrams.
8 x 8
A 14 D
4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate x. c2 = a2 + b2

x2 = 82 + 142
= 64 + 196
= 260
x = √260
5 Place this information on triangle BED. Label the side BD as y. B
y
4
D
E √260

6 Solve this triangle for y. y2 = 42 + (√260) 2
= 16 + 260
= 276
y = √276
≈ 16.51 cm
≈ 166.1 mm
7 Answer the question in a sentence. The ant walks 166 mm, correct
to the nearest millimetre.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Drawing 3-D shapes (doc-5229)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Pythagoras’ theorem (doc-5230)
Exercise 5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

Individual pathways

1a–b, 2, 6, 7, 8a, 10 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14 1, 3–5, 8–16
Where appropriate in this exercise, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. WE5 Calculate the length of AG in each of the following figures.
a. A B b. A B c. A B
D C
C C
D 8 D 10.4
12
E E
F F
8 E F 9.2
5
H 8 G H 11.5 G
H 5 G
2. Calculate the length of CE in the wedge at right and, hence, obtain AC. A B
E 4
F
D C 7
10
3. If DC = 3.2 m, AC = 5.8 m, and CF = 4.5 m in the figure at right, calculate A B
the length of AD and BF.
F
D C

4. Calculate the length of BD and, hence, the height of the pyramid at right. V
6
A B
6
D
6 C
5. The pyramid ABCDE has a square base. The pyramid is 20 cm high. E
Each sloping edge measures 30 cm. Calculate the length of the sides of the base. EM = 20 cm
A
B
M
D C
6. The sloping side of a cone is 16 cm and the height is 12 cm. What is the length
of the radius of the base?
12 cm 16 cm
r
Understanding
7. WE6 A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge sits B C
on a table. It has a base measuring 20 mm by 10 mm, and is 4 mm
E
4 mm high at the thickest point, as shown in the figure. A fly F
crawls diagonally across the sloping face. How far, to the nearest 10 mm
A 20 mm D
millimetre, does the fly walk? x
8. A 7 m high flagpole is in the corner of a rectangular park that
7m
measures 200 m by 120 m. 200 m A
a. Calculate: 120 m
i. the length of the diagonal of the park B
ii. the distance from A to the top of the pole
iii. the distance from B to the top of the pole.
b. A bird flies from the top of the pole to the centre of the park. How far does it fly?
9. A candlestick is in the shape of two cones, joined at the vertices as shown. The smaller
cone has a diameter and sloping side of 7 cm, and the larger one has a diameter and
sloping side of 10 cm. How tall is the candlestick?
10. The total height of the shape below is 15 cm. Calculate the length of the sloping side of
the pyramid.
15 cm
5 cm
11 cm
11 cm
11. A sandcastle is in the shape of a truncated cone as shown. Calculate the length 20 cm
of the diameter of the base.
30 cm 32 cm

12. A tent is in the shape of a triangular prism, with a height of 140 cm as shown 140 cm
in the following diagram. The width across the base of the door is 1 m and the
tent is 2.5 m long. Calculate the length of each sloping side, in metres. Then
calculate the area of fabric used in the construction of the sloping rectangles 2.5 m
1m
which form the sides.
Reasoning
13. Stephano is renovating his apartment, which he accesses through two corridors. The corridors of the
apartment building are 2 m wide with 2 m high ceilings, and the first corridor is at right angles to the
second. Show that he can carry lengths of timber up to 6 m long to his apartment.
14. The Great Pyramid in Egypt is a square-based pyramid.
The square base has a side length of 230.35 metres and
the perpendicular height is 146.71 metres. Find the slant
height, s cm, of the great pyramid. Give your answer
s cm
correct to 1 decimal place. 146.71 m
230.35 m
Problem solving
15. Angles ABD, CBD and ABC are right angles. Find the value D
of h, correct to 3 decimal places.
35 h
37
B
A
36
C
16. The roof of a squash centre is constructed to allow for maximum
use of sunlight. Find the value of h, giving your answer correct
to 1 decimal place. 57.08 m
y x
h
35 m
x 20 m
Reflection
The diagonal distance across a rectangle of dimensions x by y is √x2 + y2. What would be the rule
to find the length of a diagonal across a cuboid of dimensions x by y by z? Use your rule to check
your answers to question 1.

5.4 Trigonometric ratios
5.4.1 Naming the sides in a right-angled triangle
•• In a right-angled triangle, the longest side is called the hypotenuse. Hypotenuse
Opposite
•• If one of the two acute angles is named (say θ ), then the other two
sides can also be given names, as shown in the diagram.
𝜃
5.4.2 Three basic definitions Adjacent
•• Using the diagram opposite, the following three trigonometric ratios can be defined:
length of opposite side
– the sine ratio, sine θ =
length of hypotenuse
length of adjacent side
– the cosine ratio, cosine θ =
length of hypotenuse
length of opposite side
– the tangent ratio, tangent θ = .
length of adjacent side
•• The names of the three ratios are usually shortened to sin θ , cos θ and tan θ .
•• The three ratios are often remembered using the mnemonic SOHCAHTOA, where SOH means Sin θ =
Opposite over Hypotenuse and so on.
5.4.3 Finding values using a calculator

•• The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle have numerical values that can be found using a calculator.
•• Traditionally angles were measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, where 60 seconds = 1 minute
and 60 minutes = 1 degree.
For example, 50°33′48″ means 50 degrees, 33 minutes and 48 seconds.
Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places, using a calculator.
(Remember to first work to 5 decimal places before rounding.)
a cos 65°57′ b tan 56°45′30″
THINK WRITE
a Write your answer to the required number of decimal a cos 65°57′ ≈ 0.40753
places. ≈ 0.4075
b Write your answer to the correct number of decimal places. b tan 56°45′30″ ≈ 1.52573
≈ 1.5257
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
≈ 1 .5 2 5 7
Calculate the size of angle θ, correct to the nearest degree, given sin θ = 0.7854.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the given equation. sin θ = 0.7854
2 To find the size of the angle, we need to undo sine with its θ = sin−1 0.7854
inverse, sin−1. ≈ 51.8°
(Ensure your calculator is in degrees mode.)
3 Write your answer to the nearest degree. θ ≈ 52°

Calculate the value of θ:

a correct to the nearest minute, given that cos θ = 0.2547
b correct to the nearest second, given that tan θ = 2.364
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a cos θ = 0.2547
2 Write your answer, including seconds. There are cos−1 0.2547 ≈ 75°14′39″
60 seconds in 1 minute. Round to the nearest minute. ≈ 75°15′
(Remember 60″ = 1′, so 39″ is rounded up.)
b 1 Write the equation. b tan θ = 2.364
2 Write the answer, rounding to the nearest second. tan−1 2.364 ≈ 67°4′ 15.8″
≈ 67°4′16″
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
For the triangle shown, write the rules for the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of the given angle.
c
a
𝜃
b
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the diagram using the symbols O, A, H with
respect to the given angle (angle θ).
c=H
a=O
𝜃
b=A
2 From the diagram, identify the values of O (opposite O = a, A = b , H = c

side), A (adjacent side) and H (the hypotenuse).
O O
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
A
3 Write the rule for each of the sine, cosine and tangent
H H A
ratios.
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
a b a
4 Substitute the values of A, O and H into each rule.
c c b

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Write the equation that relates the two marked sides and the marked angle.
a b
22
12
x
8
40°
b
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the given sides of the triangle. a
12 = H
8=O
O
2 Write the ratio that contains O and H. sin θ =
H
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = 8, H = 12
8
sin b = =
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the ratio. (Since 2
the given angle is denoted with the letter b, replace θ with b.) 12 3
b 1 Label the given sides of the triangle. b 22 = A

x=O
40°
O
2 Write the ratio that contains O and A. tan θ =
A
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = x , A = 2 2 , θ = 40°
tan 40° =
x
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the ratio.
22

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Labelling the sides of a right-angled triangle (doc-5226)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Selecting an appropriate trigonometric ratio based on the given
information (doc-5231)
Exercise 5.4 Trigonometric ratios

Individual pathways

1, 3, 6a–f, 7, 8 2–4, 6a–f, 7–9, 11 2, 3, 4, 5, 6c–l, 7–12

Fluency
1. Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
a. sin 30° b. cos 45° c. tan 25°
d. sin 57° e. tan 83° f. cos 44°
2. WE7 Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
a. sin 40°30′ b. cos 53°57′ c. tan 27°34′
d. tan 123°40′ e. sin 92°32′ f. sin 42°8′
g. cos 35°42′35″ h. tan 27°42′50″ i. cos 143°25′23″
j. sin 23°58′21″ k. cos 8°54′2″ l. sin 286°
m. tan 420° n. cos 845° o. sin 367°35′
3. WE8 Find the size of angle θ, correct to the nearest degree, for each of the following.
a. sin θ = 0.763 b. cos θ = 0.912 c. tan θ = 1.351
d. cos θ = 0.321 e. tan θ = 12.86 f. cos θ = 0.756
4. WE9a Find the size of the angle θ, correct to the nearest minute.
a. sin θ = 0.814 b. sin θ = 0.110 c. tan θ = 0.015
d. cos θ = 0.296 e. tan θ = 0.993 f. sin θ = 0.450
5. WE9b Find the size of the angle θ, correct to the nearest second.
a. tan θ = 0.5 b. cos θ = 0.438 c. sin θ = 0.9047
d. tan θ = 1.1141 e. cos θ = 0.8 f. tan θ = 43.76
6. Find the value of each expression, correct to 3 decimal places.
a. 3.8 cos 42° b. 118 sin 37° c. 2.5 tan 83°
2 220 2 cos 23°
d. e. f.
sin 45° cos 14° 5 sin 18°
12.8 18.7 55.7
g. h. i.
tan 60°32′ sin 35°25′42″ cos 89°21′
3.8 tan 1°51′44″ 2.5 sin 27°8′ 3.2 cos 34°52′
j. k. l.
4.5 sin 25°45′ 10.4 cos 83°2′ 0.8 sin 12°48′
Understanding
7. WE10 For each labelled angle in the following triangles, write an expression for:
i. sine ii. cosine iii. tangent.
a. d b. c.
θ h
i β
k
α j
f e g
d. o
e. f.
a b
γ
n β
u
c v
m
γ
t

8. WE11 Write the equation that relates the two marked sides and the marked angle in each of the
following triangles.
a. b. 22
θ
18
15 30
9
c. θ d.
3.6
p
7
θ
e. 18.6
13
f.
t
25° 23.5
α
Reasoning
9. Consider the right-angled triangle shown at right.
a. Label each of the sides using the letters O, A and H with respect to the α
37° angle.
b. Determine the value of each trigonometric ratio. (Where applicable,
answers should be given correct to 2 decimal places.)
i. sin 37°
ii. cos 37°
37°
iii. tan 37°
c. What is the value of the unknown angle, α?
d. Determine the value of each of these trigonometric ratios, correct to 2 decimal places.
i. sin α
ii. cos α
iii. tan α
(Hint: First relabel the sides of the triangle with respect to angle α.)
e. What do you notice about the relationship between sin 37° and cos α?
f. What do you notice about the relationship between sin α and cos 37°?
g. Make a general statement about the two angles.
sin θ
10. Using a triangle labelled with a, h and o and algebra, show that tan θ = .
cos θ
(Hint: Write all the sides in terms of the hypotenuse.)
Problem solving
11. ABC is a scalene triangle with side lengths a, b and c as shown. Angles BDA and BDC are right
angles. B
a. Express h2 in terms of a and x.
b. Express h2 in terms of b, c and x. c a
h
c. Equate the two equations for h to show that c = a + b − 2bx.
2 2 2 2
b–x
d. Use your knowledge of trigonometry to produce the equation A
x
c = a + b − 2ab cos C, which is known as the cosine rule for
2 2 2 D C
b
non-right-angled triangles.

12. Find the length of the side DC in terms of x, y and θ.
D
θ
B y C
Reflection
How do we determine which of sin, cos or tan to use in a trigonometry question?
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

5.5.1 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
In a right-angled triangle if one side length and one acute angle are known, the lengths of the other sides
can be found by applying trigonometric ratios.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Find the value of each pronumeral giving answers correct to 3 decimal places.
a b
6 cm 32°
a
0.346 cm f
35°
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the marked sides of the triangle. a
H O
6 cm
a
35°
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio sin θ =
H
to use.
sin 35° =
a
3 Substitute O = a, H = 6 and θ = 35°.
6
4 Make a the subject of the equation. 6 sin 35° = a

a = 6 sin 35°
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to a ≈ 3.441 cm
3 decimal places.

b 1 Label the marked sides of the triangle. b
32°
H A
0.346 cm f
cos θ =
A
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to
H
use.
f
3 Substitute A = f , H = 0.346 and θ = 32°. cos 32° =
0.346
4 Make f the subject of the equation. 0.346 cos 32° = f
f = 0.346 cos 32°
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to ≈ 0.293 cm
3 decimal places.
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
120 m
5°
P
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the marked sides of the triangle. H O
120 m
5°
A P
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to use. O

tan θ =
A
3 Substitute O = 120, A = P and θ = 5°. 120
tan 5° =
P
4 Make P the subject of the equation. P × tan 5° = 120
120
i. Multiply both sides of the equation by P. P =
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by tan 5°. tan 5°
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to P ≈ 1371.61 m
2 decimal places.
Try out this interactivity: Using trigonometry (int-1146)

Exercise 5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
Individual pathways

1–5, 8 1–6, 8, 9 1–10
Fluency
1. WE12 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a. b.
8
10 cm 25°
a a
60°
c.
31°
14
2. WE13 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following triangles, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. 4.6 m
71°
13°
m
n
2.3 m
c.
94 mm
68°
t
3. Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. 8 P
°52
'45
''
11.7 m
43.95 m
40°26'
x

c. 14 m d.
t
2'
°1
18 '
° 42 11.2 mm
34
e. f. 6°25'
x
80.9 cm
x
75.23 km
21°25'34"
4. Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. x b. 23.7 m
36°42'
43.9 cm y
46°
c. d.
34
z p
°1
2'
12.3 m 15.3 m
13°12'
e. f.
q 0.732 km
p
73°5' a
63°11'
47.385 km b
Understanding
5. Given that the angle θ is 42° and the length of the hypotenuse is 8.95 m in a right-angled triangle,
find the length of:
a. the opposite side
b. the adjacent side.
Give each answer correct to 1 decimal point.
6. A ladder rests against a wall. If the angle between the ladder and the ground is 35° and the foot of the
ladder is 1.5 m from the wall, how high up the wall does the ladder reach?

Reasoning
7. Tran is going to construct an enclosed rectangular desktop that is at an incline of 15°. The diagonal
length of the desktop is 50 cm. At the high end, the desktop, including top, bottom and sides, will be
raised 8 cm. The desktop will be made of wood. The diagram below represents this information.
Side view of the desktop
x
8 cm
15°
y
Top view of the desktop

z
50 cm
a. Determine the values (in centimetres) of x, y and z of the desktop. Write your answers correct to
2 decimal places.
b. Using your answer from part a determine the minimum area of wood, in cm2, Tran needs to construct
his desktop including top, bottom and sides. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
8. a. In a right-angled triangle, under what circumstances will the opposite side and the adjacent side have
the same length?
b. In a right-angled triangle, for what values of θ (the reference angle) will the adjacent side be longer
than the opposite side?
Problem solving
9. A surveyor needs to determine the height of a building. She measures the angle of elevation of the top
of the building from two points, 64 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 195 cm above the ground.
47°48 36°2
ʹ 4ʹ
x 64 m 195 cm
a. Find the expressions for the height of the building, h, in terms of x using the two angles.
b. Solve for x by equating the two expressions obtained in part a. Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
c. Find the height of the building correct to 2 decimal places.
10. If angles QNM, QNP and MNP are right angles, find the length of NQ.
N
x y
30° 45°
M 120 P

Reflection
How does solving a trigonometric equation differ when we are finding the length of the hypotenuse
side compared to when finding the length of a shorter side?
5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size

5.6.1 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
•• Just as inverse operations are used to solve equations, inverse trigonometric ratios are used to solve
trigonometric equations for the value of the angle.
– Inverse sine (sin−1) is the inverse of sine.
– Inverse cosine (cos−1) is the inverse of cosine.
– Inverse tangent (tan−1) is the inverse of tangent.
For example, since sin (30°) = 0.5, then sin−1 (0.5) = 30°; this is read as ‘inverse sine of 0.5 is
30 degrees’.
If sin θ = a, then sin−1 a = θ .

If cos θ = a, then cos−1 a = θ .
If tan θ = a, then tan−1 a = θ .
•• A calculator can be used to calculate the values of inverse trigonometric ratios.

•• The size of any angle in a right-angled triangle can be found if:
– the lengths of any two sides are known
– an appropriate trigonometric ratio is identified from the given lengths
– a calculator is used to evaluate the inverse trigonometric ratio.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
For each of the following, find the size of the angle, θ, correct to the nearest degree.
a b
5m
5 cm
3.5 cm
𝜃
𝜃 11 m
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the given sides of the triangle. a
H O
5 cm
3.5 cm
𝜃
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to sin θ =
H
use. We are given O and H.

3 Substitute O = 3.5 and H = 5 and evaluate
3.5
sin θ =
5
the expression. = 0.7
4 Make θ the subject of the equation using θ = sin−1 0.7
inverse sine. = 44.427 004°
5 Evaluate θ and round the answer, correct to θ ≈ 44°
the nearest degree.
b 1 Label the given sides of the triangle. b O
5m
𝜃
11 m A
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to tan θ =
A
use. Given O and A.
5
3 Substitute O = 5 and A = 11. tan θ =
11
(11)
5
4 Make θ the subject of the equation using θ = tan−1
inverse tangent.
= 24.443 954 78°
5 Evaluate θ and round the answer, correct to θ ≈ 24°
the nearest degree.
Find the size of angle θ: 3.1 m A

a correct to the nearest second θ
b correct to the nearest minute.
O
7.2 m
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the given sides of the triangle. a 3.1 m A
θ
O
7.2 m
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio tan θ =
A
to use.
3 Substitute O = 7.2 and A = 3.1.
7.2
tan θ =
3.1

(3.1)
7.2
4 Make θ the subject of the equation using θ = tan−1
inverse tangent.
5 Evaluate θ and write the calculator display. θ = 66.705 436 75°
6 Use the calculator to convert the answer to = 66°42′19.572″
degrees, minutes and seconds.
7 Round the answer to the nearest second. θ ≈ 66° 42′20″
b Round the answer to the nearest minute. b θ ≈ 66° 42′
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Rounding angles to the nearest degree (doc-5232)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Using trigonometry (doc-5233)
Exercise 5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size

Individual pathways

1–3–6, 8 1–6, 8, 10 1–11
Fluency
1. WE14 Find the size of the angle, θ, in each of the following. Give your answer correct to the nearest
degree.
a. b. c.
5.2 4.7
4.8 8
θ θ
θ
3.2
3
2. WE15b Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give your
answer correct to the nearest minute.
a. b. 7.2 m c.
β
12
17
4m θ
10
θ
12

3. WE15a Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give your
answer correct to the nearest second.
a. b. α c.
5m
8 2.7
α
3m
3.5
θ
2
4. Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following, giving your answer
correct to the nearest degree.
a. b.
13.5 a 89.4
15.3
c
77.3
c. 106.4 d.
d
43.7
18.7
92.7
b
e. f.
12.36
13.85 7.3 cm 12.2 cm
e
18.56
9.8 cm α
5. Find the size of each of the angles in the following, giving your answers correct to the nearest minute.
a. b. c.
d x
a 5.7
0.798 2.3
56.3
y
0.342 e
b
27.2
Understanding
6. a. Calculate the length of the sides r, l and h. Write your answers A
correct to 2 decimal places. r
b. Calculate the area of ABC, correct to the nearest square centimetre. h l
125°
c. Calculate ∠BCA. D
20 cm B 30 cm C

7. In the sport of air racing, small planes have to travel between two large towers (or pylons). The
gap between a pair of pylons is smaller than the wing-span of the plane, so the plane has to go
through on an angle with one wing ‘above’ the other. The wing-span of a competition airplane is
8 metres.
a. Determine the angle, correct to 1 decimal place, that the plane has to tilt if the gap between pylons is:
i. 7 metres ii. 6 metres iii. 5 metres.
b. Because the plane has rolled away from the horizontal as it travels between the pylons it loses speed.
If the plane’s speed is below 96 km/h it will stall and possibly crash. For each degree of ‘tilt’ the
speed of the plane is reduced by 0.98 km/h. What is the minimum speed the plane must go through
each of the pylons in part a? Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Reasoning
8. There are two important triangles commonly used in trigonometry. Complete the following steps and
answer the questions to create these triangles.
Triangle 1
– Sketch an equilateral triangle with side length 2 units.
– Calculate the size of the internal angles.
– Bisect the triangle to form two right-angled triangles.
– Redraw one of the triangles formed.
– Calculate the side lengths of this right-angled triangle as exact values.
– Fully label your diagram showing all side lengths and angles.
Triangle 2
– Draw a right-angled isosceles triangle.
– Calculate the sizes of the internal angles.
– Let the sides of equal length be 1 unit long.
– Calculate the length of the third side.
– Fully label your diagram showing all side lengths and angles.
9. a. Use the triangles formed in question 8 to calculate exact values for sin 30°, cos 30° and tan 30°.
Justify your answers.
sin 30°
b. Use the exact values for sin 30°, cos 30° and tan 30° to show that tan 30° = .
cos 30°
sin θ
c. Use the formulas sin θ = and cos θ = to prove that tan θ =
o a
.
h h cos θ

Problem solving
10. During a Science excursion, your class visited an underground cave to observe rock formations. You
were required to walk along a series of paths and steps as shown in the diagram below.
Site 3
1.6 km
1.4 km
Site 2
2.1 km
Site 1
2 km
3.8 km
1 km
a. Calculate the angle of the incline (slope) you have to travel down between each site. Give your
answers to the nearest whole number.
b. Determine which path would have been the most challenging; that is, which path had the steepest slope.
11. Find the angle θ in degrees and minutes.
6
θ
100°
2
Reflection
How is finding the angle of a right-angled triangle different to finding a side length?
CHALLENGE 5.1
At midday, the hour hand and the minute hand on a standard clock
are both pointing at the twelve. Calculate the angles the minute hand
and the hour hand have moved 24.5 minutes later. Express both
answers in degrees and minutes.

5.7 Angles of elevation and depression
5.7.1 Angles of elevation and depression
•• Consider the points A and B, where B is at a higher elevation than A.
B
θ = angle of elevation of B
from A
A θ
Horizontal
If a horizontal line is drawn from A as shown, forming the angle θ, then θ is called the angle of
elevation of B from A.
•• If a horizontal line is drawn from B, forming the angle α, then α is called the angle of depression of
A from B.
Horizontal
B
α
α = angle of depression
of A from B
A
•• Because the horizontal lines are parallel, θ and α have the same size (alternate angles).
α B
θ=α
θ
A
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
From a point P, on the ground, the angle of elevation of the top of a tree is 50°. If P is 8 metres
from the tree, find the height of the tree correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Let the height of the tree be h. Sketch a diagram and show
the relevant information.
h
O
50°
8m A
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio. tan θ =
A
3 Substitute O = h, A = 8 and θ = 50 °. tan 50° =
h
8
4 Rearrange to make h the subject. h = 8 tan 50°
5 Calculate and round the answer to 2 decimal places. ≈ 9.53
6 Give a worded answer. The height of the tree is 9.53 m.

Watch this eLesson: Height of a satellite (eles-0173)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Drawing a diagram from given directions (doc-5228)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Elevation and depression (doc-5234)
Exercise 5.7 Angles of elevation and depression

Individual pathways

1–5, 8, 10 1–6, 9, 10, 14, 15 1–7, 9, 11–16
Fluency
1. WE16 From a point P on the ground the angle of elevation from an observer to the top of a tree is
54°22′. If the tree is known to be 12.19 m high, how far is P from the tree (measured horizontally)?
2. From the top of a cliff 112 m high, the angle of depression to a boat is 9°15′. How far is the boat from
the foot of the cliff?
3. A person on a ship observes a lighthouse on the cliff, which is 830 metres away from the ship. The
angle of elevation of the top of the lighthouse is 12°.
a. How far above sea level is the top of the lighthouse?
b. If the height of the lighthouse is 24 m, how high is the cliff?
4. At a certain time of the day a post, 4 m tall, casts a shadow of 1.8 m. What is the angle of elevation of
the sun at that time?
5. An observer who is standing 47 m from a building measures the angle of elevation of the top of the
building as 17°. If the observer’s eye is 167 cm from the ground, what is the height of the building?
Understanding
6. A surveyor needs to determine the height of a building. She measures the angle of elevation of the top
of the building from two points, 38 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 180 cm above the ground.
47°12 35°5
' 0'
x 38 m 180 cm
a. Find two expressions for the height of the building, h, in terms of x using the two angles.
b. Solve for x by equating the two expressions obtained in a.
c. Find the height of the building.

7. The height of another building needs to be determined but cannot be found directly. The surveyor
decides to measure the angle of elevation of the top of the building from different sites, which are
75 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 189 cm above the ground.
43°35 32°1
' 8'
x 75 m 189 cm
a. Find two expressions for the height of the building above the surveyor’s eye level, h, in terms of x
using the two angles.
b. Solve for x.
c. Find the height of the building.
8. A lookout tower has been erected on top of a cliff. At a distance of 5.8 km from the foot of the cliff,
the angle of elevation to the base of the tower is 15.7° and to the observation deck at the top of the
tower is 16° respectively, as shown in the figure below. How high from the top of the cliff is the obser-
vation deck?
16°
15.7°
5.8 km
9. Elena and Sonja were on a camping trip to the Grampians, 1.3 km Angle of depression
where they spent their first day hiking. They first walked 20°
1.5 km
1.5 km along a path inclined at an angle of 10° to the 10°
150 m
horizontal. Then they had to follow another path, which was at 1.4 km
an angle of 20° to the horizontal. They walked along this path
for 1.3 km, which brought them to the edge of the cliff. Here Elena spotted a large gum tree 1.4 km
away. If the gum tree is 150 m high, what is the angle of depression from the top of the cliff to the top
of the gum tree? 32°
10. From a point on top of a cliff, two boats are observed. If the 58°
angles of depression are 58° and 32° and the cliff is 46 m above 46 m
sea level, how far apart are the boats?

11. The competitors of a cross-country run are nearing the finish line. 40°
From a lookout 100 m above the track, the angles of depression to the 62°
two leaders, Nathan and Rachel, are 40° and 62° respectively. How
far apart are the two competitors? 100 m
12. A 2.05 m tall man, standing in front of a street light 3.08 m high,
casts a 1.5 m shadow.
a. What is the angle of elevation from the ground to the source of
light? 2.05 m
3.08 m
b. How far is the man from the bottom of the light pole?
1.5 m
Reasoning
13. Joseph is asked to obtain an estimate of the height of his house
using any mathematical technique. He decides to use an
inclinometer and basic trigonometry. Using the inclinometer,
Joseph determines the angle of elevation, θ, from his eye level to x
the top of his house to be 42°. The point from which Joseph θ
measures the angle of elevation is 15 m away from his house and
the distance from Joseph’s eyes to the ground is 1.76 m. h d
a. Fill in the given information on the diagram provided (substitute
values for the pronumerals).
b. Determine the height of Joseph’s house.
14. The angle of elevation of a vertically rising hot air balloon
changes from 27° at 7.00 am to 61° at 7.03 am, according to an
observer who is 300 m away from the take-off point.
a. Assuming a constant speed, calculate that speed (in m/s and
km/h) at which the balloon is rising, correct to 2 decimal
places.
b. The balloon then falls 120 metres. What is the angle of elevation
now? Write your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Problem solving
15. The angle of depression from the top of one building to the foot of another building across the same
street and 45 metres horizontally away is 65°. The angle of depression to the roof of the same building
is 30°. Calculate the height of the shorter building.
30°
65°
45 m

16. P and Q are two points on a horizontal line that
are 120 metres apart. The angles of elevation from
P and Q to the top of a mountain are 36° and
42° respectively. Find the height of the mountain
correct to 1 decimal place.
36° 42°
P 120 m Q
Reflection
What is the difference between an angle of elevation and an angle of depression?
5.8 Bearings
5.8.1 Bearings
•• A bearing gives the direction of travel from one point or object to another.
•• The bearing of B from A tells how to get to B from A. A compass rose would be drawn at A.
N B
W E
A
S
To illustrate the bearing of A from B, a compass rose would be drawn at B.
N
W E
B
S
A
•• There are two ways in which bearings are commonly written. They are compass bearings and true
bearings.
5.8.2 Compass bearings

•• A compass bearing (for example N40°E or S72°W) has three parts.
– The first part is either N or S (for north or south).
– The second part is an acute angle.
– The third part is either E or W (for east or west).
•• For example, the compass bearing S20°E means start by facing south and then turn 20° towards the
east. This is the direction of travel.
N40°W means start by facing north and then turn 40° towards the west.

N N40°W N
40°
W E W E
20°
S20°E
S S
5.8.3 True bearings

•• True bearings are measured from north in a clockwise direction and are expressed in 3 digits.
•• The diagrams below show the bearings of 025° true and 250° true respectively. (These true bearings
are more commonly written as 025°T and 250°T.)
N 025°T N
25°
W E W E
250°
250°T
S S
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
A boat travels a distance of 5 km from P to Q in a direction of 035°T.

a How far east of P is Q?
b How far north of P is Q?
c What is the true bearing of P from Q?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a diagram showing the distance and bearing of a Q

Q from P. Complete a right-angled triangle travelling θ
x km due east from P and then y km due north to Q. N
y
35°
P x
2 To determine how far Q is east of P, we need to O

sin θ =
find the value of x. We are given the length of the H
hypotenuse (H) and need to find the length of the
opposite side (O). Write the sine ratio.
3 Substitute O = x, H = 5 and θ = 35°. sin 35° =
x
5
4 Make x the subject of the equation. x = 5 sin 35°
5 Evaluate and round the answer, correct to 2 decimal ≈ 2.87
places.

6 Write the answer in words. Point Q is 2.87 km east of P.
b cos θ =
A
b 1 To determine how far Q is north of P, we need to
H
find the value of y. This can be done in several ways,
namely: using the cosine ratio, the tangent ratio, or
Pythagoras’ theorem. Write the cosine ratio.
y
2 Substitute A = y, H = 5 and = 35°. cos 35° =
5
3 Make y the subject of the equation. y = 5 cos 35°
4 Evaluate and round the answer, correct to 2 decimal ≈ 4.10
places.
5 Write the answer in words. Point B is 4.10 km north of A.
c 1 To find the bearing of P from Q, draw a compass rose c N
at Q. The true bearing is given by ∠ θ .
Q θ
35°
P x
2 The value of θ is the sum of 180° (from north to True bearing = 180° + α
south) and 35°. Write the value of θ. α = 35°
True bearing = 180° + 35°
= 215°
3 Write the answer in words. The bearing of P from Q is 215°T.
•• Sometimes a journey includes a change in directions. In such cases, each section of the journey should
be dealt with separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
A boy walks 2 km on a true bearing of 090° and then 3 km on a true bearing of 130°.
a How far east of the starting point is the boy at the completion of his walk? (Answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
b How far south of the starting point is the boy at the completion of his walk? (Answer correct
to 1 decimal place.)
c To return directly to his starting point, how far must the boy walk and on what bearing?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a diagram of the boy’s journey. The first leg of a N N

the journey is due east. Label the easterly component
2 130°
x and the southerly component y. E
O P
50°
y 3
x Q

sin θ =
O
2 Write the ratio to find x.
H
3 Substitute O = x, H = 3 and θ = 50°. sin 50° =
x
3
5 Evaluate and round correct to 1 decimal place. ≈ 2.3 km
6 Add to this the 2 km east that was walked in the first Total distance east = 2 + 2.3
leg of the journey and give a worded answer. = 4.3 km
The boy is 4.3 km east of the starting
point.
b 1 To find y (see the diagram in part a) we can use b Distance south = y km
Pythagoras’ theorem, as we know the lengths of two a2 = c2 − b2
out of three sides in the right-angled triangle. Round y2 = 32 − 2.32
the answer correct to 1 decimal place. Note: Alterna- = 9 − 5.29
tively, the cosine ratio could have been used. = 3.71
y = √3.71
= 1.9 km
2 Write the answer in words. The boy is 1.9 km south of the starting
point.
c 1 Draw a diagram of the journey and write in the c O 4.3
results found in parts a and b. Draw a compass rose
1.9
at Q. N
z
α
Q
β
2 Find z using Pythagoras’ theorem. z2 = 1.92 + 4.32

= 22.1
z= √22.1
≈ 4.70
4.3
3 Find α using trigonometry. tan α =
1.9
(1.9)
4 Make α the subject of the equation using the inverse 4.3
α = tan−1
tangent function.
5 Evaluate and round to the nearest minute. = 66.161259 82°

= 66°9′40.535″
= 66°10′
6 The angle β gives the bearing. β = 360° − 66°10′

= 293°50′
7 Write the answer in words. The boy travels 4.70 km on a
bearing of 293°50 T.

Exercise 5.8 Bearings
Individual pathways

1, 2, 3a–d, 4a–b, 5–7, 11 1, 2, 3, 4a–c, 5–8, 11, 13 1–6, 8–14
Fluency
1. Change each of the following compass bearings to true bearings.
a. N20°E b. N20°W c. S35°W
d. S28°E e. N34°E f. S42°W
2. Change each of the following true bearings to compass bearings.
a. 049°T b. 132°T c. 267°T
d. 330°T e. 086°T f. 234°T
3. Describe the following paths using true bearings.
a. N b. N
3k
35°
m
W E
22°
2.5
km
c. N d. N
35° 2.5 km
4 km
W E
35°
m
8k
e. N f. N
N N
12 30
km 0m
65°
50° m 40° 50°
7k
0m
50

4. Show each of the following journeys as a diagram.
a. A ship travels 040°T for 40 km and then 100°T for 30 km.
b. A plane flies for 230 km in a direction 135°T and a further 140 km in a direction 240°T.
c. A bushwalker travels in a direction 260°T for 0.8 km, then changes direction to 120°T for 1.3 km,
and finally travels in a direction of 32° for 2.1 km.
d. A boat travels N40°W for 8 km, then changes direction to S30°W for 5 km and then S50°E for 7 km.
e. A plane travels N20°E for 320 km, N70°E for 180 km and S30°E for 220 km.
5. WE17 a. A yacht travels 20 km from A to B on a bearing of 042°T:
i. how far east of A is B?
ii. how far north of A is B?
iii. what is the bearing of A from B?
b. The yacht then sails 80 km from B to C on a bearing of 130°T.
i. Show the journey using a diagram.
ii. How far south of B is C?
iii. How far east of B is C?
iv. What is the bearing of B from C?
6. If a farmhouse is situated 220 m N35°E from a shed, what is the true bearing of the shed from the
house?
Understanding
7. A pair of hikers travel 0.7 km on a true bearing of 240° and then 1.3 km on a true bearing of 300°.
How far west have they travelled from their starting point?
8. WE18 A boat travels 6 km on a true bearing of 120° and then 4 km on a true bearing of 080°.
a. How far east is the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
b. How far south is the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
c. What is the bearing of the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
9. A plane flies on a true bearing of 320° for 450 km. It then flies on a true bearing of 350° for 130 km
and finally on a true bearing of 050° for 330 km. How far north of its starting point is the plane?
Reasoning
10. A bushwalker leaves her tent and walks due east for 4.12 km, then walks a further 3.31 km on a bear-
ing of N20°E. If she wishes to return directly to her tent, how far must she walk and what bearing
should she take? (Answer to the nearest degree.)

11. A car travels due south for 3 km and then due east for 8 km. What is the bearing of the car from its
starting point? (Answer to the nearest degree.)
12. If the bearing of A from O is θ °T, then what is the bearing of O from A:
a. if 0° < θ° < 180° b. if 180° < θ° < 360°?
Problem solving
13. A boat sails on a compass direction of E12°S for 10 km then changes direction to S27°E for another
20 km. The boat then decides to return to its starting point.
A
12°
10 km B
27°
20 km
a. How far, correct to 2 decimal places, is the boat from its starting point?
b. On what bearing should the boat travel to return to its starting point? Write the angle correct to the
nearest degree.
14. Samantha and Tim set off early from the car park of a national park to hike for the day. Initially they
walk N60°E for 12 km to see a spectacular waterfall. They then change direction and walk in a south-
easterly direction for 6 km, then stop for lunch. Give all answers correct to 2 decimal places.
a. Make a scale diagram of the hiking path they completed.
b. How far north of the car park are they at the lunch stop?
c. How far east of the car park are they at the lunch stop?
d. What is the bearing of the lunch stop from the car park?
Samantha and Tim then walk directly back to the car park.
e. Calculate the distance they have covered after lunch.
Reflection
What is the difference between true bearings and compass directions?
CHALLENGE 5.2
Starting from their base in the national park, a group of
bushwalkers travel 1.5 km at a true bearing of 030°, then 3.5 km
at a true bearing of 160°, and then 6.25 km at a true bearing of
300°. How far, and at what true bearing, should the group walk
to return to its base?

5.9 Applications
5.9.1 Applications of trigonometry
•• When applying trigonometry to practical situations, it is essential to draw good mathematical
diagrams using points, lines and angles.
•• Several diagrams may be required to show all the necessary right-angled triangles.
A ladder of length 3 m makes an angle of 32° with the wall.

a How far is the foot of the ladder from the wall?
b How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
c What angle does the ladder make with the ground?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Sketch a diagram and label the sides of the right-angled
triangle with respect to the given angle.
A
3m 32°
H y
α x
O
O
a 1 We need to find the distance of the foot of the ladder from a sin θ =
H
the wall (O) and are given the length of the ladder (H).
Write the sine ratio.
sin 32° =
x
2 Substitute O = x, H = 3 and θ = 32°.
3
4 Evaluate and round the answer to 2 decimal places. ≈ 1.59 m
5 Write the answer in words. The foot of the ladder is 1.59 m
from the wall.
b cos θ =
b 1 We need to find the height the ladder reaches up the A
H
wall (A) and are given the hypotenuse (H). Write the
cosine ratio.
y
2 Substitute A = y, H = 3 and θ = 32°. cos 32° =
3
3 Make y the subject of the equation. y = 3 cos 32°
4 Evaluate and round the answer to 2 decimal places. y ≈ 2.54 m
5 Write the answer in words. The ladder reaches 2.54 m up the
wall.
c 1 To find the angle that the ladder makes with the ground, c α + 90° + 32° = 180°
we could use any of the trigonometric ratios, as the α + 122° = 180°
lengths of all three sides are known. However, it is α = 180° − 122°
quicker to use the angle sum of a triangle. α = 58°
2 Write the answer in words. The ladder makes a 58° angle with
the ground.

Try out this interactivity: Drafting problems (int-2781)
Exercise 5.9 Applications

Individual pathways

1–4, 8, 10, 15 1–5, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12–17
Fluency
1. A carpenter wants to make a roof pitched at 29°30′, as shown in the diagram. How long should he cut
the beam, PR?
R
29°30'
P Q
10.6 m
2. The mast of a boat is 7.7 m high. A guy wire from the top of the mast is fixed to the deck 4 m from
the base of the mast. Determine the angle the wire makes with the horizontal.
Understanding
3. A steel roof truss is to be made to the following design.
20°
10 m
a. How high is the truss?

b. What is the total length of steel required to make the truss?
4. WE19 A ladder that is 2.7 m long is leaning against a wall at an angle of 20° as shown.
T
20°
2.7 m
W B
If the base of the ladder is moved 50 cm further away from the wall, what angle will the ladder make
with the wall?

5. A wooden framework is built as shown.
C
5m
38°
A B
Bella plans to reinforce the framework by adding a strut from C to the midpoint of AB. What will be
the length of the strut?
6. Atlanta is standing due south of a 20 m flagpole at a point where the angle of elevation of the top of
the pole is 35°. Ginger is standing due east of the flagpole at a point where the angle of elevation of
the top of the pole is 27°. How far is Ginger from Atlanta?
7. From a point at ground level, Henry measures the angle of elevation of the top of a tall building to be
41°. After walking directly towards the building, he finds the angle of elevation to be 75°. If the build-
ing is 220 m tall, how far did Henry walk between measurements?
8. Sailing towards a mountain peak of height 893 m, Imogen measured the angle of elevation to
be 14°. A short time later the angle of elevation was 27°. How far had Imogen sailed in that time?
9. A desk top of length 1.2 m and width 0.5 m rises to 10 cm.
E F
10 cm
0.5 m C D
A 1.2 m B
Calculate:
a. ∠DBF b. ∠CBE.
10. A cuboid has a square end.

H G
X
D C
E F
O
45 cm
A 25 cm B
a. If the length of the cuboid is 45 cm and its height and width are 25 cm each, calculate:
i. the length of BD ii. the length of BG iii. the length of BE
iv. the length of BH v. ∠FBG vi. ∠EBH.
b. If the midpoint of FG is X and the centre of the rectangle ABFE is O calculate:
i. the length OF ii. the length FX
iii. ∠FOX iv. the length OX.

11. In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the base is 12 cm and the height is 26 cm.
26 cm
12 cm
Determine:
a. the angle the triangular face makes with the base
b. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base
c. the length of the sloping edge.
12. In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the square base is 5.7 cm.
68°
5.7 cm
If the angle between the triangular face and the base is 68°, determine:
a. the height of the pyramid
b. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base
c. the length of the sloping edge.
13. In a right square-based pyramid, the height is 47 cm. If the angle between a triangular face and the
base is 73°, calculate:
a. the length of the side of the square base
b. the length of the diagonal of the base
c. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base.
Reasoning
14. Aldo the carpenter is lost in a rainforest. He comes across a large river and he knows that he can not
swim across it. Aldo intends to build a bridge across the river. He draws some plans to calculate the
distance across the river as shown in the diagram below.
72°
River Tree
4.5 cm
88°

a. Aldo used a scale of 1 cm to represent 20 m. Find the real-life distance represented by 4.5 cm in
Aldo’s plans.
b. Use the diagram below to write an equation for h in terms of d and the two angles.
h
θ1 θ2
d–x x
d
c. Use your equation from b to find the distance across the river, correct to the nearest metre.
15. A block of cheese is in the shape of a rectangular prism as shown. The cheese is to be sliced with
a wide blade that can slice it in one go. Calculate the angle (to the vertical) that the blade must be
inclined if:
a. the block is to be sliced diagonally into two identical triangular wedges
4.8 cm
7.4 cm
10 cm
b. the blade is to be placed in the middle of the block and sliced through to the bottom corner, as
shown.
4.8 cm
7.4 cm
10 cm
Problem solving
16. A sphere of radius length 2.5 cm rests in a hollow inverted cone as shown. The height of the cone is
12.5 cm and its vertical angle is equal to 36°.
2.5 cm
h
a. Find the distance, d, from the tip of the cone to the point of contact with the sphere.
b. Find the distance, h, from the open end of the cone to the bottom of the ball.

17. The ninth hole on a municipal golf course is 630 m from the tee. A golfer drives a ball from the tee a
distance of 315 m at a 10° angle off the direct line as shown.
Hole
630 m
10°
315 m
Tee
Find how far the ball is from the hole and state the angle of the direct line that the ball must be hit
along to go directly to the hole. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
Reflection
What are some real-life applications of trigonometry?
5.10 Review
Fluency
1. The most accurate measure for the length of the third side in the triangle below is:
a. 4.83 m b. 23.3 cm c. 3.94 m d. 2330 mm e. 4826 mm
5.6 m
2840 mm
2. What is the value of x in this figure?

a. 5.4 b. 7.5 c. 10.1 d. 10.3 e. 4
x
5
2 7

3. What is the closest length of AG of the cube below?
a. 10 b. 30 c. 20 d. 14 e. 17
A B
C
D 10
E
F
10
H 10 G
4. If sin 38° = 0.6157, which of the following will also give this result?
a. sin 218° b. sin 322° c. sin 578° d. sin 682° e. sin 142°
5. The angle 118°52′34″ is also equal to:
a. 118.5234° b. 11852
34
° c. 118.861° d. 118.876° e. 118.786°
6. Which trigonometric ratio for the triangle shown below is incorrect?
a. sin α = bc b. sin α = ac c. cos α = ac d. tan α = ba e. tan θ = a
b
a b
α θ
c
7. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. sin 55° = cos 55° b. sin 45° = cos 35° c. cos 15° = sin 85°
d. sin 30° = sin 60° e. sin 42° = cos 48°
8. Which of the following can be used to find the value of x in the diagram below?
28.7
35°
x
a. 28.7 sin 35° b. 28.7 cos 35° c. 28.7 tan 35° d. sin28.7
35°
e. cos28.7
35°
9. Which of the following expressions can be used to find the value of a in the triangle shown?
75
35
a. 35 sin 75° b. sin−1 35

75
c. sin−1 75
35
d. cos−1 35
75
10. If a school is 320 m S42°W from the police station, what is the true bearing of the police station from
the school?
a. 042°T b. 048°T c. 222°T d. 228°T e. 312°T

11. Calculate x, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. 117 mm
x
82 mm x
123.1 cm
48.7 cm
12. Calculate the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.

13.4 cm
x x
13. Calculate the height of this pyramid.
10 mm
8 mm
8 mm
14. A person standing 23 m away from a tree observes the top of the tree at an angle of elevation of 35°.
If the person’s eye level is 1.5 m from the ground, what is the height of the tree?
15. A man with an eye level height of 1.8 m stands at the window of a tall building. He observes his
young daughter in the playground below. If the angle of depression from the man to the girl is 47° and
the floor on which the man stands is 27 m above the ground, how far from the bottom of the building
is the child?
16. A plane flies 780 km in a direction of 185°T. How far west has it travelled from the starting point?
17. A hiker travels 3.2 km on a bearing of 250°T and then 1.8 km on a bearing of 320°T. How far west
has she travelled from the starting point?
18. If a 4 m ladder is placed against a wall and the foot of the ladder is 2.6 m from the wall, what angle
(in degrees and minutes) does the ladder make with the wall?
Problem solving
19. The height of a right square-based pyramid is 13 cm. If the angle the face makes with the base is 67°, find:
a. the length of the edge of the square base
b. the length of the diagonal of the base
c. the angle the slanted edge makes with the base in degrees and minutes.
20. A car is travelling northwards on an elevated expressway 6 m above ground at a speed of 72 km/h. At
noon another car passes under the expressway, at ground level, travelling west, at a speed of 90 km/h.
a. How far apart, in metres, are the two cars 40 seconds after noon?
b. At this time the first car stops, while the second car keeps going. At what time will they be 3.5 km
apart? Write your answer correct to the nearest tenth of a second.
21. Two towers face each other separated by a distance, d, of 20 metres. As seen from the top of the first
tower, the angle of depression of the second tower’s base is 59° and that of the top is 31°. What is the
height, in metres correct to 2 decimal places, of each of the towers?
22. A piece of flat pastry is cut in the shape of a right-angled triangle. The longest side is 6b cm and the
shortest is 2b cm
a. Find the length of the third side. Give your answer in exact form.
b. Find the sizes of the angles in the triangle.
c. Prove that the area of the triangle is equal to 4√2b2 cm2.

23. A yacht is anchored off an island. It is 2.3 km from the yacht club and 4.6 km from a weather station.
The three points form a right angled triangle at the yacht club.
Weather station
Yacht club
2.3 km
4.6 km
Yacht
a. Calculate the angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station.
b. Calculate the distance between the yacht club and the weather station.
The next day the yacht travels directly towards the yacht club, but is prevented from reaching the
club because of dense fog. The weather station notifies the yacht that it is now 4.2 km from the
station.
c. Calculate the new angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station.
d. Determine how far the yacht is now from the yacht club.
Language
adjacent dimensions pyramid
angle of depression equilateral Pythagoras’ theorem
angle of elevation horizontal ratio
bearing hypotenuse second
compass rose inverse sine
cosine isosceles tangent
cuboid minute true bearing
degree opposite wedge

www.assesson.com.au

How steep is the land?
When buying a block of land on which to build a house, the slope
of the land is often not very obvious. The slab of a house built on
the ground must be level, so it is frequently necessary to remove
or build up soil to obtain a flat area. The gradient of the land can be
determined from a contour map of the area.
Consider the building block below right. The contour lines
join points having the same height above sea level. Their meas-
urements are in metres. The plan clearly shows that the land rises
from A to B. The task is to determine the angle of this slope.
1. A cross-section shows a profile of
172
the surface of the ground. Let us look B
at the cross-section of the ground 173
between A and B. The technique
used is as follows.
•• Place the edge of a piece of paper 172.5
171.5
on the line joining A and B.
•• Mark the edge of the paper at the
points where the contour lines
intersect the paper. 171
•• Transfer this paper edge to the Contour
horizontal scale of the profile and lines
mark these points. Rectangular
block of land 170.5
•• Choose a vertical scale within the
range of the heights of the contour 170
lines.
•• Plot the height at each point where A
a contour line crosses the paper.
•• Join the points with a smooth curve. Scale 1 : 500
The cross-section has been started for you. Complete the profile of the line AB. You can now
see a visual picture of the profile of the soil between A and B.
Cross-section of AB
173 173
172.5 172.5
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
172 172
171.5 171.5
171 171
170.5 170.5
170 170
B A
Profile of line BA (metres)

2. We now need to determine the horizontal distance between A and B.
a. Measure the map distance between A and B using a ruler. What is the map length?
b. Using the scale of 1:500, calculate the actual horizontal distance AB (in metres).
3. The vertical difference in height between A and B is indicated by the contour lines. What is this
vertical distance?
4. Complete the measurements on this diagram.
B
Vertical
distance
= ........ m a
A
Horizontal distance = ........ m
5. The angle a represents the angle of the average slope of the land from A to B. Use the tangent
ratio to calculate this angle (to the nearest minute).
6. In general terms, an angle less than 5° can be considered a gradual to moderate rise. An angle
between 5° and 15° is regarded as moderate to steep while more than 15° is a steep rise. How
would you describe this block of land?
7. Imagine that you are going on a bush walk
this weekend with a group of friends. At
right is a contour map of the area. Starting at
X, the plan is to walk directly to the hut.
30
0
Draw a cross-section profile of the walk and
Hut
calculate the average slope of the land. How 0
25
would you describe the walk?
200
150
X
Scale 1 : 20 000
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: What will Sir have to follow the chicken? (doc-15925)

Answers
TOPIC 5 Trigonometry I
Exercise 5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem
1. a. 7.86 b. 33.27 c. 980.95 d. 12.68 e. 2.85 f. 175.14
2. a. 36.36 b. 1.62 c. 15.37 d. 0.61 e. 2133.19 f. 453.90
3. 23.04 cm
4. 12.65 cm
5. a. 14.14 cm b. 24.04 cm c. 4.53 cm
6. a. 74.83 cm b. 249.67 cm c. 3741.66 cm2
7. a. 6.06 b. 4.24 c. 4.74
8. 14.84 cm
9. 15.59 cm
10. 19.23 cm
11. 72.75 cm; 3055.34 cm2
12. 39 m
13. 4.34 km
14. 38.2 m
15. 63.06 mm
16. a. 32 cm b. 768 cm2
17. 26.83 diagonals, so would need to complete 27
18. 4701.06 m
19. 9.90 cm
20. a. 65 b. 185 c. 305
21. a. Neither 105 nor 208 can be the hypotenuse of the triangle, because they are the two smallest values. The other two values
could be the hypotenuse if they enable the creation of a right-angled triangle.
b. 105, 208, 233
22. a. 21 cm b. y = 12.6 cm and RS = 9.8 cm
35 cm c.
23. 13.86 cm
Exercise 5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

1. a. 13.86 b. 13.93 c. 18.03
2. 12.21, 12.85
3. 4.84 m, 1.77 m
4. 8.49, 4.24
5. 31.62 cm
6. 10.58 cm
7. 23 mm
8. a. i. 233.24 m ii.
200.12 m iii. 120.20 m
b. 116.83 m
9. 14.72 cm
10. 12.67 cm
11. 42.27 cm
12. 1.49 m, 7.43 m2
13. Students’ own working
14. 186.5 m
15. 25.475
16. 28.6 m

Exercise 5.4 Trigonometric ratios
1. a. 0.5000 b. 0.7071 c. 0.4663 d. 0.8387 e. 8.1443 f. 0.7193
2. a. 0.6494 b. 0.5885 c. 0.5220 d. −1.5013 e. 0.9990 f. 0.6709
g. 0.8120 h. 0.5253 i. −0.8031 j. 0.4063 k. 0.9880 l. −0.9613
m. 1.7321 n. −0.5736 o. 0.1320
3. a. 50° b. 24° c. 53° d. 71° e. 86° f. 41°
4. a. 54°29′ b. 6°19′ c. 0°52′ d. 72°47′ e. 44°48′ f. 26°45′
5. a. 26°33′54″ b. 64°1′25″ c. 64°46′59″ d. 48°5′22″ e. 36°52′12″ f. 88°41′27″
6. a. 2.824 b. 71.014 c. 20.361 d. 2.828 e. 226.735 f. 1.192
g. 7.232 h. 32.259 i. 4909.913 j. 0.063 k. 0.904 l. 14.814
7. a. i. sin ( θ ) = e
f
ii. cos ( θ ) = d
f
iii. tan ( θ ) = e
d
b. i. sin (α) = i

g
cos (α)
ii. = h
g
tan (α)
iii. = hi
c. i. sin (β) = kl ii.

cos (β) = kj iii.
tan (β) = lj
d. i. sin (γ) = mn ii.

cos (γ) = mo iii.
tan (γ) = no
e. i. sin (β) = bc ii.
cos (β) = ac iii.
tan (β) = ba
f. i. sin (γ) = uv ii.
cos (γ) = ut iii.
tan (γ) = vt
8. a. sin ( θ ) = 15
18
b. cos ( θ ) = 22
30
c. tan ( θ ) = 7
9
d. tan ( θ ) = 3.6
p
e. sin (25°) = 13t f. sin (α) = 18.6
23.5
9. a. α
H
O
37°
A
i. sin (37°) = 0.60

b. ii. cos (37°) = 0.75 iii. tan (37°) = 0.80
α = 53°
c.
d. i. sin (53°) = 0.80 ii. cos (53°) = 0.60 iii. tan (53°) = 1.33
e. They are equal.
f. They are equal.
g. The sin of an angle is equal to the cos of its complement angle.
10. sin ( θ ) = opp , cos ( θ ) = hyp
adj
⇒ sin ( θ ) = opp = tan ( θ )
hyp cos ( θ ) adj
11. a. h2 = a2 − x2 b. h2 = c2 − b2 + 2bx − x2 c. Teacher to check d. Teacher to check

y
12. DC = x +
tan ( θ )
Exercise 5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

1. a. 8.660 b. 7.250 c. 8.412
2. a. 0.79 b. 4.72 c. 101.38
3. a. 33.45 m b. 74.89 m c. 44.82 m d. 7.76 mm e. 80.82 km f. 9.04 cm
4. a. x = 31.58 cm b. y = 17.67 m c. z = 14.87 m
d. p = 67.00 m e. p = 21.38 km, q = 42.29 km f. a = 0.70 km, b = 0.21 km
5. a. 6.0 m b. 6.7 m
6. 1.05 m
7. a. x = 30.91 cm, y = 29.86 cm, z = 39.30 cm b. 2941.54 cm2
8. a. In an isosceles right-angled triangle b. θ < 45°
h = tan (47°48′)x m b. 129.07 m c. 144.20 m
9. a.
h = tan (36°24′) (x + 64) m
10. 60

Exercise 5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
1. a. 67° b. 47° c. 69°
2. a. 54°47′ b. 33°45′ c. 33°33′
3. a. 75°31′21″ b. 36°52′12″ c. 37°38′51″
4. a. 41° b. 30° c. 49° d. 65° e. 48° f. 37°
5. a. a = 25°47′, b = 64°13′ b. d = 25°23′, e = 64°37′ c. x = 66°12′, y = 23°48′
6. a. r = 57.58, l = 34.87, h = 28.56
b. 428 cm2 c. 29.7°
7. a. i. 29.0° ii. 41.4° iii. 51.3°
b. i. 124.42 km/h ii.
136.57 km/h iii.
146.27 km/h
9. a. sin 30° = 12, cos 30° = √3
2
, tan 30° = √3
3
b. Answers will vary. c. Answers will vary.
10. a. Between site 3 and site 2: 61°
Between site 2 and site 1: 18°
Between site 1 and bottom: 75°
b. Between site 1 and bottom: 75° slope
11. 31°57′
Challenge 5.1
147°0′; 12°15′
Exercise 5.7 Angles of elevation and depression

1. 8.74 m
2. 687.7 m
3. a. 176.42 m b. 152.42 m
4. 65°46′
5. 16.04 m
6. a. h = x tan (47°12′) m; h = (x + 38) tan (35°50′) m
b. x = 76.69 m c. 84.62 m
7. a. h = x tan (43°35′) m; h = (x + 75) tan (32°18′) m
b. 148.37 m c. 143.10 m
8. 0.033 km or 33 m
9. 21°
10. 44.88 m
11. 66 m
12. a. 54° b. 0.75 m
13. a. b. 15.27 m
x
42°
1.76 m 15 m
14. a. 2.16 m/s, 7.77 km/h b. 54.5°

15. 70.522 m
16. 451.5 m

Exercise 5.8 Bearings
1. a. 020°T b. 340°T c. 215°T d. 152°T e. 034°T f. 222°T
2. a. N49°E b. S48°E c. S87°W d. N30°W e. N86°E f. S54°W
3. a. 3 km 325°T b. 2.5 km 112°T c. 8 km 235°T
d. 4 km 090°T, then 2.5 km 035°T e. 12 km115°T, then 7 km 050°T f. 300 m 310°T, then 500 m 220°T
4. a. N b. N c. N
N
100° 135°
N 120° 260°
30 km N 0.8 km
23
N
km
0
km
km
40° 32°
2.1
1.3
40
km
m
0k 240°
14
d. N
e. N
70°180 km
22
8k
N
m
0k
30°
5k
30° N
40°
m
20°
km
S
320
7k
50° m
S
5. a. i. 13.38 km ii. 14.86 km iii.

222°T
b. i N
ii. 51.42 km iii.
61.28 km iv.
310°T
130°
N B
42° 80
km
km
20
C
6. 215°T
7. 1.732 km
8. a. 9.135 km b. 2.305 km c. 104°10′T
9. 684.86 km
10. 6.10 km and 239°T
11. 111°T
12. a. (180 − θ )°T b. ( θ − 180)°T
13. a. 27.42 km
b. N43°W or 317°T
14. a.
45°
a b
N D Lunch stop
Car park 60° a–b
c d
θ
b. 1.76 km North c. 14.63 km East d. N83.15°E e. D = 14.74 km
Challenge 5.2
3.65 km on a bearing of 108°T
Exercise 5.9 Applications

1. 6.09 m
2. 62°33′
3. a. 1.82 m b. 27.78 m

4. 31°49′
5. 5.94 m
6. 49 m
7. 194 m
8. 1.829 km
9. a. 11°32′ b. 4°25′
10. a. i. 35.36 cm ii. 51.48 cm iii.
51.48 cm
iv. 57.23 cm v. 29°3′ vi. 25°54′
b. i. 25.74 cm ii.
12.5 cm iii.
25°54′ iv. 28.61 cm
11. a. 77° b. 71°56′ c. 27.35 cm
12. a. 7.05 cm b. 60°15′ c. 8.12 cm
13. a. 28.74 cm b. 40.64 cm c. 66°37′
d tan θ 1
14. a. 90 m b. h = × tan θ 2
tan θ 1 + tan θ 2
c. 250 m
15. a. 122.97° b. 142.37°
16. a. 8.09 cm b. 6.91 cm
17. Golfer must hit the ball 324.4 m at an angle of 9.7° off the direct line.
5.10 Review
1. e
2. d
3. e
4. e
5. d
6. b
7. e
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. a. x = 113.06 cm b. x = 83.46 mm
12. 9.48 cm
13. 8.25 mm
14. 17.6 m
15. 26.86 m
16. 67.98 km
17. 4.16 km
18. 40°32′
19. a. 11.04 cm b. 15.61 cm c. 59°1′
20. a. 1280.64 m b. 12:02:16.3 pm
21. 33.29 m, 21.27 m
22. a. 4√2b b. 19.5°, 70.5°, 90°. c. Area = 12 base × height
= 12 × 2b × 4√2b
= 4√2b2 cm2.
23. a. 60° b. 3.98 km c. 71.5° d. 1.33 km

1. Cross-section of AB
173 173
172.5 172.5
172 172
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
171.5 171.5
171 171
170.5 170.5
170 170
B A
Profile of line BA (metres)
2. a. 6.8 cm b. 34 m
3. 3 m
4. B
Vertical
distance
=3m a
A
Horizontal distance = 34 m
5. a = 5°3′
6. Moderate to steep
7. Cross-section X to hut
300 300
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
250 250
200 200
150 150
X Hut
Profile of X to hut
The average slope is 14.04° — moderate to steep.

TOPIC 6
Surface area and volume
6.1 Overview
point of learning, in your learnON title at www.
jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the
content and concepts covered in this topic.

Humans must measure! How much paint or
carpet will you need to redecorate your bed-
room? How many litres of water will it take to
fill the new pool? How far is it to the end of
the universe? These are just a few examples
of where measurements skills are needed.
Measuring tools have advanced significantly
in their capacity to measure extremely small
and extremely large amounts, leading to many
breakthroughs in medicine, engineering,
science, architecture and astronomy.

1. THINK List what you know about measurement. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
3. SHARE As a class, create a thinking tool such as a large concept map wheel that shows your class’s
knowledge of measurement.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
6.1 Overview
6.2 Area
6.3 Total surface area
6.4 Volume
6.5 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Australian megafauna (eles-1845)

6.2 Area
6.2.1 Area
•• The area of a figure is the amount of surface covered by the figure.
•• The units used for area are mm2, cm2, m2, km2 or ha (hectares), depending upon the size of the figure.
1 ha = 10 000 (or 104) m2
•• There are many real-life situations that require an understanding of the area concept. Some are, ‘the
area to be painted’, ‘the floor area of a room or house’, ‘how much land one has’ and ‘how many tiles
are needed for a wall’.
•• It is important that you are familiar with converting units of area.
6.2.2 Using area formulas

•• The area of many plane figures can be found by using a formula. The table below shows the formula
for the area of some common shapes.
Shape Formula
1. Square A = l2
l
2. Rectangle l A = lw
3. Triangle A = 12bh
h
b
4. Trapezium a
A = 12 (a + b)h
h
b
5. Circle A = πr2
r
6. Parallelogram A = bh
h
b
θ°
A= × πr2
7. Sector
360°
θ˚
r
TOPIC 6 Surface area and volume 225

Shape Formula
8. Kite A = 12 xy, where x and y are diagonals.
(including
y
rhombus)
x
9. Ellipse A = πab, where a and b are the lengths of the
b
semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively.
a
Note: A calculator uses a stored value for π of approximately 3.141 592 654. Before calculators were
in common usage, π was often taken to be approximately 22 7
or 3.14. You are advised to use the π
22
button on your calculator rather than 7 or 3.14.
6.2.3 Heron’s formula

•• If the lengths of all three sides of a triangle are known, its area, A, can b a
be found by using Heron’s formula: A = √s(s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
where a, b and c are the lengths of the three sides and s is the c
a+b+c
semi-perimeter where s = .
2
Find the areas of the following plane figures, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
2 cm
3 cm 5 cm
5 cm 15 cm
40°
6 cm
THINK WRITE
a 1 Three side lengths are known, but not the height. a A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
In this case apply Heron’s formula.
2 Identify the values of a, b and c. a = 3, b = 5, c = 6
a+b+c
3 Calculate the value of s, the semi-perimeter of the s=
2
triangle. 3+5+6
=
2
=
14
2
=7
4 Substitute the values of a, b, c and s into Heron’s A= √7(7 − 3)(7 − 5)(7 − 6)
formula and evaluate, correct to 2 decimal places. = √7 × 4 × 2 × 1
= √56
= 7.48 cm2
b 1 The shape shown is an ellipse. Write the appropriate b A = πab
area formula.
2 Identify the values of a and b (the semi-major and a = 5, b = 2
semi-minor axes).

3 Substitute the values of a and b into the formula and A=π×5×2
evaluate, correct to 2 decimal places. = 31.42 cm2
θ
c 1 The shape shown is a sector. Write the formula for c A= × πr2
360°
finding the area of a sector.
2 Write the value of θ and r. θ = 40°, r = 15
40°
3 Substitute and evaluate the expression, correct to A= × π × 152
360°
2 decimal places. = 78.54 cm2
6.2.4 Areas of composite figures

•• A composite figure is a figure made up of a combination of simple figures.
•• The area of a composite figure can be calculated by:
– calculating the sum of the areas of the simple figures that make up the composite figure
– calculating the area of a larger shape and then subtracting the extra area involved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the area of each of the following composite shapes.

a C
b A B
AB = 8 cm
EC = 6 cm
FD = 2 cm 9 cm
D C
2 cm
F E
A B
E
5 cm
D
H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE
a 1 ACBD is a quadrilateral that can be split into a Area ACBD = Area ΔABC + Area ΔABD
two triangles: ΔABC and ΔABD.
2 Write the formula for the area of a triangle Atriangle = 12 bh
containing base and height.
3 Identify the values of b and h for ΔABC. ΔABC: b = AB = 8, h = EC = 6
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of ΔABC = 1
2
× AB × EC
the formula and, hence, calculate the area of = ×8×6
1
ΔABC. 2
= 24 cm2
5 Identify the values of b and h for ΔABD. ΔABD: b = AB = 8, h = FD = 2

Area of ΔABD = 12AB × FD
6 Calculate the area of ΔABD.
= 1
2
×8×2
= 8 cm2

7 Add the areas of the two triangles together to Area of ACBD = 24 cm2 + 8 cm2
find the area of the quadrilateral ACBD. = 32 cm2
b 1 One way to find the area of the shape shown b Area = Area ABGH − Area DEFC
is to find the total area of the rectangle ABGH
and then subtract the area of the smaller
rectangle DEFC.
2 Write the formula for the area of a rectangle. Arectangle = l × w
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals for the Rectangle ABGH: l = 9 + 2 + 9
rectangle ABGH. = 20
w = 10
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of ABGH = 20 × 10
the formula to find the area of the rectangle = 200 cm2
ABGH.
5 Identify the values of the pronumerals for the Rectangle DEFC: l = 5, w = 2
rectangle DEFC.
6 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of DEFC = 5 × 2
the formula to find the area of the rectangle = 10 cm2
DEFC.
7 Subtract the area of the rectangle DEFC from Area = 200 − 10
the area of the rectangle ABGH to find the = 190 cm2
area of the given shape.
Watch this eLesson: Heron’s formula (eles-0177)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Conversion of area units (doc-5236)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Using a formula to find the area of a common shape (doc-5237)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET 6.1 (doc-5241)
Exercise 6.2 Area

Individual pathways

1, 3−5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14 1−6, 8−10, 12, 14, 16 ,18 1−9, 12−19

Where appropriate, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. Find the areas of the following shapes.
a. b. c.
4 cm
4 cm
12 cm 15 cm
10 cm
d. 12 cm e. f.
8 cm
15 cm 8 mm 13 mm
18 cm
7 mm
g. h. i.
6m 15 cm
10 cm
7m
18 cm
2. Express the area in questions 1e and 1g in terms of π.

3. WE1a Use Heron’s formula to find the area of the following triangles correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b.
3 cm
8 cm
5 cm
16 cm
6 cm
12 cm
4. WE1b Find the area of the following ellipses. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a. b.
9 mm
12 mm
4 mm
5 mm

5. WE1c Find the area of the following shapes, i stating the answer exactly; that is, in terms of π and
ii correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. c.
30° 18 cm
6 mm 70°
12 cm
345°
6. MC A figure has an area of about 64 cm2. Which of the following cannot possibly represent
the figure?
a. A triangle with base length 16 cm and height 8 cm
b. A circle with radius 4.51 cm
c. A rectangle with dimensions 16 cm and 4 cm
d. A square with side length 8 cm
e. A rhombus with diagonals 16 cm and 4 cm
7. MC The area of the quadrilateral shown at right is to C
be calculated.
Which of the following lists all the lengths required to F
calculate the area? B
a. AB, BC, CD and AD
b. AB, BE, AC and CD
c. BC, BE, AD and CD E
d. AC, BE and FD
e. AC, CD and AB A D
8. WE2 Find the area of the following composite shapes.

a. 20 cm b. 40 m
28 m
15 cm
c. 8 cm d.
3 cm 2 cm
4 cm 2.1 m
3.8 m
e. f.
18 cm 28 cm
5 cm
12 cm

9. Find the shaded area in each of the following.
a. b. 16 m
8m 2m 2m
3 cm
7 cm
c. d.
8m 3m
40°
5m
e. 8m f. 15 m
5m
2m 7.5 m
13 m 7 m
5m
Understanding
10. A sheet of cardboard is 1.6 m by 0.8 m. The following shapes are cut from the cardboard:
•• a circular piece with radius 12 cm
•• a rectangular piece 20 cm by 15 cm
•• 2 triangular pieces with base 30 cm and height 10 cm
•• a triangular piece with side length 12 cm, 10 cm and 8 cm.
What is the area of the remaining piece of cardboard?
11. A rectangular block of land, 12 m by 8 m, is surrounded by a concrete path 0.5 m wide. Find the area
of the path.
12. Concrete slabs 1 m by 0.5 m are used to cover a footpath 20 m by 1.5 m. How many slabs are
needed?
13. A city council builds a 0.5 m wide concrete path around the garden as shown below.
12 m
5m
8m 3m
Find the cost of the job if the workman charges $40.00 per m2.

14. A tennis court used for doubles is 10.97 m wide, but a singles court is only 8.23 m wide, as shown in
the diagram.
8.23 m
6.40 m 10.97 m
11.89 m
a. What is the area of the doubles tennis court?

b. What is the area of the singles court?
c. What percentage of the doubles court is used for singles? Give your answer to the nearest whole
number.
15. Ron the excavator operator has 100 metres of barricade mesh and needs to enclose an area to work in
safely. He chooses to make a rectangular region with dimensions x and y.
a. Write an equation that connects x, y and the perimeter.
b. Write y in terms of x.
c. Write an equation for the area of the region in terms of x.
d. Fill in the table for different values of x.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Area (m2)
e. Can x have a value more than 50? Why?
f. Sketch a graph of area against x.
g. Determine the value of x that makes the area a maximum.
h. What is the value of y for maximum area?
i. What shape encloses the maximum area?
j. Calculate the maximum area.
Ron decides to choose to make a circular area with the barricade mesh.
k. What is the radius of this circular region?
l. What area is enclosed in this circular region?
m. How much extra area does Ron now have compared to his rectangular region?
Reasoning
16. Dan has purchased a country property with layout and dimensions as shown in the diagram.
a. Show that the property has a total area of 987.5 ha. N
b. Dan wants to split the property in half (in terms of area) by building a
straight-lined fence running either north–south or east–west through the 1500 m
property. Assuming the cost of the fencing is a fixed amount per linear 5000 m
2000 m
metre, justify where the fence should be built (that is, how many metres
from the top left-hand corner and in which direction), to minimise the cost.
1000 m
17. In question 15, Ron the excavator operator could choose to enclose a rectangular or circular area with
100 m of barricade mesh. In this case, the circular region resulted in a larger safe work area.
a. Show that for 150 m of barricade mesh, a circular region again results in a larger safe work area as
opposed to a rectangular region.
b. Show that for n metres of barricade mesh, a circular region will result in a larger safe work area as
opposed to a rectangular region.

Problem solving
18. ABC is a scalene triangle with a base length of 80 cm and a perpendicular height of 40 cm. A right-
angled triangle, AED, is nestled within ABC such that DE is 10 cm to the left of the perpendicular
height, as shown. Find the lengths of the sides labelled x and y if the shorter side of the two is 20 cm
less than the longer side and the areas of the two shaded regions are the same.
C
40 cm
A x B
E 10 cm
80 cm
19. Proving the segment formula

Prove the formula for the area of a segment using the fact that area of the
segment = area of sector ABC − 2 × area of triangle ACD.
(2)
AD θ
a. Using trigonometry, show that = sin .
r
(2)
C
CD θ
b. Show that = cos .
r θ θ
(2) (2)
θ θ r 2 2 r
r2sin cos
c. Show that the area of triangle ACD is . D
2 A B
Note that this formula is the same if θ is in degrees or radians.
d. Finally, show that the area of the segment (in purple) is
( ( 2 ) ( 2 ))
θ θ θ
r2 π × − sin cos if θ is in degrees.
360°
Reflection
How are perimeter and area different but fundamentally related?
CHALLENGE 6.1
The diagram shows one smaller square drawn inside a larger square
on grid paper. Represent the area of the smaller square as a fraction
of the larger square.

6.3 Total surface area
•• The total surface area (TSA) of a solid is the sum of the areas of all the faces of that solid.
6.3.1 TSA of rectangular prisms and cubes

•• The formula for finding the TSA of a rectangular prism (cuboid) is:
TSA = 2(lh + lw + wh)
h
w
l
•• A special case of the rectangular prism is the cube, where all sides are equal
(l = w = h).
TSA = 6l 2
l
6.3.2 TSA of spheres and cylinders
Sphere :
TSA = 4πr2
r
Note: The mathematics required to prove the formula for the total surface area of a sphere is beyond the
scope of Year 10.
Cylinder :
TSA + 2πr(r + h) or 2πr2 + 2πrh
h
r
•• The formula for the TSA of a cylinder is found from the area of the net as shown.
TSA = πr2 + πr2 + 2πrh
= 2πr2 + 2πrh r
= 2πr(r + h) A = πr 2
2πr
A = 2πrh h
r
A = πr 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the total surface area of the solids, correct to the nearest cm2.
a r = 7 cm b 50 cm
r 1.5 m

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the TSA of a sphere. a TSA = 4πr2
2 Identify the value for r. r=7
3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 4 × π × 72
≈ 615.8 cm2
≈ 616 cm2
b 1 Write the formula for the TSA of a cylinder. b TSA = 2πr(r + h)
2 Identify the values for r and h. Note that the r = 50 cm, h = 1.5 m
units will need to be the same. = 150 cm
3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 2 × π × 50 × (50 + 150)
≈ 62 831.9 cm2
≈ 62 832 cm2
6.3.3 TSA of cones

•• The total surface area of a cone can be found by considering its net, which is comprised of a small
circle and a sector of a larger circle.
l r = radius of the cone

l = slant height of the cone
l
r r
•• The sector is a fraction of the full circle of radius l with circumference 2πl.
•• The sector has an arc length equivalent to the circumference of the base of the cone, 2πr.
•• The fraction of the full circle represented by the sector can be found by writing the arc length as a
2πr r
fraction of the circumference of the full circle, = .
2πl l
Area of a sector = fraction of the circle × πl2
= × πl2
r
l
= πrl
SA = Acircular base + Acurved surface
Therefore, = πr2 + πrl
= πr(r + l)
Cone: TSA = πr(r + l) or πl2 + πrl
Find the total surface area of the cone shown.
THINK WRITE 15 cm
1 Write the formula for the TSA of TSA = πr(r + l)
a cone. 12 cm
2 State the values of r and l. r = 12, l = 15

3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = π × 12 × (12 + 15)
= 1017.9 cm2

6.3.4 TSA of other solids
•• TSA can be found by summing the areas of each face.
•• The areas of each face may need to be calculated separately.
•• Check the total number of faces to ensure that none are left out.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Find the total surface area of the square-based pyramid shown.

5 cm
6 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 There are five faces: The square base TSA = Area of square base + area of four
and four identical triangles. triangular faces
2 Find the area of the square base. Area of base = l2, where l = 6
Area of base = 62
= 36 cm2
3 Draw and label one triangular face
and write the formula for finding its area. 5 cm
h
3 cm
Area of a triangular face = 12 bh; b = 6
4 Find the height of the triangle, h, using a2 = c2− b2, where a = h, b = 3, c = 5

Pythagoras’ theorem. h2 = 52 − 32
h2 = 25 − 9
h2 = 16
h = 4 cm
5 Calculate the area of the triangular face Area of triangular face = 12 × 6 × 4

by substituting b = 6 and h = 4. = 12 cm2
6 Calculate the TSA by adding the area TSA = 36 + 4 × 12
of the square base and the area of four = 36 + 48
identical triangular faces together. = 84 cm2
6.3.5 TSA of composite solids

•• Composite solids are formed when two or more simple solids are joined together.
•• The TSA of a composite solid is calculated by summing the areas of the solid’s external faces.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Find the total surface area of the solid shown correct to 1 decimal place.
6 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 The solid shown has 9 faces — five identical TSA = 5 × area of a square
squares and four identical triangles. + 4 × area of a triangle
2 Find the area of one square face with the side Asquare = l2, where l = 10
length 10 cm. A = 102
A = 100 cm2
3 Draw a triangular face and work out its height
using Pythagoras’ theorem. 6 cm
h
5 cm
a2 = c2– b2, where a = h, b = 5, c = 6

h2 = 62 − 52
h2 = 36 − 25
h2 = 11
h = 3.316 62... cm (or with rounding, h = 3.3)
4 Find the area of one triangular face. Atriangle = 12 bh, where b = 10, h = 3.316 62
= 1
2
× 10 × 3.316 62...
= 16.5831... cm2 (or, with rounding,
Atriangle = 16.6 cm2)
5 Find the TSA of the solid by adding the area of TSA = 5 × 100 + 4 × 16.5831...
5 squares and 4 triangles together. = 500 + 66.3324...
≈ 566.3 cm2 (or = 566 using the
previously rounded value)
Note: Rounding is not done until the final step. If h had been rounded to 3.3 in step 3 and this value
used in steps 4 and 5, the decimal place value of the TSA would have been lost. It is important to
realise that rounding too early can affect the accuracy of results.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
The silo shown at right is to be built from metal. The top portion of the silo is a cylinder of
diameter 4 m and height 8 m. The bottom part of the silo is a cone of slant height 3 m. The silo
has a circular opening of radius 30 cm on the top.
4m 8m
3m

m2
a What area of metal (to the nearest ) is required to build the silo?
b If it costs $12.50 per m2 to cover the surface with an anti-rust material, how much will it
cost to cover the silo completely?
THINK WRITE
a 1 The surface area of the silo consists of an a TSA = area of annulus
annulus, the curved part of the cylinder and the + area of curved section of a cylinder
curved section of the cone. + area of curved section of a cone
2 To find the area of the annulus, subtract the Area of annulus = Alarge scale − Asmall circle
area of the small circle from the area of the = πr2 − πR2
larger circle. Let R = radius of small circle. where r = 2 = 2 m and R = 30 cm = 0.3 m.
4
Area of annulus = π × 22 − π × 0.32

= 12.28 m
3 The middle part of the silo is the curved part Area of curved section of cylinder = 2πrh
of a cylinder. Find its area. (Note that in the where r = 2, h = 8.
formula TSAcylinder = 2πr2 + 2πrh, the curved Area of curved section of cylinder
part is represented by 2πrh.) =2×π×2×8
= 100.53 m2
4 The bottom part of the silo is the curved Area of curved section of cone = πrl
section of a cone. Find its area. (Note that in where r = 2, l = 3.
the formula TSAcone = πr2 + πrl, the curved Area of curved section of cone = π × 2 × 3
part is given by πrl.) = 18.85 m2
5 Find the total surface area of the silo by finding TSA = 12.28 + 100.53 + 18.85
the sum of the surface areas calculated above. = 131.66 m2
6 Write the answer in words. The area of metal required is 132 m2, correct
to the nearest square metre.
b To find the total cost, multiply the total surface b Cost = 132 × $12.50
area of the silo by the cost of the anti-rust = $1650.00
material per m2 ($12.50).

Try out this interactivity: TSA—sphere (int-2782)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Total surface area of cubes and rectangular prisms (doc-5238)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Surface area (doc-5242)
Exercise 6.3 Total surface area

Individual pathways

1−4, 6a−e, 7, 10, 12 1−4, 6, 7, 9−12, 15 ,18 1−8, 10−18
Fluency
Note: Where appropriate, give the answers correct to 1 decimal place.
1. Find the total surface areas of the solids shown.
a. b. c. 12 cm d. 2m
15 cm 1.5 m
20 cm 3m
10 cm 8 cm
2. WE3 Find the total surface area of the solids shown below.
a. r=3m b. 21 cm c. 0.5 m d.
12 cm
r 30 cm 2.1 m
3. WE4 Find the total surface area of the cones below.

a. b. 8 cm
20 cm
12 cm
14 cm

4. WE5 Find the total surface area of the solids below.
a. b.
12 cm 2.5 m
15 cm 1.5 m
c. 9.1 cm d.
m
8c 14 cm
6 cm
10 cm
5.1 cm 7.2 cm 7 cm
5. Find the surface areas of the following.

a. A cube of side length 1.5 m
b. A rectangular prism 6 m × 4 m × 2.1 m
c. A cylinder of radius 30 cm and height 45 cm, open at one end
d. A sphere of radius 28 mm
e. An open cone of radius 4 cm and slant height 10 cm
f. A square pyramid of base length 20 cm and slant edge 30 cm
6. WE6 Find the total surface area of the objects shown.
a. 8 cm b.
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm
20 cm 20 cm
35 cm
12 cm
c. d.
2 cm
5 cm m
2.5 c
3 cm
3 cm
e. f. 5 cm
3.5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
12 cm
15 cm

7. MC A cube has a total surface area of 384 cm2. The length of the edge of the cube is:
a. 9 cm b. 8 cm c. 7 cm d. 6 cm e. 5 cm
Understanding
8. Open cones are made from nets cut from a large sheet of paper 1.2 m × 1.0 m. If a cone has a radius
of 6 cm and a slant height of 10 cm, how many cones can be made from the sheet? (Assume there is
5% wastage of paper.)
9. A steel girder is to be painted. Calculate the area of the surface to be painted.
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm
20 cm
120 cm
2 cm
12 cm
10. WE7 The greenhouse shown at right is to be built using shade cloth.
It has a wooden door of dimensions 1.2 m × 0.5 m.
a. Find the total area of shade cloth needed to complete the greenhouse.
b. Find the cost of the shade cloth at $6.50 per m2.
2.5 m 5m
3m
11. A cylinder is joined to a hemisphere to make a cake holder, as shown

at right. The surface of the cake holder is to be chromed at 5.5 cents per cm2.
a. Find the total surface area to be chromed.
b. Find the cost of chroming the cake holder.
10 cm
15 cm
12. A soccer ball is made up of a number of hexagons sewn together on its surface. 2 cm
Each hexagon can be considered to have dimensions as shown in the diagram.
a. Calculate θ °. y
b. Calculate the values of x and y exactly. x
c. Calculate the area of the trapezium in the diagram.
d. Hence, determine the area of the hexagon.
e. If the total surface area of the soccer ball is 192√3 cm2, how many θ
hexagons are on the surface of the soccer ball?
13. a. Determine the exact total surface area of a sphere with radius √2 metres.
An inverted cone with side length 4 metres is placed on top of the
sphere so that the centre of its base is 0.5 metres above the centre of the sphere.
b. Find the radius of the cone exactly.
c. Find the area of the curved surface of the cone exactly.
d. What are the exact dimensions of a box that could precisely fit the cone connected to the sphere?

Reasoning
Complete the following question without the aid of a calculator. 80 cm
14. The table shown right is to be varnished (including the base 60 cm
of each leg). The table top has a thickness of 180 mm and the
cross-sectional dimension of the legs is 50 mm by 50 mm.
A friend completes the calculation as shown. Assume there are
70 cm
no simple calculating errors. Analyse the working presented
and justify if the TSA calculated is correct.
Table top (inc. leg bases) 0.96 2 × (0.8 × 0.6)

Legs 0.416 16 × (0.52 × 0.05)
Table top edging 0.504 0.18 × (2(0.8 + 0.6))
2
TSA 1.88 m
15. A shower recess with dimensions 1500 mm (back wall) by 900 mm (side wall) needs to have the back
and two side walls tiled to a height of 2 m.
a. Calculate the area to be tiled in m2.
b. Justify that 180 tiles (including those that need to be cut) of dimension 20 cm by 20 cm will be
required. Disregard the grout and assume that once a tile is cut, only one piece of the tile can be used.
c. Evaluate the cheapest option of tiling; $1.50/tile or $39.50/box, where a box covers 1 m2, or tiles of
dimension 30 cm by 30 cm costing $3.50/tile.
16. If the surface area of a sphere to that of a cylinder is in the ratio 4 : 3 and the sphere has a radius of 3a,
3√3a
show that if the radius of the cylinder is equal to its height, then the radius of the cylinder is .
2
Problem solving
Frustum of a cone
17. A frustum of a cone is a cone with the top sliced off (see the drawing on the right).
When the curved side is ‘opened up’, it creates a shape, ABYX, as shown in the diagram.
a. Write an expression for the arc length XY in terms of the angle θ. V
Write another expression for the arc length AB in terms x θ x
of the same angle θ. Show that, in radians, t A B
2π(r − t)
s s s s
θ =
2πt
.
s r X Y
b. i. Using the above formula for θ, show that x =
st
.
(r − t) 2πr
ii. Use similar triangles to confirm this formula.
c. Determine the area of sectors AVB and XVY and hence determine the area of ABYX. Add the areas
of the 2 circles to the area of ABYX to determine the TSA of a frustum.
18. Tina is re-covering a footstool in the shape of a cylinder with diameter 50 cm and height 30 cm.
She also intends to cover the base of the cushion.

She has 1 m2 of fabric to make this footstool. When calculating the area of fabric required, allow an
extra 20% of the total surface area to cater for seams and pattern placings. Explain whether Tina has
enough material to cover the footstool.
Reflection
Why is calculating the total surface area of a composite solid more difficult than for a simple solid
such as a rectangular prism or cylinder?
6.4 Volume
6.4.1 Volume
•• The volume of a 3-dimensional object is the amount of space it takes up.
•• The volume is measured in units of mm3, cm3 and m3.
6.4.2 Volume of a prism

•• The volume of any solid with a uniform cross-sectional area is given by the formula: V = AH, where
A is the cross-sectional (or base) area and H is the height of the solid.
Cube Volume = AH
= area of a square × height
l
= l2 × l
= l3
Rectangular Volume = AH
prism h = area of a rectangle × height
= lwh
w
l
Cylinder r Volume = AH
= area of a circle × height
h
= πr2h
Triangular Volume = AH
prism = area of a triangle × height
= 12bh × H
H
h
Find the volumes of the following shapes.

a 14 cm b 5 cm
20 cm 4 cm
10 cm

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of the a V = AH
cylinder (prism). = πr2h
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. r = 14, h = 20
V = π × 14 × 20 3
2
3 Substitute and evaluate.
≈ 12 315.04 cm
b 1 Write the formula for the volume of a triangular prism. b V = 12bh × H
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. (Note h is the height of b = 4, h = 5, H = 10

the triangle and H is the depth of the prism.)
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 1 × 4 × 5 × 10
2
= 100 cm3
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
a What effect will doubling each of the side lengths of a cube have on its volume?
b What effect will halving the radius and doubling the height of a cylinder have on its volume?
THINK WRITE
a V=l
3
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of the cube.
2 Identify the value of the pronumeral. lnew = 2l
Note: Doubling is the same as multiplying by 2.
Vnew = (2l)
3
3 Substitute and evaluate.
4 Compare the answer obtained in step 3 with the = 8l
3
volume of the original shape.

5 Write your answer. Doubling each side length of a cube
increases the volume by a factor of 8;
that is, the new volume will be 8 times as
large as the original volume.
b V = πr h
2
b 1 Write the formula for the volume of the cylinder.
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. r = r , h = 2h
new
Note: Halving is the same as dividing by 2. 2 new
( )
3 Substitute and evaluate. r 2
Vnew = π 2 2h
r2
= π × 4 × 2h
2
πr2h
= 2

4 Compare the answer obtained in step 3 with the = 12πr2h
volume of the original shape.
5 Write your answer. Halving the radius and doubling the
height of a cylinder decreases the volume
by a factor of 2; that is, the new volume
will be half the original volume.
6.4.3 Volume of spheres

•• The volume of a sphere of radius, r, can be calculated using the formula
V = 43πr3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the volume of a sphere of radius 9 cm. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the volume of a sphere. V = 43πr3
2 Identify the value of r. r=9
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 43 × π × 93
= 3053.6 cm3
6.4.4 Volume of pyramids

•• Pyramids are not prisms as the cross-section changes from the base upwards.
•• The volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume of an equivalent prism with the
same base area and height.
Volume of a pyramid = 1
3
AH
H
Area of base = A
Base
•• Since a cone is a pyramid with a circular cross-section, the volume of a cone is

one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same base area and height.
Volume of a cone = 13 AH
= 13πr2h
h

Find the volume of each of the following solids.

a b
10 cm 12 cm
8 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of a cone. a V = 13πr2h
2 Identify the values of r and h. r = 8, h = 10

3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 1 × π × 82 × 10
3
= 670.21 cm3
b 1 Write the formula for the volume of a pyramid. b V = 1AH

3
2 Find the area of the square base. A = l2 where l = 8
A = 82
= 64 cm2
3 Identify the value of H. H = 12

4 Substitute and evaluate. V = 1 × 64 × 12
3
= 256 cm3
6.4.5 Volume of composite solids

•• A composite solid is a combination of a number of solids.
•• The volume of each smaller solid component can be calculated separately.
•• The volume of a composite solid is calculated by summing the volumes of each of the
smaller solid components.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Calculate the volume of the composite solid shown.
3m
1.5 m

THINK WRITE
1 The given solid is a composite figure, made up V = Volume of cube + Volume of pyramid
of a cube and a square-based pyramid.
2 Find the volume of the cube. Vcube = l3 where l = 3
Vcube = 33
= 27 m3
3 Write the formula for finding the volume of a Vsquare−based pyramid = 13AH
square-based pyramid.
4 Find the area of the square base. A = l2
= 32
= 9 m2
5 Identify the value of H. H = 1.5
6 Substitute and evaluate the volume of the Vsquare−based pyramid = 13 × 9 × 1.5
pyramid. = 4.5 m3
7 Find the total volume by adding the volume V = 27 + 4.5
of the cube and pyramid. = 31.5 m3
6.4.6 Capacity
•• Some 3-dimensional objects are hollow and can be filled with liquid or some other substance.
•• The amount of substance which a container can hold is called its capacity.
•• Capacity is essentially the same as volume but is usually measured in mL, L and kL
where 1 mL = 1 cm3
1L = 1000 cm3
1kL = 1 m3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the capacity (in litres) of a cuboidal aquarium, which is

50 cm long, 30 cm wide and 40 cm high.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the volume of a rectangular prism. V = lwh
2 Identify the values of the pronumerals. l = 50, w = 30, h = 40
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 50 × 30 × 40
= 60 000 cm3
4 State the capacity of the container in millilitres, using = 60 000 mL
1 cm3 = 1 mL.
5 Since 1 L = 1000 mL, to convert millilitres to litres = 60 L
divide by 1000.
6 Give a worded answer. The capacity of the fish tank is 60 L.

Try out this interactivity: Maximising the volume of a cuboid (int-1150)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Conversion of volume units (doc-5239)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms (doc-5240)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Volume (doc-6733)
Exercise 6.4 Volume

Individual pathways

1−4, 6−8, 9a, 10, 13, 14, 20 1−8, 10−12, 14, 16, 19, 20, 22, 25 1−18, 20−26
Fluency
1. Find the volumes of the following prisms.
a. b.
3 cm 4.2 m
c. 12 cm d.
15 cm
4.2 cm
20 cm 7.5 cm
3 cm
2. Calculate the volume of each of these solids.

a. b.
18 mm
15 cm
[Base area: 25 mm2]

[Base area: 24 cm2]

3. WE8 Find the volume of each of the following. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place where
appropriate.
a. b.
14 cm 2.7 m
12 cm 1.5 m
c. d.
12 mm
10 cm
7 cm
8 mm
8 cm 6 mm
e. f.
45 c
m
6.
5
m
35° 18 cm
7.1 m
4. WE10 Find the volume of a sphere (correct to 1 decimal place) with a radius of:
a. 1.2 m b. 15 cm c. 7 mm d. 50 cm.
5. Find the volume of each of these figures, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b.
30 cm
1.4 m
c. d.
4.6 m
18 mm
6. WE11a Find the volume of each of the following cones, correct to 1 decimal place.
a. b.
22 mm
10 cm 20 mm
6 cm

7. WE11b Find the volume of each of the following pyramids.
a. 12 cm b.
42 cm
24 cm
10 cm 30 cm
8. WE12 Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids correct to 2 decimal places
where appropriate.
a. 8 cm b.
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm
20 cm
20 cm
35 cm
12 cm
c. d.
2 cm
m
5 cm 2.5 c
3 cm
3 cm
e. f. 5 cm
3.5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
12 cm
15 cm
Understanding
9. WE9 a. What effect will tripling each of the side lengths of a cube have on its
volume?
b. What effect will halving each of the side lengths of a cube have on its
volume?
c. What effect will doubling the radius and halving the height of a cylinder
have on its volume?
d. What effect will doubling the radius and dividing the height of a cylinder by
4 have on its volume?
e. What effect will doubling the length, halving the width and tripling the
height of a rectangular prism have on its volume?
2 cm
10. MC A hemispherical bowl has a thickness of 2 cm and an outer diameter of 25 cm.
If the bowl is filled with water the capacity of the water will be closest to:
a. 1.526 L b. 1.308 33 L c. 3.052 08 L
d. 2.616 66 L e. 2.424 52 L
25 cm

11. Tennis balls of diameter 8 cm are packed in a box 40 cm × 32 cm × 10 cm,
as shown. How much space is left unfilled?
12. WE13 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 1.5 m and a height
of 2.5 m. What is the capacity (in litres) of the tank?
13. A monument in the shape of a rectangular pyramid (base length of
10 cm, base width of 6 cm, height of 8 cm), a spherical glass ball
(diameter of 17 cm) and conical glassware (radius of 14 cm, height
of 10 cm) are packed in a rectangular prism of dimensions 30 cm by
25 cm by 20 cm. The extra space in the box is filled up by a packing
material. What volume of packing material is required?
14. A swimming pool is being constructed so that it is the upper part of an 8m
inverted square-based pyramid.
a. Calculate H.
3m
b. Calculate the volume of the pool.
c. How many 6 m3 bins will be required to take the dirt away? 4m
H
d. How many litres of water are required to fill this pool?
e. How deep is the pool when it is half-filled?
15. A soft drink manufacturer is looking to repackage cans of soft drink to
minimise the cost of packaging while keeping the volume constant.
Consider a can of soft drink with a capacity of 400 mL.
a. If the soft drink was packaged in a spherical can:
i. find the radius of the sphere
ii. find the total surface area of this can.
b. If the soft drink was packaged in a cylindrical can with a radius of 3 cm:
i. find the height of the cylinder
c. If the soft drink was packaged in a square-based pyramid with a base side length of 6 cm:
i. find the height of the pyramid
d. Which can would you recommend the soft drink manufacturer use for its repackaging? Why?
16. The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula V = πr2h.
a. Transpose the formula to make h the subject.
b. A given cylinder has a volume of 1600 cm3. Find its height if it has a radius of:
i. 4 cm
ii. 8 cm.
c. Transpose the formula to make r the subject.
d. What restrictions must be placed on r? Why?
e. A given cylinder has a volume of 1800 cm3. Find its radius if it has a height of:
i. 10 cm
ii. 15 cm.
17. A toy maker has enough rubber to make one super-ball of radius 30 cm.
How many balls of radius 3 cm can he make from this rubber?

18. A manufacturer plans to make a cylindrical water tank to hold 2000 L of water.
a. What must the height be if he uses a radius of 500 cm?
b. What must the radius be if he uses a height of 500 cm?
c. What will be the surface area of each of the two tanks? Assume the tank is a closed cylinder and give
your answer in square metres.
19. The ancient Egyptians knew that the volume of the frustum of a square-based pyramid was given by the
formula V = 13h(x2 + xy + y2), although how they discovered this is unclear. (A frustum is the part of a
cone or pyramid that is left when the top is cut off.)
a. Find the volume of the frustum shown below.
b. What would be the volume of the missing portion of the square-based pyramid shown?
4m
5m
6m
Reasoning
20. Archimedes is considered to be one of the three greatest mathematicians
of all time (along with Newton and Gauss). He discovered several of the formulas
used in this chapter. Inscribed on his tombstone was a diagram of his proudest
discovery. It shows a sphere inscribed (fitting exactly) into a cylinder.
volume of the cylinder surface area of the cylinder
Show that = .
volume of the sphere surface area of the sphere

21. Marion has mixed together ingredients for a cake. The recipe requires a baking tin that is cylindrical
in shape with a diameter of 20 cm and a height of 5 cm. Marion only has a tin as shown below left
and a muffin tray consisting of 24 muffin cups. Each of the muffin cups in the tray is a portion of a
cone as shown in the diagram below.
Should Marion use the tin or the muffin tray? Explain.
12 cm
8 cm
10 cm 4 cm
4 cm
15 cm
8 cm
22. Nathaniel and Andrew are going to the snow for survival camp.
They plan to construct an igloo, consisting of an entrance and
1.5 m
hemispherical structure, as shown. Nathaniel and Andrew are
asked to redraw their plans and increase the size of the
liveable region (hemispherical structure) so that the total volume
(including the entrance) is doubled. How can this be achieved?
1.5 m
1m
23. Sam is having his 16th birthday party and wants to make an ice
trough to keep drinks cold. He has found a square piece of sheet
metal with a side length of 2 metres. He cuts squares of side
length x metres from each corner, then bends the sides of the
remaining sheet.
When four squares of the appropriate side length are cut
from the corners the capacity of the trough can be maximised
at 588 litres. Explain how Sam should proceed to maximise
the capacity of the trough.
24. The Hastings family house has a rectangular roof with dimensions 17 m × 10 m providing water to
three cylindrical water tanks, each with a radius of 1.25 m and a height of 2.1 m. Show that approxi-
mately 182 millimetres of rain must fall on the roof to fill the tanks.
Problem solving
25. Six tennis balls are just contained in a cylinder as the balls touch the
sides and the end sections of the cylinder. Each tennis ball has a
radius of R cm.
a. Express the height of the cylinder in terms of R.
b. Find the total volume of the tennis balls.
c. Find the volume of the cylinder in terms of R.
d. Show that the ratio of the volume of the tennis balls to the volume of the cylinder is 2:3.

26. A frustum of a square-based pyramid is a square pyramid with the top sliced off. H is the height of
the full pyramid and h is the height of the frustum.
H x
x
X X
a. Find the volume of the large pyramid which has a square base side of X cm.
b. Find the volume of the small pyramid which has a square base side of x cm.
c. Show that the relationship between H and h is given by H =
Xh
.
X−x
d. Show that the volume of the frustum is given by 13h(X2 + x2 + Xx) .
Reflection
Volume is measured in cubic units. How is this reflected in the volume formula?
CHALLENGE 6.2
A large container is five-eighths full of ice-cream. After removing 27 identical
scoops it is one-quarter full. How many scoops of ice-cream are left in the
container?
6.5 Review
Fluency
1. If all measurements are in cm, the area of the figure below is:
7 3
a. 16.49 cm2 b. 39.25 cm2 c. 9.81 cm2 d. 23.56 cm2 e. 30 cm2

2. If all measurements are in centimetres, the area of the figure below is:
a. 50.73 cm2 b. 99.82 cm2 c. 80.18 cm2 d. 90 cm2 e. 119.45 cm2
6

3. If all measurements are in centimetres, the shaded area of the figure below is:
30°
2
7
a. 3.93 cm2 b. 11.52 cm2 c. 388.77 cm2 d. 141.11 cm2 e. 129.59 cm2
4. The total surface area of the solid below is:
28 mm
40 mm
a. 8444.6 mm2 b. 9221 mm2 c. 14146.5 mm2 d. 50271.1 mm2 e. 16609.5 mm2
5. Find the areas of the following plane figures. All measurements are in cm.
10
a. b.
8
14
15
12
c. d. 3
3
7 6
e. f.
10
80° 10
12
6. Find the areas of the following figures. All measurements are in cm.
a. b. c. 10
12
15 6
10
10 5
20
20

7. Find the shaded area in each of the following. All measurements are in cm.
Q QO = 15 cm b. c.
a. 5
SO = 8 cm
PR = 18 cm
12.5
O
R
P S
8. Find the total surface area of each of the following solids.
a. 35 cm b. 14 mm
50 cm
20 mm
14 cm
c. d.
8 cm 18 cm
12 cm
10 mm
e. f.
10 mm
14 mm 12 cm
4 mm
10 cm
[closed at both ends]
10 cm
10 cm
9. Find the volume of each of the following.
a. b. c. 35 cm
7 cm
40 cm
8 cm
12 cm
7 cm

d. e. f.
10 cm
12 cm
3.7 m
30 cm
1m 12 cm 10 cm
g. h. i.
11 cm
30 cm
12 mm
20 cm
9 cm 42 cm
Problem solving
10. A rectangular block of land 4 m × 25 m is surrounded by a concrete path 1 m wide.
a. Calculate the area of the path.
b. Calculate the cost of concreting at $45 per square metre.
11. What effect will tripling the radius and dividing the height of a cylinder by 6 have on its volume (in
comparison with the original shape)?
12. What effect will halving the length, tripling the width and doubling the height of a rectangular prism
have on its volume (in comparison with the original shape)?
13. A cylinder of radius 14 cm and height 20 cm is joined to a hemisphere of radius 14 cm to form a
bread holder.
a. Find the total surface area.
b. Find the cost of chroming the bread holder on the outside at $0.05 per cm2.
c. What is the storage volume of the bread holder?
d. How much more space is in this new bread holder than the one it is replacing, which had a quarter
circle end with a radius of 18 cm and a length of 35 cm?
14. Bella Silos has two rows of silos for storing wheat. Each row has 16 silos and all the silos are identi-
cal, with a cylindrical base (height of 5 m, diameter of 1.5 m) and conical top (diameter of 1.5 m,
height of 1.1 m).
a. What is the slant height of the conical tops?
b. What is the total surface area of all the silos?
c. What will it cost to paint the silos if one litre of paint covers 40 m2 at a bulk order price of $28.95 per
litre?
d. How much wheat can be stored altogether in these silos?
e. Wheat is pumped from these silos into cartage trucks with rectangular containers 2.4 m
wide, 5 m long and 2.5 m high. How many truckloads are necessary to empty all the silos?
f. If wheat is pumped out of the silos at 2.5 m3/min, how long will it take to fill one truck?
15. The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes developed an accurate
method for calculating the circumference of the Earth 2200 years
ago! The figure at right illustrates how he did this. In this B V
A
figure, A is the town of Alexandria and S is the town of Syene, S
exactly 787 km due south. When the sun’s rays (blue lines) were
C
vertical at Syene, they formed an angle of 7.2° at Alexandria
(∠BVA = 7.2°), obtained by placing a stick at A and measuring
the angle formed by the sun’s shadow with the stick.

a. Assuming that the sun’s rays are parallel, what is the angle ∠SCA?
b. Given that the arc AS = 787 km, determine the radius of the Earth, SC.
c. Given that the true radius is 6380 km, determine Eratosthenes’ percentage error.
Language
area ellipse sector
capacity face semi-perimeter
circle hemisphere sphere
composite figure parallelogram square
cone prism surface
cross-section pyramid trapezium
cube rectangle triangle
cylinder rhombus volume

www.assesson.com.au

So close!
Humans must measure! Imagine what
a chaotic world it would be if we didn’t
measure anything. Some of the things we
measure are time, length, weight and tem-
perature; we also use other measures derived
from these such as area, volume, speed.
Accurate measurement is important.
The accuracy of a measurement depends
on the instrument being used to measure
and the interpretation of the measurement.
There is no such thing as a perfectly accu-
rate measurement. The best we can do is
learn how to make meaningful use of the
numbers we read off our devices. It is
also important to use appropriate units of
measurement.
Measurement errors
When we measure a quantity by using a
scale, the accuracy of our measurement
depends on the markings on the scale.
For example, the ruler shown can meas-
ure both in centimetres and millimetres.
Measurements made with this ruler
would have ± 0.5 mm added to the meas-
urement. The quantity ± 0.5 is called the
tolerance of measurement or measure-
ment error.
1
Tolerance of measurement = 2 × size of smallest marked unit
For a measurement of 5.6 ± 0.5 mm, the largest possible value is 5.6 cm + 0.5 mm = 5.65 cm,
and the smallest value is 5.6 cm − 0.5 mm = 5.55 cm.
1. For the thermometer scale at right: ˚c
a. determine the temperature 45
b. state the measurement with its tolerance 40

c. determine the largest and smallest possible values.
35
2. Calculate the largest and smallest values for:
a. (56.2 ± 0.1) − (19.07 ± 0.05) 30
b. (78.4 ± 0.25) × (34 ± 0.1).
25
Significant figures in measurement
20
A significant figure is any non zero-digit, any zero appearing between two non-zero
digits, any trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point, and any digits in the 15
decimal places. For example, the number 345.6054 has 7 significant figures, whereas
300 has 1 significant figure.

The number of significant figures is an expression of the accuracy of a measurement. The
greater the number of significant figures, the more accurate the measurement. For example, a
fast food chain claims it has sold 6 000 000 000 hamburgers, not 6 453 456 102. The first measure-
ment has only 1 significant figure and is a very rough approximation of the actual number sold,
which has 10 significant figures.
Reducing the number of significant figures is a process that is similar to rounding.
Rounding and measurement error in calculations
When you perform calculations, it is important to keep as many significant digits as practical,
and to perform any rounding as the final step. For example, calculating 5.34 × 341 by rounding
to 2 significant figures before multiplying gives 5.30 × 340 = 1802, compared with 1820 if the
rounding is carried out after the multiplication.
Calculations that involve numbers from measurements containing errors can result in answers
with even larger errors. The smaller the tolerances, the more accurate the answers will be.
3. a. Calculate 45 943.450 3 × 86.765 303 by:
i. first rounding each number to 2 significant figures
ii. rounding only the answer to 2 significant figures.
b. Compare the two results.
Error in area and volume resulting from an error in a length measurement
The side length of a cube is measured and incorrectly recorded as 5 cm. The actual size is 6 cm.
The effect of the length measurement error used on calculations of the surface area is shown
below. Complete the calculations for volume.
Error used in length measurement = 1 cm
Surface area calculated with incorrectly recorded value = 52 × 6 = 150 cm2
Surface area calculated with actual value = 62 × 6 = 216 cm2
216 − 150
Percentage error = 6 × 100% ≈ 30.5%
4. a. C
omplete a similar calculation for the volume of the cube using the incorrectly recorded
length. What conclusion can you make regarding errors when the number of dimensions
increase?
b. Give three examples of a practical situation where an error in measuring or recording would
have a potentially disastrous impact.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Australian inventions! (doc-15927)

Answers
TOPIC 6 Surface area and volume
Exercise 6.2 Area
1. a. 16 cm2 b. 48 cm2 c. 75 cm2 d. 120 cm2 e. 706.86 cm2 f. 73.5 mm2
g. 254.47 cm2 h. 21 m2 i. 75 cm2
2. Part e = 225π cm2; part g = 81π cm2
3. a. 20.66 cm2 b. 7.64 cm2
4. a. 113.1 mm2 b. 188.5 mm2
5. a. i. 12π cm2 ii. 37.70 cm2
69π
b. i. mm2 ii. 108.38 mm2
2
c. i. 261π cm2 ii. 819.96 cm2
6. E
7. D
8. a. 123.29 cm2 b. 1427.88 m2 c. 52 cm2 d. 30.4 m2 e. 78 cm2 f. 2015.5 cm2
9. a. 125.66 cm 2 b. 102.87 m 2
c. 13.73 m 2
d. 153.59 m2 e. 13.86 m2 f. 37.5 m2
10. 11 707.92 cm2
11. 21 m2
12. 60
13. $840
14. a. 260.87 m2 b. 195.71 m2 c. 75%
15. a. 50 = x + y b. y = 50 – x c. Area = 50x − x2
d.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Area(m2) 0 225 400 525 600 625 600 525 400 225 0
e. No, impossible to make a rectangle.
f. 600
500
400
Area
300
200
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
g. x = 25 h. y = 25 i. Square j. 625 m2
k. r = 15.92 m l. 795.77 m2 m. 170.77 m2
16. a. Students’ work b. 2020.83 m; horizontal
17. a. Circular area, 1790.49 m2; rectangular area, 1406.25 m2
b. Circular area, (4π n ) m2 ; rectangular (square) area, (16 n ) m2 . Circular area is always
1 2 1 2 4
or 1.27 times larger.
π
18. x = 50 cm, y = 30 cm
Challenge 6.1
29
50
Exercise 6.3 Total surface area
1. a. 600 cm2 b. 384 cm2 c. 1440 cm2 d. 27 m2
2. a. 113.1 m2 b. 6729.3 cm2 c. 8.2 m2 d. 452.4 cm2
3. a. 1495.4 cm2 b. 502.7 cm2
4. a. 506.0 cm2 b. 9.4 m2 c. 340.4 cm2 d. 224.1 cm2
5. a. 13.5 m2 b. 90 m2 c. 11 309.7 cm2 d. 9852.0 mm2 e. 125.7 cm2 f. 1531.4 cm2
6. a. 880 cm2 b. 3072.8 cm2 c. 75 cm2 d. 70.4 cm2 e. 193.5 cm2 f. 1547.2 cm2
7. B

8. 60
9. 11 216 cm2
10. a. 70.0 m2 b. $455
11. a. 3063.1 cm2 b. $168.47
12. a. θ = 120° b. x = 1; y = √3 c. 3√3 cm2 d. 6√3 cm2 e. 32
√7
13. a. 8π m2 b. m c. 2√7π m2 d. √7 × √7 × 1
2
14. The calculation is correct.
15. a. 6.6 m2
b. Back wall = 80 tiles
Side wall = 50 tiles
80 + 50 + 50 = 180 tiles
c. Cheapest: 30 cm by 30 cm, $269.50; 20 cm by 20 cm (individually) $270; 20 cm by 20 cm (boxed) $276.50
3√3a
16. r =
2
17. a. Arc length XY = (x + s) θ
Arc length AB = xθ
2πt st
b. i. x = =
θ r−t
x t
ii. =
x+s r
x2 θ
c. Area of sector AVB =
2
(s + x) 2 θ
Area of sector XVY =
2
s θ (s + 2x)
Area of ABYX =
2
s θ (s + 2x)
TSA of frustum = π(t + r2) +
2
2
18. The area of material required is 1.04 m2. If Tina is careful in placing the pattern pieces, she may be able to cover the footstool.
Exercise 6.4 Volume

1. a. 27 cm3 b. 74.088 m3 c. 3600 cm3 d. 94.5 cm3
2. a. 450 mm3 b. 360 cm2
3. a. 6333.5 cm3 b. 19.1 m3 c. 280 cm3 d. 288 mm3 e. 91.6 m3 f. 21 470.8 cm3
4. a. 7.2 m3 b. 14 137.2 cm3 c. 1436.8 mm3 d. 523 598.8 cm3
5. a. 11 397.34 cm3 b. 1.44 m3 c. 12 214.51 mm3 d. 101.93
6. a. 377.0 cm3 b. 2303.8 mm3
7. a. 400 cm3 b. 10 080 cm3
8. a. 1400 cm3 b. 10 379.20 cm3 c. 41.31 cm3 d. 48.17 cm3 e. 218.08 cm3 f. 3691.37 cm3
9. a. Vnew = 27l3, the volume will be 27 times as large as the original volume.
b. Vnew = 18 l2, the volume will be 18 of the original volume.
c. Vnew = 2πr2h, the volume will be twice as large as the original volume.
d. Vnew = π r2h, the volume will remain the same.
e. Vnew = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as the original value.
10. E
11. 7438.35 cm3
12. 4417.9 L
13. 10 2 15.05 cm3
14. a. H = 6 m b. 112 m3 c. 19 bins d. 112 000 L e. 1.95 m from floor
15. a. i. 4.57 cm ii. 262.5 cm2
b.
i. 14.15 cm ii. 323.27 cm2
c. i. 33.33 cm ii. 437.62 cm2
d. Sphere. Costs less for a smaller surface area.

V
16. a. h =
πr2
b. i. 31.8 cm ii. 8.0 cm
c. √
V
πh
d. r ≥ 0, since r is a length
e. i. 7.6 cm ii. 6.2 cm
17. 1000
18. a. 2.55 cm b. 35.68 cm c. Aa = 157.88 m2, Ab = 12.01 m2
19. a. 126.67 m 3 b. 53.33 m 3

21. Required volume = 1570.80 cm3; tin volume = 1500 cm3; muffin tray volume = 2814.72 cm3. Marion could fill the tin and
have a small amount of mixture left over, or she could almost fill 14 of the muffin cups and leave the remaining cups empty.
22. Increase radius of hemispherical section to 1.92 m.
23. Cut squares of side length, s = 0.3 m or 0.368 m from the corners.
24. Volume of water needed; 30.9 m3.
25. a. H = 12R b. 8πR3 c. 12πR3 d. 8 : 12 = 2 : 3
26. a. 13X2H b. 1 2
3
x (H − h) c, d. Check with your teacher.
Challenge 6.2
18 scoops
6.5 Review
1. D
2. C
3. E
4. A
5. a. 84 cm2 b. 100 cm2 c. 6.50 cm2 d. 56.52 cm2 e. 60 cm2 f. 244.35 cm2
2
6. a. 300 cm b. 224.55 cm2 c. 160 cm 2
7. a. 499.86 cm2 b. 44.59 cm2 c. 128.76 cm2

8. a. 18 692.48 cm2 b. 1495.40 cm2 c. 804.25 cm2 d. 871.79 cm2 e. 873.36 mm2 f. 760 cm2
9. a. 343 cm3 b. 672 cm3 c. 153 938.04 cm3 d. 1.45 m3 e. 1800 cm3 f. 1256.64 cm3
3 3
g. 297 cm h. 8400 cm i. 7238.23 mm3
10. a. 62 m2 b. $2790
11. V = 32πr2h, the volume will be 1.5 times as large as the original volume.
12. V = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as (or triple) the original volume.
13. a. 3606.55 cm2 b. $180.33 c. 18062.06 cm3 d. 9155.65 cm3
14. a. 1.33 m b. 910.91 m2 c. $659.27 d. 303.48 m3 e. 11 trucks f. 12 minutes
15. a. 7.2° b. 6263 km c. 1.8% error

1. a. The temperature reading is 26.5°C.
b. The smallest unit mark is 1°C, so the tolerance is 0.5.
c. Largest possible value = 27°C, smallest possible value = 26°C
2. a. Largest value = 37.28, smallest value = 36.98
b. Largest value = 2681.965, smallest value = 2649.285
3. a. i. 4 002 000 ii.
4 000 000
b. The result for i has 4 significant figures, whereas ii has only 1 significant figure after rounding. However, ii is closer to the
actual value (3 986 297.386 144 940 9).
4. a. Volume using the incorrectly recorded value = 125 cm3
Volume using the actual value = 216 cm3
The percentage error is 42.1%, which shows that the error compounds as the number of dimensions increases.
b. Check with your teacher.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 7
Quadratic expressions
7.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embed-
ded just where you need them, at the point of
learning, in your learnON title at www.jacplus
.com.au. They will help you to learn the content
and concepts covered in this topic.

How is your algebraic tool kit? Is there some
room to expand your skills? As expressions
become more complex, more power will be
needed to manipulate them and to carry out basic
skills such as adding, multiplying and factorising.
Dealing with quadratic expressions is the first step
to higher-level skills.

1. THINK List what you know about quadratic expressions. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map
to show your list.
edge of quadratic expressions.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
7.1 Overview
7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions
7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms
7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms
7.5 Factorising by completing the square
7.6 Mixed factorisation
7.7 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Adelard of Bath (int-1846)

7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions
7.2.1 Binomial expansion
•• Consider the rectangle of length a + b and width c + d shown below. Its area is equal to
(a + b)(c + d).
a b
c ac bc
d ad bd
The diagram shows that (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd.
}
}
factorised form expanded form
•• Expansion of the binomial expression (x + 3)(x + 2) can be shown by this area model.
x 3
3×x
x x × x = x2
= 3x
3×2
2 2 × x = 2x
=6
Expressed mathematically this is:

(x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
factorised form expanded form
}
}
•• There are several methods that can be used to expand binomial factors.
7.2.2 FOIL method

• The word FOIL provides us with an acronym for the expansion of a binomial product.
• First: multiply the first terms in each bracket F
(x + a)(x − b)
• Outer: multiply the two outer terms O

(x + a)(x − b)
• Inner: multiply the two inner terms I

(x + a)(x − b)
• Last: multiply the last terms in each bracket L

(x + a)(x − b)
TOPIC 7 Quadratic expressions 265

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Expand each of the following.

a (x + 3)(x + 2) b (x − 7)(6 − x)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a

(x + 3)(x + 2)
2 Multiply the first terms in each bracket, then = x × x, x × 2, x × 3, 3 × 2

the outer terms, the inner terms and finally
the last terms.
3 Collect like terms. = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
b 1 Write the expression. b (x − 7)(6 − x)
2 Multiply the first terms in each bracket, then = x × 6, x × −x, −7 × 6, −7 × −x

the outer terms, the inner terms and finally
the last terms.
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying each = 6x − x2 − 42 + 7x
term in the brackets by the term outside the
bracket. Remember to change the sign when
the term outside the bracket is negative.
4 Collect like terms. = −x2 + 13x − 42
•• If there is a term outside the pair of brackets, expand the brackets and then multiply each term
of the expansion by that term.
Expand 3(x + 8)(x + 2).

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. 3(x + 8)(x + 2)
2 Use FOIL to expand the pair of brackets. = 3(x2 + 2x + 8x + 16)

3 Collect like terms within the brackets. = 3(x2 + 10x + 16)
4 Multiply each of the terms inside the brackets by the term = 3x2 + 30x + 48
outside the brackets.

7.2.3 The square of a binomial
•• The expansion of (a + b) 2 can be represented by this area model.
a b
a a × a = a2 a × b = ab
b a × b = ab b × b = b2
(a + b) 2 = a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
•• Similarly (a − b) 2 = a2 − 2ab + b2.
•• This expansion is often memorised. To find the square of a binomial:
– square the first term
– multiply the two terms together and then double them
– square the last term.
Expand and simplify each of the following.

a (2x − 5) 2 b −3(2x + 7)2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2x − 5) 2
2 Expand using the rule = (2x) 2 − 2 × 2x × 5 + (5) 2
(a − b) 2 = a2 − 2ab + b2. = 4x2 − 20x + 25
b 1 Write the expression. b −3(2x + 7) 2

2 Expand the brackets using the rule = −3[(2x) 2 + 2 × 2x × 7 + (7) 2]
(a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2. = −3(4x2 + 28x + 49)
3 Multiply every term inside the brackets by the = −12x2 − 84x − 147
term outside the brackets.
7.2.4 The difference of two squares

•• When a + b is multiplied by a − b (or vice-versa),
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − ab + ab − b2
= a2 − b2
The expression is called the difference of two squares and is often referred to as DOTS. This result can
be memorised as a short cut.


a (3x + 1)(3x − 1) b 4(2x − 7)(2x + 7)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (3x + 1)(3x − 1)
2 Expand using the rule (a + b )(a − b ) = a 2 − b 2 . = (3x) 2 − (1) 2
= 9x2 − 1
b 1 Write the expression. b 4(2x − 7)(2x + 7)
2 Expand using the difference of two squares rule. = 4[(2x) 2 − (7) 2]

= 4(4x2 − 49)
3 Multiply by 4. = 16x2 − 196

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Expanding brackets (doc-5244)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Expanding a pair of brackets (doc-5245)
Exercise 7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–h, 3a–d, 5a–d, 6a, 8a–d, 1d–l, 2d–j, 3c–f, 4a–c, 5c–f, 6, 7, 1d–l, 2f–l, 3e–i, 4, 5e–h, 6, 7, 8g–l,
9a–d, 10a–f, 11–14 8c–f, 9c–f, 10–17, 19 9e–i, 10–20
Fluency
1. Expand each of the following.
a. 2(x + 3) b. 4(x − 5) c. 3(7 − x)
d. −(x + 3) e. x(x + 2) f. 2x(x − 4)
g. 3x(5x − 2) h. 5x(2 − 3x) i. 2x(4x + 1)
j. 2x2 (2x − 3) k. 3x2 (2x − 1) l. 5x2 (3x + 4)
2. WE1 Expand each of the following.
a. (x + 3)(x − 4) b. (x + 1)(x − 3) c. (x − 7)(x + 2)
d. (x − 1)(x − 5) e. (2 − x)(x + 3) f. (x − 4)(x − 2)
g. (2x − 3)(x − 7) h. (x − 1)(3x + 2) i. (3x − 1)(2x − 5)
j. (3 − 2x)(7 − x) k. (5 − 2x)(3 + 4x) l. (11 − 3x)(10 + 7x)

3. WE2 Expand each of the following.
a. 2(x + 1)(x − 3) b. 4(2x + 1)(x − 4) c. −2(x + 1)(x − 7)
d. 2x(x − 1)(x + 1) e. 3x(x − 5)(x + 5) f. 6x(x − 3)(x + 3)
g. −2x(3 − x)(x − 3) h. −5x(2 − x)(x − 4) i. 6x(x + 5)(4 − x)
a. (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) b. (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) c. (x − 5)(x + 1)(x − 1)
d. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) e. (2x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 4) f. (3x + 1)(2x − 1)(x − 1)
5. Expand each of the following and simplify.
a. (x + 2)(x − 1) − 2x b. 3x − (2x − 5)(x + 2)
c. (2x − 3)(x + 1) + (3x + 1)(x − 2) d. (3 − 2x)(2x − 1) + (4x − 5)(x + 4)
e. (x + 1)(x − 7) − (x + 2)(x − 3) f. (x − 2)(x − 5) − (x − 1)(x − 4)
g. (x − 3)(x + 1) + √3x h. (√2 − 3x)(√3 + 2x) − √5x
6. MC a. (3x − 1)(2x + 4) expands to:
a. 6x2 + 10x − 4 b. 5x2 − 24x + 3 c. 3x2 + 2x − 4
d. 6x2 − 10x − 4 e. 6x2 − 4
b. −2x(x − 1)(x + 3) expands to:
a. x2 + 2x − 3 b. −2x2 − 4x + 6 c. −2x3 − 4x2 + 6x
d. −2x + 4x − 6x
3 2
e. −2x − 3
3
7. MC The expression (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2) is not the same as:

a. (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) b. (x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 2) c. (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
d. (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3) e. (x − 3)(x + 2)(x − 1)
8. WE3a Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. (x − 1) 2 b. (x + 2) 2 c. (x + 5) 2 d. (4 + x) 2
e. (7 − x) 2
f. (12 − x) 2
g. (3x − 1) 2
h. (12x − 3) 2
i. (5x + 2) 2 j. (2 − 3x) 2 k. (5 − 4x) 2 l. (1 − 5x) 2
9. WE3b Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. 2(x − 3) 2 b. 4(x − 7) 2 c. 3(x + 1) 2
d. −(2x + 3) 2
e. −(7x − 1) 2
f. 2(2x − 3) 2
g. −3(2 − 9x) 2 h. −5(3 − 11x) 2 i. −4(2x + 1) 2
10. WE4 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. (x + 7)(x − 7) b. (x + 9)(x − 9) c. (x − 5)(x + 5)
d. (x − 1)(x + 1) e. (2x − 3)(2x + 3) f. (3x − 1)(3x + 1)
g. (7 − x)(7 + x) h. (8 + x)(8 − x) i. (3 − 2x)(3 + 2x)
Understanding
11. The length of the side of a rectangle is (x + 1) cm and the width is (x − 3) cm.
a. Find an expression for the area of the rectangle.
b. Simplify the expression by expanding.
c. If x = 5 cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle and, hence, its area.
12. Chickens are kept in a square enclosure with sides measuring x m. The number of chickens is increasing
and so the size of the enclosure is to have 1 metre added to one side and 2 metres to the adjacent side.
a. Draw a diagram of the original enclosure.
b. Add to the first diagram or draw another one to show the new enclosure. Mark the lengths on each
side on your diagram.
c. Write an expression for the area of the new enclosure in factorised form.
d. Expand and simplify the expression by removing the brackets.
e. If the original enclosure had sides of 2 metres, find the area of the original square and then the area
of the new enclosure.

13. Shown below are three students’ attempts at expanding (3x + 4)(2x + 5).
STUDENT A
STUDENT B
STUDENT C
a. Which student’s work was correct?

b. Copy each of the incorrect answers into your workbook and correct the mistakes in each as though
you were the teacher of these students.
14. If a = 5 and b = 3, show that (a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2 by evaluating both expressions.
15. If a = 5 and b = 3, show that (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 by evaluating both expressions.
16. Write an expression in factorised and expanded form that is:
a. a quadratic trinomial
b. the square of a binomial
c. the difference of two squares
d. both a and b.

Reasoning
17. Explain the difference between ‘the square of a binomial’ and ‘the difference between two squares’.
18. Show that (a + b)(c + d) = (c + d)(a + b) .
Problem solving
19. Expand:
(( 2x) )
2
a. (2x + 3y − 5z) 2 1+ − 2x
1
b.
20. Find an expanded expression for:

a. the volume of the cuboid
(2x – 3) cm
) cm
–4
(3x
(x – 2) cm
b. the total surface area of the square-based pyramid.
(2x – 1) cm
(2x – 1) cm
(2x + 3) cm
(2x + 3) cm
Reflection
Why does the difference of two squares rule have that name?
CHALLENGE 7.1
Find all the positive integers, a, which make the expression (a −10)(a −14) a perfect square. Consider 0 to be the
first perfect square.

7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms
•• A monic quadratic expression is an expression in the form ax2 + bx + c where a = 1.
7.3.1 Factorising monic quadratic trinomials

•• The area model of binomial expansion can be used to find a pattern for factorising a general quadratic
expression. For example,
(x + f )(x + h) = x2 + fx + hx + fh (x + 4)(x + 3) = x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + ( f + h)x + fh
= x2 + 7x + 12
x + f x + 4
x x2 fx x x2 4x
+ +
h hx fh 3 3x 12
•• To factorise a general quadratic, look for factors of c that add to b.

x2 + bx + c = (x + f ) (x + h)
Factors of c that add to b

3+4=7
For example, x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4).
3 × 4 = 12
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Factorise the following quadratic expressions.

a x2 + 5x + 6 b x2 + 10x + 24
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and: a x2 + 5x + 6
i check for a common factor. There is no
common factor.
ii check for a DOTS pattern. The expression
is not in the form a 2 − b 2 .
iii check for a perfect squares pattern. 6 is
not a perfect square.
This must be a general quadratic expression.
2 i The general quadratic expression has the Factors of 6 Sum of factors
pattern x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + f)(x + h). f and
h are a factor pair of 6 that add to 5. 1 and 6 7
ii Calculate the sums of factor pairs of 6. 2 and 3 5
The factors of 6 that add to 5 are 2 and 3, as shown
in blue.
3 Substitute the values of f and h into the expression in x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
its factorised form.

b 1 Check for patterns of common factors, DOTS b x2 + 10x + 24
and perfect squares patterns. None of these apply,
so the expression is a general quadratic.
2 i The general quadratic expression has the pattern Factors of 24 Sum of factors
x2 + 10x + 24 = (x + f)(x + h),
where f and h are a factor pair of 24 that add to 10. 1 and 24 25
ii Calculate the sums of factor pairs of 24. 2 and 12 14
The factors of 24 that add to 10 are 4 and 6, 3 and 8 11
as shown in blue.
4 and 6 10
3 Substitute the values of f and h into the expression in x2 + 10x + 24 = (x + 4)(x + 6)

its factorised form.
7.3.2 Factorising non-monic quadratic trinomials

•• A non-monic quadratic expression is ax2 + bx + c where a ≠ 1.
•• When a quadratic trinomial in the form ax2 + bx + c is written as ax2 + mx + nx + c, where
m + n = b, the four terms can be factorised by grouping.
2x2 + 11x + 12 = 2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12
= 2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12
= 2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= 2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= (x + 4)(2x + 3)
•• There are many combinations of numbers that satisfy m + n = b; however, only one particular
combination can be grouped and factorised. For example,
2x2 + 11x + 12 = 2x2 + 7x + 4x + 12 or 2x2 + 11x + 12 = 2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12
= 2x2 + 7x + 4x + 12 = 2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12
= x(2x + 7) + 4(x + 3) = 2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
cannot be factorised further = (x + 4) + (2x + 3)
•• In examining the general binomial expansion, a pattern emerges that can be used to help identify
which combination to use for m + n = b.
(dx + e)(fx + g) = dfx2 + dgx + efx + eg
= dfx2 + (dg + ef)x + eg
m + n = dg + ef and m × n = dg × ef
=b = dgef
= dfeg
= ac
Therefore, m and n are factors of ac that sum to b.
•• To factorise a general quadratic where a ≠ 1, look for factors of ac that sum to b. Then rewrite the
quadratic trinomial with four terms that can then be grouped and factorised.
ax2 + bx + c = ax2 + mx + nx + c
Factors of ac that sum to b

Factorise 6x2 − 11x − 10.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression and look for common 6x2 −11x −10 = 6x2 + −11x + −10
factors and special patterns. The expression is
a general quadratic with a = 6 , b = −11 and
c = −10.
2 Since a ≠ 1, rewrite ax2 + bx + c as Factors of −60
ax2 + mx + nx + c, where m and n are (6 × −10) Sum of factors
factors of ac (6 × −10) that sum to b (−11).
− 60, 1 − 59
Calculate the sums of factor pairs of −60. As
shown in blue, 4 and −15 are factors of −60 − 20, 3 − 17
that add to −11. − 30, 2 − 28
15, − 4 11
− 15, 4 − 11
3 Rewrite the quadratic expression: 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 6x2 + 4x + −15x − 10

ax 2 + b x + c = ax 2 + m x + n x + c
with m = 4 and n = −15.
4 Factorise using the grouping 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 2x(3x + 2) + −5(3x + 2)
method: 6x2 + 4x = 2x(3x + 2) and = (3x + 2)(2x − 5)
−15x − 10 = −5 (3x + 2)
Write the answer.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET Finding a factor pair that adds to a given number (doc-5250)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Factorising and expanding (doc-5251)
Exercise 7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms

Individual pathways
■■ PRACTISE ■■ CONSOLIDATE ■■ MASTER

1a–e, 2a–e, 3a–e, 4–6, 7a–e, 8, 1f–j, 2f–i, 3f–i, 4, 5, 6, 7d–h, 8, 1k–o, 2k–l, 3j–l, 4, 5, 6, 7i–l, 8, 9,
11, 15 9a–d, 11, 12, 15, 16 10, 13–17

Fluency
1. WE5 Factorise each of the following.
a. x2 + 3x + 2 b. x2 + 4x + 3 c. x2 + 10x + 16
d. x2 + 8x + 16 e. x2 − 2x − 3 f. x2 − 3x − 4
g. x − 11x − 12
2 h. x − 4x − 12
2 i. x2 + 3x − 4
j. x2 + 4x − 5 k. x2 + 6x − 7 l. x2 + 3x − 10
m. x − 4x + 3
2 n. x − 9x + 20
2 o. x2 + 9x − 70
a. − 2x2 − 20x − 18 b. − 3x2 − 9x − 6 c. − x2 − 3x − 2
d. − x2 − 11x − 10 e. − x2 − 7x − 10 f. − x2 − 13x − 12
g. − x − 7x − 12
2
h. − x − 8x − 12
2 i. 2x2 + 14x + 20
j. 3x2 + 33x + 30 k. 5x2 + 105x + 100 l. 5x2 + 45x + 100
3. Factorise each of the following.
a. a2 − 6a − 7 b. t2 − 6t + 8 c. b2 + 5b + 4
d. m + 2m − 15
2 e. p − 13p − 48
2 f. c2 + 13c − 48
g. k2 + 22k + 57 h. s2 − 16s − 57 i. g2 − g − 72
j. v − 28v + 75
2 k. x + 14x − 32
2 l. x2 − 19x + 60
4. MC a. To factorise − 14x2 − 49x + 21, the first step is to:
a. find factors of 14 and 21 that will add to − 49
b. take out 14 as a common factor
c. take out − 7 as a common factor
d. find factors of 14 and − 49 that will add to make 21
e. take out − 14 as a common factor
b. The expression 42x2 − 9x − 6 can be completely factorised to:
a. (6x − 3)(7x + 2) b. 3(2x − 1)(7x + 2)
c. (2x − 1)(21x + 6) d. 3(2x + 1)(7x − 2)
e. 42(x − 3)(x + 2)
5. MC When factorised, (x + 2) 2 − (y + 3) 2 equals:
a. (x + y − 2)(x + y + 2) b. (x − y − 1)(x + y − 1)
c. (x − y − 1)(x + y + 5) d. (x − y + 1)(x + y + 5)
e. (x + y − 1)(x + y + 2)
6. Factorise each of the following using an appropriate method.
a. 2x2 + 5x + 2 b. 2x2 − 3x + 1 c. 4x2 − 17x − 15
d. 4x2 + 4x − 3 e. 2x2 − 9x − 35 f. 3x2 + 10x + 3
g. 6x − 17x + 7
2
h. 12x − 13x − 14
2
i. 10x2 − 9x − 9
j. 20x2 + 3x − 2 k. 12x2 + 5x − 2 l. 15x2 + x − 2
7. Factorise each of the following, remembering to look for a common factor first.
a. 4x2 + 2x − 6 b. 9x2 − 60x − 21 c. 72x2 + 12x − 12
d. −18x + 3x + 3
2
e. −60x + 150x + 90
2
f. 24ax2 + 18ax − 105a
g. −8x2 + 22x − 12 h. −10x2 + 31x + 14 i. −24x2 + 35x − 4
j. −12x − 2xy + 2y
2 2
k. −30x + 85xy + 70y
2 2
l. −600x2 − 780xy − 252y2
Understanding
8. Consider the expression (x − 1) 2 + 5(x − 1) − 6.
a. Substitute w = x − 1 in this expression.
b. Factorise the resulting quadratic.
c. Replace w with x − 1 and simplify each factor. This is the factorised form of the original expression.

9. Use the method outlined in question 8 to factorise each of the following expressions.
a. (x + 1) 2 + 3(x + 1) − 4 b. (x + 2) 2 + (x + 2) − 6
c. (x − 3) 2 + 4(x − 3) + 4 d. (x + 3) 2 + 8(x + 3) + 12
e. (x − 7) − 7(x − 7) − 8
2
f. (x − 5) 2 − 3(x − 5) − 10
10. Factorise x2 + x − 0.75.
11. Students decide to make Valentine’s Day cards. The total area of each card is
equal to (x2 − 4x − 5) cm2.
a. Factorise the expression to find the dimensions of the cards in terms of x.
b. Write down the length of the shorter side in terms of x.
c. If the shorter sides of a card are 10 cm in length and the longer sides are 16 cm
in length, find the value of x.
d. Find the area of the card proposed in part c.
Happy
e. If the students want to make 3000 Valentine’s Day cards, how much cardboard Valentine’s
will be required? Give your answer in terms of x. Day
12. The area of a rectangular playground is given by the general expression
(6x2 + 11x + 3) m2 where x is a positive whole number.
a. Find the length and width of the playground in terms of x.
b. Write an expression for the perimeter of the playground.
c. If the perimeter of a particular playground is 88 metres, find x.
Reasoning
13. Cameron wants to build an in-ground ‘endless’ pool. Basic
models have a depth of 2 metres and a length triple the
width. A spa will also be attached to the end of the pool.
a. The pool needs to be tiled. Write an expression for
the surface area of the empty pool (that is, the floor
and walls only).
b. The spa needs an additional 16 m2 of tiles. Write an
expression for the total area of tiles needed for both
the pool and the spa.
c. Factorise this expression.
d. Cameron decides to use tiles that are selling at a discount price, but there are only 280 m2 of the tile
available. Find the maximum dimensions of the pool he can build if the width is in whole metres.
Assume the spa is to be included in the tiling.
e. What area of tiles is actually needed to construct the spa and pool?
f. What volume of water can the pool hold?
14. Fabric pieces comprising yellow squares, white squares and black rectangles are sewn together to
make larger squares (patches) as shown in the diagram. The length of each black rectangle is twice its
width. These patches are then sewn together to make a patchwork quilt. A finished square quilt, made
from 100 patches, has an area of 1.44 m2.
y b y
a. Determine the size of each yellow, black and white section in one fabric piece.
Show your working.
b w b
b. How much (in m2) of each of the coloured fabrics would be needed to construct
the quilt? (Ignore seam allowances.) y b y
c. Sketch a section of the finished product.
15. Each factorisation below contains an error. Identify the error in each statement.
a. x2 − 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x − 4) b. x2 − x − 12 = (x − 3)(x + 4)
c. x2 − x + 2 = (x − 1)(x + 1) d. x2 − 4x − 21 = (x − 3)(x − 7)
e. x + 4x − 21 = (x + 3)(x − 7)
2
f. x2 − x − 30 = (x − 5)(x + 6)
g. x2 + 7x − 8 = (x + 1)(x − 8) h. x2 − 11x + 30 = (x − 5)(x + 6)

Problem solving
16. Factorise:
a. 6(3a − 1) 2 − 13(3a − 1) − 5 b. 3m4 − 19m2 − 14 c. 2 sin2 (x) − 3 sin (x) + 1.
17. Factorise:
a. 2x2 + 3√3x − 6 b. (z + 1) 3 + (z − 1) 3.
Reflection
In your own words, describe how you would factorise a quadratic trinomial.
7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms

7.4.1 Factorising expressions with two terms
•• If the terms in an expanded expression have a common factor, the highest common factor is written
at the front of the brackets and the remaining factor for each term in the expression is written in the
brackets. For example, 4x2 − 36 = 4(x2 − 9).
•• A Difference of Two Squares (DOTS) expression in expanded form has two squared terms separated
by a subtraction symbol.
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
↑ ↑
Expanded form Factorised form
Factorise the following.

b 16a2−25b4
2
a 12k + 18
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and look for common factors. a 12k2 + 18 = 6(2k2 + 3)
The terms have a highest common factor of 6. Write
the 6 in front of a set of brackets, then determine
what must go inside the brackets. 12k2 = 6 × 2k2,
18 = 6 × 3
2 Look for patterns in the expression inside the
brackets to factorise further. The expression inside the
brackets cannot be factorised further.
b 1 Write the expression and look for common factors. b 16a2 − 25b4
The expression has no common factor.
2 Look for the DOTS pattern in the expression. Write the = 4 2 a 2 − 5 2 (b 2 ) 2
equation showing squares. = (4 a) 2 − (5 b 2 ) 2
3 Use the pattern for DOTS to write the factors. = (4 a + 5 b 2 )(4 a − 5 b 2 )
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b )(a − b )
7.4.2 Factorising expressions with four terms

•• If there are four terms to be factorised, look for a common factor first.
•• Then group the terms in pairs and look for a common factor in each pair. It may be that a new common
factor emerges as a bracket (common binomial factor).
•• If an expression has four terms, it may require grouping to factorise it.
•• In the process known as grouping ‘two and two’, the terms of the expression are grouped into two
pairs, then a common factor is removed from each pair.

•• When selecting terms to place as pairs, each pair after factorising should result in a common binomial
factor. For example:
2a − 6b + 3ac − 9bc = 2(a − 3b) + 3c(a − 3b)
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Factorise each of the following.

a x − 4y + mx − 4my b x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and look for a common a x − 4y + mx − 4my
factor. (There isn’t one.)
2 Group the terms so that those with common = (x − 4y) + (mx − 4my)
factors are next to each other.
3 Take out a common factor from each group = 1(x − 4y) + m(x − 4y)
(it may be 1).
4 Factorise by taking out a common binomial = (x − 4y)(1 + m)
factor. The factor (x − 4y) is common to both groups.
b 1 Write the expression and look for a common factor. b x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y
2 Group the terms so that those with common = (x2 − y2) + (3x + 3y)
factors are next to each other.
3 Factorise each group. = (x + y)(x − y) + 3(x + y)
4 Factorise by taking out a common binomial factor. = (x + y)(x − y + 3)
The factor (x + y) is common to both groups.
•• Now we will look at grouping a different combination, known as grouping ‘three and one’.
Factorise the following expression: x2 + 12x + 36 − y2.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression and look for a common factor. x2 + 12x + 36 − y2
2 Group the terms so that those that can be factorised = (x2 + 12x + 36) − y2
are next to each other.
3 Factorise the quadratic trinomial. = (x + 6 )(x + 6 ) − y 2
This is the form of a perfect square. = (x + 6 ) 2 − y 2
4 Factorise the expression using a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b). = (x + 6 + y)(x + 6 − y)

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising by taking out the highest common factor (doc-5246)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising by taking out a common binomial factor (doc-5247)

Exercise 7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms
Individual pathways

1–4, 8a–h, 9a–d, 10a–c, 14, 15 1–4, 5a, 7a–c, 8a–h, 9a–d, 10a–d, 1–7, 8e–l, 9–19
11–13, 15, 16, 18
   Individual pathway interactivity int-4598 ONLINE ONLY
Fluency
1. Factorise each of the following by taking out a common factor.
a. x2 + 3x b. x2 − 4x c. 3x2 − 6x
d. 4x + 16x
2
e. 9x − 3x
2
f. 8x − 8x2
g. 12x − 3x2 h. 8x − 12x2 i. 8x2 − 11x
2. Factorise each of the following by taking out a common binomial factor.
a. 3x(x − 2) + 2(x − 2) b. 5(x + 3) − 2x(x + 3)
c. (x − 1) 2 + 6(x − 1) d. (x + 1) 2 − 2(x + 1)
e. (x + 4)(x − 4) + 2(x + 4) f. 7(x − 3) − (x + 3)(x − 3)
a. x2 − 1 b. x2 − 9 c. x2 − 25
d. x2 − 100 e. y2 − k2 f. 4x2 − 9y2
g. 16a − 49
2
h. 25p − 36q
2 2
i. 1 − 100d2
a. 4x2 − 4 b. 5x2 − 80 c. ax2 − 9a
d. 2b2 − 8d2 e. 100x2 − 1600 f. 3ax2 − 147a
g. 4px − 256p
2
h. 36x − 16
2
i. 108 − 3x2
5. MC a. If the factorised expression is (x + 7)(x − 7), then the expanded expression must have been:
a. x2 − 7 b. x2 + 7 c. x2 − 49
d. x2 + 49 e. x2 − 14x + 49
(4 5)(4 5)
x 3 x 3
b. If the factorised expression is − + , then the original expression must have been:
x2 3 x2 9 x2 (√3) 2
a. − b. − c. −
4 5 16 25 4 (√5) 2
x2 9 x2 (√3) 2
d. − e. −
4 25 16 (√5) 2
c. The factorised form of 64x − 9y is:
2 2
a. (64x + 9y)(64x − 9y) b. (8x + 3y)(8x − 3y) c. (8x − 3y)(8x − 3y)

d. (8x + 3y)(8x + 3y) e. (16x + 3y)(16x − 3y)
6. MC Which of the following expressions would be factorised by grouping ‘two and two’?
a. x2 − a2 + 12a − 36 b. x2 − 7x − 10 c. 2x2 − 6x − xy + 3y
d. (s − 5) − 25(s + 3)
2 2
e. (r + 5) − (r + 3)(r + 5)
7. Factorise each of the following over the set of real numbers.
a. x2 − 11 b. x2 − 7 c. x2 − 15
d. 4x − 13
2 e. 9x − 19
2 f. 3x2 − 66
g. 5x2 − 15 h. 2x2 − 4 i. 12x2 − 36

8. Factorise each of the following expressions.
a. (x − 1) 2 − 4 b. (x + 1) 2 − 25 c. (x − 2) 2 − 9
d. (x + 3) 2 − 16 e. 49 − (x + 1) 2 f. 36 − (x − 4) 2
g. (x − 1) − (x − 5)
2 2
h. 4(x + 2) − 9(x − 1)
2 2
i. 25(x − 2) 2 − 16(x + 3) 2
9. WE8a Factorise each of the following.
a. x − 2y + ax − 2ay b. 2x + ax + 2y + ay c. ax − ay + bx − by
d. 4x + 4y + xz + yz e. ef − 2e + 3f − 6 f. mn − 7m + n − 7
g. 6rt − 3st + 6ru − 3su h. 7mn − 21n + 35m − 105 i. 64 − 8j + 16k − 2jk
j. 3a2 − a2b + 3ac − abc k. 5x2 + 10x + x2y + 2xy l. 2m2 − m2n + 2mn − mn2
a. xy + 7x − 2y − 14 b. mn + 2n − 3m − 6 c. pq + 5p − 3q − 15
d. s2 + 3s − 4st − 12t e. a2b − cd − bc + a2d f. xy − z − 5z2 + 5xyz
11. WE8b Factorise each of the following.
a. a2 − b2 + 4a − 4b b. p2 − q2 − 3p + 3q c. m2 − n2 + lm + ln
d. 7x + 7y + x − y2 2
e. 5p − 10pq + 1 − 4q 2
f. 49g2 − 36h2 − 28g − 24h
a. x2 + 14x + 49 − y2 b. x2 + 20x + 100 − y2 c. a2 − 22a + 121 − b2
d. 9a2 + 12a + 4 − b2 e. 25p2 − 40p + 16 − 9t2 f. 36t2 − 12t + 1 − 5v2
13. MC a. In the expression 3(x − 2) + 4y(x − 2), the common binomial factor is:
a. 3 + 4y b. 3 − 4y c. x d. − x + 2 e. x − 2
a. Which of the following terms is a perfect square?
a. 9 b. (x + 1)(x − 1) c. 3x2
d. 5(a + b) 2 e. 25x
b. Which of the following expressions can be factorised using grouping?
a. x2 − y2 b. 1 + 4y − 2xy + 4x2 c. 3a2 + 8a + 4
d. x + x + y − y
2 2
e. 2a + 4b − 6ab + 18
14. MC When factorised, 6(a + b) − x(a + b) equals:
a. 6 − x(a + b) b. (6 − x)(a + b) c. 6(a + b − x)
d. (6 + x)(a − b) e. (6 + x)(a + b)
Understanding
15. The area of a rectangle is (x2 − 25) cm2.
a. Factorise the expression.
b. Find the length of the rectangle if the width is x + 5 cm.
c. If x = 7 cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
d. Hence, find the area of the rectangle.
e. If x = 13 cm, how much bigger would the area of this rectangle be?
Reasoning
16. A circular garden of diameter 2r m is to have a gravel
path laid around it. The path is to be 1 m wide.
a. Find the area of the garden in terms of r.
b. Find the area of the garden and path together in
terms of r, using the formula for the area of a circle.
c. Write an expression for the area of the path in
fully factorised form.
d. If the radius of the garden is 5 m, then find the area
of the path, correct to 2 decimal places. Show your
working.

17. A roll of material is (x + 2) metres wide. Annie buys (x + 3) metres of the material and Bronwyn
buys 5 metres of the material.
a. Write an expression, in terms of x, for the area of each piece of material purchased.
b. If Annie has bought more material than Bronwyn, write an expression for how much more she has
than Bronwyn.
c. Factorise and simplify this expression.
d. Find the width of the material if Annie has 5 m2 more than Bronwyn.
e. How much material does each person have? Explain your answer.
Problem solving
A polynomial in the form a3 − b3 is known as the difference of two cubes.
The difference of two cubes can be factorised as:
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2)
Use either the difference of two squares or the difference of two cubes to answer these problem solving
questions.
18. Factorise:
a. x2 − 4xy + 4y2 − a2 + 6ab − 9b2 b. x3 + 9x2 + 27x − 37.
19. Factorise:
a. 27x3 − 1 b. 12x2 − 75y2 − 9(4x − 3).
Reflection
What do you always check for first when factorising?
7.5 Factorising by completing the square

7.5.1 Completing the square
•• Completing the square is the process of writing a general quadratic expression in turning point form.
Complete the square
ax2 + bx + c = a(x−h)2 + k
General form Turning point form

The expression x2 + 8x can be modelled as a square with a smaller square missing from the corner, as
shown below.
x 8 x + 4
x x2 + x 8x = x x2 4x x
+
4 4x
x
4
x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 – (4)2 4
•• In ‘completing the square’, the general equation is written as the area of the large square minus the
area of the small square.
•• In general, to complete the square for x2 + bx, the small square has a side length equal to half of the
(2)
b 2
coefficient of x; that is, the area of the small square is .
x b x + b
2
x x2 + = x x2 bx x
x bx 2
+
b bx
2 2
x
b
2
b
x2 + bx = (x + b2 ) – ( b2 )
2 2
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Write the following in turning point form by completing the square.

a x2 + 4x b x2 + 7x + 1
THINK WRITE
a •• The square will consist of a square that has an area of a x + 2
x 2 and two identical rectangles with a total area of 4x.
•• The length of the large square is (x + 2) so its area x x2 2x x
is (x + 2 ) 2 .
2
•• The area of the smaller square is (2) . +
•• Write x 2 + 4 x in turning point form. 2 2x
x
22
x2 + 4x = (x + 2) 2 − (2) 2
= (x + 2) 2 − 4

b 1 •• Complete the square with the terms containing x. b x + 7
2
•• The square will consist of a square that has an
area of x 2 and two identical rectangles with a total 7x
x x2 2
x
area of 7x.
•• The length of the large square is (x + 72 ) so its +
area is (x + 72 ) .
2 7
2
7x
2 (72) 2
•• The area of the smaller square is (72 ) .

2 x
x2 + 7x + 1 = (x + 72 ) − (72 ) + 1
2 2
•• Write x 2 + 7 x + 1 in turning point form.

2
= (x + 72 ) − +
2 Simplify the last two terms. 49 4
4 4
2
= (x + 72 ) − 45
4
•• The process of completing the square is sometimes described as the process of adding the square of
half of the coefficient of x then subtracting it, as shown in green below. The result of this process is a
perfect square that is then factorised, as shown in blue.
(2) (2)
b 2 b 2
x2 + bx = x2 + bx + −
(2) (2)
b 2 b 2
= x2 + bx + −
( 2) (2)
b 2 b 2
= x+ −
•• For example, factorise x2 + 8x + 2 by completing the square.
(2) (2)
8 2 8 2
x2 + 8x + − +2
= x2 + 8x + (4) 2 − (4) 2 + 2
= x2 + 8x + 16 − 16 + 2
= (x + 4) 2 − 14
7.5.2 Factorising by completing the square

•• When an equation is written in turning point form, it can be factorised as a difference of two squares.
Factorise the following by completing the square.

a x2 + 4x + 2 b x2 − 9x + 1
THINK WRITE
(2 ) (2 )
4 2 4 2
a 1 To complete the square, add the a x2 + 4x + 2 = x2 + 4x + − +2
square of half of the coefficient
of x and then subtract it.
2 Write the perfect square created = x 2 + 4 x + (2 ) 2 − (2 ) 2 + 2
in its factorised form. = (x + 2 ) 2 − (2 ) 2 + 2

3 Write the expression as a = (x + 2 ) 2 − 4 + 2
difference of two squares by: = (x + 2 ) 2 − 2
•• simplifying the numerical terms = (x + 2 ) 2 − (√2 ) 2
•• writing the numerical term as a square
(2 = (√2 ) 2 ).
4 Use the pattern for DOTS, = (x + 2 + √2 )(x + 2 − √2 )
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b),
where a = (x + 2) and b = √2.
(2 ) (2 )
b x2 − 9x + 1 = x2 − 9x + 9 2 9 2
b 1 To complete the square, add the − +1
square of half of the coefficient
of x, then subtract it.
= x2 − 9x + (92 ) − (92 ) + 1
2 2
2 Write the perfect square created
= (x − 92 ) − (92 ) + 1
in its factorised form. 2 2
= (x − 92 ) −
2
3 Write the expression as a
81
4
+1
= (x − 92 ) −
difference of two squares by: 2
77
•• simplifying the numerical terms 4
= (x − 92 ) − (√77
2 )
2 2
•• writing the numerical term as a square.
=( 4) 2 )
= (√77
2 2
√
77 77
4
4 Use the pattern for DOTS: = (x − 92 + 2 )

√77
(x − 92 − 2 )
√77
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b),
where a = (x + 92 ) and b = √77
2
.
•• Remember that you can expand the brackets to check your answer.
•• If the coefficient of x2 ≠ 1 , factorise the expression before completing the square.

Try out this interactivity: Completing the square (int-2783)
Exercise 7.5 Factorising by completing the square

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–d, 5–7, 9 1e–i, 2e–h, 3e–h, 4e–h, 5–8, 10 1g–i, 2g–i, 3g–i, 4g–i, 5–11

Fluency
1. WE10 Complete the square for each of the following expressions.
a. x2 + 10x b. x2 + 6x c. x2 − 4x d. x2 + 16x
e. x2 − 20x f. x2 + 8x g. x2 − 14x h. x2 + 50x
i. x + 7x
2
j. x − x
2
2. WE11a Factorise each of the following by first completing the square.

a. x2 − 4x − 7 b. x2 + 2x − 2 c. x2 − 10x + 12
d. x2 + 6x − 10 e. x2 + 16x − 1 f. x2 − 14x + 43
g. x + 8x + 9
2
h. x − 4x − 13
2
i. x2 − 12x + 25
3. WE11b Factorise each of the following by first completing the square.
a. x2 − x − 1 b. x2 − 3x − 3 c. x2 + x − 5
d. x2 + 3x − 1 e. x2 + 5x + 2 f. x2 + 5x − 2
g. x − 7x − 1
2
h. x − 9x + 13
2
i. x2 − x − 3
4. Factorise each of the following by first looking for a common factor and then completing the square.
a. 2x2 + 4x − 4 b. 4x2 − 8x − 20 c. 5x2 + 30x + 5
d. 3x2 − 12x − 39 e. 5x2 − 30x + 10 f. 6x2 + 24x − 6
g. 3x + 30x + 39
2 h. 2x − 8x − 14
2 i. 6x2 + 36x − 30
Understanding
5. Which method of factorising is the most appropriate for each of the following expressions?
a. Factorising using common factors
b. Factorising using the difference of two squares rule
c. Factorising by grouping
d. Factorising quadratic trinomials
e. Completing the square
i. 3x2 − 8x − 3 ii. 49m2 − 16n2
iii. x2 + 8x + 4 − y2 iv. 7x2 − 28x
v. 6a − 6b + a − b
2 2 vi. x2 + x − 5
vii. (x − 3) 2 + 3(x − 3) − 10 viii. x2 − 7x − 1
6. MC a. To complete the square, the term which should be added to x2 + 4x is:
a. 16 b. 4 c. 4x d. 2 e. 2x
b. To factorise the expression x2 − 3x + 1 , the term that must be both added and subtracted is:
3 9
a. 9 b. 3 c. 3x d. e.
2 4
7. MC The factorised form of x − 6x + 2 is:
2
a. (x + 3 − √7)(x + 3 + √7) b. (x + 3 − √7)(x − 3 + √7)

c. (x − 3 − √7)(x − 3 − √7) d. (x − 3 − √7)(x + 3 + √7)
e. (x − 3 + √7)(x − 3 − √7)
Reasoning
8. A square measuring x cm in side length has a cm added to its length and b cm added to its width. The result-
ing rectangle has an area of (x2 + 6x + 3) cm2. Find the values of a and b, correct to 2 decimal places.
9. Show that x2 + 4x + 6 cannot be factorised by completing the square.
Problem solving
10. For each of the following, complete the square to factorise the expression.
a. 2x2 + 8x + 1 b. 3x2 − 7x + 5
11. Use the technique of completion of the square to factorise x2 + 2(1 − p)x + p(p − 2).
Reflection
Why is this method called completing the square?

7.6 Mixed factorisation
7.6.1 Mixed factorisation
•• Apply what has been covered in this chapter to the following exercise. Factorising monic and non-
monic trinomials:
– factorising by grouping
– difference of two squares
– completing the square.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Simplifying algebraic fractions (doc-5248)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Simplifying surds (doc-5249)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising by grouping three and one (doc-5252)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Mixed factorisation (doc-5254)
Exercise 7.6 Mixed factorisation

Individual pathways

1–6, 8–10, 12–15, 18, 20, 21, 25, 1, 2, 4–9, 11, 13–16, 18–20, 22, 1–9, 13–15, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26,
26, 31–35, 46, 48 26–29, 30, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 34–37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47h–j, 48,
46, 47a–g, 48, 49, 52 50–53
Fluency
Factorise each of the following expressions in questions 1–45.
1. 3x + 9 2. x2 + 4x + 4 − 9y2
3. x − 36
2
4. x2 − 49
5. 5x2 − 9x − 2 6. 15x − 20y
7. 5c + de + dc + 5e 8. 5x2 − 80
9. −x2 − 6x − 5 10. x2 + x − 12
11. mn + 1 + m + n 12. x2 − 7
13. 16x2 − 4x 14. 5x2 + 60x + 100
15. 18 + 9x − 6y − 3xy 16. x2 − 8x + 16 − y2
17. 4x2 + 8 18. fg + 2h + 2g + f h
19. x2 − 5 20. 10mn − 5n + 10m − 5
21. x + 6x + 5
2
22. x2 − 10x − 11
23. x − 4
2
24. −5a + bc + ac − 5b

25. xy − 1 + x − y 26. 3x2 + 5x + 2
27. 7x2 − 28 28. −4x2 − 28x − 24
29. 2p − rs + pr − 2s 30. 3x2 − 27
31. −3u + tv + ut − 3v 32. x2 − 11
33. 12x − 7x + 1
2
34. (x − 1) 2 − 4
35. (x + 2) 2 − 16 36. (2x + 3) 2 − 25
37. 3(x + 5) − 27 2 38. 25 − (x − 2) 2
39. 4(3 − x) 2 − 16y2 40. (x + 2y) 2 − (2x + y) 2
41. (x + 3) − (x + 1)
2 2 42. (2x − 3y) 2 − (x − y) 2
43. (x + 3) 2 + 5(x + 3) + 4 44. (x − 3) 2 + 3(x − 3) − 10
45. 2(x + 1) + 5(x + 1) + 2
2
Understanding
46. Consider the following product of algebraic fractions.
x2 + 3x − 10 x2 + 4x + 4
×
x2 − 4 x2 − 2x − 8
a. Factorise the expression in each numerator and denominator.
b. Cancel factors common to both the numerator and the denominator.
c. Simplify the expression as a single fraction.
47. Use the procedure in question 46 to factorise and simplify each of the following.
x2 − 4x + 3 x2 + 5x + 6
a. ×
x2 − 4x − 12 x2 − 9
3x2 − 17x + 10 x2 − 1
b. ×
6x2 + 5x − 6 x2 − 6x + 5
6x − 12 3x + 6
c. ×
x −4
2 x(x − 5)
6x − x − 2
2 2x2 + x − 1
d. ×
2x2 + 3x + 1 3x2 + 10x − 8
x2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 10x + 25
e. ÷
x2 + x − 2 x2 + 4x + 4
x2 − 7x + 6 x2 − x − 12
f. ÷
x2 + x − 2 x2 − 2x − 8
4ab + 8a 5ac + 5a
g. ÷
(c − 3) c − 2c − 3
2
p − 7p
2 p2 + p − 6
h. ÷
p2 − 49 p2 + 14p + 49
m2 + 4m + 4 − n2 2m2 + 4m − 2mn
i. ÷
4m2 − 4m − 15 10m2 + 15m
d2 − 6d + 9 − 25e2 4d − 12 − 20e
j. ÷
4d2 − 5d − 6 15d − 10
(4 5)(4 5)
x 3 x 3
48. Find the original expression if the factorised expression is + − .
49. Factorise the following using grouping ‘three and one’ and DOTS.
a. x2 − 18x + 81 − y2
b. 4x2 + 12x − 16y2 + 9

Reasoning
50. Expand the binomial factors (x + a)(x − a) and (−x + a)(−x − a). What do you notice? Use your
findings to factorise each of the following, giving two possible answers.
a. x2 − 169 b. 36b2 − 144c2 c. 225x4y2 − 169x2y6
51. Use grouping ‘two and two’ and DOTS to factorise the following. Show your working.
a. x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y
b. 7x + 7y + x2 − y2
c. 5p − 10pq + 1 − 4q2
Problem solving
52. Simplify
2a2 − 7a + 6 5a2 + 11a + 2 10a2 − 13a − 3
× ÷ .
a3 + 8 a3 − 8 a2 − 2a + 4
Note: Use the difference of two cubes (page 282).
53. Factorise x2 + 12x + 40 − 4x2y2 − 4.
Reflection
When an expression is fully factorised, what should it look like?
CHALLENGE 7.2
The expansion of perfect squares
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 can be
used to simplify some arithmetic calculations. For example:
972 = (100 − 3)2
= 1002 − 2 × 100 × 3 + 32
= 9409
Use this method to calculate the following.
a. 1032
b. 622
c. 9972
d. 10122
e. 532
f. 982
7.7 Review
Fluency
1. When expanded, −3x(x + 4)(5 − x) becomes:
a. −3x3 − 3x2 − 27x b. −3x3 + 3x − 27x c. 3x3 + 3x2 − 60x
d. −3x3 + 3x2 − 60x e. 3x3 − 3x2 − 60x
2. When expanded, (3x + 7) becomes:
2
a. 9x2 + 49 b. 3x2 + 49 c. 3x2 + 21x + 49

d. 9x + 42x + 49
2
e. 9x2 + 21x + 49
3. The factorised form of −3d2 − 9d + 30 is:
a. −3(d − 5)(d − 2) b. −3(d + 5)(d − 6) c. −(3d + 5)(d − 2)
d. −(3d + 5)(d − 6) e. −3(d + 5)(d − 2)

4. If the factorised expression is (2x − 5)(2x + 5), then the original expression must have been:
a. 2x2 − 5 b. 4x2 − 5 c. 4x2 − 25
d. 4x2 − 20x + 25 e. 2x2 + 25
5. To factorise −5x − 45x + 100, the first step is to:
2
a. find factors of 5 and 100 that sum to −45

b. take out 5 as a common factor
c. take out −5 as a common factor
d. find factors of 5 and −45 that will add to make 100
e. take out −5x as a common factor
6. To complete the square, the term which should be added to x2 − 12x is:
a. 36 b. −12 c. −12x d. −6 e. −6x
7. Which of the following is equivalent to 5x2 − 20x − 5?
a. 5(x − 2) 2 b. 5(x − 2) 2 − 3 c. 5(x − 2) 2 − 15
d. 5(x − 2) − 20
2
e. 5(x − 2) − 25
2
8. In the expanded form of (x − 3)(x + 5), which of the following is incorrect?

a. The value of the constant is −15.
b. The coefficient of the x term is 2.
c. The coefficient of the x term is −8.
d. The coefficient of the x2 term is 1.
e. The expansion shows this to be a trinomial expression.
9. Expand each of the following and simplify where necessary.
a. 3x(x − 4) b. −7x(3x + 1)
c. (x − 7)(x + 1) d. (2x − 5)(x − 3)
e. (4x − 1)(3x − 5) f. 3(x − 4)(2x + 7)
g. (2x − 5)(x + 3)(x + 7) h. (x + 5)(x + 7) + (2x − 5)(x − 6)
i. (x + 3)(5x − 1) − 2x
10. Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. (x − 7) 2 b. (2 − x) 2 c. (3x + 1) 2
d. −2(3x − 2) 2 e. −7(2x + 5) 2 f. −10(4x − 5) 2
g. (x + 9)(x − 9) h. (3x − 1)(3x + 1) i. (5 + 2x)(5 − 2x)
a. 2x2 − 8x b. −4x2 + 12x c. 3ax − 2ax2
d. (x + 1) 2 + (x + 1) e. 3(2x − 5) − (2x − 5) 2 f. (x − 4)(x + 2) − (x − 4)
a. x2 − 16 b. x2 − 25 c. 2x2 − 72
d. 3x − 27y
2 2
e. 4ax − 16ay
2 2
f. (x − 4) 2 − 9
13. Factorise each of the following by grouping.
a. ax − ay + bx − by b. 7x + ay + ax + 7y c. xy + 2y + 5x + 10
d. mn − q − 2q + 2mnq
2
e. pq − 5r − r + 5pqr
2
f. uv − u + 9v − 9
g. a2 − b2 + 5a − 5b h. d2 − 4c2 − 3d + 6c i. 2 + 2m + 1 − m2
14. Factorise each of the following by grouping.
a. 4x2 + 12x + 9 − y2 b. 49a2 − 28a + 4 − 4b2 c. 64s2 − 16s + 1 − 3t
a. x2 + 10x + 9 b. x2 − 11x + 18 c. x2 − 4x − 21
d. x2 + 3x − 28 e. −x2 + 6x − 9 f. 3x2 + 33x − 78
g. −2x + 8x + 10
2
h. −3x + 24x − 36
2
i. 8x2 + 2x − 1
j. 6x2 + x − 1 k. 8x2 + 4x − 12 l. 105x2 − 10x − 15
m. −12x + 62x − 70
2
n. −45x − 3x + 6
2
o. −60x2 − 270x − 270

16. Factorise each of the following by completing the square.
a. x2 + 6x + 1 b. x2 − 10x − 3 c. x2 + 4x − 2
d. x2 − 5x + 2 e. x2 + 7x − 1 f. 2x2 + 18x − 2
17. Factorise each of the following using the most appropriate method.
a. 3x2 − 12x b. x2 + 6x + 2 c. 4x2 − 25
d. 2x + 9x + 10
2
e. 2ax + 4x + 3a + 6 f. −3x2 − 3x + 18
18. First factorise then simplify each of the following.
x+4 2x − 12 3x + 6 7x − 42 x2 − 4 x2 + 4x − 5
a. × b. × c. ×
5x − 30 x+1 4x − 24 6x + 12 x2 + 5x x2 − 2x − 8
Problem solving
19. A large storage box has a square base with sides measuring (x + 2) cm and is 32 cm high.
a. Write an expression for the area of the base of the box.
b. Write an expression for the volume of the box (V = area of base × height).
c. Simplify the expression by expanding the brackets.
d. If x = 30 cm, find the volume of the box in cm3.
20. A section of garden is to have a circular pond of radius 2r with a 2 m path around its edge.
a. State the diameter of the pond.
b. State the radius of the pond and path.
c. State the area of the pond.
d. State the area of the pond and path.
e. Write an expression to find the area of the path only and write it in factorised form.
f. If the radius of the pond is 3 metres, find the area of the path.
21. In order to make the most of the space available for headlines and stories, the front page of a
newspaper is given an area of x2 − 5x − 14 cm2.
a. If the length is x + 2 cm, what is the width?
b. Write down the length of the shorter side in terms of x.
c. If the shorter side of the front page is 28 cm, find the value of x.
d. Find the area of this particular paper.
22. Here is a well-known puzzle. Let a = b = 1.
Step 1: Write a = b. a=b
Step 2: Multiply both sides by a. a 2 = ab
2
Step 3: Subtract b from both sides. a 2 − b 2 = ab − b 2
Step 4: Factorise. (a + b)(a − b) = b(a − b)
Step 5: Simplify by dividing by (a − b). (a + b) = b
Step 6: Substitute a = b = 1. 1+1=1
Where is the error? Show your thinking.

Language
binomial expression monic
coefficient factorise non-monic
common factor FOIL perfect squares
completing the square general form quadratic trinomial
difference of two squares grouping three and one term
expand grouping two and two turning point form

www.assesson.com.au

Celebrity squares and doubles
In small groups or as a class, use the process of
elimination to find your ‘square and double pair’
by playing ‘Celebrity squares and doubles’ as out-
lined below.
Equipment: roll of calculator paper, scissors,
sticky tape, marker pen
1. Set-up
•• Make a class set of headbands. Each head-
band will be part of a matching pair made
by a number being squared and that same
original number being doubled (16 and
8 would be a pair, because 42 = 16 and
4 × 2 = 8). Your teacher will direct the class
as to what number should be written on each
headband.
•• Place the headbands randomly on a table.
2. Beginning the game
•• There is to be no communication between players at this time.
•• Your teacher will randomly allocate a headband to each player by placing a headband on their
head without the player seeing the number on their headband.

3. Playing the game
The object of the game
•• The object of the game is to use the process of elimination for you to find your pair. A possible
train of thought is illustrated at right.
Starting the game
•• Once all headbands have been allocated, stand in a circle or walk around freely.
•• Without speaking, determine who is a match; then, by a process of elimination, determine who
might be your match.
Making a match
•• When you think you have found your match, approach that person and say ‘I think I am your match.’
•• The other player should now check to see if you have a match elsewhere and can reply by saying
one of two things: ‘Yes, I think I am your match,’ or ‘I know your match is still out there.’
•• If a match is agreed upon, the players should sit out for the remainder of the game. If a match is
not agreed upon, players should continue looking.
Ending the game
•• The class should continue until everyone is in a pair, at which time the class can check their
results.
•• The class should now discuss the different trains of thought they used to find their pair and how
this relates to factorising quadratic trinomials.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Isaac Newton demonstrated this in 1665 (doc-15929)

Answers
Topic 7 Quadratic expressions
Exercise 7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions
1. a. 2x + 6 b. 4x − 20 c. 21 − 3x d. −x − 3
e. x + 2x
2
f. 2x − 8x
2
g. 15x − 6x
2
h. 10x − 15x2
i. 8x + 2x2
j. 4x − 6x
3 2
k. 6x − 3x
3 2
l. 15x3 + 20x2
2. a. x2 − x − 12 b. x2 − 2x − 3 c. x2 − 5x − 14 d. x2 − 6x + 5
e. −x − x + 6
2
f. x − 6x + 8
2
g. 2x − 17x + 21
2
h. 3x2 − x − 2
i. 6x2 − 17x + 5 j. 21 − 17x + 2x2 k. 15 + 14x − 8x2 l. 110 + 47x − 21x2
3. a. 2x − 4x − 6
2
b. 8x − 28x − 16
2
c. −2x + 12x + 14
2
d. 2x − 2x
3
e. 3x3 − 75x
f. 6x3 − 54x g. 2x3 − 12x2 + 18x h. 5x3 − 30x2 + 40x i. −6x3 − 6x2 + 120x
4. a. x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 b. x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 c. x3 − 5x2 − x + 5 d. x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6
e. 2x − 7x − 5x + 4
3 2
f. 6x − 7x + 1
3 2
5. a. x − x − 2
2
b. −2x + 4x + 10
2
c. 5x2 − 6x − 5 d. 19x − 23 e. −5x − 1
f. −2x + 6 g. x − 2x − 3 + √3x
2
h. √6 + 2√2x − 3√3x − 6x2 − √5x
6. a. A b. C
7. B
8. a. x2 − 2x + 1 b. x2 + 4x + 4 c. x2 + 10x + 25 d. 16 + 8x + x2 e. 49 − 14x + x2
f. 144 − 24x + x2 g. 9x2 − 6x + 1 h. 144x2 − 72x + 9 i. 25x2 + 20x + 4 j. 4 − 12x + 9x2
k. 25 − 40x + 16x2 l. 1 − 10x + 25x2
9. a. 2x − 12x + 18
2
b. 4x2 − 56x + 196 c. 3x2 + 6x + 3 d. −4x2 − 12x − 9 e. −49x2 + 14x − 1
f. 8x2 − 24x + 18 g. −12 + 108x − 243x2 h. −45 + 330x − 605x2 i. −16x2 − 16x − 4
10. a. x2 − 49 b. x2 − 81 c. x2 − 25 d. x2 − 1 e. 4x2 − 9 f. 9x2 − 1
g. 49 − x2 h. 64 − x2 i. 9 − 4x2
11. a. (x + 1) (x − 3) b. x2 − 2x − 3 c. 6 cm, 2 cm, 12 cm2
12. a. b.
(x + 1) m
xm (x + 2) m
c. (x + 1) (x + 2) d. x + 3x + 2
2
e. 4 m2, 12 m2
13. a. Student C
b. Student B:
(3x + 4) (2x + 5)
= 3x × 2x + 3x × 5 + 4 × 2x + 4 × 5
= 6x2 + 23x + 20
Student A:
(3x + 4) (2x + 5)
= 3x × 2x + 3x × 5 + 4 × 2x + 4 × 5
= 6x2 + 15x + 8x + 20
= 6x2 + 23x + 20
14. (a − b) (a + b) = a2 − b2
LHS
(5 − 3) (5 + 3)
=2×8
= 16
RHS:
52 − 32
= 25 − 9
= 16
LHS = RHS ⇒ True

15. (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
LHS:
(5 + 3) 2
= 82
= 64
RHS:
52 + 2 × 5 × 3 + 32
= 25 + 30 + 9
= 64
LHS = RHS ⇒ True
16. Answers will vary; examples are shown.
a. (x + 4) (x + 3) = x2 + 7x + 12 b. (x + 4) 2 = x2 + 8x + 16
c. (x + 4) (x − 4) = x − 16
2
d. (x + 4) 2 = x2 + 8x + 16
17. The square of a binomial is a trinomial; the difference of two squares has two terms.
18. (a + b) (c + d) = (c + d) (a + b)
LHS:
(a + b) (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
RHS:
(c + d) (a + b) = ca + cb + da + db
LHS = RHS ⇒ True
1 1
19. a. 4x2 + 12xy − 20xz + 9y2 − 30yz + 25z2 b. + − 4x + 4x2 − 1
x 4x2
20. a. V = 6x3 − 29x2 + 46x − 24 b. TSA = 12x2 + 20x + 3
Challenge 7.1
10, 11, 13, 18, 35
Exercise 7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms

1. a. (x + 2) (x + 1) b. (x + 3) (x + 1) c. (x + 8) (x + 2) d. (x + 4) 2 e. (x − 3) (x + 1)
f. (x − 4) (x + 1) g. (x − 12) (x + 1) h. (x − 6) (x + 2) i. (x + 4) (x − 1) j. (x + 5) (x − 1)
k. (x + 7) (x − 1) l. (x + 5) (x − 2) m. (x − 3) (x − 1) n. (x − 4) (x − 5) o. (x + 14) (x − 5)
2. a. −2(x + 9) (x + 1) b. −3(x + 2) (x + 1) c. −(x + 2) (x + 1) d. −(x + 10) (x + 1) e. −(x + 2) (x + 5)
f. −(x + 12) (x + 1) g. −(x + 3) (x + 4) h. −(x + 2) (x + 6) i. 2(x + 2) (x + 5) j. 3(x + 1) (x + 10)
k. 5(x + 20) (x + 1) l. 5(x + 4) (x + 5)
3. a. (a − 7) (a + 1) b. (t − 4) (t − 2) c. (b + 4) (b + 1) d. (m + 5) (m − 3) e. (p − 16) (p + 3)
f. (c + 16) (c − 3) g. (k + 19) (k + 3) h. (s − 19) (s + 3) i. (g + 8) (g − 9) j. (v − 25) (v − 3)
k. (x + 16) (x − 2) l. (x − 15) (x − 4)
4. a. C b. B
5. C
6. a. (2x + 1) (x + 2) b. (2x − 1) (x − 1) c. (4x + 3) (x − 5) d. (2x − 1) (2x + 3) e. (x − 7) (2x + 5)
f. (3x + 1) (x + 3) g. (3x − 7) (2x − 1) h. (4x − 7) (3x + 2) i. (5x + 3) (2x − 3) j. (4x − 1) (5x + 2)
k. (3x + 2) (4x − 1) l. (3x − 1) (5x + 2)
7. a. 2(x − 1) (2x + 3) b. 3(3x + 1) (x − 7) c. 12(2x + 1) (3x − 1) d. −3(3x + 1) (2x − 1)
e. −30(2x + 1) (x − 3) f. 3a(4x − 7) (2x + 5) g. −2(4x − 3) (x − 2) h. −(2x − 7) (5x + 2)
i. −(8x − 1) (3x − 4) j. −2(3x − y) (2x + y) k. −5(2x − 7y) (3x + 2y) l. −12(5x + 3y) (10x + 7y)
8. a. w + 5w − 6
2
b. (w + 6) (w − 1) c. (x + 5) (x − 2)
9. a. x(x + 5) b. x(x + 5) c. (x − 1) 2
d. (x + 9) (x + 5) e. (x − 15) (x − 6) f. (x − 10) (x − 3)
10. (x − 0.5) (x + 1.5)
11. a. (x − 5) (x + 1) b. (x − 5) cm c. x = 15 m d. 160 cm2
e. 3000(x − 5) (x + 1) cm2 or (3000x2 − 12 000x − 15 000) cm2
12. a. (2x + 3) (3x + 1) b. P = 10x + 8 c. x = 8 metres
13. a. SA = 3x + 16x
2
b. Total area = 3x2 + 16x + 16 c. (3x + 4) (x + 4)
d. l = 21 m; w = 7 m; d = 2 m e. 275 m2 f. 294 m3

14. a. Yellow = 3 cm × 3 cm b. Yellow = 0.36 m2 c.
Black = 3 cm × 6 cm Black = 0.72 m2
White = 6 cm × 6 cm White = 0.36 m2
15. a. x2 − 7x + 12 = (x − 3) (x − 4) b. x2 + 7x − 12 = (x − 3) (x − 4) c. x2 − x + 2 = (x − 2) (x + 1)
d. x − 4x − 21 = (x + 3) (x − 7)
2
e. x + 4x − 21 = (x − 3) (x + 7)
2
f. x2 − x − 30 = (x + 5) (x − 6)
g. x2 + 7x − 8 = (x − 1) (x + 8) h. x2 − 11x + 30 = (x − 5) (x − 6)
16. a. (9a − 2) (6a − 7) b. (3m2 + 2) (m − √7) (m + √7) c. (2 sin(x) − 1) (sin(x) − 1)
17. a. (x + 2√3) (2x − √3) b. 2z(z + 3)
2
Exercise 7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms

1. a. x(x + 3) b. x(x − 4) c. 3x(x − 2) d. 4x(x + 4) e. 3x(3x − 1)
f. 8x(1 − x) g. 3x(4 − x) h. 4x(2 − 3x) i. x(8x − 11)
2. a. (x − 2) (3x + 2) b. (x + 3) (5 − 2x) c. (x − 1) (x + 5) d. (x + 1) (x − 1)
e. (x + 4) (x − 2) f. (x − 3) (4 − x)
3. a. (x + 1) (x − 1) b. (x + 3) (x − 3) c. (x + 5) (x − 5) d. (x + 10) (x − 10) e. (y + k) (y − k)
f. (2x + 3y) (2x − 3y) g. (4a + 7) (4a − 7) h. (5p + 6q) (5p − 6q) i. (1 + 10d) (1 − 10d)
4. a. 4(x + 1) (x − 1) b. 5(x + 4) (x − 4) c. a(x + 3) (x − 3) d. 2(b + 2d ) (b − 2d) e. 100(x + 4) (x − 4)
f. 3a(x + 7) (x − 7) g. 4p(x + 8) (x − 8) h. 4(3x + 2) (3x − 2) i. 3(6 + x) (6 − x)
5. a. C b. B c. B
6. C
7. a. (x + √11) (x − √11) b. (x + √7) (x − √7) c. (x + √15) (x − √15) d. (2x + √13) (2x − √13)
e. (3x + √19) (3x − √19) f. 3(x + √22) (x − √22) g. 5(x + √3) (x − √3) h. 2(x + √2) (x − √2)
i. 12(x + √3) (x − √3)
8. a. (x − 3) (x + 1) b. (x − 4) (x + 6) c. (x − 5) (x + 1) d. (x − 1) (x + 7) e. (6 − x) (x + 8)
f. (10 − x) (x + 2) g. 8(x − 3) h. (7 − x) (5x + 1) i. (x − 22) (9x + 2)
9. a. (x − 2y) (1 + a) b. (x + y) (2 + a) c. (x − y) (a + b) d. (x + y) (4 + z) e. (f − 2) (e + 3)
f. (n − 7) (m + 1) g. 3(2r − s) (t + u) h. 7(m − 3) (n + 5) i. 2(8 − j) (4 + k) j. a(3 − b) (a + c)
k. x(5 + y) (x + 2) l. m(m + n) (2 − n)
10. a. (y + 7) (x − 2) b. (m + 2) (n − 3) c. (q + 5) (p − 3) d. (s + 3) (s − 4t)
e. (b + d) (a2 − c) f. (1 + 5z) (xy − z)
11. a.(a − b) (a + b + 4) b. (p − q) (p + q − 3) c. (m + n) (m − n + l) d. (x + y) (7 + x − y)
e. (1 − 2q) (5p + 1 + 2q) f. (7g + 6h) (7g − 6h − 4)
12. a. (x + 7 + y) (x + 7 − y) b. (x + 10 + y) (x + 10 − y) c. (a − 11 + b) (a − 11 − b)
d. (3a + 2 + b) (3a + 2 − b) e. (5p − 4 + 3t) (5p − 4 − 3t) f. (6t − 1 + √5v) (6t − 1 − √5v)
13. a. E b. A c. D
14. B
15. a. (x − 5) (x + 5) b. (x − 5) cm, (x + 5) cm c. 2 cm, 12 cm d. 24 cm2
e. 120 cm2 or 6 times bigger
16. a. A1 = πr2m2 b. A2 = π(r + 1) 2m2
c. A = π(r + 1) 2 − πr2 = π(2r + 1) m2 d. 34.56 m2
17. a. Annie = (x + 3) (x + 2) m Bronwyn = 5(x + 2)m2
2
b. (x + 3) (x + 2) − 5(x + 2)
c. (x + 2) (x − 2) = x2 − 4 d. Width = 5 m
e. Annie has 30 m2 and Bronwyn has 25 m2 .
18. a. (x − 2y − a + 3b) (x − 2y + a − 3b) b. (x − 1) (x2 + 10x + 37)

19. a. (3x − 1) (9x + 3x + 1)
2
b. 3(2x − 5y − 3) (2x + 5y − 3)
Exercise 7.5 Factorising by completing the square

1. a. 25 b. 9 c. 4 d. 64 e. 100
f. 16 g. 49 h. 625 i. 49
4
j. 14

2. a. (x − 2 + √11) (x − 2 − √11) b. (x + 1 + √3) (x + 1 − √3) c. (x − 5 + √13) (x − 5 − √13)
d. (x + 3 + √19) (x + 3 − √19) e. (x + 8 + √65) (x + 8 − √65) f. (x − 7 + √6) (x − 7 − √6)
g. (x + 4 + √7) (x + 4 − √7) h. (x − 2 + √17) (x − 2 − √17) i. (x − 6 + √11) (x − 6 − √11)
( 2 )( 2) ( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 )
1 √5 1 √5 3 √21 3 √21 1 √21 1 √21
3. a. x − + x− − b. x − + x− − c. x + + x+ −
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 )
3 √13 3 √13 5 √17 5 √17 5 √33 5 √33
d. x + + x+ − e. x + + x+ − f. x + + x+ −
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 )
7 √53 7 √53 9 √29 9 √29 1 √13 1 √13
g. x − + x− − h. x − + x− − i. x − + x− −
2 2 2 2 2 2
4. a. 2(x + 1 + √3) (x + 1 − √3) b. 4(x − 1 + √6) (x − 1 − √6) c. 5(x + 3 + 2√2) (x + 3 − 2√2)
d. 3(x − 2 + √17) (x − 2 − √17) e. 5(x − 3 + √7) (x − 3 − √7) f. 6(x + 2 + √5) (x + 2 − √5)
g. 3(x + 5 + 2√3) (x + 5 − 2√3) h. 2(x − 2 + √11) (x − 2 − √11) i. 6(x + 3 + √14) (x + 3 − √14)
5. i. d ii. b iii. c iv. a v. c vi. d vii. d h. e
6. a. B b. E
7. E
8. a = 0.55; b = 5.45
9. Check with your teacher.
( 2 )( 2 )
√14 √14
10. a. 2 x + 2 − x+2+
b. This expression cannot be factorised as there is no difference of two squares.

11. (x − p) (x − p + 2)
Exercise 7.6 Mixed factorisation
1. 3(x + 3) 12. (x + √7) (x − √7) 23. (x + 2) (x − 2) 34. (x + 1) (x − 3)
2. (x + 2 + 3y) (x + 2 − 3y) 13. 4x(4x − 1) 24. (a + b) (c − 5) 35. (x + 6) (x − 2)
3. (x + 6) (x − 6) 14. 5(x + 10) (x + 2) 25. (y + 1) (x − 1) 36. 4(x − 1) (x + 4)
4. (x + 7) (x − 7) 15. 3(3 − y) (x + 2) 26. (3x + 2) (x + 1) 37. 3(x + 2) (x + 8)
5. (5x + 1) (x − 2) 16. (x − 4 + y) (x − 4 − y) 27. 7(x + 2) (x − 2) 38. (3 + x) (7 − x)
6. 5(3x − 4y) 17. 4(x2 + 2) 28. −4(x + 6) (x + 1) 39. 4(3 − x + 2y) (3 − x − 2y)
7. (c + e) (5 + d) 18. (g + h) (f + 2) 29. (2 + r) (p − s) 40. 3(y + x) (y − x)
8. 5(x + 4) (x − 4) 19. (x + √5) (x − √5) 30. 3(x + 3) (x − 3) 41. 4(x + 2)
9. −(x + 5) (x + 1) 20. 5(n + 1) (2m − 1) 31. (u + v) (t − 3) 42. (3x − 4y) (x − 2y)
10. (x + 4) (x − 3) 21. (x + 5) (x + 1) 32. (x + √11) (x − √11) 43. (x + 7) (x + 4)
11. (m + 1) (n + 1) 22. (x + 1) (x − 11) 33. (4x − 1) (3x − 1) 44. (x + 2) (x − 5)
45. (2x + 3) (x + 3)
(x + 5) (x − 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 5) (x − 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) x+5
46. a. × b. × c.
(x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 4) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 4) (x + 2) x−4
x−1 x+1 18 2x − 1
47. a. b. c. d.
x−6 2x + 3 x(x − 5) x+4
x+2 x−6 4(b + 2) p(p + 7)
e. f. g. h.
x+5 x+3 5 (p + 3) (p − 2)
5(m + 2 + n) 5(3d − 2) (d − 3 + 5e)
i. j.
2(2m − 5) 4(d − 2) (4d + 3)
x2 9
48. −
16 25
49. a. (x − 9 − y) (x − 9 + y) b. (2x + 3 − 4y) (2x + 3 + 4y)
50. x2 − a2; they are the same.
a. (x − 13) (x + 13) or (–x − 13) (–x + 13)
b. 36(b − 2c) (b + 2c) or 36(–b − 2c) (–b + 2c)
c. x2y2 (15x − 13y2) (15x + 13y2) or x2y2 (−15x − 13y2) (−15x + 13y2)
51. a. (x + y) (x − y + 3) b. (x + y) (7 + x − y) c. (1 − 2q) (5p + 1 + 2q)
1
52.
a2 + 2a + 4
53. (x + 6 − 2xy) (x + 6 + 2xy)

Challenge 7.2
a. 10 609 b. 3844 c. 99 409 d. 1 024 144 e. 2809 f. 9604
7.7 Review
1. E
2. D
3. E
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. E
8. C
9. a. 3x2 − 12x b. −21x2 − 7x c. x2 − 6x − 7 d. 2x2 − 11x + 15 e. 12x2 − 23x + 5
f. 6x2 − 3x − 84 g. 2x3 + 15x2 − 8x − 105 h. 3x2 − 5x + 65 i. 5x2 + 12x − 3
10. a. x − 14x + 49
2
b. 4 − 4x + x 2
c. 9x + 6x + 1
2
d. −18x2 + 24x − 8 e. −28x2 − 140x − 175
f. −160x2 + 400x − 250 g. x2 − 81 h. 9x2 − 1 i. 25 − 4x2
11. a. 2x(x − 4) b. −4x(x − 3) c. ax(3 − 2x) d. (x + 1) (x + 2) e. 2(2x − 5) (4 − x) f. (x − 4) (x + 1)
12. a. (x + 4) (x − 4) b. (x + 5) (x − 5) c. 2(x + 6) (x − 6) d. 3(x + 3y) (x − 3y) e. 4a(x + 2y) (x − 2y) f. (x − 1) (x − 7)
13. a. (x − y) (a + b) b. (x + y) (7 + a) c. (x + 2) (y + 5) d. (1 + 2q) (mn − q) e. (5r + 1) (pq − r)
f. (v − 1) (u + 9) g. (a − b) (a + b + 5) h. (d − 2c) (d + 2c − 3) i. (1 + m) (3 − m)
14. a. (2x + 3 + y) (2x + 3 − y) b. (7a − 2 + 2b) (7a − 2 − 2b) c. (8s − 1 + √3t) (8s − 1 − √3t)
15. a. (x + 9) (x + 1) b. (x − 9) (x − 2) c. (x − 7) (x + 3) d. (x + 7) (x − 4) e. −(x − 3) 2
f. 3(x + 13) (x − 2) g. −2(x − 5) (x + 1) h. −3(x − 6) (x − 2) i. (4x − 1) (2x + 1) j. (3x − 1) (2x + 1)
k. 4(2x + 3) (x − 1) l. 5(7x − 3) (3x + 1) m. −2(3x − 5) (2x − 7) n. −3(3x − 1) (5x + 2) o. −30(2x + 3) (x + 3)
16. a. (x + 3 + 2√2) (x + 3 − 2√2) b. (x − 5 + 2√7) (x − 5 − 2√7) c. (x + 2 + √6) (x + 2 − √6)
( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 ) ( 2 )( 2 )
5 √17 5 √17 7 √53 7 √53 9 √85 9 √85
d. x − + x− − e. x + + x+ − f. 2 x + + x+ −
2 2 2 2 2 2
17. a. 3x(x − 4) b. (x + 3 + √7) (x + 3 − √7) c. (2x + 5) (2x − 5)
d. (2x + 5) (x + 2) e. (a + 2) (2x + 3) f. −3(x − 2) (x + 3)
2(x + 4) 7 (x − 2) (x − 1)
18. a. b. c.
5(x + 1) 8 x(x − 4)
19. a. (x + 2) 2 b. 32(x + 2) 2 c. 32x2 + 128x + 128 d. 32 768 cm3
20. a. 4r b. 2r + 2 c. 4πr2 d. (4r2 + 8r + 4)π e. 4π(2r + 1) f. 28π m2
21. a. (x − 7) b. x − 7 cm c. 35 d. 1036 cm 2
22. Division by zero in Step 5

Check with your teacher.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 8
Quadratic equations
8.1 Overview
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered
in this topic.

The Guggenheim Museum in
Bilbao (Spain) is covered with
thin metal plates like the scales
of a fish, each one designed
and shaped by a computer. This
project required the solving
of thousands of non-linear
equations. Parabolic shapes are
widely used by engineers and
architects.

1. THINK List what you know about quadratic equations. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to
show your list.
knowledge of quadratic equations.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
8.1 Overview
8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically
8.5 The discriminant
8.6 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: The Chinese Golden Age of Mathematics (eles-1847)

8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically
8.2.1 Quadratic equations
•• The general form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0.
•• To solve an equation means to find the value of the pronumeral(s) or variables, which when substituted,
will make the equation a true statement.
8.2.2 The Null Factor Law

•• The Null Factor Law states that if the product of two numbers is zero then one or both of the numbers
must equal zero.
•• In other words, there are two solutions to the equation pq = 0; they are p = 0 and q = 0.
•• When solving quadratic equations by applying the Null Factor Law, it is best to write the equations
equal to zero.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation (x − 7)(x + 11) = 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation and check that the right-hand side equals zero. (x − 7)(x + 11) = 0
(The product of the two numbers is zero.)
2 The left-hand side is factorised, so apply the Null Factor Law. x − 7 = 0 or x + 11 = 0
3 Solve for x. x=7 x = −11
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Solve each of the following equations.

a x2 − 3x = 0 b 3x2 − 27 = 0
c x2 − 13x + 42 = 0 d 36x2 − 21x = 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. Check that the right-hand side a x2 − 3x = 0

equals zero.
2 Factorise by taking out the common factor of x2 and x(x − 3) = 0
3x, which is x.
3 Apply the Null Factor Law. x = 0 or x − 3 = 0
4 Solve for x. x=0 x =3
b 1 Write the equation. Check that the right-hand side b 3x2 − 27 = 0
equals zero.
2 Factorise by taking out the common factor of 3x2 3(x2 − 9) = 0
and 27, which is 3.
3 Factorise using the difference of two squares rule. 3(x2 − 32) = 0
3(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
TOPIC 8 Quadratic equations 299

4 Apply the Null Factor Law. x + 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
5 Solve for x. x = −3 x = 3
(Alternatively, x = ±3.)
c 1 Write the equation. Check that the right-hand side c x2 − 13x + 42 = 0
equals zero.
2 Factorise by finding a factor pair of 42 that adds Factors of 42 Sum of factors
to −13.
−6 and −7 −13
(x − 6 )(x − 7 ) = 0
3 Use the Null Factor Law to write two linear x − 6 = 0 or x − 7 = 0
equations.
4 Solve for x. x =6 x =7
d 1 Write the equation. Check that the right-hand side d 36x2 − 21x = 2
equals zero. (It does not.)
2 Rearrange the equation so the right-hand side of the 36x2 − 21x − 2 = 0
equation equals zero.
3 Recognise that the expression to factorise is a Factors of −72 Sum of factors
− 21
quadratic trinomial.
3 and − 24
36x2 − 24x + 3x − 2 = 0
4 Factorise the expression. 12x(3x − 2) + (3x − 2) = 0
(3x − 2)(12x + 1) = 0
5 Use the Null Factor Law to write two linear 3x − 2 = 0 or 12x + 1 = 0
equations. 3x = 2 12x = −1
6 Solve for x. x= 2
3
x = −12
1
8.2.3 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square

•• Sometimes it is necessary to complete the square in order to factorise a quadratic trinomial.
•• This is often necessary if the solutions are not rational numbers.
Find the solutions to the equation x2 + 2x − 4 = 0. Give exact answers.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. x2 + 2x − 4 = 0
(2 × 2)
2 Identify the coefficient of x, halve it and square the 1
2
result.

x2 + 2x + (12 × 2) − 4 − (12 × 2) = 0
3 Add the result of step 2 to the equation, placing it 2 2
after the x-term. To balance the equation, we need

to subtract the same amount as we have added. x2 + 2x + (1) 2 − 4 − (1) 2 = 0
x2 + 2x + 1 − 4 − 1 = 0
4 Insert brackets around the first three terms to group (x2 + 2x + 1) − 5 = 0

them and then simplify the remaining terms.
5 Factorise the first three terms to produce a perfect (x + 1 ) 2 − 5 = 0
square.
6 Express as the difference of two squares and then (x + 1) 2 − (√5) 2 = 0
(x + 1 + √5)(x + 1 − √5) = 0
factorise.
7 Apply the Null Factor Law to find linear equations. x + 1 + √5 = 0 or x + 1 − √5 = 0
8 Solve for x. Keep the answer in surd form to x = −1 − √5 or x = −1 + √5
provide an exact answer. (Alternatively, x = −1 ± √5 .)
8.2.4 Solving problems

•• There are many problems that can be modelled by a quadratic equation. You should first form the
quadratic equation that represents the situation before attempting to solve such problems.
•• Recall that worded problems should always be answered with a sentence.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
When two consecutive numbers are multiplied together, the result is 20. Determine the numbers.
THINK WRITE
1 Define the unknowns. First number = x, Let the two numbers be x and
second number = x + 1. (x + 1 ).
2 Write an equation using the information given in the question. x(x + 1) = 20
3 Transpose the equation so that the right-hand side equals zero. x(x + 1) − 20 = 0
4 Expand to remove the brackets. x2 + x − 20 = 0
5 Factorise. (x + 5 )(x − 4 ) = 0
6 Apply the Null Factor Law to solve for x. x + 5 = 0 or x − 4 = 0
x = −5 x =4
7 Use the answer to determine the second number. If x = −5 , x + 1 = −4 .
If x = 4 , x + 1 = 5 .
8 Check the solutions. Check:
4 × 5 = 20 −5 × −4 = 20
9 Answer the question in a sentence. The numbers are 4 and 5 or −5
and −4.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
The height of a football after being kicked is determined

by the formula h = −0.1d2 + 3d, where d is the
horizontal distance from the player.
a How far away is the ball from the player when it hits
the ground?
b What horizontal distance has the ball travelled when it
first reaches a height of 20 m?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula. a h = −0.1 d 2 + 3d
2 The ball hits the ground when h = 0. Substitute − 0.1 d2 + 3d = 0
h = 0 into the formula.
3 Factorise. − 0.1d 2 + 3d = 0
d(−0.1d + 3) = 0
4 Apply the Null Factor Law and simplify. d = 0 or −0.1d + 3 = 0
−0.1d = −3
−3
d =
−0.1
= 30
5 Interpret the solutions. d = 0 is the origin of the kick.

d = 30 is the distance from the origin that
the ball has travelled when it lands.
6 Answer the question in a sentence. The ball is 30 m from the player when it
hits the ground.
b 1 The height of the ball is 20 m, so, substitute b h = −0.1d2 + 3d
h = 20 into the formula. 20 = −0.1d2 + 3d
2 Transpose the equation so that zero is on the 0.1d2 − 3d + 20 = 0
right-hand side.
3 Multiply both sides of the equation by 10 to d2 − 30d + 200 = 0
remove the decimal from the coefficient.
4 Factorise. (d − 20)(d − 10) = 0
5 Apply the Null Factor Law. d − 20 = 0 or d − 10 = 0
6 Solve. d = 20 d = 10
7 Interpret the solution. The ball reaches a height The ball first reaches a height of 20 m after
of 20 m on the way up and on the way down. it has travelled a distance of 10 m.
The first time the ball reaches a height of 20 m
is the smaller value of d. Answer in a sentence.

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising by taking out the highest common factor (doc-5256)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding a factor pair that adds to a given number (doc-5257)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substituting into quadratic equations (doc-5259)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Equation of a vertical line (doc-5260)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Solving quadratic equations (doc-5261)
Exercise 8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically

Individual pathways
V■ PRACTISE V■ CONSOLIDATE V■ MASTER

1a–f, 2a–c, 3a–d, 4a–c, 5a–h, 6–8, 1b–g, 2a–d, 3a–f, 4a–f, 5d–l, 6, 7, 1, 2, 3f–i, 4f–l, 5g–l, 6, 7, 8g–l, 9f–i,
10, 14, 16, 19, 20, 22 8a–d, 9, 11, 14–16, 18, 20–22, 26 10d–i, 11d–i, 12–27
Fluency
1. WE1 Solve each of the following equations.
a. (x + 7)(x − 9) = 0 b. (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 c. (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0
d. x(x − 3) = 0 e. x(x − 1) = 0 f. x(x + 5) = 0
g. 2x(x − 3) = 0 h. 9x(x + 2) = 0 i. (x − 12 )(x + 12 ) = 0
j. −(x + 1.2)(x + 0.5) = 0 k. 2(x − 0.1) (2x − 1.5) = 0 l. (x + √2)(x − √3) = 0
a. (2x − 1)(x − 1) = 0 b. (3x + 2)(x + 2) = 0 c. (4x − 1)(x − 7) = 0
d. (7x + 6)(2x − 3) = 0 e. (5x − 3)(3x − 2) = 0 f. (8x + 5)(3x − 2) = 0
g. x(x − 3)(2x − 1) = 0 h. x(2x − 1)(5x + 2) = 0 i. x(x + 3)(5x − 2) = 0
3. WE2a Solve each of the following equations.
a. x2 − 2x = 0 b. x2 + 5x = 0 c. x2 = 7x d. 3x2 = −2x e. 4x2 − 6x = 0
f. 6x − 2x = 0
2
g. 4x − 2√7x = 0 h. 3x2 + √3x = 0
2
i. 15x − 12x2 = 0
4. WE2b Solve each of the following equations.
a. x2 − 4 = 0 b. x2 − 25 = 0 c. 3x2 − 12 = 0 d. 4x2 − 196 = 0 e. 9x2 − 16 = 0
1 1 2
f. 4x2 − 25 = 0 g. 9x2 = 4 h. 36x2 = 9 i. x2 − 25 = 0 j. 36 x − 49 = 0
k. x − 5 = 0
2
l. 9x − 11 = 0
2
5. WE2c Solve each of the following equations.

a. x2 − x − 6 = 0 b. x2 + 6x + 8 = 0 c. x2 − 6x − 7 = 0 d. x2 − 8x + 15 = 0
e. x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 f. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 g. x2 − 10x + 25 = 0 h. x2 − 3x − 10 = 0
i. x2 − 8x + 12 = 0 j. x2 − 4x − 21 = 0 k. x2 − x − 30 = 0 l. x2 − 7x + 12 = 0
m. x2 − 8x + 16 = 0 n. x2 + 10x + 25 = 0 o. x2 − 20x + 100 = 0

6. MC The solutions to the equation x2 + 9x − 10 = 0 are:
a. x = 1 and x = 10 b. x = 1 and x = −10 c. x = −1 and x = 10
d. x = −1 and x = −10 e. x = 1 and x = 9
7. MC The solutions to the equation x2 − 100 = 0 are:
d. x = 0 and x = 100 e. x = −100 and x = 100
8. WE2d Solve each of the following equations.
a. 2x2 − 5x = 3 b. 3x2 + x − 2 = 0 c. 5x2 + 9x = 2
d. 6x2 − 11x + 3 = 0 e. 14x2 − 11x = 3 f. 12x2 − 7x + 1 = 0
g. 6x − 7x = 20
2
h. 12x + 37x + 28 = 0
2 i. 10x2 − x = 2
j. 6x2 − 25x + 24 = 0 k. 30x2 + 7x − 2 = 0 l. 3x2 − 21x = −36
9. WE3 Find the solutions for each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
a. x2 − 4x + 2 = 0 b. x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 c. x2 + 6x − 1 = 0
d. x − 8x + 4 = 0
2 e. x − 10x + 1 = 0
2 f. x2 − 2x − 2 = 0
g. x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 h. x2 + 4x − 6 = 0 i. x2 + 4x − 11 = 0
10. Find the solutions for each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
a. x2 − 3x + 1 = 0 b. x2 + 5x − 1 = 0 c. x2 − 7x + 4 = 0 d. x2 − 5 = x
e. x2 − 11x + 1 = 0 f. x2 + x = 1 g. x2 + 3x − 7 = 0 h. x2 − 3 = 5x
i. x − 9x + 4 = 0
2
11. Solve each of the following equations, rounding answers to 2 decimal places.
a. 2x2 + 4x − 6 = 0 b. 3x2 + 12x − 3 = 0 c. 5x2 − 10x − 15 = 0 d. 4x2 − 8x − 8 = 0
e. 2x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 f. 3x2 − 9x − 3 = 0 g. 5x2 − 15x − 25 = 0 h. 7x2 + 7x − 21 = 0
i. 4x2 + 8x − 2 = 0
Understanding
12. WE4 When two consecutive numbers are multiplied, the result is 72. Find the numbers.
13. When two consecutive even numbers are multiplied, the result is 48. Find the numbers.
14. When a number is added to its square the result is 90. Find the number.
15. Twice a number is added to three times its square. If the result is 16, find the number.
16. Five times a number is added to two times its square. If the result is 168, find the number
17. WE5 A soccer ball is kicked. The height, h, in metres, of the soccer ball
t seconds after it is kicked can be represented by the equation h = −t(t − 6).
Find how long it takes for the soccer ball to hit the ground again.
18. The length of an Australian flag is twice its width and the diagonal length is
45 cm.
a. If x cm is the width of the flag, find the length in terms of x.
b. Draw a diagram of the flag marking in the diagonal. Mark the length and the
width in terms of x.
c. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to write an equation relating the lengths of the sides to the length of the
diagonal.
d. Solve the equation to find the dimensions of the Australian flag. Round your answer to the
nearest cm.
19. If the length of a paddock is 2 m more than its width and the area is 48 m2, find the length and width
of the paddock.
20. Solve for x.
6
a. x + 5 = b. x = c. x =
24 1
x x−5 x

Reasoning
n(n + 1)
21. The sum of the first n numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 … n is given by the formula S = .
2
a. Use the formula to find the sum of the first 6 counting numbers.
b. How many numbers are added to give a sum of 153?
22. If these two rectangles have the same area, what is the value of x?
2x + 4 x+5
x+3
3x – 6
23. Henrietta is a pet rabbit who lives in an enclosure

that is 2 m wide and 4 m long. Her human family has
decided to purchase some more rabbits to keep her
company and so the size of the enclosure must be
increased.
a. Draw a diagram of Henrietta’s enclosure, clearly
marking the lengths of the sides.
b. If the length and width of the enclosure are
increased by x m, find the new dimensions.
c. If the new area is to be 24 m2, write an equation
relating the sides and the area of the enclosure
(Area = length × width).
d. Use the equation to find the value of x and, hence,
the length of the sides of the new enclosure. Justify your answer.
24. The cost per hour, C, in thousands of dollars of running two cruise ships, Annabel and Betty, travelling
at a speed of s knots is given by the following relationships.
CAnnabel = 0.3s2 + 4.2s + 12 and CBetty = 0.4s2 + 3.6s + 8

a. Determine the cost per hour for each ship if they are both travelling at 28 knots.
b. Find the speed in knots at which both ships must travel for them to have the same cost.
c. Explain why only one of the solutions obtained in your working for part b is valid.
25. Explain why the equation x2 + 4x + 10 = 0 has no real solutions.

Problem solving
26. Solve (x2 − x) 2 − 32(x2 − x) + 240 = 0 for x.
3z2 − 35
27. Solve − z = 0 for z.
16
Reflection
What does the Null Factor Law mean?
CHALLENGE 8.1 x
A garden measuring 12 metres by 16 metres is to have a pedestrian
16 m
pathway installed all around it, increasing the total area to x x
12 m
285 square metres. What will be the width of the pathway?
x

8.3.1 The quadratic formula
•• The method of solving quadratic equations by completing the square can be generalised to produce
what is called the quadratic formula.
•• The general equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved by completing the square. We will first follow
the steps involved in completing the square.
1. Divide both sides of the equation by a.

x2 + x + = 0
b c
a a
(2a) (2a) a
2. Complete the square. b 2 b 2 c
x2 + x + − + =0
b
a
( 2a) 4a2 a
3. Factorise the first three terms as a perfect b 2 b2
x+ − + =0
c
square.
b 2 b2 − 4ac
( 2a)
4. Add the final two terms.
x+ − =0
4a2
√b2 − 4ac 2
( 2a) ( )
5. Write as the difference of two squares. b 2
x+ − =0
2a
√b2 − 4ac √b2 − 4ac
( )( )
6. Factorise using the difference of two
x+ + x+ − =0
b b
squares rule. 2a 2a 2a 2a
7. Solve the two linear factors. √b2 − 4ac √b2 − 4ac
x+ + = 0 or x + − =0
b b
2a 2a 2a 2a
−b √b2 − 4ac −b √b2 − 4ac
x= + or x = −
2a 2a 2a 2a
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
•• The solution can be summarised as x = where a is the coefficient of x2, b is the
2a
coefficient of x and c is the constant or the term without an x.
•• The quadratic formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation.
•• If the value inside the square root sign is negative, then there are no solutions to the equation.

Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations.

a 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 (exact answer)
b −3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0 (round to 2 decimal places)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3 State the values for a, b and c. where a = 3, b = 4, c = 1

−4 ± √(4 ) 2 − (4 × 3 × 1 )
4 Substitute the values into the formula. x =
2 ×3
−4 ± √4
5 Simplify and solve for x. =
6
−4 ± 2
=
6
−4 + 2 −4 − 2
x= or x =
6 6
6 Write the two solutions. x = −13 x = −1
b 1 Write the equation. b −3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3 State the values for a, b and c. where a = −3 , b = −6 , c = −1
−(−6) ± √36 − 4 × −3 × −1
4 Substitute the values into the formula. x =
2 × −3
6 ± √24
5 Simplify the fraction. =
−6
6 ± 2√6
=
−6
3 ± √6
=
−3
3 + √6 3 − √6
x= or
−3 −3
6 Write the two solutions correct to two decimal x ≈ −1.82 or x ≈ −0.18

places.
Note: When asked to give an answer in exact form, you should simplify any surds as necessary.

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substituting into the quadratic formula (doc-5262)
Exercise 8.3 The quadratic formula

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–f, 3a–f, 4–7, 8a–g, 9 1d–g, 2d–h, 3d–h, 4–7, 8d–i, 10, 1e–h, 2g–l, 3g–n, 4–7, 8i–o, 9–14
12, 13
Fluency
1. State the values for a, b and c in each of the following equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
a. 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 b. 7x2 − 12x + 2 = 0 c. 8x2 − x − 3 = 0
d. x2 − 5x + 7 = 0 e. 5x2 − 5x − 1 = 0 f. 4x2 − 9x − 3 = 0
g. 12x2 − 29x + 103 = 0 h. 43x2 − 81x − 24 = 0
2. WE6a Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
a. x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 b. x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 c. x2 − 5x + 2 = 0 d. x2 − 4x − 9 = 0
e. x2 + 2x − 11 = 0 f. x2 − 7x + 1 = 0 g. x2 − 9x + 2 = 0 h. x2 − 6x − 3 = 0
i. x2 + 8x − 15 = 0 j. −x2 + x + 5 = 0 k. −x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 l. −x2 − 2x + 7 = 0
3. WE6b Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give approximate answers
rounded to 2 decimal places.
a. 3x2 − 4x − 3 = 0 b. 4x2 − x − 7 = 0 c. 2x2 + 7x − 5 = 0 d. 7x2 + x − 2 = 0
e. 5x2 − 8x + 1 = 0 f. 2x2 − 13x + 2 = 0 g. −3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0 h. −7x2 + x + 8 = 0
i. −12x2 + x + 9 = 0 j. −6x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 k. −11x2 − x + 1 = 0 l. −4x2 − x + 7 = 0
m. −2x2 + 12x − 1 = 0 n. −5x2 + x + 3 = 0
4. MC The solutions of the equation 3x2 − 7x − 2 = 0 are:
a. 1, 2 b. 1, − 2 c. −0.257, 2.59 d. −0.772, 7.772 e. −1.544, 15.544
5. MC In the expansion of (6x − 5)(3x + 4), the coefficient of x is:
a. 18 b. −15 c. 9 d. 6 e. −2
6. MC In the expanded form of (x − 2)(x + 4), which of the following is incorrect?
a. The value of the constant is −8. b. The coefficient of the x term is −6.
c. The coefficient of the x term is 2. d. The coefficient of the x2 term is 1.
e. The expansion shows this to be a trinomial expression.
7. MC An exact solution to the equation x2 + 2x – 5 = 0 is:
2 + √−16 2 + √24
a. −3.449 b. −1 + √24 c. −1 + √6 d. e.
2 2

Understanding
8. Solve each of the following equations using any suitable method. Round to 3 decimal places where
appropriate.
a. 2x2 − 7x + 3 = 0 b. x2 − 5x = 0 c. x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 d. x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
e. x − 7x + 2 = 0
2 f. x − 6x + 8 = 0
2 g. x − 5x + 8 = 0
2 h. x2 − 7x − 8 = 0
i. x2 + 2x − 9 = 0 j. 3x2 + 3x − 6 = 0 k. 2x2 + 11x − 21 = 0 l. 7x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
m. −x + 9x − 14 = 0
2 n. −6x − x + 1 = 0
2 o. −6x + x − 5 = 0
2
9. The surface area of a closed cylinder is given by the formula SA = 2πr(r + h), where r cm is the
radius of the can and h cm is the height.
The height of a can of wood finish is 7 cm and its surface area is 231 cm2.
a. Substitute values into the formula to form a quadratic equation using the pronumeral, r.
b. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and, hence, find the radius of the can correct to
1 decimal place.
c. Calculate the area of the curved surface of the can, correct to the nearest square centimetre.
10. To satisfy lighting requirements, a window must have an area of 1500 cm2. x
a. Find an expression for the area of the window in terms of x.
b. Write an equation so that the window satisfies the lighting requirements. 30 cm
c. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and find x to the nearest mm.
Reasoning x
11. Two competitive neighbours build rectangular pools that cover the same area but
are different shapes. Pool A has a width of (x + 3) m and a length that is 3 m
longer than its width. Pool B has a length that is double the width of Pool A. The
width of Pool B is 4 m shorter than its length.
a. Find the exact dimensions of each pool if their areas are the same.
b. Verify that the areas are the same.
12. A block of land is in the shape of a right-angled triangle with a perimeter of 150 m and a hypotenuse
of 65 m. Determine the lengths of the other two sides. Show your working.
Problem solving
( (
1 2
13. Solve x + − 14 x + = 72 for x.
1 M
x) x)
14. Triangle MNP is an isosceles triangle with sides MN = MP = 3 cm.
Angle MPN is equal to 72°. The line NQ bisects the angle MNP.
a. Prove that triangles MNP and NPQ are similar.
b. If NP = m cm and PQ = 3 – m, show that m2 + 3m − 9 = 0.
c. Solve the equation m2 + 3m − 9 = 0 and find the side length of NP, 3 cm
giving your answer correct to two decimal places.

Q
72°
N P
Reflection
What kind of answer will you get if the value inside the square root sign in the quadratic formula
is zero?

CHALLENGE 8.2
The equation ax4 + bx2 + c = 0 can be solved by applying substitution and the rules used to solve quadratics.
For example, x4 − 5x2 + 4 = 0 is solved for x as follows.
Notice that x4 − 5x2 + 4 = (x2) 2 − 5(x) 2 + 4. Now let x2 = u and substitute.
(x2) 2 − 5(x) 2 + 4 = u2 − 5u + 4.
Solve for u. That is,
u2 − 5u + 4 = 0
(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0
u − 4 = 0 or u − 1 = 0
u = 4 or u = 1
Since x2 = u, that implies that
x2 = 4 or x2 = 1
x = ±2 or x = ±1
Using this or another method, solve the following for x.
1 x4 − 13x2 + 36 = 0
2 4x4 − 17x2 = −4

8.4.1 Solving quadratic equations
•• The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is in the shape of a parabola. y
•• The graph can be used to locate the solutions to quadratic equations y = ax2 + bx + c
such as ax2 + bx + c = 0.
(0, c)
0 x
Solutions
to ax2 + bx + c = 0
Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting their
corresponding graphs. Give answers to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a x2 + x − 2 = 0 b 2x2 + 4x − 5 = 0
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Examine the graph of y = x 2 + x − 2 a y

and locate the points where y = 0, that
3
2
is, where the graph intersects the x-axis. 1
–3 –2 –1–101 2 3x
–2 y = x + x – 2
2
–3
2 The graph cuts the x-axis (y = 0) at x2 + x − 2 = 0

x = 1 and x = −2. Write the solutions. From the graph, the solutions are x = 1 and x = −2 .

b 1 The graph of y = 2x2 − 4 x − 5 is equal b y
to zero when y = 0. Look at the graph to
6
4
see where y = 0; that is, where it 2
intersects the x-axis. By sight, we can –3 –2 –1–20 1 2 3 x
only give estimates of the solutions. –4
–6
–8
2 The graph cuts the x-axis at 2x2 − 4x– 5 = 0

approximately x = −0.9 and From the graph, the solutions are x ≈ −0.9 and
approximately x = 2.9. Write the x ≈ 2 .9 .
solutions.
8.4.2 Quadratic equations with only one solution y

y = x2 – 4x + 4
•• Some quadratic equations have only one solution. For example, the
graph of y = x2 − 4x + 4 has only one solution at x = 2. That is, the 5
graph of y = x2 − 4x + 4 touches the x-axis at one point only at x = 2.

–2 0 2 4 x
8.4.3 Quadratic equations with no solutions
•• There are also quadratic equations that have no real solutions. For example, y
the graph of y = 3x2 − 4x + 4 does not intersect the x-axis and so
3x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 has no real solutions (that is, no solutions that are real
10
numbers).
5
8.4.4 Confirming solutions y = 3x2 – 4x + 4
•• It is possible to confirm the solutions obtained by sight. This is achieved by –2 0 2
x
substituting the solution or solutions into the original quadratic equation,
and determining whether they make a true statement.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in Worked example 7.

x2 + x − 2 = 0; solutions: x = 1 and x = −2
THINK WRITE
1 Write the left-hand side of the equation and When x = 1,
substitute x = 1 into the expression. LHS: x2 + x − 2 = 12 + 1 − 2
=0
2 Write the right-hand side. RHS: = 0
3 Confirm the solution. LHS = RHS ⇒ Solution is confirmed.
4 Write the left-hand side and substitute x = −2. When x = −2 ,
LHS: x2 + x − 2 = (−2) 2 + −2 − 2
5 Write the right-hand side. = 4−2−2
= 0
RHS: = 0
6 Confirm. LHS = RHS ⇒ Solution is confirmed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in

the following graph. The height, h metres after it has
travelled x metres horizontally, follows the rule
1
h= 270
(x2 − 180x). Use the graph to find how far the ball
landed from the golfer.
h h = – –––
1 2
270 (x – 180x)
30
20
10
0 90 180 x
THINK WRITE
On the graph, the ground is represented by the The golf ball lands 180 m from the golfer.
x-axis since this is where h = 0. The golf ball
lands when the graph intersects the x-axis.
Exercise 8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2–4, 7 1c–h, 2–5, 7 1e–j, 2–8
Fluency
1. WE7 Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting the
corresponding graphs. Give answers correct to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a. x2 − x − 6 = 0 b. x2 − 11x + 10 = 0 c. −x2 + 25 = 0
y y y
y = –x2 + 25
30
12 8
20
8
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x 10
4 –8
–16 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 x –10
–4 –24 y= x2 – 11x + 10
–8 y = x – x – 6
2

d. 2x2 − 8x + 8 = 0 e. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 f. x2 − 3x − 6 = 0
y y y
y = 2x2 – 8x + 8 15 y = x – 3x – 4
2
15 y = x2 – 3x – 6
20
10 10
10
5 5
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–10
–10 –10
g. x2 + 15x − 250 = 0 h. −x2 = 0 i. x2 + x − 3 = 0

y y y
5 5
200 y= –x2
0
100
–5 5 x
–5
–30 –20 –10 0 10 x –4 –2 0 2 4 x
–100
–10
–200 y = x2 + x – 3
–5
–300
–400
y = x2 + 15x – 250
j. 2x2 + x − 3 = 0
y
5
–2 –1 0 1 2 x
y = 2x2 + x – 3
–5
Understanding
2. WE8 Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in question 1.
3. WE9 A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in the graph.
The height, h metres after it has travelled x metres horizontally, follows the rule h = −200
1
(x2 − 150x).
Use the graph to find how far the ball lands from the golfer.
h h = – –––
200 (x – 150x)
1 2
28
0 75 150 x
4. A ball is thrown upwards from a building and follows the path shown in the graph until it lands on the
ground.
h h = –x2 + 4x + 21
25
21
0 2 7 x
The ball is h metres above the ground when it is a horizontal distance of x metres from the building.
The path of the ball follows the rule h = −x2 + 4x + 21. Use the graph to find how far from the
building the ball lands.

Reasoning
5. a. The x-intercepts of a particular equation are x = 2 and x = 5. Suggest a possible equation.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, 4), give the exact equation.
6. a. The x-intercepts of a particular equation are x = p, q. Suggest a possible equation.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, r), give the exact equation.
Problem solving
7. A platform diver follows a path determined by the equation h = −0.5d2 + 2d + 6, where h represents
the height of the diver above the water and d represents the distance from the diving board. Both
pronumerals are measured in metres.
Use the graph to determine:

a. how far the diver landed from the edge of the diving board
b. how high the diving board is above the water.
8. Find the equation of the given parabola. Give your answer in the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
y
20
10
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–10
–20
–30
–40
Reflection
What does ‘the solution of a graph’ mean?

8.5 The discriminant
8.5.1 The discriminant
•• Where ax2 + bx + c = 0, the expression Δ = b2 − 4ac is known as the discriminant.
•• The symbol used for the discriminant, Δ, is the Greek capital letter delta.
Discriminant
Δ = b2 − 4ac
•• The discriminant is found in the quadratic formula, as shown below.

−b ± √b2 − 4ac −b ± √Δ
x= x=
2a 2a
•• The discriminant is the value that determines the number of solutions to the quadratic equation.
– If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions to the quadratic equation.
– If Δ = 0, there is only one solution to the quadratic equation.
– If Δ > 0, there are two solutions to the quadratic equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Calculate the value of the discriminant for each of the following and use it to determine how
many solutions the equation will have.
a 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0 b x2 + 10 = 0
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and determine the values of a 2x2 + 9x −5 = 0

a, b and c given ax2 + bx + c = 0. 2x2+ 9x + −5 = 0
a = 2, b = 9, c = − 5
2 Write the formula for the discriminant and Δ = b2 − 4ac

substitute values of a, b and c. = 92 − 4 × 2 × − 5
3 Simplify the equation and solve. = 81 − −40
= 121
4 State the number of solutions. Δ>0
In this case Δ > 0, which means there are There will be two solutions to the equation
two solutions. 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0.
b 1 Write the expression and determine the values of b x2 + 10 = 0
a, b and c given ax 2 + b x + c = 0 . 1x2 + 0x + 10 = 0
a = 1, b = 0, c = 10
2 Write the formula for the discriminant and Δ= b2 − 4ac

substitute the values of a, b and c. = (0) 2 − 4 × 1 × 10
= 0 − 40
= −40
3 State the number of solutions. In this case Δ < 0, so there will be no solutions to the
Δ < 0, which means there are no solutions. equation x2 + 10 = 0.

8.5.2 Types of solutions
•• The table below summarises the types of solutions indicated by the discriminant.
Δ > 0 (positive)
Δ < 0 (negative) Δ = 0 (zero) Perfect square Not a perfect square
Number of No real solutions 1 rational solution 2 rational 2 irrational (surd)
solutions solutions solutions
Description Graph does not Graph touches the Graph intersects the x-axis twice
cross or touch the x-axis
x-axis
Graph y y y
a
x
x x
–a b
By using the discriminant, determine whether the following equations have:

i two rational solutions
ii two irrational solutions
iii one rational solution (two equal solutions)
iv no real solutions.
a x2 − 9x − 10 = 0 b x2 − 2x − 14 = 0
c x − 2x + 14 = 0
2 d x2 − 14x = −49
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a x2 − 9x − 10 = 0

2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = −9, c = −10
3 Find the discriminant. Δ = b2 − 4ac
= (−9) 2 − (4 × 1 × −10)
= 121
4 Identify the number and type of solutions when The equation has two rational
Δ > 0 and is a perfect square solutions.
b 1 Write the equation. b x2 − 2x − 14 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = −2, c = −14
= (−2) 2 − 4 × 1 × −14
= 60
4 Identify the number and type of solutions when The equation has two irrational
Δ > 0 but not a perfect square. solutions.

c 1 Write the equation. c x2 − 2x + 14 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = − 2, c = 14
= (−2) 2 − (4 × 1 × 14)
= −52
4 Identify the number and type of solutions when The equation has no real solutions.
Δ < 0.
d 1 Write the equation, then rewrite it so the right side d x2 + 14x = −49
equals zero. x2 + 14x + 49 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = 14, c = 49
= 142 − (4 × 1 × 49)
=0
4 Identify the number and types of solutions when The equation has 1 rational
Δ = 0. solution.
8.5.3 Using the discriminant to determine if graphs intersect

•• The discriminant can be used to determine the number of points of intersection between graphs.
Determine whether the parabola y = x2 − 2 and the line y = x − 3 intersect.

THINK WRITE
1 If the parabola and the line intersect, there will be at least y1 = x2 − 2
one solution to the simultaneous equations: let y1 = y2. y2 = x−3
y1 = y2
x2 − 2 = x−3
2 Collect all terms on one side and simplify. x2 − 2 − x + 3 = x − 3 − x + 3
x2 − 2 − x + 3 = 0
x2 − x + 1 = 0
3 •• Use the discriminant to check if any solutions exist. Δ = b2 − 4ac

•• If Δ < 0, then no solutions exist. a = 1, b = −1
Δ = (−1) 2 − 4(1)(1)
=1−4
= −3
Δ < 0 ∴ no solutions exist
4 Answer the question. The parabola and the line do not
intersect.

Try out this interactivity: Simultaneous quadratic equations (int-2784)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Using the discriminant (doc-13854)
Exercise 8.5 The discriminant

Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–f, 3, 4, 6–8, 10, 13, 15 1e–j, 2d–i, 3, 5–9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17 1h–n, 2f–l, 3, 5–18
Fluency
1. WE10 Calculate the value of the discriminant for each of the following and use it to determine how
many solutions the equation will have.
a. 6x2 + 13x − 5 = 0 b. x2 + 9x − 90 = 0 c. x2 + 4x − 2 = 0 d. 36x2 − 1 = 0
e. x2 + 2x + 8 = 0 f. x2 − 5x − 14 = 0 g. 36x2 + 24x + 4 = 0 h. x2 − 19x + 88 = 0
i. x − 10x + 17 = 0
2
j. 30x + 17x − 21 = 0 k. x2 + 16x + 62 = 0
2 l. 9x2 − 36x + 36 = 0
m. 2x2 − 16x = 0 n. x2 − 64 = 0
2. WE11 By using the discriminant, determine whether the equations below have:
i. two rational solutions
ii. two irrational solutions
iii. one rational solution (two equal solutions)
iv. no real solutions.
a. x2 − 3x + 5 b. 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 0 c. x2 + 9x − 22 = 0
d. 9x + 12x + 4
2
e. x + 3x − 7 = 0
2
f. 25x2 − 10x + 1 = 0
g. 3x2 − 2x − 4 = 0 h. 2x2 − 5x + 4 = 0 i. x2 − 10x + 26 = 0
j. 3x + 5x − 7 = 0
2
k. 2x + 7x − 10 = 0
2
l. x2 − 11x + 30 = 0
3. WE12 Determine whether the following graphs intersect.
a. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = x − 4 b. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = 2x + 5
c. y = −(x + 1) 2 + 3 and y = −4x − 1 d. y = (x − 1) 2 + 5 and y = −4x − 1
4. Consider the equation 3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0.
a. What are the values of a, b and c?
b. What is the value of b2 − 4ac?
c. How many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, are there for this equation?
5. Consider the equation −6x2 + x + 3 = 0.
a. What are the values of a, b and c?
b. What is the value of b2 − 4ac?
c. How many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, are there for this equation?
d. With the information gained from the discriminant, use the most efficient method to solve the
equation. Give an exact answer.

6. MC The discriminant of the equation x2 − 4x − 5 = 0 is:
a. 36 b. 11 c. 4 d. 0 e. −4
7. MC Which of the following quadratic equations has two irrational solutions?
a. x2 − 8x + 16 = 0 b. 2x2 − 7x = 0 c. x2 + 8x + 9 = 0
d. x − 4 = 0
2
e. x − 6x + 15 = 0
2
8. MC The equation x2 = 2x − 3 has:

a. two rational solutions b. exactly one solution
c. no solutions d. two irrational solutions
e. one rational and one irrational solution
Understanding
9. Find the value of k if x2 − 2x − k = 0 has one solution.
10. Find the value of m for which mx2 − 6x + 5 = 0 has one solution.
11. Find the values of n when x2 − 3x − n = 0 has two solutions.
12. Show that 3x2 + px − 2 = 0 will have real solutions for all values of p.
13. The path of a dolphin as it leaps out of the water can be modelled by the equation h = −0.4d2 + d,
where h is the dolphin’s height above water and d is the horizontal distance from its starting point.
Both h and d are in metres.
a. How high above the water is the dolphin when it has travelled 2 m horizontally from its starting
point?
b. What horizontal distance has the dolphin covered when it first reaches a height of 25 cm?
c. What horizontal distance has the dolphin covered when it next reaches a height of 25 cm? Explain
your answer.
d. What horizontal distance does the dolphin cover in one leap? (Hint: What is the value of h when the
dolphin has completed its leap?)
e. During a leap, can this dolphin reach a height of:
i. 0.5 m ii. 1 m?
How can you determine this without actually solving the equation?
f. Find the greatest height the dolphin reaches during a leap.

14. The parabolas y = x2 − 4 and y = 4 − x2 intersect in two places. Find the coordinates of their points
of intersection.
Reasoning
15. a. For what values of a will the straight line y = ax + 1 have one intersection with the parabola
y = −x2 − x − 8?
b. For what values of b will the straight line y = 2x + b not intersect the parabola y = x2 + 3x − 5?
16. a. Find how many points of intersection exist between the parabola y = −2(x + 1) 2 − 5, where
y = f(x), x ∈ R, and the straight line y = mx − 7, where y = f(x), x ∈ R.
b. Find m (m < 0) such that y = mx − 7 has one intersection point with y = −m(x + 1) 2 − 5.
Problem solving
17. The parabola with the general equation y = ax2 + bx + 9 where 0 < a < 10 and 0 < b < 20 touches
the x-axis at one point only. The graph passes through the point (1, 25). Find the values of a and b.
18. The line with equation kx + y = 3 is a tangent to the curve with equation y = kx2 + kx − 1. Find the
value of k.
Reflection
What does the discriminant tell us?
8.6 Review
Fluency
1. The solutions to the equation x2 + 10x − 11 = 0 are:
d. x = −1 and x = −11 e. x = 1 and x = 10
2. The solutions to the equation −5x2 + x + 3 = 0 are:
3
a. x = 1 and x = b. x = −0.68 and x = 0.88 c. x = 3 and x = −5
5
3
d. x = 0.68 and x = − 0.88 e. x = 1 and x = −
5
3. The discriminant of the equation x2 − 11x + 30 = 0 are:
a. 1 b. 241 c. 91
d. 19 e. −11
4. Which of the following quadratic equations has two irrational solutions?
a. x2 − 6x + 9 = 0 b. 4x2 − 11x = 0 c. x2 − 25 = 0
d. x + 8x + 2 = 0
2
e. x − 4x + 10 = 0
2
5. The area of a pool is (6x + 11x + 4) m2. Find the length of the rectangular pool if its width is
2
(2x + 1) m.
6. Solve each of the following quadratic equation by first factorising the left-hand side of the equation.
a. x2 + 8x + 15 = 0 b. x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 c. x2 + 11x + 24 = 0
d. x2 + 4x − 12 = 0 e. x2 − 3x − 10 = 0 f. x2 + 3x − 28 = 0
g. x − 4x + 3 = 0
2
h. x − 11x + 30 = 0
2
i. x2 − 2x − 35 = 0
7. Solve each of the following quadratic equations.
a. 2x2 + 16x + 24 = 0 b. 3x2 + 9x + 6 = 0 c. 4x2 + 10x − 6 = 0
d. 5x2 + 25x − 70 = 0 e. 2x2 − 7x − 4 = 0 f. 6x2 − 8x − 8 = 0
g. 2x − 6x + 4 = 0
2
h. 6x − 25x + 25 = 0
2
i. 2x2 + 13x − 7 = 0
8. Solve each of the following by completing the square. Give an exact answer for each one.
a. x2 + 8x − 1 = 0 b. 3x2 + 6x − 15 = 0 c. −4x2 − 3x + 1 = 0

9. Ten times an integer is added to seven times its square. If the result is 152, what was the original
number?
10. Solve each of the following by using the quadratic formula, rounding answers to 3 decimal places.
a. 4x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 b. 7x2 + 4x − 1 = 0 c. −8x2 − x + 2 = 0
11. Solve each of the following equations, rounding answers to 3 decimal places.
a. 18x2 − 2x − 7 = 0 b. 29x2 − 105x − 24 = 0 c. −5x2 + 2 = 0
12. The graph of y = x2 − 4x − 21 is shown.
y = x2 – 4x – 21
y
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
5
10
–21
(2, –25)
Use the graph to find the solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 4x − 21 = 0.

13. Determine the roots of the quadratic graph shown.
y = –2x2 – 4x + 6
y
10
5
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
–5
–10
14. Identify whether each of the equations below has no real solutions, one solution or two solutions.
State whether the solutions are rational or irrational.
a. x2 + 11x + 9 = 0 b. 3x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 c. x2 − 3x + 4 = 0
15. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a. y = x2 + 4x − 10 b. y = x2 − 7x + 20 c. y = x2 + 7x + 11

y = 6 − 2x y = 3x − 5 y=x
16. For each of the following pairs of equations:
i. solve simultaneously to find the points of intersection
ii. illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) using a sketch graph.
a. y = x2 + 6x + 5 and y = 11x − 1
b. y = x2 + 5x − 6 and y = 8x − 8
c. y = x2 + 9x + 14 and y = 3x + 5
d. y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −11x + 6
e. y = −x2 + 14x − 48 and y = 13x − 54
f. y = −x2 + 4x + 12 and y = 9x + 16
Problem solving
17. When a number is added to its square, the result is 56. Determine the number.
18. Leroy measures his bedroom and finds that its length is 3 metres more than its width. If the area of the
bedroom is 18 m2, calculate the length and width of the room.
19. The surface area of a cylinder is given by the formula SA = 2πr(r + h), where r cm is the radius of
the cylinder and h cm is the height.
The height of a can of soft drink is 10 cm and its surface area is 245 cm2.
a. Substitute values into the formula to form a quadratic equation using the pronumeral r.

b. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and, hence, find the radius of the can. Round your
answer to 1 decimal place.
c. Calculate the area of the label on the can. The label covers the entire curved surface. Round the
answer to the nearest square centimetre.
20. Find the value of d when 2x2 − 5x − d = 0 has one solution.
21. For what values of k does (k − 1)x2 − (k − 1)x + 2 = 0 have two distinct solutions?
22. Let m and n be the solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 2√5x − 2 = 0. Determine the value of m2 + n2.
23. Although it requires a minimum of 2 points to determine the graph of a line, it requires a minimum of
3 points to determine the shape of a parabola. The general equation of a parabola is y = ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b and c are the constants to be determined.
a. Determine the equation of the parabola that has a y-intercept of (0, −2), and passes though the points
(1, −5) and (−2, 16).
b. Determine the equation of a parabola that goes through the points (0, 0), (2, 2) and (5, 5). Show full
working to justify your answer.
24. When the radius of a circle increases by 6 cm, its area increases by 25%. Use the quadratic formula to
find the exact radius of the original circle.
25. A football player received a hand pass and ran directly towards goal. y
Right on the 50-metre line he kicked the ball and scored a goal. The 7
6
graph at right represents the path of the ball. Using the graph, answer
5
the following questions.
Height (m)
4
a. At what height from the ground was the ball when it was kicked? 3
b. What was the greatest height the ball reached? 2
c. How long was the kick? 1
d. If there were defenders in the goal square, would it have been pos- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
sible for one of them to mark the ball right on the goal line to prevent Distance (m)
a goal? Explain your answer. (Hint: What was the height of the ball
when it crossed the goal line?)
e. As the footballer kicked the ball, a defender rushed at him to try to smother the kick. If the defender
can reach a height of 3 m when he jumps, how close to the player kicking the ball must he be to just
touch the football as it passes over his outstretched hands?
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
26. The quadratic formula is x = .
2a
2c
An alternative form of the quadratic formula is x = .
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
Choose a quadratic equation and show that the two formulas give the same answers.


Language
coefficient irrational quadratic equation
completing the square linear equation quadratic formula
constant term null factor law rational
discriminant parabola real
factorise perfect square solutions
intersection product substitution

www.assesson.com.au

Weaving
Many articles of clothing are sewn from materials that
show designs and patterns made by weaving together
threads of different colours. Intricate and complex
designs can result. Let’s investigate some very simple
repetitive-type patterns. Knowledge of quadratic equa-
tions and the quadratic formula is helpful in creating
these designs.
We need to understand the process of weaving.
Weaving machines have parts called warps. Each warp
is divided into a number of blocks. Consider a pattern
that is made up of a series of blocks, where the first
block is all one colour except for the last thread, which
is a different colour. Let’s say our pattern is red and
blue. The first block contains all red threads, except for
the last one, which is blue. The next block has all red
threads, except for the last two threads, which are blue.
Block 1
The pattern continues in this manner. The last block has
the first thread as red and the remainder as blue. The
warp consists of a particular number of threads, let’s say Block 2
42 threads. How many blocks and how many threads per
block would be necessary to create a pattern of this type? Block n
To produce this pattern, we need to divide the warp
into equally sized blocks, if possible. What size block and how many threads per block would give
us the 42-thread warp? We will need to look for a mathematical pattern. Look at the table (opposite),
where we consider the smallest block consisting of 2 threads through to a block consisting of 7 threads.

Pattern Number of threads per block Number of blocks Total threads in warp
RB 2 1 2
RRB RBB 3 2 6
RRRB RRBB RBBB 4
5
6
7
1. Complete the entries in the table.

2. Consider a block consisting of n threads.
a. How many blocks would be needed?
b. What would be the total number of threads in the warp?
The 42-thread warp was chosen as a simple example to show
the procedure involved in determining the number of blocks
required and the number of threads per block. In this particular
case, 6 blocks of 7 threads per block would give us our design for a 42-thread warp. In prac-
tice, you would not approach the problem by drawing up a table to determine the number of
blocks and the size of each block.
3. Take your expression in question 2b and let it equal 42. This should form a quadratic equation.
Solve this equation to verify that you would need 6 blocks with 7 threads per block to fulfil the
size of a 42-thread warp.
4. In reality, the size of each block is not always clearly defined. Also, the thread warp sizes are
generally much larger, say, about 250. Let’s determine the number of threads per block and the
number of blocks required for a 250-thread warp.
a. Form your quadratic equation with the thread warp size equal to 250.
b. A solution to this equation can be found using the quadratic formula. Use the quadratic formula
to determine a solution.
c. The number of threads per block is represented by n and this obviously must be a whole
number. Round your solution down to the nearest whole number.
d. How many whole blocks are needed?
e. Use your solutions to c and d to determine the total number of threads used for the pattern.
f. How many more threads do you need to make the warp size equal to 250 threads?
g. Distribute these threads by including them at the beginning of the first block and the end of the
last block. Describe your overall pattern.
5. Investigate the number of blocks required and threads per block required for a 400-thread warp.
6. Investigate changing the pattern. Let the first block be all red. In the next block change the
colour of the first and last threads to blue. With each progressive block, change the colour of
an extra thread at the top and bottom to blue until the last block is all blue. On a separate sheet
of paper, draw a table to determine the thread warp size for a block size of n threads. Draw the
pattern and describe the result for a particular warp size.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Aussie fact (doc-15931)

Answers
Topic 8 Quadratic equations
Exercise 8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically
1. a. −7, 9 b. −2, 3 c. 2, 3 d. 0, 3 e. 0, 1 f. −5, 0
g. 0, 3 h. −2, 0 i. −12, 12 j. − 1.2, − 0.5 k. 0.1, 0.75 l. −√2, √3
2. a. 12, 1 b. − 2, − 23 c. 14, 7 d. −67, 1 12 e. 35, 23 f. − 58, 23

g. 0, 12, 3 h. 0, 12, − 25 i. 0, − 3, 25
3. a. 0, 2 b. −5, 0 c. 0, 7 d. −23, 0 e. 0, 1 12 f. 0, 13
g. 0, √7
2
h. −√3
3
,0 i. 0, 1 14
4. a. −2, 2 b. −5, 5 c. −2, 2 d. −7, 7 e. −1 13, 1 13 f. −2 12, 2 12
g. − 23, 23 h. − 12, 12 i. −15, 15 j. −4, 4 k. −√5, √5 l. −√11
3
, √11
3
5. a. −2, 3 b. − 4, − 2 c. −1, 7 d. 3, 5 e. 1 f. −1, 4

g. 5 h. −2, 5 i. 2, 6 j. −3, 7 k. −5, 6 l. 3, 4
m. 4 n. −5 o. 10
6. B
7. C
8. a. −12, 3 b. 23, − 1 c. −2, 15 d. 13, 1 12 3
e. −14 ,1 f. 14, 13
g. −1 13, 2 12 h. −1 34, −1 13 i. −25, 12 j. 1 12, 2 23 k. −25, 16 l. 3, 4
9. a. 2 + √2, 2 − √2 b. −1 + √3, −1 − √3 c. − 3 + √10, − 3 − √10

d. 4 + 2√3, 4 − 2√3 e. 5 + 2√6, 5 − 2√6 f. 1 + √3, 1 − √3
g. −1 + √6, −1 − √6 h. − 2 + √10, − 2 − √10 i. − 2 + √15, − 2 − √15
10. a. 32 + , − √5
√5 3
2 2 2
b. − 52 + √29
2
, − 52 − √29
2
c. 72 + , − √33
√33 7
2 2 2
d. 12 + √21
2 2
, 1
− √21
2
e. 11
2
+ √117 11
2
, 2
− √117
2
f. − 12 + √5
2
, − 1
2
− √5
2
g. − 2 + 2 , − 2 − √37
3 √37 3
2
h. 2 + 2 , 2 − 2
5 √37 5 √37
i. 2 + 2 , 2 − 2
9 √65 9 √65
11. a. − 3, 1 b. −4.24, 0.24 c. −1, 3 d. −0.73, 2.73 e. 0.38, 2.62 f. −0.30, 3.30
g. −1.19, 4.19 h. −2.30, 1.30 i. −2.22, 0.22
12. 8 and 9 or −8 and −9
13. 6 and 8, −6 and −8
14. 9 or −10
15. 2 or −2 23
16. 8 or −10 12
17. 6 seconds
18. a. l = 2x b. cm
45 x cm
2x cm
c. x2 + (2x) 2 = 452, 5x2 = 2025 d. Length 40 cm, width 20 cm
19. 8 m, 6 m
20. a. −6, 1 b. 8, −3 c. x = ±1
21. a. 21 b. 17
22. 7
23. a. b. (2 + x) m, (4 + x) m
2m
4m
c. (2 + x) (4 + x) = 24 d. x = 2, 4 m wide, 6 m long

24. a. CAnnabel (28) = $364 800, CBetty (28) = $422 400
b. 10 knots
c. Speed can only be a positive quantity, so the negative solution is not valid.
25. No real solutions — when we complete the square we get the sum of two squares, not the difference of two squares and we
cannot factorise the expression.
26. x = 5, −4, 4, −3
27. z = −53, 7
Challenge 8.1
The width of the pathway is 1.5 m.
Exercise 8.3 The quadratic formula

1. a. a = 3, b = −4, c = 1 b. a = 7, b = −12, c = 2 c. a = 8, b = −1, c = −3
d. a = 1, b = −5, c = 7 e. a = 5, b = −5, c = −1 f. a = 4, b = −9, c = −3
g. a = 12, b = −29, c = 103 h. a = 43, b = −81, c = −24
−5 ± √21 −3 ± √13 5 ± √17 7 ± 3√5
2. a. b. c. d. 2 ± √13 e. −1 ± 2√3 f.
2 2 2 2
9 ± √73 1 ± √21 5 ± √33
g. h. 3 ± 2√3 i. −4 ± √31 j. k. l. −1 ± 2√2
2 2 2
3. a. −0.54, 1.87 b. −1.20, 1.45 c. −4.11, 0.61 d. −0.61, 0.47 e. 0.14, 1.46 f. 0.16, 6.34
g. −1.23, 1.90 h. −1.00, 1.14 i. −0.83, 0.91 j. −0.64, 1.31 k. −0.35, 0.26 l. −1.45, 1.20
m. 0.08, 5.92 n. −0.68, 0.88
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. a. 0.5, 3 b. 0, 5 c. −1, 3 d. 0.382, 2.618 e. 0.298, 6.702
f. 2, 4 g. No real solution h. −1, 8 i. −4.162, 2.162 j. −2, 1
k. −7, 1.5 l. No real solution m. 2, 7 n. −12, 13 o. No real solution
9. a. 2πr2 + 14πr − 231 = 0 b. 3.5 cm c. 154 cm2
10. a. x(x + 30) b. x(x + 30) = 1500 c. 265 mm
11. a. Pool A: 3 23 m by 6 23 m; Pool B: 3 13 m by 7 13 m
b. The area of each is 24 49 m2.
12. 25 m, 60 m
13. −2 ± √3, 9 ± 4√5
14. a. Teacher to check b. Teacher to check c. m = 1.85 so NP is 1.85 cm.
Challenge 8.2
1. x = ± 2 or x = ± 3
2. x = ± 12 or x = ± 2
Exercise 8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically

1. a. x = −2, x = 3 b. x = 1, x = 10 c. x = −5, x = 5 d. x = 2 e. x = −1, x = 4
f. x ≈ −1.4, x ≈ 4.4 g. x = −25, x = 10 h. x = 0 i. x ≈ − 2.3, x ≈ 1.3 j. x ≈ − 1.5, x = 1
2. a–j. Confirm by substitution of above values into quadratic equations.
3. 150 m
4. 7 m
5. a. y = a(x − 2) (x − 5) b. y = 25 (x − 2) (x − 5)
r
6. a. y = a(x − p) (x − q) b. y = (x − p) (x − q)
pq
7. a. 6 m b. 6 m
8. y = −4x2 + 26x − 30

Exercise 8.5 The discriminant
1. a. Δ = 289, 2 solutions b. Δ = 441, 2 solutions c. Δ = 24, 2 solutions d. Δ = 144, 2 solutions
e. Δ = −28, 0 solutions f. Δ = 81, 2 solutions g. Δ = 0, 1 solution h. Δ = 9, 2 solutions
i. Δ = 32, 2 solutions j. Δ = 2809, 2 solutions k. Δ = 8, 2 solutions l. Δ = 0, 1 solution
m. Δ = 256, 2 solutions n. Δ = 256, 2 solutions
2. a. No real solutions b. 1 rational solution c. 2 rational solutions d. 1 rational solution
e. 2 irrational solutions f. 1 rational solution g. 2 irrational solutions h. No real solutions
i. No real solutions j. 2 irrational solutions k. 2 irrational solutions l. 2 rational solutions
3. a. Yes b. No c. Yes d. No
4. a. a = 3, b = 2, c = 7 b. −80 c. No real solutions
1 ± √73
5. a. a = −6, b = 1, c = 3 b. 73 c. 2 real solutions d.
12
6. A
7. C
8. C
9. k = −1
10. m = 1.8
11. n > − 94
12. p2 can only give a positive number, which, when added to 24, is always a positive solution.
13. a. 0.4 m b. 0.28 m c. 2.22 m d. 2.5 m
e. i. Yes ii. No
Find the halfway point between the beginning and the end of the leap, and substitute this value into the equation to find the
maximum height.
f. 0.625 m
14. (−2, 0), (2, 0)
15. a. a = −7 or 5 will give one intersection point.
b. For values of < − 214
, there will be no intersection points.
16. a. The straight line crosses the parabola at (0, −7), so no matter what value m takes, there will be at least one intersection
point and a maximum of two.
b. m = −85
17. a = 4, b = 12
18. k = −4
8.6 Review
1. B
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. (3x + 4) m
6. a. −5, −3 b. −6, −1 c. −8, −3 d. 2, −6 e. 5, −2
f. 4, −7 g. 3, 1 h. 5, 6 i. 7, −5
1 1
7. a. −2, −6 b. −2, −1 c. , −3 d. 2, −7 e. − , 4
2 2
2 5 5 1
f. − , 2 g. 2, 1 h. , i. −7,
3 3 2 2
1
8. a. −4 ± √17 b. −1 ± √6 c. −1,
4
9. 4
10. a. −0.651, 1.151 b. −0.760, 0.188 c. 0.441, −0.566
11. a. −0.571, 0.682 b. −0.216, 3.836 c. −0.632, 0.632
12. −3, 7
13. −3, 1
14. a. 2 irrational solutions b. 2 rational solutions c. No real solutions
15. a. (−8, 22) and (2, 2) b. (5, 10) c. No solution

16. a. y b. y c. y
(3, 32)
(2, 8)
14
(2, 21)
–2 5
–7 x
–6 (1, 0) x
5 (–3, –4)
–5 –1–1 1 x –6
—
11 –8
d. y e. y 54 f. y
—
13 16
6 8 x
(3, –15) (–1, 7)
(–2, 28)
–48 –2
–54 x
– 16
— 6
9
(–2, –80)
10
6
—6 (–4, –20)
11
2 5 x
17. −8 and 7
18. Length = 6 m, width = 3 m
19. a. 2πr(r + 10) = 245 b. 3.0 cm c. 188 cm2
25
20. −
8
21. k > 9 and k < 1
22. 24
23. a. y = 2x2 − 5x − 2
b. No parabola is possible. The points are on the same straight line.
24. 12(√5 + 2) cm
25. a. 0.5 m b. 6.1 m c. 76.5 m
d. No, the ball is 5.5 m off the ground and nobody can reach it.
e. 9.5 m away

1. Pattern Number of threads per block Number of blocks Total threads in warp
RB 2 1 2
RRB RRB 3 2 6
RRRB RRBB RBBB 4 3 12
RRRRB RRRBB RRBBB RBBBB 5 4 20
RRRRRB RRRRBB RRRBBB 6 5 30
RRBBBB RBBBBB
RRRRRRB RRRRRBB RRRRBBB 7 6 42
RRRBBBB RRBBBBB RBBBBBB
2. a. n − 1 b. n2 − n
3. Teacher to check
√1001 + 1
4. a. n2 − n = 250 b. n = c. n = 16 d. 15
2
e. 240 f. 10 g. Answers will vary.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 9
Non-linear relationships
9.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where
you need them, at the point of learning, in your learnON title at
www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and
concepts covered in this topic.

The world around us, both natural and artificial, is full of elegant
curves and shapes that are not straight lines. Achieving the bril-
liance of modern and ancient architecture, or understanding the
motion of planets and tennis balls requires an understanding of
non-linear relationships.

1. THINK List what you know about non-linear relationships. Use a thinking tool such as a concept
map to show your list.
edge of non-linear relationships.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
9.1 Overview
9.2 Plotting parabolas
9.3 Sketching parabolas
9.4 Sketching parabolas in turning point form
9.5 Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c
9.6 Exponential functions and graphs
9.7 The hyperbola
9.8 The circle
9.9 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Fibonacci (eles-1848)
TOPIC 9 Non-linear relationships 329

9.2 Plotting parabolas
9.2.1 Plotting parabolas
•• The graphs of all quadratic relationships are called parabolas.
•• If the equation of the parabola is given, a table of values can be produced by substituting x-values
into the equation to obtain the corresponding y-values. These x- and y-values provide the coordinates
for points that can be plotted and joined to form the shape of the graph. y
y = x2
When plotting graphs, use grid or graph paper for accuracy. 10
•• The graph of y = x2 shown has been produced by generating a table of
values. 8
6
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
4
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
2
–4 –3–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–2 (0, 0)
•• Parabolas are symmetrical; in other words, they have an axis of symmetry. In the parabola above, the
axis of symmetry is the y-axis, also called the line x = 0.
•• A parabola has a vertex or turning point. In this case the vertex is at the origin and is called a ‘mini-
mum turning point’.
•• Parabolas with the shape ⋃ are said to be ‘concave up’ and have a minimum turning point. Parabolas
with the shape ⋂ are said to be ‘concave down’ and have a maximum turning point.
9.2.2 Parabolas in the world around us

•• Parabolas abound in the world around us. Here are some examples.
Satellite dishes Water droplets from a hose
Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola
The cables from a suspension bridge A cone when sliced parallel to its edge
reveals a parabola.

The trajectory of a football when it is
thrown or kicked
Reflector
Bulb
The reflectors in a car headlight
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the
turning point.
a y = 2x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b y = 12x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = 2x2
2 Produce a table of values using x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x-values from −3 to 3.
y 18 8 2 0 2 8 18

3 Draw a set of clearly labelled axes, y
plot the points and join them with a 20
18
smooth curve. The scale would be
from 20 to −2 on the y-axis and −4 16
to 4 on the x-axis. 14
12
4 Label the graph.
y = 2x2
10
8
6
4
2
–4–3–2–10 1 2 3 4 x
–2
5 Write the equation of the axis of The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 0.
symmetry that divides the parabola
exactly in half.
6 Write the coordinates of the turning The turning point is (0, 0).
point.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = 12 x2
2 Produce a table of values using x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

x-values from −3 to 3.
y 4.5 2 0.5 0 0.5 2 4.5

smooth curve. The scale would be 5
from 6 to −2 on the y-axis and −4 to 4 y = 1–2 x2
4 on the x-axis. 3
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
5 Write the equation of the line that The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 0.
divides the parabola exactly in half.
point.

Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning
point and the y-intercept for each one.
a y = x2 + 2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b y = (x + 3) 2 for −6 ≤ x ≤ 0 c y = −x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = x2 + 2
2 Produce a table of values. x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 11 6 3 2 3 6 11

smooth curve. The scale on the 9
y-axis would be from 0 to 12 and
−4 to 4 on the x-axis. 6
y = x2 + 2
(0, 2)
–4 –2 0 2 4x
point.
7 Find the y-coordinate of the point The y-intercept is 2.
where the graph crosses the y-axis.
b y = (x + 3)
2
b 1 Write the equation.
2 Produce a table of values. x −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

(0, 9)
smooth curve. The scale on the 8
y-axis would be from 0 to 10 and y = (x + 3)2 6
−7 to 1 on the x-axis. 4
(–3, 0)
–7–6–5–4–3–2–1 0 1 x
5 Write the equation of the line that The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = −3.
6 Write the coordinates of the turning The turning point is (−3, 0).
point.

c 1 Write the equation. c y = −x2
2 Produce a table of values. x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −9 −4 −1 0 −1 −4 −9

plot the points and join them with a x
–4 –2 0 2 4
smooth curve. The scale on the
y-axis would be from −10 to 1 and
from −4 to 4 on the x-axis.
4 Label the graph. y = –x2
–9
point.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substitution into quadratic equations (doc-5266)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Equation of a vertical line (doc-5267)
Exercise 9.2 Plotting parabolas

Individual pathways

1–8, 9a–d, 10–15, 17 1–8, 9a–d & g, 10–14, 16, 17, 18 1–19
You may wish to use a graphing calculator for this exercise.
Fluency
1. WE1 Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the turning point.
a. y = 3x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
b. y = 14x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3

2. Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 1 with that of y = x2. Explain how placing a number
in front of x2 affects the graph obtained.
3. WE2a Plot the graph of each of the following for values of x between −3 and 3. State the equation of
the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point and the y-intercept for each one.
a. y = x2 + 1 b. y = x2 + 3
c. y = x2 − 3 d. y = x2 − 1
4. Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 3 with the graph of y = x2. Explain how adding to
or subtracting from x2 affects the graph obtained.
5. WE2b Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point
and the y-intercept for each one.
a. y = (x + 1) 2 −5 ≤ x ≤ 3 b. y = (x + 2) 2 −6 ≤ x ≤ 2
c. y = (x − 2) 2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 5 d. y = (x − 1) 2 −2 ≤ x ≤ 4
6. Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 5 with that for y = x . Explain how adding to or
2
subtracting from x before squaring affects the graph obtained.

7. WE2c Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point
and the y-intercept for each one.
a. y = −x2 + 1 −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b. y = −(x − 1) 2 −2 ≤ x ≤ 4
c. y = −(x + 2) 2 −5 ≤ x ≤ 1 d. y = −x2 − 3 −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
8. Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 7 with that for y = x2. Explain how a negative sign
in front of x2 affects the graph obtained. Also compare the graphs obtained in question 7 with those in
questions 3 and 5. Which graphs have the same turning point? How are they different?
Understanding
9. Plot the graph of each of the following, and state:
i. the equation of the axis of symmetry
ii. the coordinates of the turning point and whether it is a maximum or a minimum
iii. the y-intercept.
a. y = (x − 5) 2 + 1 0≤x≤6 b. y = 2(x + 2) 2 − 3 −5 ≤ x ≤ 1
c. y = −(x − 3) + 4
2
0≤x≤6 d. y = −3(x − 1) 2 + 2 −2 ≤ x ≤ 4
e. y = x2 + 4x − 5 −6 ≤ x ≤ 2 f. y = −x2 − 2x + 15 −6 ≤ x ≤ 4
g. y = −3x − 6x + 24 −5 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
h. y = (x − 2) 2 + 1 −2 ≤ x ≤ 4
10. Use the equation y = a(x − b) + c to answer the following.
2
a. Explain how you can determine whether a parabola has a minimum or maximum turning point by
looking only at its equation.
b. Explain how you can determine the coordinates of the turning point of a parabola by looking only at
the equation.
c. Explain how you can obtain the equation of the axis of symmetry by looking only at the equation of
the parabola.
11. MC For the graph of y = (x − 2) 2 + 5, the turning point is:
a. (5, 2) b. (2, −5) c. (2, 5)
d. (−2, −5) e. (−2, 5)
12. MC For the graph of y = 3(x − 1) 2 + 12, the turning point is:
a. (3, 12) b. (1, 12) c. (−1, 12)
d. (−3, 12) e. (−1, −12)
13. MC For the graph of y = (x + 2) 2 − 7, the y-intercept is:
a. −2 b. −7 c. −3
d. −11 e. 7

14. MC Which of the following is true for the graph of y = −(x − 3) 2 + 4?
a. Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept −5 b. Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept 5
c. Turning point (−3, 4), y-intercept −5 d. Turning point (−3, 4), y-intercept 5
e. Turning point (3, −4), y-intercept 13
Reasoning
15. A ball is thrown into the air. The height, h metres, of the ball at any time,
t seconds, can be found by using the equation h = −(t − 4) 2 + 16.
a. Plot the graph for values of t between 0 and 8.
b. Use the graph to find:
i. the maximum height of the ball
ii. how long it takes for the ball to fall back to the ground from the
moment it is thrown.
16. From a crouching position in a ditch, an archer wants to fire an arrow over
a horizontal tree branch, which is 15 metres above the ground. The height,
in metres (h), of the arrow t seconds after it has been fired is given by the
equation h = −8t(t − 3).
a. Plot the graph for t = 0, 1, 1.5, 2, 3.
b. From the graph find:
i. the maximum height the arrow reaches
ii. whether the arrow clears the branch and the distance by which it
clears or falls short of the branch
iii. the time it takes to reach maximum height
iv. how long it takes for the arrow to hit the ground after it has been
fired.
17. There are 0, 1, 2 and infinite possible points of intersection for two
parabolas.
a. Illustrate these on separate graphs.
b. Explain why infinite points of intersection are possible. Give an
example.
c. How many points of intersection are possible for a parabola and a
straight line? Illustrate these.
Problem solving
18. The path taken by a netball thrown by a rising Australian player is given by the quadratic equa-
tion y = −x2 + 3.2x + 1.8, where y is the height of the ball and x is the horizontal distance from the
player’s upstretched hand.
a. Complete a table of values for −1 ≤ x ≤ 4.
b. Plot the graph.
c. What values of x are ‘not reasonable’ and why?
d. What is the maximum height reached by the netball?
e. Assuming that nothing hits the netball, how far away from the player will the netball strike the
ground?
19. The values of a, b and c in the equation y = ax2 + bx + c can be calculated using three points that lie
on the parabola. This requires solving triple simultaneous equations by algebra. This can also be done
using a CAS calculator. If the points (0, 1), (1, 0) and (2, 3) all lie on one parabola, find the equation
of the parabola.
Reflection
What x-values can a parabola have? What y-values can a parabola have?

9.3 Sketching parabolas
9.3.1 Sketching parabolas
•• A sketch graph of a parabola does not show a series of plotted points, but it does accurately locate
important features such as x- and y-intercepts and turning points.
•• The basic quadratic graph has the equation y = x2. Transformations or changes in the features of the
graph can be observed when the equation changes. These transformations include:
– dilation
– translation
– reflection.
9.3.2 Dilation y y = 2x2

y = x2
•• Compare the graph of y = 2x2 with that of y = x2. This graph is thinner or closer
to the y-axis and has a dilation factor of 2. As the coefficient of x2 increases, the
graph becomes narrower and closer to the y-axis.
(0, 0) x
•• The turning point has not changed under the transformation and is still (0, 0).
•• Compare the graph y = 14x2 with that of y = x2. y
1
y = x2
The graph is wider or closer to the x-axis and has a dilation factor of factor .
4 y = 1–4 x2
The turning point has not changed and is still (0, 0). As the coefficient of
x2 decreases (but remains positive), the graph becomes wider or closer to
(0, 0) x
the x-axis.
State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2 and
state the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
a y = 15 x2 b y = 4x2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = 15x2
2 Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide 1
5
< 1, so the graph is wider than that
whether it is greater than or less than 1. of y = x2.
3 The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
b 1 Write the equation. b y = 4x2
2 Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide 4 > 1, so the graph is narrower than that of
whether it is greater than or less than 1. y = x2.
3 The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
y
y = x2 + 2
9.3.3 Vertical translation
•• Compare the graph of y = x2 + 2 with that of y = x2. y = x2
The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units upwards.
The turning point has become (0, 2).
(0, 2)
x

•• Compare the graph of y = x2 − 3 with that of y = x2. y y = x2
The whole graph has been moved or translated 3 units downwards. y = x2 – 3
The turning point has become (0, −3).
(0, –3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
State the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of the
following equations when compared to the graph of y = x2.
a y = x2 + 5 b y = x2 − 4
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = x2 + 5
2 +5 means the graph is translated upwards Vertical translation of 5 units up
5 units.
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2, which is The turning point becomes (0, 5).
(0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the y-coordinate has 5 added
to it.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = x2 − 4
2 −4 means the graph is translated downwards Vertical translation of 4 units down
4 units.
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2, which The turning point becomes (0, −4).
is (0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning
point remains 0, and the y-coordinate has
4 subtracted from it.
9.3.4 Horizontal translation y
•• Compare the graph of y = (x − 2) 2 with that of y = x2. y = x2
The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units to the right.
The turning point has become (2, 0). (0, 4) y = (x – 2)2
(2, 0) x
•• Compare the graph of y = (x + 1) 2 with that of y = x2. y y = (x + 1)2

The whole graph has been moved or translated 1 unit left. The turning y = x2
point has become (−1, 0). (0, 1)
(–1, 0) x

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
State the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of the
a y = (x − 3) 2 b y = (x + 2) 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x − 3) 2
2 −3 means the graph is translated to the right Horizontal translation of 3 units to the right
3 units.
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2, which is The turning point becomes (3, 0).
(0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the x-coordinate has 3 added
to it.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = (x + 2) 2
2 +2 means the graph is translated to the left Horizontal translation of 2 units to the left
2 units.
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2, which is The turning point becomes (−2, 0).
(0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the x-coordinate has 2
subtracted from it.
9.3.5 Reflection
•• Compare the graph of y = −x2 with that of y = x2. y
y = x2
In each case the axis of symmetry is the line x = 0 and the turning point
is (0, 0). The only difference between the equations is the negative sign in
y = −x2, and the difference between the graphs is that y = x2 ‘sits’ on the
x-axis and y = −x2 ‘hangs’ from the x-axis. (One is a reflection or mirror x
(0, 0)
image of the other.) The graph of y = x2 has a minimum turning point, and
the graph of y = −x2 has a maximum turning point.
•• Any quadratic graph where x2 is positive has a ⋃ shape and is said to be y = –x2
upright. Conversely, if x2 is negative the graph has a ⋂ shape and is said to
be inverted.
For each of the following graphs, give the coordinates of the turning point and state whether it is
a maximum or a minimum.
a y = −(x − 7) 2 b y = 5 − x2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = −(x − 7) 2
2 It is a horizontal translation of 7 units to the The turning point is (7, 0).
right, so 7 units is added to the x-coordinate
of (0, 0).
3 The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so Maximum turning point
it is inverted.

b 1 Write the equation. b y = 5 − x2
2 Rewrite the equation so that the x2 term is first. y = −x2 + 5
3 The vertical translation is 5 units up, so 5 units The turning point is (0, 5).
is added to the y-coordinate of (0, 0).
4 The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so Maximum turning point
the graph is inverted.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
For each of the following quadratic equations:

i state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed to
obtain the graph
ii state the coordinates of the turning point
iii hence, sketch the graph.
a y = (x + 3) 2 b y = −2x2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the quadratic equation. a y = (x + 3) 2
2 Identify the transformation needed — horizontal i Horizontal translation of 3 units to
translation only, no dilation or reflection. the left
3 State the turning point. ii The turning point is (−3, 0).
4 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 3) . You may find

2
iii y = (x + 3)2 y
it helpful to lightly sketch the graph of y = x2 y = x2
on the same set of axes first.
(–3, 0) x
b 1 Write the quadratic equation. b y = −2x2

2 Identify the transformations needed — i This is a reflection, so the graph is
dilation (2 in front of x2) and reflection inverted. As 2 > 1, the graph is
(negative in front of x2 term), no translation. narrower than that of y = x2.
3 The turning point remains the same as there is ii The turning point is (0, 0).
no translation.
4 Sketch the graph of y = −2x2. You may find it iii y
y = x2
helpful to lightly sketch the graph of y = x2 on
the same set of axes first.
(0, 0) x
y = –2x2

Try out this interactivity: Dilation of y = x2 (int-1148)
Try out this interactivity: Vertical translation of y = x2 + c (int-1192)
Try out this interactivity: Horizontal translation of y = (x − h)2 (int-1193)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Quadratic graphs (doc-5272)
Exercise 9.3 Sketching parabolas

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–d, 5a–d, 1c–f, 2c–f, 3c–f, 4c–f, 5c–f, 6c–f, 1c–h, 2c–h, 3c–h, 4e–h, 5e–h,
6a–d, 7 7, 8, 9 6i–p, 7–10
Fluency
1. WE3 State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2 and
state the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
a. y = 5x2 b. y = 13x2 c. y = 7x2 d. y = 10x2
e. y = 25x2 f. y = 0.25x2 g. y = 1.3x2 h. y = √3x2
2. WE4 State the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of each of the
a. y = x2 + 3 b. y = x2 − 1 c. y = x2 − 7 d. y = x2 + 14
e. y = x2 − 1
2
f. y = x2 − 0.14 g. y = x2 + 2.37 h. y = x2 + √3
3. WE5 State the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of the fol-
lowing equations when compared to the graph of y = x2.
a. y = (x − 1) 2 b. y = (x − 2) 2 c. y = (x + 10) 2 d. y = (x + 4) 2
e. y = (x − 2)
1 2
f. y = (x + 5)
1 2
g. y = (x + 0.25) 2 h. y = (x + √3) 2
4. WE6 For each of the following graphs give the coordinates of the turning point and state whether it is
a maximum or a minimum.
a. y = −x2 + 1 b. y = x2 − 3 c. y = −(x + 2) 2 d. y = 3x2
e. y = 4 − x2 f. y = −2x2 g. y = (x − 5) 2 h. y = 1 + x2
5. In each of the following state whether the graph is wider or narrower than y = x2 and whether it has a
maximum or a minimum turning point.
a. y = 3x2 b. y = −3x2 c. y = 12x2 d. y = −15x2
e. y = −43x2 f. y = 0.25x2 g. y = √3x2 h. y = −0.16x2

Understanding
6. WE7 For each of the following quadratic equations:
i. state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed to obtain the
graph
ii. state the coordinates of the turning point
iii. hence, sketch the graph.
a. y = (x + 1) 2 b. y = −3x2 c. y = x2 + 1
d. y = 3x 1 2
e. y = x2 − 3 f. y = (x − 4) 2
g. y = −5x 2 2
h. y = 5x 2
i. y = −x2 + 2
j. y = −(x − 6) 2 k. y = −x2 − 4 l. y = −(x + 1) 2
m. y = 2(x + 1) − 4 2
n. y = 2 (x − 3) + 2
1 2
o. y = −13 (x + 2) 2 + 14
p. y = −74 (x − 1) 2 − 3
2
Reasoning
7. A vase 25 cm tall is positioned on a bench near a wall as shown. The shape of
the vase follows the curve y = (x − 10) 2, where y cm is the height of the vase
y
and x cm is the distance of the vase from the wall.

a. How far is the base of the vase from the wall?
Wall
b. What is the shortest distance from the top of the vase to the wall?
c. If the vase is moved so that the top just touches the wall, find the new distance
from the wall to the base.
d. Find the new equation that follows the shape of the vase. Bench
x
8. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Its height in metres after t seconds is given
by h = 7t − t2.
a. Sketch the path of the ball.
b. What is the highest point reached by the ball?
A second ball is thrown vertically upwards. Its total time in
flight lasts 3 seconds longer than the first ball.
c. State the equation for the flight of the second ball.
d. On the same set of axes used for part a, sketch the path of
the second ball.
e. State the difference in the highest point reached by the
two balls.
Problem solving
9. Consider the quadratic equation y = x2 − 4x + 7.
a. Determine the equivalent inverted equation of the quadratic that just touches the one above at the
turning point.
b. Confirm your result graphically.
10. A parabola has the equation y = −12 (x − 3) 2 + 4. A second parabola has an equation defined by
Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
a. Find the equation relating Y to x.
b. State the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of Y = x2 required to obtain the
graph of Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
c. State the coordinates of the turning point.
d. Sketch the graph of Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
Reflection
What are the turning points of the graphs y = x2 + k and y = (x − h) 2?

CHALLENGE 9.1
A ball blasted upwards follows a parabolic path. It reaches a maximum
height of 200 m when its horizontal distance from its starting point is
10 m. When the ball’s horizontal distance from the starting point was
1 m, the ball had reached a height of 38 m. Suggest an equation to
model the ball’s flight, clearly defining your chosen pronumerals.
9.4 Sketching parabolas in turning point form

9.4.1 Turning point form
•• When a quadratic equation is expressed in the form y = a(x − h) 2 + k:
– the turning point is the point (h, k)
– the axis of symmetry is x = h y = a(x _ h)2 + k
– the x-intercepts are calculated by solving a(x − h) + k = 0.
2 ↗ ↑ ↖
Reflects Translates Translates
•• Changing the values of a, h and k in the equation transforms the shape and left and up and
and position of the parabola when compared with the parabola y = x2. dilates right down
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
For each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph and
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a y = (x − 6) 2 − 4 b y = −(x + 3) 2 + 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x − 6) 2 − 4
2 Identify the transformations — horizontal transla- The turning point is (6, −4).
tion of 6 units to the right and a vertical translation
of 4 units down. State the turning point.
3 As a is positive (a = 1), the graph is upright with Minimum turning point

a minimum turning point.
b 1 Write the equation b y = −(x + 3) 2 + 2
2 Identify the transformations — horizontal transla- The turning point is (−3, 2).
tion of 3 units to the left and a vertical translation
of 2 units up. State the turning point.
3 As a is negative (a = −1), the graph is inverted Maximum turning point
with a maximum turning point.
9.4.2 x- and y-intercepts of quadratic graphs

•• Other key features such as the x- and y-intercepts can also be determined from the equation
of a parabola.
•• The point(s) where the graph cuts or touches the x-axis are called the x-intercept(s). At these
points, y = 0.
•• The point where the graph cuts the y-axis is called the y-intercept. At this point, x = 0.

Determine i the y-intercept and ii the x-intercepts (where they exist) for the parabolas with
equations:
a y = (x + 3) 2 − 4
b y = 2(x − 1) 2
c y = −(x + 2) 2 − 1.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x + 3) 2 − 4
2 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 into i y-intercept: when x = 0,
the equation. y = (0 + 3) 2 − 4
=9−4
=5
The y-intercept is 5.
3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 into ii x-intercepts: when y = 0,

the equation and solving for x. Add 4 to both (x + 3) 2 − 4 = 0
sides of the equation. (x + 3) 2 = 4
Take the square root of both sides of the (x + 3) = +2 or −2
equation.
Subtract 3 from both sides of the equation. x = 2 − 3 or x = −2 − 3
x = −1 x = −5
Solve for x.
The x-intercepts are −5 and −1.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = 2(x − 1) 2
the equation. y = 2(0 − 1) 2
=2×1
=2
3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 into ii x-intercepts: when, y = 0,
the equation and solving for x. 2(x − 1) 2 = 0
Note that there is only one solution for x and so (x − 1) 2 = 0
there is only one x-intercept. (The graph touches x−1 =0
the x-axis.) x =0+1
x =1
The x-intercept is 1.
c 1 Write the equation. c y = −(x + 2) 2 − 1
the equation. y = −(0 + 2) 2 − 1
= −4 − 1
= −5
The y-intercept is −5.
3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 into ii x-intercepts: when y = 0,
the equation and solving for x. We cannot take −(x + 2) 2 − 1 = 0
the square root of −1 to obtain real solutions; (x + 2) 2 = −1
therefore, there are no x-intercepts. There are no real solutions, so there are
no x-intercepts.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
For each of the following:

i write the coordinates of the turning point
ii state whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii state whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as the graph of y = x2
iv find the y-intercept
v find the x-intercepts
vi sketch the graph.
a y = (x − 2) 2 + 3 b y = −2(x + 1) 2 + 6
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x − 2) 2 + 3
2 State the coordinates of the turning point from i The turning point is (2, 3).
the equation. Use (h, k) as the equation is in the
turning point form of y = a(x − h) 2 + k where
a = 1, h = 2 and k = 3.
3 State the nature of the turning point by ii The graph has a minimum turning point as
considering the sign of a. the sign of a is positive.
4 Specify the width of the graph by considering iii The graph has the same width as y = x2 since
the magnitude of a. a = 1.
5 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 into iv y-intercept: when x = 0,
the equation. y = (0 − 2) 2 + 3
=4+3
=7
y-intercept is 7.
6 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 into v x-intercepts: when y = 0,
the equation and solving for x. (x − 2) 2 + 3 = 0
As we have to take the square root of a negative (x − 2) 2 = −3
number, we cannot solve for x. There are no real solutions, and hence no
x-intercepts.
7 Sketch the graph, clearly showing the turning vi y
point and the y-intercept. y = (x – 2)2 + 3
7
8 Label the graph.
3
(2, 3)
0 2 x
b 1 Write the equation. b y = −2(x + 1) 2 + 6

2 State the coordinates of the turning point from i The turning point is (−1, 6).
the equation. Use (h, k) as the equation is in the
turning point form of y = a(x − h) 2 + k where
a = −2, h = −1 and k = 6.
3 State the nature of the turning point by ii The graph has a maximum turning point as
considering the sign of a. the sign of a is negative.

4 Specify the width of the graph by considering iii The graph is narrower than y = x2
the magnitude of a. since |a| > 1.
5 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 into iv y-intercept: when x = 0,
the equation. y = −2(0 + 1) 2 + 6
= −2 × 1 + 6
=4
6 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 into v x-intercepts: when y = 0,
the equation and solving for x. −2(x + 1) 2 + 6 = 0
2(x + 1) 2 = 6
(x + 1) 2 = 3
x + 1 = √3 or x + 1 = −√3
x = −1 + √3 x = −1 − √3
The x-intercepts are −1 − √3 and −1 + √3
(or approximately −2.73 and 0.73).
7 Sketch the graph, clearly showing the turning vi y

point and the x- and y-intercepts. (–1, 6)
8 Label the graph. –1 – 3 0 –1 + 3 x
y = –2(x + 1)2 + 6
Note: Unless otherwise stated, exact values for the intercepts should be shown on sketch graphs.
Exercise 9.4 Sketching parabolas in turning point form

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–c, 3a–c, 4, 5, 6a–d, 7, 1c–f, 2c–e, 3c–e, 4, 5, 6c–f, 7, 11, 1c–i, 2c–f, 3c–f, 4, 5, 6e–i, 7–15
10, 12 12, 14
Fluency
1. WE8 For each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph and
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a. y = (x − 1) 2 + 2 b. y = (x + 2) 2 − 1 c. y = (x + 1) 2 + 1
d. y = −(x − 2) + 3
2
e. y = −(x − 5) + 3
2
f. y = (x + 2) 2 − 6
g. y = (x − 12 ) − h. y = (x − 13 ) +
2 2
3
4
2
3
i. y = (x + 0.3) 2 − 0.4

2. For each of the following, state:
i. the coordinates of the turning point
ii. whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii. whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as that of y = x2.
a. y = 2(x + 3) 2 − 5 b. y = −(x − 1) 2 + 1 c. y = −5(x + 2) 2 − 4
f. y = 0.2(x − 15 ) −
2
d. y = 14 (x − 3) 2 + 2 e. y = −12 (x + 1) 2 + 7 1
2
3. Select the equation that best suits each of the following graphs.
i. y ii. y iii. y
3
1
0 x –1 0 x
0 2 x
–3
iv. y v. y vi. y
0 1 x
–2 0 x 0 x
–1
–3
a. y = (x − 1) 2 − 3 b. y = −(x − 2) 2 + 3 c. y = x2 − 1
d. y = −(x + 2) 2 + 3 e. y = −x2 + 1 f. y = (x + 1) 2 − 3
4. MC a. The translations required to change y = x into y = (x − 2 ) + 3 are:
2
2 1 1
1 1 1 1
a. right , up b. left , down
2 3 2 3
1
c. right
2
, down 13 d. left
1
2
, up 13
1
e. right
3
, up 12
b. For the graph 14(x − 12 ) + 13, the effect of the 14 on the graph is:
2
a. no effect b. to make the graph narrower

c. to make the graph wider d. to invert the graph
1
e. to translate the graph upof a unit 4
c. Compared to the graph of y = x2, y = −2(x + 1) 2 − 4 is:
a. inverted and wider b. inverted and narrower
c. upright and wider d. upright and narrower
e. inverted and the same width
d. A graph that has a minimum turning point (1, 5) and that is narrower than the graph of y = x2 is:
a. y = (x − 1) 2 + 5 b. y = (x + 1) 2 + 5
1
2
c. y = 2(x − 1) 2 + 5 d. y = 2(x + 1) 2 + 5
e. y = (x − 1) 2 + 5
1
2
e. Compared to the graph of y = x2, the graph of y = −3(x − 1) 2 − 2 has the following features.
a. Maximum TP at (−1, −2), narrower b. Maximum TP at (1, −2), narrower
c. Maximum TP at (1, 2), wider d. Minimum TP at (1, −2), narrower
e. Minimum TP at (−1, −2), wider

5. WE9 Determine i the y-intercept and ii the x-intercepts (where they exist) for the parabolas with the
following equations.
a. y = (x + 1) 2 − 4 b. y = 3(x − 2) 2 c. y = −(x + 4) 2 − 2
d. y = (x − 2) − 9
2
e. y = 2x + 4
2
f. y = (x + 3) 2 − 5
Understanding
6. WE10 For each of the following:
i. write the coordinates of the turning point
ii. state whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii. state whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as the graph of y = x2
iv. find the y-intercept
v. find the x-intercepts
vi. sketch the graph.
a. y = (x − 4) 2 + 2 b. y = (x − 3) 2 − 4 c. y = (x + 1) 2 + 2
d. y = (x + 5) 2 − 3 e. y = −(x − 1) 2 + 2 f. y = −(x + 2) 2 − 3
g. y = −(x + 3) − 2 2
h. y = 2(x − 1) + 3
2
i. y = −3(x + 2) 2 + 1
7. Consider the equation 2x2 − 3x − 8 = 0.
a. Complete the square.
b. Use the result to determine the exact solutions to the original equation.
c. Determine the turning point of y = 2x2 − 3x − 8 and indicate its type.
8. a. Find the equation of a quadratic that has a turning point of (−4, 6) and has an x-intercept
at (−1, 0).
b. State the other x-intercept (if any).
9. Write the new equation for the parabola y = x2 that has been:
a. reflected in the x-axis
b. dilated by a factor of 7 away from the x-axis
c. translated 3 units in the negative direction of the x-axis
d. translated 6 units in the positive direction of the y-axis
e. dilated by a factor of 14 from the x-axis, reflected in the x-axis, and translated 5 units in the positive
direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the negative direction of the y-axis.
Reasoning
10. The price of shares in fledgling company ‘Lollies’r’us’ plunged dramatically one afternoon, following
the breakout of a small fire on the premises. However, Ms Sarah Sayva of Lollies Anonymous agreed
to back the company, and share prices began to rise.
Sarah noted at the close of trade that afternoon that the company’s share price followed the curve:
P = 0.1(t − 3) 2 + 1 where $P is the price of shares t hours after noon.

a. Sketch a graph of the relationship between time and share price to represent the situation.
b. What was the initial share price?
c. What was the lowest price of shares that afternoon?
d. At what time was the price at its lowest?
e. What was the final price of ‘Lollies’r’us’ shares as trade closed at 5 pm?
11. Rocky is practising for a football kicking competition. After being kicked, the path that the ball
follows can be modelled by the quadratic relationship:
h = −30
1
(d − 15) 2 + 8
where h is the vertical distance the ball reaches (in metres), and d is the horizontal distance (in
metres).
a. Determine the initial vertical height of the ball.
b. Determine the exact maximum horizontal distance the ball travels.
c. Write down both the maximum height and the horizontal distance when the maximum height is
reached.
12. a. If the turning point of a particular parabola is (2, 6), suggest a possible equation for the parabola.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, 4), give the exact equation for the parabola.
13. a. If the turning point of a particular parabola is (p, q), suggest a possible equation for the parabola.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, r), give the exact equation for the parabola.
Problem solving
14. Use the completing the square method to write each of the following in turning point form and sketch
the parabola for each part.
a. y = x2 − 8x + 1
b. y = x2 + 4x − 5
c. y = x2 + 3x + 2
15. a. Find the equation of the parabola shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
–1 –10 1 2 3 4x
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9 Local minimum
–10 (2, –8)
b. State the dilation and translation transformations that have been applied to y = x2 to achieve this
parabola.
c. This graph is reflected in the x-axis. State the equation of the reflected graph.
d. Sketch the graph of the reflected parabola.
Reflection
Does a in the equation y = a(x − h)2 + k have any impact on the turning point?

9.5 Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c
9.5 Parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx
•• The general form of a quadratic equation is y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are constants.
•• A sketch of a parabola usually shows x- and y-intercepts and the turning point.
•• The x-coordinate of the turning point lies midway between the x-intercepts.
−b
•• The x-coordinate of the turning point can also be found using the formula x = from the quadratic
2a
−b ± √b − 4ac
2
formula, x = . For example, for the equation y = x2 + 4x − 6, the x-coordinate of the
2a
−4
turning point will be at x = = −2.
2×1
The y-coordinate of the turning point can be found by substitution. Continuing the example, given
x = −2, y = (−2) 2 + 4(−2) −6 = −10. The turning point is (−2, −10).
•• If the equation is not written in turning point form, the coordinates of the turning point may be found by:
– finding the midpoint between the x-intercepts
−b
– using the formula x =
2a
– writing the equation in turning point form by completing the square.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 3)(x + 2).

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 The equation is in factorised form. To find the y = (x − 3)(x + 2)
x-intercepts, let y = 0 and use the Null Factor Law. 0 = (x − 3)(x + 2)
x − 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 (NFL)
x = 3 or x = −2
x-intercepts: (3, 0)(−2, 0)
2 The x-coordinate of the turning point is midway between 3 + (−2)
xTP =
the x-intercepts. Find the average of the two x-intercepts 2
to find the midpoint between them. = 0.5
3 •• To find the y-coordinate of the turning point, substitute y = (x − 3)(x + 2)
xTP into the equation. yTP = (0.5 − 3)(0.5 + 2)
= −6.25
•• State the turning point. Turning point: (0.5, −6.25)
4 •• To find the y-intercept, let x = 0 and substitute. y = (0 − 3)(0 + 2)
= −6
•• State the y-intercept. y-intercept: (0, −6)
5 •• Sketch the graph, showing all the important features. y
x = 0.5
2
•• Label the graph.
1
–2 –1–10 1 2 3 4x
–2
–3
–4
–5 y = (x – 3)(x + 2)
–6
–7 (0.5, –6.25)

Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 − 6x − 6.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 The equation is not in factorised form, but there is a y = 2x2 − 6x − 6
common factor of 2. Take out the common factor of 2. = 2(x2 − 3x − 3)
2 The equation cannot be factorised
y = 2(x2 − 3x + (32 ) − (32 ) − 3)
2 2
(no factors of −3 add to −3), so use

= 2([ x − 32 ] − (32 ) − 3)
2 2
completing the square to write the
equation in turning point form.
= 2([ x − 32 ] − 94 − 3)
2
•• Halve and then square the coefficient of x.
= 2([ x − 32 ] − 4)
•• Add this and then subtract it from the equation. 2
21
•• Collect the terms for and write the
= 2(x − 32 ) − 2 × 21
2
perfect square.
4
•• Simplify the brackets to write the
= 2(x − 32 ) −
2
21
equation in turning point form. 2
•• Identify the coordinates of the turning
point (h, k). Turning point: (32, 2 )
−21
3 •• To find the x-intercepts, let y = 0. x-intercepts: let y = 0.

No factors of −3 add to −3, so use the 0 = 2x2 − 6x − 6
quadratic formula to find the −b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
x-intercepts. 2a
where a = 2, b = −6, c = −6
−(−6) ± √(−6) 2 − 4(2)(−6)
x=
2(2)
6 ± √36 + 48
=
4
6 ± √84 6 ± 2√21
= =
4 4
•• State the x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are:
3 + √21 3 − √21
x= and x =
2 2
x ≈ 3.79 x ≈ −0.79
4 •• To find the y-intercepts, let x = 0 y = 2x2 − 6x − 6
and substitute. y = 2(0) 2 − 6(0) − 6
•• State the y-intercept. = −6
y-intercept: (0, −6)
5 •• Sketch the graph, showing all the y
x = 2–3
important features. 40
y = 2x2 – 6x – 6
•• Label the graph and show the exact 30
values of the x-intercepts.
20
3 – √21 10 3 + √21
( 2
, 0) ( 2
, 0)
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8x
–6
–10 ( 2–3 ,
–21
—)
2

Try out this interactivity: Sketching parabolas (int-2785)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Completing the square (doc-5268)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula (doc-5269)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving quadratic equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1
(doc-5270)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving quadratic equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 1
(doc-5271)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: y = ax 2 + bx + c (doc-5273)
Exercise 9.5 Sketching parabolas of the

form y = ax2 + bx + c
Individual pathways

1, 2a–c, 3a–c, 4, 5, 7 1, 2b–d, 3c–d, 4, 6–8, 10 1, 2c–f, 3c–g, 5, 7–9, 11
Fluency
1. What information is necessary to be able to sketch a parabola?
2. WE11 Sketch the graph of each of the following.
a. y = (x − 5)(x − 2) b. y = (x + 4)(x − 7) c. y = (x + 3)(x + 5)
d. y = (2x + 3)(x + 5) e. y = (4 − x)(x + 2) f. y = ( + 3) (5 − x)
x
2
3. WE12 Sketch the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x2 + 4x + 2 b. y = x2 − 4x − 5 c. y = 2x2 − 4x − 3
d. y = −2x + 11x + 5
2
e. y = −2x2 + 12x f. y = 3x2 + 6x + 1
g. y = −3x2 − 5x + 2
Understanding
4. The path of a soccer ball kicked by the goal keeper can be modelled by the equation
y = −144
1
(x2 − 24x) where y is the height of the soccer ball and x is the horizontal distance from the
goalie, both in metres.
a. Sketch the graph.
b. How far away from the player does the ball first bounce?
c. What is the maximum height of the ball?
5. The monthly profit or loss, p, (in thousands of dollars) for a new brand of chicken loaf is given by
p = 3x2 − 15x − 18 where x is the number of months after its introduction (when x = 0).
a. Sketch the graph.
b. During which month was a profit first made?
c. In which month is the profit $54 000?

6. The height, h metres, of a model rocket above the ground t seconds after
launch is given by the equation h = 4t(50 − t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 50.
a. Sketch the graph of the rocket’s flight.
b. Find the height of the rocket above the ground when it is launched.
c. What is the greatest height reached by the rocket?
d. How long does the rocket take to reach its greatest height?
e. For how long is the rocket in the air?
Reasoning
7. The equation y = x2 + bx + 7500 has x-intercepts of (−150, 0) and (−50, 0).
What is the value of b in the equation? Justify your answer.
8. The equation y = x2 + bx + c has x-intercepts of m and n. What is the value
of b in the equation? Justify your answer.
9. a. What path does a spaceship take to get to the Moon?
b. What is a transfer orbit?
c. Is any part of the flight path parabolic?
Problem solving
10. A ball is thrown upwards from a building and follows the path given by the formula h = −x2 + 4x + 21.
The ball is h metres above the ground when it is a horizontal distance of x metres from the building.
a. Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
b. What is the maximum height the ball reaches?
c. How far is the ball from the wall when it reaches the maximum height?
d. How far from the building does the ball land?
11. During an 8-hour period, an experiment is done in which the temperature of a room follows the relationship
T = h2 − 8h + 21, where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius h hours after starting the experiment.
a. Sketch the graph of this quadratic.
b. What is the initial temperature?
c. After 3 hours, is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
d. After 5 hours, is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
e. State the minimum temperature and when it occurred.
f. What is the temperature after 8 hours?
Reflection
What strategy can you use to remember all of the information necessary to sketch a parabola?
y
9.6 Exponential functions and graphs 17

16
15
9.6.1 Exponential functions 14
•• Relationships of the form y = ax are called exponential functions with 13
12
base a, where a is a real number not equal to 1, and x is the index power 11
or exponent. 10
•• The term ‘exponential’ is used, as x is an exponent (or index). 9
•• For example, the graph of the exponential function y = 2x can be plotted 8
by completing a table of values. 7
6
Remember that 2−3 = 1
23 5
= 1
8
, and so on. 4
3
−4 −3 −2 −1
2
x 0 1 2 3 4
1
1 1 1 1
y 1 2 4 8 16 x
16 8 4 2 –4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4

•• The graph has many significant features.
– The y-intercept is 1.
– The value of y is always greater than zero.
– As x decreases, y gets closer to but never reaches zero. So the graph gets closer to but never
reaches the x-axis. The x-axis (or the line y = 0) is called an asymptote.
– As x increases, y becomes very large.
9.6.2 Comparing exponential graphs 12

y
•• The diagram at right shows the graphs of y = 2x 11

y = 3x
y = 2x
and y = 3x. 10
•• The graphs both pass through the point (0, 1). 9
•• The graph of y = 3x climbs more steeply than 8
the graph of y = 2x.

7
6
•• y = 0 is an asymptote for both graphs. 5
4
3
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1–10 x
1 2 3 4 5
y
9.6.3 Vertical translation 11 y = 2x + 3
•• The diagram at right shows the graphs of y = 2x and y = 2x + 3. 10
9 y = 2x
•• The graphs have identical shape. 8
•• Although they appear to get closer to each other, the graphs are 7
constantly 3 units apart. 6
3 units
•• As x becomes very small, the graph of y = 2x + 3 approaches but 5
never reaches the line y = 3, so y = 3 is the horizontal asymptote. 4
•• When the graph of y = 2x is translated 3 units upward, it becomes the 3
graph of y = 2x + 3.
3 units 2
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 5
y
9.6.4 Reflection about the x-axis 8
7
•• The diagram at right shows the graphs of y = 2x and y = −2x. 6
y = 2x
•• The graph of y = −2x is a reflection about the x-axis of the graph 4
of y = 2x. 3
•• The x-axis (y = 0) is an asymptote for both graphs. 2
•• In general, the graph of y = −ax is a reflection about the x-axis of

1
the graph of y = ax. –4 –3 –2 –1

–1
0 1 2 3 4 5
x
–2
–3
–4
y = –2x
–5
–6
–7
–8

9.6.5 Reflection about the y-axis y
9
•• The diagram at right shows the graphs of y = 2x and y = 2−x. 8
•• The graph of y = 2−x is a reflection about the y-axis of the graph 6
of y = 2x. y = –2x
5
y = 2x
4
•• Both graphs pass through the point (0, 1). 3
•• The x-axis (y = 0) is an asymptote for both graphs. 2
•• In general, the graph of y = a−x is a reflection about the y-axis of 1
the graph of y = ax.
–4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Given the graph of y = 4x, sketch on the same axes the graphs of: y
6
a y = 4x − 2 5 y = 4x
4
b y = −4x 3
c y = 4−x. 2
1
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
–2
THINK DRAW
a The graph of y = 4 has already been drawn. It has a y-intercept of 1

x
a y
7
and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. The graph of y = 4x − 2 has the 6
same shape as y = 4x but is translated 2 units vertically down. It has a
5
4
y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = −2. 3
2
y = 4 1 y = 4x –2
x
–3 –10 1 2 3 x
–2
–3 y = –2
b y = −4x has the same shape as y = 4x but is reflected about the x-axis. b y
6
It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 5
4
3
2
1 y = 4x
–3 –10 1 2 x
–2
–3 y = – 4x
–4
–5
c y = 4−x has the same shape as y = 4x but is reflected about the y-axis. c y
8
The graphs have the same y-intercept and the same horizontal 7
asymptote (y = 0).
6
y = 4 – x 54 y = 4x
3
2
1
–3 –10 1 2 3 x
9.6.6 Combining transformations

•• It is possible to combine translations, dilations and reflections in one graph.

By considering transformations to the graph of y = 2x, sketch the graph of y = −2x + 1.

THINK DRAW
Start by sketching y = 2 . x
y
5
It has a y-intercept of 1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 4
Sketch y = −2x by reflecting y = 2x about the x-axis.
3
2 y = 2x
It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 1
Sketch y = −2x + 1 by translating y = −2x upwards by 1 unit. –3 –10 1 2 3 x

–2 y = –2x +1
The graph has a y-intercept of 0 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 1. –3
–4
y = – 2x
Try out this interactivity: Exponential graphs (int-1149)
Exercise 9.6 Exponential functions and graphs

Individual pathways

1–16 1–17 1–18
Fluency
1. Complete the table below and use the table to plot the graph of y = 3x for −3 ≤ x ≤ +3.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y
2. If x = 1, find the value of y when:
a. y = 2x b. y = 3x c. y = 4x d. y = 10x e. y = ax.
3. Using a calculator or graphing program, sketch the graphs of y = 2 , y = 3 and y = 4 on the same
x x x
set of axes.
a. What do the graphs have in common?
b. How does the value of the base (2, 3, 4) affect the graph?
c. Predict where the graph y = 8x would lie and sketch it in.
4. Using graphing technology, sketch the following graphs on one set of axes.
y = 3x, y = 3x + 2, y = 3x + 5, y = 3x − 3
a. What remains the same in all of these graphs?
b. What is changed?
c. For the graph of y = 3x + 10, write down:
i. the y-intercept
ii. the equation of the horizontal asymptote.

5. a. Using graphing technology, sketch the graphs of: y
i. y = 2x and y = −2x ii. y = 3x and y = −3x iii. y = 6x and y = −6x.
7
6
5
b. What is the relationship between these pairs of graphs? 4
6. a. Using graphing technology, sketch the graphs of: 3
2 y = 2x
i. y = 2x and y = 2−x ii. y = 3x and y = 3−x iii. y = 6x and y = 6−x. 1
b. What is the relationship between these pairs of graphs? –3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
7. WE13 Given the graph of y = 2x, sketch on the same axes the graphs of:
–2
–3
a. y = 2x + 6 b. y = −2x c. y = 2−x. –4
–5
8. Given the graph of y = 3x, sketch on the same axes the graphs of: –6
–7
a. y = 3x + 2
b. y = −3x.
y
7
6
5
4
3 y = 3x
2
1
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
–2
–3
–4
–5
9. Given the graph of y = 4x, sketch on the same axes the graphs of: –6
–7
a. y = 4x − 3
b. y = 4−x. 7
y
10. WE14 By considering transformations of the graph of y = 2x, sketch the following 6
5 y = 4x
graphs on the same set of axes. 4
a. y = 2−x + 2
3
2
b. y = −2x + 3
1
11. By considering transformations of the graph of y = 5x, sketch the following graphs –3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
–2
on the same set of axes. –3
–4
a. y = −5x + 10 –5
b. y = 5−x + 10
–6
–7
Understanding
12. Match each graph with its correct label.
a. y = 2x b. y = 3x c. y = −4x d. y = 5−x
a. y b. y
10 2
9 1
8
7 –3 0 1 2 3 4x
6 –2
5 –3
4 –4
3 –5
2 –6
1 –7
–8
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x –9
–2 –10
c. y d. y
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x –3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
–2 –2

13. Match each graph with its correct label. Explain your answer.
a. y = 2x + 1 b. y = 3x + 1 c. y = −2x + 1 d. y = 2−x + 1
a. y b. y
10 6
9 5
8 4
7 3
6 2
5 1
4
3 –3 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
2 –2
1
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
–2
c. y d. y
9 2
8 1
7
6 –3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
5 –2
4 –3
3 –4
2 –5
1 –6
–7
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x –8
–2 –9
Reasoning
14. By considering transformations of the graph of y = 3x, sketch the graph of y = −3−x − 3.
15. The graph of f(x) = 16x can be used to solve for x in the exponential equation 16x = 32. Draw a graph
of f(x) = 16x and use it to solve 16x = 32.
16. The graph of f(x) = 6x−1 can be used to solve for x in the exponential equation 6x−1 = 36√6. Draw a
graph of f(x) = 6x−1 and use it to solve 6x−1 = 36√6.
Problem solving
17. The number of bacteria, N, in a certain culture is reduced by a third
every hour so
N = N0 × (13 )
t
where t is the time in hours after 12 noon on a particular day.

Initially there are 10 000 bacteria present.
a. Find the value of N0.
b. Find the number of bacteria, correct to the nearest whole number,
in the culture when:
i. t = 2 ii. t = 5 iii. t = 10.
18. a. The table below shows the population of a city between 1850 and 1930. Is the population growth
exponential?
Year 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930
Population
1.0 1.3 1.69 2.197 2.856 3.713 4.827 6.275 8.157
(million)
b. What is the common ratio in part a?
c. What is the annual percentage increase?
d. Estimate the population in 1895.
e. Estimate the population in 1980.
Reflection
Will the graph of an exponential function always have a horizontal asymptote? Why?

9.7 The hyperbola
9.7.1 Hyperbolas
•• A hyperbola is a function of the form xy = k or y = .
k
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
1
Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
x
x −3 −2 −1 −12 0 1
2
1 2 3
y
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Substitute each x-value into the function

x −3 −2 −1 −12 0
1
1 2 3
y = to obtain the corresponding y-value.
1 2
x
y −13 −12 −1 −2 Undefined 2 1
1
2
1
3
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from y

3
the table. Join them with a smooth curve.
2 y = —1x
1
–3 –2 –1
0 1 2 3x
–1
–2
•• The graph in Worked example 15 has several important features.

1. There is no function value (y-value) when x = 0. At this point the hyperbola is undefined. When
this occurs, the line that the graph approaches (x = 0) is called a vertical asymptote.
2. As x becomes larger and larger, the graph gets very close to but will never touch the x-axis. The
same is true as x becomes smaller and smaller. The hyperbola also has a horizontal asymptote at
y = 0.
3. The hyperbola has two separate branches. It cannot be drawn without lifting your pen from the
page and is an example of a discontinuous graph.
•• Graphs of the form y = are the same basic shape as y = with y-values dilated by a factor of k.
k 1
x x
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
4
a Plot the graph of y = for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
x
b Write down the equation of each asymptote.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Prepare a table of values taking a

−2 −1 −12 1
x-values from −2 to 2. Fill in the
x 0 2 1 2
table by substituting each x-value y −2 −4 −8 Undefined 8 4 2
into the given equation to find
the corresponding y-value.

2 Draw a set of axes and plot the y
points from the table. Join them 4
8 y=—
with a smooth curve. x
4
–2 –1
0 1 2 x
–4
–8
b Consider any lines that the curve b Vertical asymptote is x = 0.

approaches but does not cross. Horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

−3
Plot the graph of y = for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a table of values and sub-
x −3 −2 −1 −12 0
1
1 2 3
stitute each x-value into the given 2
equation to find the corresponding y 1 1 .5 3 6 Undefined −6 −3 −1.5 −1

y-value.
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the y
points from the table. Join them 6
3
y=–—
with a smooth curve. 3 x
1 2 3
–3 –2 –1 0 x
–3
–6
Exercise 9.7 The hyperbola

Individual pathways

1–12 1–14 1–15
Fluency
10
1. WE15 Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
x
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y

2. WE16 a. Plot the graph of each hyperbola.
b. Write down the equation of each asymptote.
5 20 100
i. y= ii. y= iii. y=
x x x
3
3. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of y = , y = and y = .
2 4
x x x
4. Use your answer to question 3 to describe the effect of increasing the value of k on the graph of y = .
k
−10 x
5. WE17 Plot the graph of y = for −5 ≤ x ≤ 5.
x 6 −6
6. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of y = and y = .
x x −k
7. Use your answer to question 6 to describe the effect of the negative in y = .
x
8. Complete the table of values below and use the points to plot y =
1
. State the equation of the
x−1
vertical asymptote.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y
9. Plot the graph of each hyperbola and label the vertical asymptote.
a. y = b. y = c. y =
1 1 1
x−2 x−3 x+1
Understanding
10. Use your answers to question 9 to describe the effect of a in y =
1
.
x−a
11. Sketch each of the following, showing the position of the vertical asymptote.
−4 5
a. y = b. y = c. y =
2
x+1 x−1 x+2
Reasoning
12. Give an example of the equation of a hyperbola that has a vertical asymptote of:
a. x = 3 b. x = −10.
13. The graph of y = is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis or from the
1
x
x-axis and translated 3 units to the left and down 1 unit. Find the equation of the resultant hyperbola
and give the equations of any asymptotes.
Problem solving
14. a. Complete the following table in order to graph the hyperbola defined by y = .
1
x2
x −2 −1 −12 1
2 1 2

This hyperbola is also known as a truncus. Give the equations of any asymptotes.
Find the equation of the truncus which results when y = is reflected in the x-axis.
1
b.
x2
Find the equation of the truncus which results when y = is reflected in the y-axis.
1
c.
x2
15. Consider again the truncus defined by y = . This hyperbola is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a
1
x2
factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis and translated 1 unit to the left and up 2 units. Find
the equation of the resulting hyperbola and give the equations of any asymptotes.
Reflection
How could you summarise the effect of the transformations dealt with in this exercise on the shape
1
of the basic hyperbola y = ?
x

9.8 The circle
9.8.1 Circles
•• A circle is the path traced out by a point at a constant distance (the radius) from a fixed point (the
centre).
•• Consider the circles shown below right. The first circle has its centre at the origin and radius r.
Let P(x, y) be a point on the circle. y
By Pythagoras: x2 + y2 = r2. P(x, y)
This relationship is true for all points, P, on the circle. r y
0 x x
The equation of a circle, with centre (0, 0) and radius r, is:
x2 + y2 = r2
•• If the circle is translated h units to the right, parallel to the x-axis, y

P(x, y)
and k units upwards, parallel to the y-axis, then: y
(y – k)
The equation of a circle, with centre (h, k) and radius r, is: k
(x – h)
(x − h) 2 + (y − k) 2 = r2
0 h x x
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Sketch the graph of 4x2 + 4y2 = 25, stating the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in general form by dividing x2 + y2 = r2
both sides by 4. 4x2 + 4y2 = 25
x2 + y2 = 25
4
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (0, 0)
3 Find the length of the radius by taking the square r2 = 25

4
root of both sides. (Ignore the negative results.) r = 5
2
Radius = 2.5 units
4 Sketch the graph. y

2.5
–2.5 2.5
0 x
–2.5

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Sketch the graph of (x − 2) 2 + (y + 3) 2 = 16, clearly showing the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in general form. (x − h) 2 + (y − k) 2 = r2
(x − 2) 2 + (y + 3) 2 = 16
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (2, −3)
3 State the length of the radius. r2 = 16
r =4
Radius = 4 units
1
–2 0 2 6 x
–3 4
–7
Sketch the graph of the circle x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in general form by (x − h) 2 + (y − k) 2 = r2
completing the square on the x terms and x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0
again on the y terms. (x + 2x + 1) −1 + (y2 − 6y + 9) − 9 + 6 = 0
2
(x + 1) 2 + (y − 3) 2 − 4 = 0
(x + 1) 2 + (y − 3) 2 = 4
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (−1, 3)
3 State the length of the radius. r2 = 4
r =2
Radius = 2 units
5
3
1
0 x
–3 –1 1
Try out this interactivity: Compare and contrast types of graphs (int-3920)

Exercise 9.8 The circle
Individual pathways

1a–c, 2a–c, 3a–c, 4, 5, 7 1c–e, 2c–e, 3c–e, 4–7, 10 1d–f, 2d–f, 3d–f, 4–11
Fluency
1. WE18 Sketch the graphs of the following, stating the centre and radius of each.
a. x2 + y2 = 49 b. x2 + y2 = 42
c. x2 + y2 = 36 d. x2 + y2 = 81
e. 2x + 2y = 50
2 2
f. 9x2 + 9y2 = 100
2. WE19 Sketch the graphs of the following, clearly showing the centre and the radius.
a. (x − 1) 2 + (y − 2) 2 = 52 b. (x + 2) 2 + (y + 3) 2 = 62
c. (x + 3) 2 + (y − 1) 2 = 49 d. (x − 4) 2 + (y + 5) 2 = 64
e. x + (y + 3) = 4
2 2
f. (x − 5) 2 + y2 = 100
3. WE20 Sketch the graphs of the following circles.
a. x2 + 4x + y2 + 8y + 16 = 0 b. x2 − 10x + y2 − 2y + 10 = 0
c. x2 − 14x + y2 + 6y + 9 = 0 d. x2 + 8x + y2 − 12y − 12 = 0
e. x + y − 18y − 19 = 0
2 2
f. 2x2 − 4x + 2y2 + 8y − 8 = 0
Understanding
4. MC The graph of (x − 2) 2 + (y + 5) 2 = 4 is:
a. y b. y
5
–2 0 x
–2 0 x
c. y d. y
0 2 x 0 x
2
–5 –5
5. MC The centre and radius of the circle (x + 1) 2 + (y − 3) 2 = 4 is:

a. (1, −3), 4 b. (−1, 3), 2 c. (3, −1), 4 d. (1, −3), 2

Reasoning
6. Find the equation representing the outer edge of the galaxy as shown in the photo below, using the
astronomical units provided.
y
0 x
5 9
7. Circular ripples are formed when a water drop hits the surface of a pond.
If one ripple is represented by the equation x2 + y2 = 4 and then 3 seconds later by x2 + y2 = 190,
where the length of measurements are in centimetres:
a. find the radius (in cm) of the ripple in each case
b. calculate how fast the ripple is moving outwards.
(State your answers to 1 decimal place.)
8. Two circles with equations x2 + y2 = 4 and (x − 1) 2 + y2 = 9 intersect. Determine the point(s) of
intersection. Show your working.
9. a. Graph the line y = x, the parabola y = x2 and the circle x2 + y2 = 1 on the one set of axes.
b. Find algebraically the points of intersection of:
i. the line and the circle
ii. the line and the parabola
iii. the parabola and the circle.
Problem solving
10. Find the point(s) of intersection of the circles x2 + y2 − 2x − 2y − 2 = 0 and
x2 + y2 − 8x − 2y + 16 = 0 both algebraically and graphically.
11. The general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0. Find the equation of the circle
which passes through the points (4, 5), (2, 3) and (0, 5). State the centre of the circle and its radius.
Reflection
How could you write equations representing a set of concentric circles (circles with the same centre,
but different radii)?

CHALLENGE 9.2
Does the point (1, 1.5) lie on, inside or outside the circle with
equation x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0?
Hint: It is important to know the length of the radius and the location
of the centre of the circle.
9.9 Review
Fluency
1. The turning point for the graph y = 3x2 − 4x + 9 is:
a. (13, 1 23 ) b. (13, 23 ) c. (16, 1 16 ) d. (23, 7 23 ) e. (23, 6 23 )
2. Which graph of the following equations has the x-intercepts closest together?
a. y = x2 + 3x + 2 b. y = x2 + x − 2 c. y = 2x2 + x − 15
d. y = 4x + 27x − 7
2
e. y = x − 2x − 8
2
3. Which graph of the equations below has the largest y-intercept?

a. y = 3(x − 2) 2 + 9 b. y = 5(x − 1) 2 + 8 c. y = 2(x − 1) 2 + 19
d. y = 2(x − 5) 2 + 4 e. y = 12(x − 1) 2 + 10
4. The translation required to change y = x2 into y = (x − 3) 2 + 14 is:
a. right 3, up 14 b. right 3, down 14 c. left 3, down 14
d. left 3, up 14 e. right 14, up 3
5. The graph of y = −3 × 2x is best represented by:
a. y b. y c. y
10 10 10
5 5 5
3 3
0
–4 –2 0 2 4 x –4 –2 0 2 4 x –4 –2 2 4x
–3
–5 –5 –5
–10 –10 –10
d. y e. y
10 10
5 5
3
1
–4 –2 0 2 4 x –4 –2 0 2 4x
–5 –5
–10 –10
6. Use the completing the square method to find the turning point for each of the following graphs.
a. y = x2 − 8x + 1 b. y = x2 + 4x − 5

7. For the graph of the equation y = x2 + 8x + 7, produce a table of values for the x-values between −9
and 1, and then plot the graph. Show the y-intercept and turning point. From your graph, state the
x-intercepts.
8. For each of the following, find the coordinates of the turning point and the x- and y-intercepts and
sketch the graph.
a. y = (x − 3) 2 + 1 b. y = 2(x + 1) 2 − 5
9. For the equation y = −x − 2x + 15, sketch the graph and determine the x- and y-intercepts and the
2
coordinates of the turning point.

10. For the exponential function y = 5x:
a. complete the table of values below
x y
−3
−2
−1
0
1
2
3
b. plot the graph.
11. Draw the graph of y = 10 × 3x for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4.
12. Draw the graph of y = 10−x for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4.
13. a. On the same axes draw the graphs of y = (1.2) x and y = (1.5) x.
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of changing the value of a in the equation of y = ax.
14. a. On the one set of axes draw the graphs of y = 2 × 3x, y = 5 × 3x and y = 12 × 3x
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of changing the value of k in the equation of y = kax.
15. a. On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of y = (2.5) x and y = (2.5) −x.
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of a negative index on the equation y = ax.
16. Sketch each of the following.
a. y = 4x b. y = −2x
1 7. Sketch y = x −3
− 2
.
18. Give an example of an equation of a hyperbola that has a vertical asymptote at x = −3.
19. Sketch each of these circles. Clearly show the centre and the radius.
a. x2 + y2 = 16 b. (x − 5) 2 + (y + 3) 2 = 64
20. Sketch the following circles. Remember to first complete the square.
a. x2 + 4x + y2 − 2y = 4 b. x2 + 8x + y2 + 8y = 32
21. Find the equation of this circle.
y
6
–6 0 6 x
–6
Problem solving
22. The height, h, in metres of a golf ball t seconds after it is hit is given by the formula h = 4t − t2.
a. Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
b. What is the maximum height the golf ball reaches?

c. How long does it take for the ball to reach the maximum height?
d. How long is it before the ball lands on the ground after it has been hit?
23. A soccer ball is kicked upwards in the air. The height, h, in metres, t seconds after the kick is
modelled by the quadratic equation h = −5t2 + 20t.
a. Sketch the graph of this relationship.
b. For how many seconds is the ball in the air?
c. For how many seconds is the ball above a height of 15 m? That is, solve the quadratic inequation
−5t2 + 20t > 15.
d. For how many seconds is the ball above a height of 20 m?
24. The height of the water level in a cave is determined by the tides. At any time, t, in hours after 9 am,
the height, h(t), in metres, can be modelled by the function h(t) = t2 − 12t + 32, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
a. What values of t is the model valid for? Write your answer in interval notation.
b. Determine the initial height of the water.
c. Bertha has dropped her keys onto a ledge which is 7 metres from the bottom of the cave. By using
a graphics calculator, determine the times in which she would be able to climb down to retrieve her
keys. Write your answers correct to the nearest minute.
25. A grassed area is planted in a courtyard that has a width of 5 metres and length of 7 metres. The shape
of the grassed area is described by the function P = −x2 + 5x, where P is the distance, in metres, from
the house and x is the distance, in metres from the side wall. The diagram below represents this
information on a Cartesian plane.
a. In terms of P, write down an inequality that describes the region where the grass has been planted.
b. Determine the maximum distance the grass area is planted from the house.
7m
Wall
x
5m
House
c. The owners of the house have decided that they would prefer all of the grass to be within a maximum
distance of 3.5 metres from the house. The shape of the lawn following this design can be described
by the equation N(x) = ax2 + bx + c
i. Using algebra, show that this new design can be described by the function N(x) = −0.56x(x − 5).
ii. Describe the transformation that maps P(x) to N(x).
d. If the owners decide on the first design, P(x), the percentage of area within the courtyard without
grass is 40.5%. By using any method, find the approximate percentage of area of courtyard without
lawn with the new design, N(x).
26. A stone arch bridge has a span of 50 metres. The shape of the curve AB can be modelled using a
quadratic equation.
a. Taking A as the origin (0, 0) and given that the maximum height b(x)
of the arch above the water level is 4.5 metres, show using algebra,
that the shape of the arch can be modelled using the equation
b(x) = −0.0072x2 + 0.36x, where b(x) is the vertical height of the
4.5 m
bridge, in metres, and x is the horizontal distance, in metres.
b. A floating platform p metres high is towed under the bridge.
A B x
Given that the platform needs to have a clearance of at least (0, 0)
50 m
30 centimetres on each side, explain why the maximum value of p is
10.7 centimetres.

27. When a drop of water hits the flat surface of a pool, circular ripples are made. One ripple is
represented by the equation x2 + y2 = 9 and 5 seconds later, the ripple is represented by the equation
x2 + y2 = 225, where the lengths of the radii are in cm.
a. State the radius of each of the ripples.
b. Sketch these graphs.
c. How fast is the ripple moving outwards?
d. If the ripple continues to move at the same rate, when will it hit the edge of the pool which is 2 m
from its centre?
28. During an 8-hour period, an experiment is done in which the temperature of a room follows the
relationship T = h2 − 8h + 21, where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius h hours after
starting the experiment.
a. Change the equation into turning point form and hence sketch the graph of this quadratic.
b. What is the initial temperature?
c. After three hours, is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
d. After five hours is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
e. State the minimum temperature and when it occurred.
f. What is the temperature after 8 hours?
Language
algebraically horizontal sketch
asymptote hyperbola substitute
axes linear symmetrical
centre maximum symmetry
circle minimum transformation
concave down non-linear translation
concave up origin turning point
dilation parabola undefined
dilation factor plot vertex
exponent radius vertical
exponential reflection y-intercept

www.assesson.com.au

Parametric equations
You are familiar with the quadratic equation y = x2 and its resulting graph. Let us consider an applica-
tion of this equation by forming a relationship between x and y through a third variable, say, t.
x = t and y = t2
It is obvious that these two equations are equivalent to the equation y = x2. This third variable
t is known as a parameter, and the two equations are now called parametric equations. We cannot
automatically assume that the resulting graph of these two parametric equations is the same as that of
y = x2 for all real values of x. It is dependent on the range of values of t.
Consider the parametric equations x = t and y = t2 for values of the parameter t ≥ 0 for
questions 1 to 3.

1. Complete the following table by calculating x- and y-values from the corresponding t-value.
t x y
0
1
2
3
4
5
2. Graph the x-values and corresponding y-values on this Cartesian y
plane. Join the points with a smooth curve and place an arrow on the 25
curve to indicate the direction of increasing t-values. 20
15
3. Is there any difference between this graph and that of y = x ? Explain
2
10
5
your answer.
0 12345 x
4. Consider now the parametric equations x = 1 − t and y = (1 − t) 2.
–5–4 –3 –2–1
These clearly are also equivalent to the equation y = x2. Complete

the table and draw the graph of these two equations for values of the parameter t ≥ 0. Draw an
arrow on the curve in the direction of increasing t-values.
t x y Parametric equations
y
0
25
1 20
15
2 10
3 5
4 –5–4–3–2–10 1 2 3 4 5 x
5
Describe the shape of your resulting graph. What values of the parameter t would produce the
same curve as that obtained in question 2?
5. The graph of y = −x2 is a reflection of y = x2 in the x-axis. Construct Parametric equations
x = t and y = –t2
a table and draw the graph of the parametric equations x = t and y
y = −t2 for parameter values t ≥ 0. Remember to place an arrow on
–5–4–3–2–1 0 x
the curve in the direction of increasing t-values. –5 1 2 3 4 5
–10
6. Without constructing a table, predict the shape of the graph of the –15
parametric equations x = 1 − t and y = −(1 − t) 2 for parameter –20
–25
values t ≥ 0. Draw a sketch of the shape.
7. This task requires you to produce the shape of the parabola y = x2
in the range −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 by considering two different parametric
equations to those already considered. Answer this question on a separate sheet of paper.
a. State your two equations and the range of the parameter values.
b. Construct a table showing calculated values.
c. Draw a sketch of the graph.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Olympic games facts (doc-15933)

Answers
Topic 9 Non-linear relationships
Exercise 9.2 Plotting parabolas
1. a. y
y = 3x2
b. y 1
30 y = –4 x2
25
20 2
15
10 1
5
x x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = 0, (0, 0) x = 0, (0, 0)
2. Placing a number greater than 1 in front of x2 makes the graph thinner. Placing a number greater than 0 but less than 1 in
front of x2 makes the graph wider.
3. a. y b. y
10 12
10 y = x + 3
2
8 y = x2 + 1
6 8
4 6
2 4
x 2 (0, 3)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = 0, (0, 1), 1
x = 0, (0, 3), 3
c. y d. y
y = x2 –3 8 y = x2 –1
6 6
4 4
2 2
(0, –1)
x x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1
–2
1 2 3
–2
x = 0, (0, −3), −3 x = 0, (0, −1), −1

4. Adding a number raises the graph of y = x vertically that number of units. Subtracting a number lowers the graph of y = x2
2
vertically that number of units.

5. a. y b. y

y = (x + 2)2
20 y = (x + 1)2 16
(–5, 16)
16 12
12 8
8 4
4 (1, 4) x
–6 –4 –2 0 2
0 1 2 x
x = −2, (−2, 0), 4
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
x = −1, (−1, 0), 1
c. y d. y
10 10 y = (x ‒ 1)2
y = (x ‒ 2)2
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
x = 2, (2, 0), 4 x = 1, (1, 0), 1
6. Adding a number moves the graph of y = x2 horizontally to the left by that number of units. Subtracting a number moves the
graph of y = x2 horizontally to the right by that number of units.

7. a. y b. y
1
0
0 x x
–3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
–7 –7
–8 –8
y = –x2 + 1
–9
x = 0, (0, 1), 1 y = –(x – 1)2
x = 1, (1, 0), −1
c. y d. y
0 0 1 2 3 4 x
–2
x
–6 –4 –2 1 –4
–2 –6
–8
–4 –10
–12
y = –x2 –3
–6
x = 0, (0, −3), −3
–8
y = –(x + 2)2
x = −2, (−2, 0), −4

8. The negative sign inverts the graph of y = x2. The graphs with the same turning points are: y = x2 + 1 and
y = −x2 + 1; y = (x − 1) 2 and y = −(x − 1) 2; y = (x + 2) and y = −(x + 2) 2; y = x2 − 3 and y = −x2 − 3. They differ in that
the first graph is upright while the second graph is inverted.
9. a. y b. y
25 y = 2(x + 2)2 − 3 20
20 y = (x − 5)2 + 1 15
15 10
10 5
5
–6 –4 0 x
x –5
−1 0 2 4 6 8 10
i. x = 5 ii. (5, 1), min iii. 26 i. x = −2 ii. (−2, −3), min iii. 5
c. y d. y
4 5
3 x
2 −2 −50 2 4 6
1 −10
−15 y = −3(x − 1)2 + 2
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x −20
–1
−25
–2 y = −(x − 3)2 + 4
–3
i. x = 1 ii. (1, 2), max iii. −1
–4
–5
i. x = 3 ii. (3, 4), max iii. −5
e. y f. y
y = x2 + 4x − 5 15 20
10 15
5 10
0 x 5
−6 −4 −2
−5 0 x
−6 −4 −2
−5 2 4
−10 y = −x2 − 2x +15
−10
i. x = −2 ii. (−2, −9), min iii. −5
i. x = −1 ii. (−1, 16), max iii. 15

g. y h. y
25 20
20 16
y = (x − 2)2 + 1
15 12
10 8
5 4
y = −3x − 6x + 24
2
0 x 0 x
−6 −4 −2
−5 2 4 −2 2 4 6
−10 i. x = 2 ii. (2, 1), min iii. 5
−15
−20
−25
i. x = 1 ii. (−1, 27), max iii. 24

10. a. If the x2 term is positive, the parabola has a minimum turning point. If the x2 term is negative, the parabola has a maximum
turning point.
b. If the equation is of the form y = a(x − b) 2 + c, the turning point has coordinates (b, c).
c. The equation of the axis of symmetry can be found from the x-coordinate of the turning point. That is, x = b.
11. C
12. B
13. C
14. A
15. a. h
18
h =−(t − 4)2 + 16
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b. i. 16 m ii. 8 s
15. a. h
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 t
b. i. 18 m ii. Yes, by 3 m iii. 1.5 s iv. 3 s
16. a. y y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
b. An infinite number of points of intersection occur when the two equations represent the same parabola, with the effect that
the two parabolas superimpose. For example y = x2 + 4x + 3 and 2y = 2x2 + 8x + 6.

c. It is possible to have 0, 1 or 2 points of intersection.
y y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
17. a.
x −1 0 1 2 3 4

y −2.4 1.8 4 4.2 2.4 −1.4
b. y
4
2
–2 –1–20 1 2 3 45x
–4
c. x cannot equal −1 as this would put the ball behind her; at x = 4, the ball is under ground level.
d. The maximum height reached is 4.36 m.
e. The ball will hit the ground 3.688 m from the player.
18. y = 2x2 − 3x + 1
Exercise 9.3 Sketching parabolas

1. a. Narrower, TP (0, 0) b. Wider, (0, 0) c. Narrower, TP (0, 0) d. Narrower, TP (0, 0)
e. Wider, TP (0, 0) f. Wider, TP (0, 0) g. Narrower, TP (0, 0) h. Narrower, TP (0, 0)
2. a. Vertical 3 up, TP (0, 3) b. Vertical 1 down, TP (0, −1) c. Vertical 7 down, TP (0, −7)
d. Vertical up, TP (0, 14) e. Vertical down, TP (0, −12) f. Vertical 0.14 down, TP (0, −0.14)
g. Vertical 2.37 up, TP (0, 2.37) h. Vertical √3 up, TP (0, √3)
3. a. Horizontal 1 right, (1, 0) b. Horizontal 2 right, (2, 0) c. Horizontal 10 left, (−10, 0)
d. Horizontal 4 left, (−4, 0) e. Horizontal 12 right, (12, 0) f. Horizontal 15 left, (−15, 0)
g. Horizontal 0.25 left, (−0.25, 0) h. Horizontal √3 left, (−√3, 0)
4. a. (0, 1), max b. (0, −3), min c. (−2, 0), max d. (0, 0), min
e. (0, 4), max f. (0, 0), max g. (5, 0), min h. (0, 1), min
5. a. Narrower, min b. Narrower, max c. Wider, min d. Wider, max
e. Narrower, max f. Wider, min g. Narrower, min h. Wider, max
6. a. i. Horizontal translation 1 left b. i. Reflected, narrower (dilation)
ii. (−1, 0) ii. (0, 0)
iii. y y = (x + 1)2 iii. y
y = x2 y = x2
( –1, 0) 0 x
0 x
2
y = –3x
c. i. Vertical translation 1 up
ii. (0, 1)

iii. y y = x2 + 1 d. i. Wider (dilation)
ii. (0, 0)
y y = x2
iii.
y = x2
(0, 1)
0 x
y = 1–3 x2
(0, 0) x
e. i Vertical translation 3 down f. i. Horizontal translation 4 right

ii. (0, −3) ii. (4, 0)
iii. y iii. y
y = x2 y=x2 y = (x – 4)2
y = 2– 3
0 x
0 (4, 0) x
(0, –3)
g. i. Reflected, wider (dilation) h. i. Narrower (dilation)

ii. (0, 0) ii. (0, 0)
iii. y
y = x2 iii. y y = 5x2
y = x2
(0, 0) x
y = – 2–5 x2
(0, 0) x
i. i. Reflected, vertical translation 2 up j. i. Reflected, horizontal translation 6 right

ii. (0, 2) ii. (6, 0)
y iii. y y = x2
iii. y = x2
(0, 2)
(6, 0)
0 x
0 x
y = –x2 + 2 y = –(x – 6)2
k. i. Reflected, vertical translation 4 down l. i. Reflected, horizontal translation 1 left

ii. (0, −4) ii. (−1, 0)
y iii. y y = x2
iii. y = x2
0 x (–1, 0)
y = –x2 – 4 0 x
y = –(x + 1)2
m. i. N
arrower (dilation), horizontal translation 1 left, n. i. Wider (dilation), horizontal translation 3 right,
vertical translation 4 down vertical translation 2 up
ii. (−1, −4) ii. (3, 2)
y y
iii. iii.
y = x2 (3, 2)
1
y=x 2 y = –2 (x – 3)2 + 2
0 x 0 x
2
y = 2(x + 1) – 4
(–1, –4)

o. i. Wider (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation p. i. Narrower (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation
2 left, vertical translation 14 up 1 right, vertical translation 32 down
ii. (−2, 14) ii. (1, −32)
iii. y y = x2 iii. y y = x2
(–2, 14 )
0 x 0 (1, – 3 ) x
2
y =– 74 (x – 1)2 – 32
y = – 13 (x + 2)2 + 4
7. a. 10 cm b. 5 cm c. 5 cm d. y = (x − 5) 2
8. a. and d.
h
25
20 h = 10t – t2 Ball 2
15
10
h = 7t – t2 Ball 1
5
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b. 12.25 m c. h = t(10 − t) e. 12.75 m

9. a. y = −(x − 2) + 3 = −x + 4x − 1
2 2
b. y
6
4
(2, 3)
2
−2 0 2 4 x
−2
−4
y = − x2 + 4x − 1
y = x2 − 4x + 7
10. a. Y = −(x − 3) 2 + 3
b. Reflected in x-axis, translated 3 units to the right and up 3 units. No dilation.
c. (3, 3)
d. y
3
2 Local maximum
x-intercept (3, 3) x-intercept
1
(1.267 949, 0) (4.732 051, 0)
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7

Challenge 9.1
v = −2h2 + 40h, where v is the vertical distance h is the horizontal distance.
Exercise 9.4 Sketching parabolas in turning point form
1. a. (1, 2), min b. (−2, −1), min c. (−1, 1), min
d. (2, 3), max e. (5, 3), max f. (−2, −6), min
g. (12, −34), min h. (13, 23), min i. (−0.3, −0.4), min
2. a. i. (−3, −5) ii. Min iii. Narrower
b. i. (1, 1) ii. Max iii. Same
c. i. (−2, −4) ii. Max iii. Narrower
d. i. (3, 2) ii. Min iii. Wider
e. i. (−1, 7) ii. Max iii. Wider
f. i. (15, −12) ii. Min iii. Wider
3. a. vi y = (x − 1) 2 − 3 b. i y = −(x − 2) 2 + 3
c. v y = x − 1 2
d. iv y = −(x + 2) 2 + 3
e. ii y = −x2 + 1 f. iii y = (x + 1) 2 − 3
4. a. A b. C c. B d. C e. B
5. a. i. −3 ii. −3, 1 b. i. 12 ii. 2
c. i. −18 ii. No x-intercepts d. i. −5 ii. −1, 5
e. i. 4 ii. No x-intercepts
f. i. 4 ii. −3 − √5, –3 + √5 (approx. −5.24, −0.76)
6. a. i. (4, 2) ii. Min iii. Same width iv. 18
v. No x-intercepts vi. y y = (x – 4)2 + 2
18
(4, 2)
0 12 34 x
b. i. (3, −4) ii. Min iii. Same width iv. 5

v. 1, 5 vi. y
y = (x – 3)2 – 4
0 1 2 3 45 x
–4 (3, –4)

c. i. (−1, 2) ii. Min iii. Same width iv. 3
v. No x-intercepts vi. y = (x + 1)2 + 2 y
3
2
(–1, 2)
1
–1 0 x
d. i. (−5, −3)

ii. Min iii. Same width iv. 22
v. −5 − √3, −5 + √3 (approx. −6.73, −3.27) vi. y = (x + 5)2 – 3 y
22
–5 + 3
0x
(–5, –3)
–5 – 3

e. i. (1, 2) ii. Max iii. Same width iv. 1
v. 1 − √2, 1 + √2 (approx. −0.41, 2.41) vi. y
(1, 2)
1– 2 2 1+ 2
1
–1 0 1 x
y = –(x – 1)2 + 2
f. i. (−2, −3) ii. Max iii. Same width iv. −7

v. No x-intercepts vi. y
–2 0 x
(–2, –3)
–3
–7
y = –(x + 2)2 – 3
i. (−3, −2)

g. ii. Max iii. Same width iv. −11
y
v. No x-intercepts vi.
–3 –2 –1 0 x
–2
(–3, –2)
–11
y = –(x + 3)2 – 2
h.
i. (1, 3) ii. Min iii. Narrower iv. 5
v. No x-intercepts vi. y y = 2(x – 1)2 + 3
(1, 3)
0 x
e. i. (−2, 1) ii.

Max iii.
Narrower −11
iv.
1 1
−2 −
v. , −2 + (approx. −2.58, −1.42) vi. y
√3 √3 (–2, 1)
0 x
1
–2 – — 1
–2 + —
3 3
–11
y = –3(x + 2)2 + 1
7. a. 2(x−34) 2−73

8
=0 b. x = 34 ± √73
4
c. (34, −73
8
), minimum
8. a. y = −23 (x + 4) 2 + 6 b. (−7, 0)
9. a. y = −x2 b. y = 7x2 c. y = (x + 3) 2 d. y = x2 + 3 e. y = −14 (x−5) 2−3
10. a. p ($)
1.9
1.4
1.0
0 3 5 t (Hours
after 12 pm)
b. $1.90 c. $1 d. 3 pm e. $1.40
11. a. 0.5 m b. (15 + 4√15) m
c. Maximum height is 8 metres when horizontal distance is 15 metres.

12. a. Answer will vary.
An example is y = (x − 2) 2 + 6.
b. y = −12 (x − 2) 2 + 6
13. a. Answer will vary.

An example is y = (x − p) 2 + q.
r−q
( p2 )
b. y = (x − p) 2 + q
14. a. y = (x − 4) 2 − 15 b. y = (x + 2) 2 − 9 c. y = (x + 32) 2 − 14

a. y b. y
4 0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 x
–1
2
–2
0 x –3
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2 –4
–4 –5
–6
–6
–7
–8
Local minimun –8
(–2, –9)
–10 –9
–12
–14 Local minimum

(4, –15)
–16
c. y
2.5
1.5
Local minimun 0.5

(–1.5, –0.25)
0 x
– 3 – 2.5 – 2 – 1.5 – 1 – 0.5 0.5
–0.5
15. a. y = 3(x − 2) 2 − 8

b. Dilated by a factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis as well as being translated 2 units to the right and down
8 units.
c. y = −3(x − 2) 2 + 8
d. y Local maximum
8 (2, 8)
0 x
1 2 3 4
–1

Exercise 9.5 Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c
1. You need the x-intercepts, the y-intercept and the turning point to sketch a parabola.
2. a. y b. y c. y
12 10 15
10
8 10
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
6
4 –10 5
2
–20
0 2 4 6 x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 x
–2
Turning point Turning point –5
–4 Turning point –30
(1.5, –30.25)
(3.5, –2.25) (–4, –1)
d. y e. y f. y Turning point
10 Turning point
(1, 9) (–0.5, 15.125)
15 15
5
10 10
–2 2 4 x 5
5
–5
x –6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x
–6 –4 –2 –10
–5
–5
Turning point
(–3.25, –6.125) –10
3. a. y b. y c. y
4 4 4
2 2 2
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 2 –2 0 2 4 6
x
–2 –1 01 2 3 4 5 x
–2 –2 –2
Turning point
(–2, –2)
–4 –4 –4
Turning point
–6 –6
(1, –5)
–8
Turning point
–10 (2, –9)
d. y e. y f. y
20 Turning point 20 Turning point 4
(2.75, 20.1) (3, 18)
15 15 2
10 10 x
–6 –4 –2 0 2
5 5 Turning point –2
(–1, –2)
x x –4
–2 0 2 4 6 8 –2 0 2 4 6 8
–5 –5
g. y
Turning point 4
(–5 , 49
6 12 ) 2
–6 –4 –2 2 x
–2
–4

4. a. y
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30
b. 24 m c. 1 m
5. a. y
20
15
10
5
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–5
–10
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
–40
b. 6th month c. 8th month
6. a. h b. 0 c. 2500 m d. 25 seconds e. 50 seconds

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 10 20 30 40 50 t
7. 200
8. −(m + n)
10. a. h (2, 25) b. 25 m c. 2 m d. 7 m
21
h = −x2 + 4x + 21
−3 0 7 x
11. a.
Temperature (degrees celsius)
T
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8h
Hours
b. 21°C c. Decreasing d. Increasing e. 5°C after 4 hours f. 21°C

Exercise 9.6 Exponential functions and graphs
y
1.
−3 −2 −1
28
x 0 1 2 3 26
24
y 1 1 1 1 3 9 27 22
20
27 9 3 18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 y = 3x
2
–3 –10 1 2 3 4 x
2. a. 2 e.
3 f.
4 g.
10 h.
a
3. y x
16 y=4
14 y = 3x
12
10
8 y = 2x
6
4
2
–5 –3 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
–4
–6
–8
–10
–12
–14
–16
a. The graphs all pass through (0, 1). The graphs have the same horizontal asymptote, (y = 0). The graphs are all very steep.
b. As the base grows larger, the graphs become steeper.
c. y
16 y = 8x
14 y = 4x
12
y = 3x
10
8 y = 2x
6
4
2
0
–5 –3 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
–4
–6
–8
–10
–12
–14
–16
4. y
11
10
9
8
7
y = 3x + 5 6
5
4
3
y = 3x + 2
2
1
y = 3x
0
–3 –1 1 2 3 4x
–2
–3
y = 3x – 3
–4

a. The shape of each graph is the same.
b. Each graph has a different y-intercept and a different horizontal asymptote.
c. i. (0, 11) y = 10
ii.
5. a. i. y ii. y iii. y
8 9 7
7 8 6
6 7 5
5 6 4
4 5 3
3 4 2 y = 6x
2 y = 2x 3 x 1
y=3
1 2
1 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4x
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x –2
0 y = –6x
–2 y = –2x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x –3
–3 –2 y = –3x –4
–4 –3 –5
–5 –4
–6 –5
–7 –6
–8 –7
–8
–9
b. In each case the graphs are symmetric about the x-axis.
6. a. i. y ii. y iii. y
8 8 8
7 7 7
6 6 6
5 5 y = 6−x 5 y = 6x
4 4 4
3 y = 3−x 3 y = 3x 3
y = 2−x 2 y = 2x 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x
–2 –2 –2
b. In each case the graphs are symmetric about the y-axis.
7. a–c. 8. a, b. y
y = 2x + 6
y 8
7
8 6
7 5 y = 3x
6 4
x
5 y=3 +2 3
4 2
3 1
y = 2−x 2 y = 2x 0 x
1 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
0 –2
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x y = −3x
–3
–2 –4
y = − 2x
–3 –5
–4 –6
–5 –7
–6 –8
–9

9. a, b. y 10. a, b. y 11. a, b.
8 8 y = 2x 16 y = 5x
7 7 15
6 y = 4x 6 14
y = 4–x
5 5 13
4 4 12
3 3 11 y = 5–x + 10
2 2 10
1
y = 2–x + 2 9
1
x 8
–4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 7
–2 y = 4x – 3 –2 y = –2–x + 3 6
–3 –3 5
–4 –4 4
–5 –5 3
–6 –6 2
–7 –7 1 y = –5x + 10
–8 –8
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2
12. a. B b. C c. D d. A
13. a. B b. D c. A d. C
y
14. 1
0 x
–3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
y
15.
y = 32 40
30 Point of
20
intersection
y = 16x10 (1.25, 32)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3x
–10
x = 1.25
Point of
16. intersection
y
y = 36√6 100 (3.5, 88.181631)
80
60 –
40 y = 6x 1
20
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
-20
x = 3.5
17. a. 10 000
b. i. 1111 ii. 41 iii. 0
18. a. Yes
b. There is a constant ratio of 1.3.
c. 30%
d. 3.26 million
e. 30 million

Exercise 9.7 The hyperbola
−4
1.
x −5 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 −2.5 −3.3 −5 −10 Undefined 10 5 3.3 2.5 2
10 y = 10
—
x
–3 –2 –1
0 1 2 3 x
–10
y y y
2. a. i. ii. iii.
5 5
y= — 20 y = 20
— 100 y = 100
—–
x x x
0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
1
b. i. x = 0, y = 0
ii. x = 0, y = 0
iii. x = 0, y = 0
y
3.
(1, 4)
(1, 3) 4
y=—
x 3
y=—
(1, 2) x 2
y=—
0 x x
4. It increases the y-values by a factor of k and hence dilates the curve by a factor of k.
y
5.
10 y = –—–
10
x
1 2 3 2 3
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 x
–10
y
6.
(1, 6)
6
y =—
x
0 x
(1, –6)
y = –6
—
x
k
7. The negative reflects the curve y = in the x-axis.
x

8.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y −0.25 −0.33 −0.5 −1 Undefined 1 0.5 0.33
y
1
y = ——
x–1
1
–1
0 1 2 x
–1
x=1
Equation of vertical asymptote is x = 1.

y b. y y
9. a. c.
1 1
y = ——
x–2 y = ——
1 y =x——
x–3 +1
1 1 1
0 0 –2 –1
1 x 1
–— x 0 1 x
–—
2 2 3 3 34 –1
x=2 x=3
x = –1
10. The a translates the graph left or right, and x = a becomes the vertical asymptote.
y y y
11. a. b. c.
2
–4 y = ——
y = ——
x+1
x–1 1
2—
2
(–2, 4) (2, 2)
–2 0 x
–1 0 x 0 1 x 5
–4 –2 y = ——
x+2
(–3, –5)
12. Check with your teacher. Possible answers:

1
a. y =
1 b. y =
x−3 x + 10
−2
13. y = − 1, x = −3, y = −1
x+3
14. a.
x −2 −1 −
1 1 1 2
2 2
y 1 1 4 4 1 1
4 4
y
4
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = 0, y = 0

1 1
b. y = − c. y = −
x2 x2
3
2. y = − + 2, x = −1, y = 2
(x + 1) 2
Exercise 9.8 The circle
1. a. y b. y c.
y
7 4 6
–7 0 7 x –4 0 4 x –6 0 6 x
–7 –4 –6
Centre (0, 0), radius 7 Centre (0, 0), radius 4 Centre (0, 0), radius 6
d. y e. y f. y
9 5 1
3–
3
–9 0 9 x –5 0 5 x
0 1
–3 –
1 3– x
–9 3 3
–5
1
–3 –
3
Centre (0, 0), radius 9 Centre (0, 0), radius 5
Centre (0, 0), radius 10
3
2. a. y b. y c. y
7 3 8
5 7
–8 –2 0 4 x
(1, 2) 6 –3 1
–4 0 6 x –10 –3 0 4 x
–3
–9 –6
d. y e. y f. y
0

3 10
–1 2 x 10
–2
–4 0 4 8 12 x 2
–5 –3 –5 0 5 15 x
–10
–13 –5
3. a. (x + 2) 2 + (y + 4) 2 = 22 b. (x − 5) 2 + (y − 1) 2 = 42 c. (x − 7) 2 + (y + 3) 2 = 72
y y y
5 4
–4 –2 –20 x 7
1 0 x
0 5 x –3 14
–4 –3 1 9
–10
–6
d. (x + 4) 2 + (y − 6) 2 = 82 e. x2 + (y − 9) 2 = 102 f. (x − 1) 2 + (y + 2) 2 = 32
y y y
14 19 1
6 –2 0 1 4 x
9 –2
0
x 0 –5
12 –2 4 x
–10 –1 4 10
4. D
5. B
6. (x − 5) 2 + (y − 3) 2 = 16
7. a. 2 cm, 13.8 cm b. 3.9 cm/s
8. (−2, 0)

9. a. y
2
(1, 1)
1 Point of intersection
(0.707 107, 0.707 107)
(–0.786 151, 0.618 034) Point of intersection
(0.786 151, 0.618 034)
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
(–0.707 107, –0.707 107) –1
–2
b. i. (0.707, 0.707) and (−0.707, −0.707)

ii. (0, 0) and (1, 1)
iii. (0.786, 0.618) and (−0.786, 0.618)
10. (x − 1) 2 + (y − 1) 2 = 4 centre at (1, 1) and radius of 2 units.

(x − 4) 2 + (y − 1) 2 = 1 centre at (4, 1) and radius of 1 unit.
The circles intersect (touch) at (3, 1).
y
3
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
11. (x − 2) 2 + (y − 5) 2 = 4 centre at (2, 5) and radius of 2 units.
Challenge 9.2
The distance between the centre and the point (1, 1.5) is 2.5, which is greater than the length of the radius. Therefore, the point
(1, 1.5) lies outside the circle with equation x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0.
9.9 Review
1. d
2. a
3. d
4. a
5. b
6. a. (4, −15)
b. (−2, −9)

7. x 0 1
y 16 7 0 0 7 16
y
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 x
–2 2 4 6 8
–4
–6
–8
(–4, –9) –10
TP (−4, −9); x-intercepts: −7 and −1
8. a. TP (3, 1); no x-intercepts; y-intercept: (0, 10)

y
10 y = (x – 3)2 + 1
(3, 1)
0 x
b. TP (−1, −5); x-intercepts: −1 − √ , −1 + √ ; y-intercept: (0, −3)

5 5
2 2
y
y = 2(x + 1)2 – 5
5–
–1 +
2
0 x
5– –3
–1 –
2
(–1, –5)
9. TP (−1, 16); x-intercepts: −5 and 3; y-intercept: (0, 15)

y
(–1, 16) y = –x2 – 2x + 15
15
–5 0 3 x
10. a.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 0.008 0.04 0.2 1 5 25 125
b. y
160 y = 5x
140
120
100
80
60
40
(0, 1) 20 (1, 5)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
11. y
450 y = 10 × 3x
400
350
300
250
200
150 (0, 10)
100
50
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 x

12. y = 10–x
y
140
120
100
80
60
40 (0, 1)
20
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
13. a. y
10
8
6
y = (1.5)x
(0, 1) 4
2 y = (1.2)x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
a. Increasing the value of a makes the graph steeper for positive x-values and flatter for negative x-values.
14. a. 36
y
32
28
24
20
16 y = 5 × 3x
12 y = 2 × 3x
8
4 y = 1–2 × 3x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
b. Increasing the value of k makes the graph steeper.
15. a. y
y = (2.5)–x 45 y = (2.5)x
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
b. Changing the sign of the index reflects the graph in the y-axis.
16. a. y b. y
(1, 4)
y = –2
—
x
0 x 0 x
4
y =—
x (1, –2)
17. y
−3
3 y = ——
— x−2
2
0 2 x
(3, −3)
18. Check with your teacher. Possible answer is y = x 1

+ 3
.
19. a. y 2 b. y (x − 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 64

4 x + y = 16
2
0 8 x
–4 0 4 x (5, −3)
–4

y b. y
20. a. x 2 + 4x + y2 − 2y = 4
( −2, 1) 8 0 x
3 ( −4, −4)
0 x
x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 8y = 32
21. x + y = 36
2 2
22. a. h (2, 4)
2
h = 4t – t
0 4 t
c. 2 s d. 4 s
b. 4 m
23. a. h
(2, 20)
h = −5t2 + 20t
0 4 t
b. 4 s c 2 s (1 > t > 3)
c. The ball is never above a height of 20 m.
24. a. [0, 12] b. 32 m c. 11:41 am to 6:19 pm
25. a. P ≤ −x2 + 5x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
b. 6.25 m
c. i. Check with your teacher.
ii. Dilation by a factor of 0.56 parallel to the y-axis
d. 66.7%
26. a. Check with your teacher.
b. When x = 0.3, b = 10.7. Therefore if p is greater than 10.7 cm the platform would hit the bridge.
27. a. First ripple’s radius is 3 cm, second ripple’s radius is 15 cm.
b. y
15
10
–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15x

–5
–10
–15
c. 2.4 cm/s
d. 1 minute 22.1 seconds after it is dropped
28. a.
Temperature degrees celsius
T
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8h
Hours
b. 21°C c. Decreasing d. Increasing e. 5°C after 4 hours f. 21°C

1.
t x y
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 2 4
3 3 9
4 4 16
5 5 25
2.
x = t and y = t2
y
25
20
15
10
5
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

4. x = 1 – t and y = (1 – t)2
t x y
y
0 1 1 25
20
1 0 0 15
10
2 −1 1 5
3 −2 4 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
4 −3 9
5 −4 16
Answers will vary; t = 1, 0, −1, −2, −3, −4.
5.
t x y
0 0 0 x = t and y = –t 2
y
1 1 −1 0
2 2 −4 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–5 1 2 3 4 5x
–10
3 3 −9 –15
4 4 −16 –20
–25
5 5 −25 –30


TOPIC 10
Deductive geometry
10.1 Overview
embedded just where you need them, at the point
of learning, in your learnON title at www.jacplus
.com.au. They will help you to learn the content
Learning about geometry includes being able to
reason deductively and to prove logically that cer-
tain mathematical statements are true. It is impor-
tant to be able to prove theories meticulously and
step by step in order to show that the conclusions
reached are soundly based. Mathematicians spend
most of their time trying to prove new theories,
and they rely heavily on all the proofs that have
gone before. Reasoning skills, and hence the
ability to prove theories, can be developed and
learned through practice and application.

1. THINK List what you know about geometry. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show your
list.
knowledge of geometry.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
10.1 Overview
10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence
10.3 Similar triangles
10.4 Quadrilaterals
10.5 Polygons
10.6 Review
Watch this video: The story of mathematics: Euclid (eles-1849)

10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence
10.2.1 Proofs and theorems
•• Euclid (c. 300 BC) was the mathematician who developed a systematic approach to geometry, now
referred to as Euclidean geometry, that relied on mathematical proofs.
•• A proof is an argument that shows why a statement is true.
•• A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated to be true. To demonstrate that a statement is
proven, formal language needs to be used. It is conventional to use the following structure when
setting out a theorem.
– Given: a summary of the information given
– To prove: a statement that needs to be proven
– Construction: a description of any additions to the diagram given
– Proof: a sequence of steps that can be justified and form part of a formal mathematical proof.
10.2.2 Angles at a point

•• The sum of the angles at a point is 360°.
a
b
a + b + c + d + e = 360° c
d e
a + b + c + d + e = 360°
10.2.3 Supplementary angles

•• The sum of the angles on a straight line is 180°.
•• Angles a, b and c are supplementary angles.
b
a + b + c = 180° c a
a + b + c = 180°
10.2.4 Vertically opposite angles D B

•• Theorem 1: Vertically opposite angles
are equal.
c
a b
O
A C
Given: Straight lines AB and CD intersect at O.

To prove: ∠AOD = ∠BOC and ∠BOD = ∠AOC
Construction: Label ∠AOD as a, ∠BOC as b and ∠BOD as c.
Proof: Let ∠AOD = a°, ∠BOC = b° and ∠BOD = c°.
a + c = 180° (supplementary angles)
b + c = 180° (supplementary angles)
∴ a+ c= b+ c
∴ a= b
So, ∠AOD = ∠BOC.
Similarly, ∠BOD = ∠AOC.
TOPIC 10 Deductive geometry 395

10.2.5 Parallel lines
•• If two lines are parallel and cut by a
transversal, then: d
– co-interior angles are supplementary. c a
For example, a + b = 180°.
– corresponding angles are equal. For
Transversal
example, b = d.
b
– alternate angles are equal. For
example, b = c.
– opposite angles are equal. For
example, c = d.
10.2.6 Angle properties of triangles

Theorem 2 B
•• Theorem 2: The sum of the interior angles of a b
triangle is 180°.
a c
A C
Given: ΔABC with interior angles a, b and c

To prove: a + b + c = 180°
Construction: Draw a line parallel to AC, passing through B and label it DE as shown.
Label ∠ABD as x and ∠CBE as y.
D B E
x y
b
a c
A C
Proof: a=x (alternate angles)

c=y (alternate angles)
x + b + y = 180° (supplementary angles)
∴ a + b + c = 180°
10.2.7 Equilateral triangles

•• It follows from Theorem 2 that each interior angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°, and, conversely,
if the three angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is equiangular.
a + a + a = 180° (sum of interior angles in a B

triangle is 180°) a
3a = 180°
a = 60°
a a
A C

•• Theorem 3: The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to B
the sum of the opposite interior angles. b
a d
c
A C
Given: ΔABC with the exterior angle labelled d

To prove: d=a+b
Proof: c + d = 180° (supplementary angles)
a + b + c = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)
∴d=a+b
10.2.8 Congruent triangles

•• Congruent triangles have the same size and the same shape; that is, they are identical in all respects.
•• The symbol used for congruency is ≅.
•• For example, ΔABC in the diagram below is congruent to ΔPQR. This is written as ΔABC ≅ ΔPQR.
C P Q
A B R
•• Note that the vertices of the two triangles are written in corresponding order.
•• There are five tests designed to check whether triangles are congruent. The tests are summarised in
the table below.
Test Diagram Abbreviation
All three sides in one triangle are equal in SSS
length to the corresponding sides in the
other triangle.
Two corresponding sides and the included SAS
angle are the same in both triangles.
Two corresponding angles and a pair of ASA

corresponding sides are the same in both
triangles.
A pair of corresponding angles and a AAS

non-included side are equal in both triangles.
• •
The hypotenuse and one pair of the other RHS

corresponding sides in two right-angled triangles
are the same in two right-angled triangles.
•• In each of the tests we need to show three equal measurements about a pair of triangles in order to
show they are congruent.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Select a pair of congruent triangles from the diagrams below, giving a reason for your answer.
A 18 cm N
Q L 35°
50° 15 cm
95°
C
95° 35° 95°
P R
B 15 cm M
THINK WRITE
1 In each triangle the length of the side opposite the All three triangles have equal angles, but the
95° angle is given. If triangles are to be congruent, sides opposite the angle 95° are not equal.
the sides opposite the angles of equal size must be AC = PR = 15 and LN = 18 cm
equal in length. Draw your conclusion.
2 To test whether ΔABC is congruent to ΔPQR, first ΔABC: ∠A = 50°, ∠B = 95°,
find the angle C. ∠C = 180° − 50° − 95°
= 35°
3 Apply a test for congruence. Triangles ABC and A pair of corresponding angles
PQR have a pair of corresponding sides equal in (∠B = ∠Q and ∠C = ∠R) and a non-included
length and 2 pairs of angles the same, so draw your side (AP = PR) are equal.
conclusion. ΔABC ≅ ΔPQR (AAS)
10.2.9 Isosceles triangles C
•• A triangle is isosceles if the lengths of two sides are equal but the third side
is not equal.
Theorem 4
•• Theorem 4: The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal.
a b
A B
Given: AC = CB
To prove: ∠BAC = ∠CBA
Construction: Draw a line from the vertex C to the midpoint of the base AB and label the midpoint D.
CD is the bisector of ∠ACB.
C
c c
a d b
A B
D
Proof: In ΔACD and ΔBCD,
CD = CD (common side)
AD = DB (construction, D is the midpoint of AB)
AC = CB (given)
⇒ ΔACD ≅ ΔBCD (SSS)
∴ ∠ BAC = ∠ CBA

•• Conversely, if two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite those angles are equal.
•• It also follows that ∠ ADC = ∠ BDC = d
2d = 180°
⇒ d = 90°
and that (supplementary)
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Given that ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD, find the values of the pronumerals in the figure below.
B
40° z y
A x D C
3 cm
THINK WRITE
1 In congruent triangles corresponding sides are equal ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD
in length. Side AD (marked x) corresponds to side AD = CD, AD = x, CD = 3
DC, so state the value of x. So x = 3 cm.
2 Since the triangles are congruent, corresponding ∠ BAD = ∠ BCD

angles are equal. State the angles corresponding ∠ BAD = 40°, ∠ BCD = y
So y = 40°
to y and z and hence find the values of these
pronumerals. ∠ BDA = ∠ BDC
∠ BDA = z, ∠ BDC = 90°
So z = 90°.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Prove that ΔPQS is congruent to ΔRSQ.

P Q
S R
THINK WRITE
1 Write the information given. Given: Rectangle PQRS with diagonal QS.
2 Write what needs to be proved. To prove: that ΔPQS is congruent to ΔRSQ.
QP = SR (given)
∠ SPQ = ∠ SRQ = 90° (given)
QS is common.
3 Select the appropriate congruency So ΔPQS ≅ ΔRSQ (RHS)
test for proof. (In this case it is
RHS because the triangles have
an equal side, a right angle and a
common hypotenuse.)

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Naming angles, lines and figures (doc-5276)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles (doc-5277)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Angles and parallel lines (doc-5280)
Exercise 10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence

Individual pathways

1–5, 7, 9, 11 1–5, 6, 8–10, 12, 13 1–14
Fluency
1. Determine the values of the unknown in each of the following.
a. b. A c. A
a 56° 120°
30° b
B C
c
B C
d. C e. A
B
58° d e
44° B
62° e
C
A
2. WE1 Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the following, giving a reason for your answer. All
side lengths are in cm.
a.
65° 65°
3 II
4 3 III
4
I 4
70° 3
65° 70° 45°

b.
110°
6 cm
I
40° 6 cm
III
II
110° 110° 40°
6 cm
40°
c. 3
4 5
3 II
4 III
I
d. 3.5 2 3.5
2 I
III
4.8 II
3.5 4.8 2.5
4.8
Understanding
3. Find the missing values of x and y in each of the following diagrams. Give reasons for your answers.
a. A b. A
y y
D Ox
B C 6 D
B
130°
E
c. d. A
y
C
32°
x
A
y
x 45°
B C
99°
B

4. WE2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following pairs of congruent triangles. All side
lengths are in cm.
a. b. c.
80°
4 3
30°
85°
z
4 x x x y
d. e. x
40°
y n m z
7 30° y
x
Reasoning
5. WE3 Prove that each of the following pairs of triangles are congruent.
a. P b. P Q
S R
R S Q
c. P S Q d. A B
D C
R
e. Q
P R

6. MC Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
Which of the following is congruent to the triangle shown at right?
3 cm
5 cm
35°
a. 3 cm b.
5 cm
5 cm
3 cm
35°
35°
c. d. 3 cm
3 cm 35°
5 cm
35° 5 cm
7. Prove that ΔABC ≅ ΔADC and hence find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
a. A b. B D c. B C
30° y
30° 30°
w x 70° 65°
7 cm x
A C A D
B x y D
4 cm 40° 40° z
C
8. Explain why the triangles shown below are not necessarily congruent.
40°
5 cm 5 cm
7 cm
40°
7 cm
9. Explain why the triangles shown below are not congruent.

8 cm
8 cm
30° 30°
70° 70°
10. Show that ΔABO ≅ ΔACO, if O is the centre of the circle.

A B

11. If DA = DB = DC, prove that ∠ ABC is a right angle.
C
A B
12. If AC = CB and DC = CE in the diagram shown, prove that AB ‖ DE.
D E
A B
Problem solving
13. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB and AC are equal in F
length. BDF is a right-angled triangle. Show that
triangle AEF is an isosceles triangle.
B D C
14. Triangles ABC and DEF are congruent.
A D
(2x + y)°
50°
110° (x + z)° (3y + z)°

B C E F
Find the values of x, y and z.
Reflection
How can you be certain that two figures are congruent?

10.3 Similar triangles
10.3.1 Similar figures
•• Two geometric shapes are similar when one is an enlargement or reduction of the other shape.
– An enlargement increases the length of each side of a figure in B′

all directions by the same factor. For example, in the diagram
shown, triangle A′B′C′ is an enlargement of triangle ABC by a
factor of 3 from its centre of enlargement at O.
A′ C′
•• The symbol for similarity is ~ and is read as ‘is similar to’. B
•• The image of the original object is the enlarged or reduced shape.
•• To create a similar shape, use a scale factor to enlarge or reduce A C
the original shape.
O
•• The scale factor can be found using the formula below and the
lengths of a pair of corresponding sides.
image side length
Scale factor =
object side length
•• If the scale factor is less than 1, the image is a reduced version of the original shape. If the scale factor
is greater than 1, the image is an enlarged version of the original shape.
10.3.2 Similar triangles

•• Two triangles are similar if:
– the angles are equal, or
– the corresponding sides are proportional.

•• Consider the pair of similar triangles below.
U
A
10
5 6
3
B C V 8 W
4
•• The following statements are true for these triangles.

– Triangle UVW is similar to triangle ABC or, using symbols, ΔUVW ~ ΔABC .
– The corresponding angles of the two triangles are equal in size:
∠ CAB = ∠ WUV, ∠ ABC = ∠ UVW and ∠ ACB = ∠ UWV.
UV VW UW
– The corresponding sides of the two triangles are in the same ratio. = = = 2; that is,
AB BC AC
ΔUVW has each of its sides twice as long as the corresponding sides in ΔABC .
– The scale factor is 2.
10.3.3 Testing triangles for similarity

•• Triangles can be checked for similarity using one of the tests described in the table below.
Test Diagram Abbreviation
Two angles of a triangle are equal to two angles of AAA
another triangle. This implies that the third angles are
•
equal, as the sum of angles in a triangle is 180°.
The three sides of a triangle are proportional to the SSS

three sides of another triangle. a
b ka kc
c
kb
Two sides of a triangle are proportional to two sides of SAS
another triangle, and the included angles are equal. a
ka kc
c
The hypotenuse and a second side of a right-angled RHS

triangle are proportional to the hypotenuse and a
second side of another right-angled triangle. c kc
a
ka
•• Note: When using the equiangular test, only two corresponding angles have to be checked. Since the
sum of the interior angles in any triangle is a constant number (180°), the third pair of corresponding
angles will automatically be equal, provided that the first two pairs match exactly.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find a pair of similar triangles among those shown. Give a reason for your answer.
a b c
3 cm 6 cm
3 cm 140° 5 cm
140° 140°
2 cm 4 cm
THINK WRITE
1 In each triangle the lengths of two sides and the For triangles a and b: 63 = 42 = 2
included angle are known, so the SAS test can be
applied. Since all included angles are equal (140°), For triangles a and c: 53 = 1.6, 32 = 1.5
we need to the find ratios of corresponding sides,
taking two triangles at a time. For triangles b and c: 56 = 0.83, 34 = 0.75
2 Only triangles a and b have corresponding sides in the Triangle a ~ triangle b (SAS)
same ratio (and included angles are equal). State your
conclusion, specifying the similarity test that has been
used.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Prove that ΔABC is similar to ΔEDC.

A D
C
B
E
THINK WRITE
1 Write the information given. AB is parallel to DE. 1 Given:
Transversal BD forms two alternate angles: ∠ABC ΔABC and ΔDCE
and ∠EDC. AB || DE
C is common.
2 Write what is to be proved. 2 To prove: ΔABC ~ ΔEDC
3 Write the proof. 3 Proof:
∠ABC = ∠EDC (alternate angles)
∠BAC = ∠DEC (alternate angles)
∠BCA = ∠DCE (vertically opposite angles)
∴ ΔABC ~ ΔEDC (equiangular, AAA)

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing similarity statements (doc-5278)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Calculating unknown side lengths in a pair of similar triangles (doc-5281)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Deductive geometry I (doc-5282)
Exercise 10.3 Similar triangles

Individual pathways

1–10 1–11, 15 1–15
Fluency
1. WE4 Find a pair of similar triangles among those shown in each part. Give a reason for your answer.
a. i. ii. iii.
5 5 10
3 4 6
b. i. ii. iii.
4 2 8
20° 5 20° 2.5 20° 12
c. i. 2 ii. 2 iii.
4 5 6
3 4 4.5
3
d. i. ii. iii.
40° 60° 50° 60° 40° 60°
e. i. ii. iii.
4 8 7
3 6 5
2 4 4

Understanding
2. Name two similar triangles in each of the following figures.
a. Q b. A c. P Q
B
B D C R
A C
P R
S T
d. A B e. B
D
D E
A C E
AB BC
3. a. Complete this statement: = = . D
AD AE 4
B
2
b. Find the value of the pronumerals. A 3
4 f
C
g
E
4. Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram at right. Q
A
x
2
P
4 B 4 R
5. The triangles shown at right are similar.

Find the value of x and y. 45°
4
45° 1
20°
9 x
y
6. a. State why these two triangles shown at right are similar. S

P
b. Find the values of x and y in the diagram. 1.5 8
3 R
6
y
Q x

7. A waterslide is 4.2 m high and has a support 2.4 m tall. If a student reaches this support when she is
3.1 m down the slide, how long is the slide?
3.1 m
4.2 m
2.4 m
8. A storage tank as shown in the diagram is made of a 4-m-tall cylinder 5m

joined by a 3-m-tall cone. If the diameter of the cylinder is 5 m, what is the
radius of the end of the cone if 0.75 m has been cut off the tip?
4m
3m
0.75 m
9. Calculate the values of the pronumerals.
a. 2 cm (4x + 1) cm b.
2x + 1 cm
5 cm 2 2.5 cm
7 cm cm x
y cm 1.5 cm
2
y cm
Reasoning
10. WE5 Prove that ΔABC is similar to ΔEDC in each of the following.
a. C b. D c. E d. D 3
A A
E D C B
C
B B
A B D
E
A C E
11. ΔABC is a right-angled triangle. A line is drawn from A to D as shown C
so that AD ⟂ BC. Prove that:
a. ΔABD ~ ΔACB
b. ΔACD ~ ΔACB.
D
A B

12. Explain why the AAA test cannot be used to prove congruence but can be used to prove similarity.
13. a. Prove Pythagoras’ theorem, AC2 = AB2 + BC2, using similar triangles. A
b. Show that the converse of Pythagoras’ theorem holds true; that is,
if the square on one side of a triangle equals the sum of the squares
on the other two sides, then the angle between these other two sides
D
is a right angle.
B C
Problem solving
14. Prove that ΔEFO ~ ΔGHO.
E F
H G
15. Solve for x.

A
x–2 3
B E
4x – 20 x–3
C D
Reflection
How can you be certain that two figures are similar?
CHALLENGE 10.1
A tetrahedron (regular triangular-based pyramid) has an edge length
of 2 cm. A similar tetrahedron has a total surfce area of 36√3 cm2.
What is the scale factor relationship between the side lengths
of the two tetrahedra?

10.4 Quadrilaterals
10.4.1 Quadrilaterals
•• Quadrilaterals are four‐sided plane shapes whose interior angles sum to 360°.
Theorem 5
•• Theorem 5: The sum of the interior angles in a quadrilateral is 360°. A B
Given: A quadrilateral ABCD

To prove: ∠ABC + ∠BCD + ∠ADC + ∠BAD = 360°
Construction: Draw a line joining vertex A to vertex C. Label the interior angles of the triangles
formed.
A B
a b
f
e
D
d c
C
Proof: a + b + c = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)
d + e + f = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)
⇒ a + b + c + d + e + f = 360°
∴ ∠ABC + ∠BCD + ∠ADC + ∠BAD = 360°
10.4.2 Parallelograms
•• A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
Theorem 6
•• Theorem 6: Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
A B
D C
Given: AB‖ DC and AD ‖ BC

To prove: ∠ABC = ∠ADC

Construction: Draw a diagonal from B to D.
A B
D C
Proof: ∠ABD = ∠BDC (alternate angles)

∠ADB = ∠CBD (alternate angles)
∠ABC = ∠ABD + ∠CBD (by construction)
∠ADC = ∠BDC + ∠ADB (by construction)
∴ ∠ABC = ∠ADC
•• Conversely, if each pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is equal then it is a parallelogram.
10.4.3 Theorem 7
•• Theorem 7: Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal. A B
D C
Given: AB ‖ DC and AD‖ BC

To prove: AB = DC
Construction: Draw a diagonal from B to D.
A B
D C
Proof: ∠ABD = ∠BDC (alternate angles)

∠ADB = ∠CBD (alternate angles)
BD is common to ΔABD and ΔBCD.
⇒ ΔABD ≅ ΔBCD (ASA)
∴ AB = DC
•• Conversely, if each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal then it is a parallelogram.
10.4.4 Theorem 8
•• Theorem 8: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
A B
D C

Given: AB ‖ DC and AD‖ BC with diagonals AC and BD
To prove: AO = OC and BO = OD
Proof: In ΔAOB and ΔCOD,
∠OAB = ∠OCD (alternate angles)
∠OBA = ∠ODC (alternate angles)
AB = CD (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
⇒ ΔAOB ≅ ΔCOD (ASA)
⇒ AO = OC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
and BO = OD (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
10.4.5 Rectangles
•• A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles.
Theorem 9
•• Theorem 9: A parallelogram with a right angle is a rectangle. A B
D C
Given: Parallelogram ABCD with ∠BAD = 90°

To prove: ∠BAD = ∠ABC = ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°
Proof: AB || CD (properties of a parallelogram)
⇒ ∠BAD + ∠ADC = 180° (co‐interior angles)
But ∠BAD = 90° (given)
⇒ ∠ADC = 90°
Similarly, ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°
∴ ∠BAD = ∠ABC = ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°
10.4.6 Theorem 10
•• Theorem 10: The diagonals of a rectangle are equal. A B
D C
Given: Rectangle ABCD with diagonals AC and BD

To prove: AC = BD
Proof: In ΔADC and ΔBCD,
AD = BC (opposite sides equal in a rectangle)
DC = CD (common)
∠ADC = ∠BCD = 90° (right angles in a rectangle)
⇒ ΔADC ≅ ΔBCD (SAS)
∴ AC = BD

10.4.7 Rhombuses
•• A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides.
Theorem 11
•• Theorem 11: The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular. A B
D C
Given: Rhombus ABCD with diagonals AC and BD

To prove: AC ⟂ BD
Proof: In ΔAOB and ΔBOC,
AO = OC (property of parallelogram)
AB = BC (property of rhombus)
BO = OB (common)
⇒ ΔAOB ≅ ΔBOC (SSS)
⇒ ∠AOB = ∠BOC
But ∠AOB + ∠BOC = 180° (supplementary angles)
⇒ ∠AOB = ∠BOC = 90°
Similarly, ∠AOD = ∠DOC = 90°.
Hence, AC ⟂ BD
10.4.8 The midpoint theorem

•• Now that the properties of quadrilaterals have been explored, the midpoint theorem can be tackled.
Theorem 12
•• Theorem 12: The interval joining the midpoints of two sides of a A
triangle is parallel to the third side and half its length.
E
D
C
Given: ΔABC in which AD = DB and AE = EC

To prove: DE || BC and DE = 12BC

Construction: Draw a line through C parallel to AB. Extend DE to F on the parallel line.
A
F
D
C
B
Proof: In ΔADE and ΔCEF,
AE = EC (E is the midpoint of AC, given)
∠AED = ∠CEF (vertically opposite angles)
∠EAD = ∠ECF (alternate angles)
⇒ ΔADE ≅ ΔCEF (ASA)
∴ AD = CF and DE = EF (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
So, AD = DB = CF.
We have AB ‖ CF (by construction)
So BDFC is a parallelogram.
⇒ DE ‖ BC
Also, BC = DF (opposite sides in parallelogram)
But DE = DF (sides in congruent triangles)
⇒ DE = 1BC
2
Therefore, DE ‖ BC and DE = 12BC.
•• Conversely, if a line interval is drawn parallel to a side of a triangle and half the length of that side,
then the line interval bisects each of the other two sides of the triangle.
•• A summary of the definitions and properties of quadrilaterals is shown in the table.
Shape Definition Properties

Trapezium A trapezium is a quadrilateral One pair of opposite sides is parallel
with one pair of opposite sides but not equal in length.
parallel.
Parallelogram A parallelogram is a quadrilateral • Opposite angles are equal.

with both pairs of opposite sides • Opposite sides are equal.
parallel. • Diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus A rhombus is a parallelogram with • Diagonals bisect each other at right

four equal sides. angles.
• Diagonals bisect the angles at the
vertex through which they pass.

Shape Definition Properties
Rectangle A rectangle is a parallelogram Diagonals are equal. Diagonals bisect
whose interior angles are right each other.
angles.
Square A square is a parallelogram whose • All angles are right angles.

interior angles are right angles with • All side lengths are equal.
four equal sides. • Diagonals are equal in length and
bisect each other at right angles.
• Diagonals bisect the vertex through
which they pass (45°).
10.4.9 Relationships between quadrilaterals

•• The flowchart below shows the relationships between quadrilaterals.
Quadrilateral
Trapezium
Kite
Parallelogram
Rhombus Rectangle
Square
Try out this interactivity: Quadrilateral definitions (int-2786)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Identifying quadrilaterals (doc-5279)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Deductive geometry II (doc-5283)

Exercise 10.4 Quadrilaterals
Individual pathways

1–10 1–14, 16 1–19
Fluency
1. Use the definitions of the five special quadrilaterals to decide if the following statements are true or false.
a. A square is a rectangle. b. A rhombus is a parallelogram.
c. A square is a rhombus. d. A rhombus is a square.
e. A square is a trapezium. f. A parallelogram is a rectangle.
g. A trapezium is a rhombus. h. A rectangle is a square.
2. Determine the values of x and y in each of the following figures.
a. b.
(3x + 10)° y°
x
3 cm
(2x − 10)° 4 cm
y°
c. 9x° 11x°
d.
x°
y°
3x°
y°
2x°
Understanding
3. Draw three different trapeziums. Using your ruler, compass and protractor, decide which of the
following properties are true in a trapezium.
a. Opposite sides are equal. b. All sides are equal.
c. Opposite angles are equal. d. All angles are equal.
e. Diagonals are equal in length. f. Diagonals bisect each other.
g. Diagonals are perpendicular. h. Diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
4. Draw three different parallelograms. Using your ruler and protractor to measure, decide which of the
following properties are true in a parallelogram.
a. Opposite sides are equal. b. All sides are equal.
c. Opposite angles are equal. d. All angles are equal.
e. Diagonals are equal in length. f. Diagonals bisect each other.
g. Diagonals are perpendicular. h. Diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.

5. Name four quadrilaterals that have at least one pair of opposite sides that are parallel and equal.
6. Name a quadrilateral that has equal diagonals that bisect each other and bisect the angles they pass
through.
7. Pool is played on a rectangular table. Balls are hit with a cue and
bounce off the sides of the table until they land in one of the holes
or pockets.
a. Draw a rectangular pool table measuring 5 cm by 3 cm on graph paper.
Mark the four holes, one in each corner.
b. A ball starts at A. It is hit so that it travels at a 45° diagonal
across the grid. When it hits the side of the table, it bounces off
at a 45° diagonal as well. How many sides does the ball bounce
off before it goes in a hole?
c. A different size table is 7 cm by 2 cm. How many sides does a

ball bounce off before it goes in a hole when hit from A? A
d. Complete the following table.
Table size Number of sides hit

5 cm × 3 cm
7 cm × 2 cm
4 cm × 3 cm
4 cm × 2 cm
6 cm × 3 cm
9 cm × 3 cm
12 cm × 4 cm
e. Can you see a pattern? How many sides would a ball bounce off before going in a hole when hit
from A on an m × n table?
f. The ball is now hit from B on a 5 cm × 3 cm pool table. How many
different paths can a ball take when hit along 45° diagonals?
Do these paths all hit the same number of sides before going in
a hole? Does the ball end up in the same hole each time?
Justify your answer.
g. The ball is now hit from C along the path shown. What type of
triangles and quadrilaterals are formed by the path of the ball
with itself and the sides of the table? Are any of the triangles
congruent?
C
h. A ball is hit from C on a 6 cm by 3 cm table. What shapes are
formed by the path of the ball with itself and the sides of the table? Is there only one path possible?
i. Challenge: A ball is hit from A along 45° diagonals. The table is m × n. Can you find a formula to
predict which hole the ball will go in?

j. Challenge: What would happen if the game was played on a trapezoidal table?
Reasoning
8. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other. A X B
9. ABCD is a parallelogram. X is the midpoint of AB and Y is the midpoint
of DC. Prove that AXYD is also a parallelogram.
D Y C
10. ABCD is a parallelogram. P, Q, R and S are all midpoints of their respective A P B

sides of ABCD.
a. Prove ΔPAS ≅ ΔRCQ. S Q
b. Prove ΔSDR ≅ ΔPBQ.
c. Hence, prove that PQRS is also a parallelogram. D R C
11. AC and BD are diameters of a circle with centre O. Prove that ABCD is A
a rectangle.
D O
B
12. The diagonals of a parallelogram meet at right angles. Prove that the C
parallelogram is a rhombus.
13. Two congruent right‐angled triangles are arranged as shown. P Q
Show that PQRS is a parallelogram.
S R
14. Two circles, centred at M and N, have equal radii and intersect at P and Q. P
Prove that PNQM is a rhombus.
M N
15. Give reasons why a square is a rhombus, but a rhombus is not necessarily
a square. Q
16. ABCD is a trapezium.

A B
(x + 4)° (x + 15)°
(x – 4)° y°
D C
a. What fact do you know about a trapezium?

b. Find the values of x and y.

17. ABCD is a kite where AC = 8 cm, BE = 5 cm and ED = 9 cm. B
Find the exact values of:
a. i. x ii. y. x
b. Find angle BAD and hence angle BCD.
A C
E
D
Problem solving
18. ABCDE is a regular pentagon whose side lengths E
are 2 cm. Each diagonal is x cm long.
a. What kind of shape is AEDF and what is the 2c
m
length of FD?
b. What kind of shape is ABCD?
x cm
c. If ∠EDA is 40°, find the value of ∠ACB, giving A D
reasons for your findings.
d. Which triangle is similar to AED?
e. Explain why FB = (x − 2) cm.
f. Show that x2 − 2x − 4 = 0. F
g. Solve the equation x2 − 2x − 4 = 0, giving your
answer as an exact value.
B C
19. ABCD is called a cyclic quadrilateral because it is inscribed inside a circle.
A B
(3x – 35)°
(2x + 35)°
C D E
A characteristic of a cyclic quadrilateral is that the opposite angles are supplementary.

Find the value of x.
Reflection
How do you know if a quadrilateral is a rhombus?

CHALLENGE 10.2
The perimeter of this kite is 80 cm. Determine the exact
x
value of x.
3x
9x
10.5 Polygons
10.5.1 Polygons
• Polygons are closed shapes that have three or more straight sides.
Irregular Not a Not a

polygon polygon polygon
• Regular polygons are polygons with sides of the same length and interior angles of the same size,
like the pentagon shown in the centre of the photo above.
• Convex polygons are polygons with no interior reflex angles.
• Concave polygons are polygons with at least one reflex interior angle. For example, the pentagon
shown above is a concave polygon as well as a regular polygon.
10.5.2 Interior angles of a polygon

• The interior angles of a polygon are the angles inside the polygon at each vertex.
• The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is given by the formula:
Angle sum = 180° × (n − 2)

where n = the number of sides of the polygon

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the value of the pronumerals in the figure below.
80°
110° a b
150°
THINK WRITE
1 Angles a and 110° form a straight line and so are a + 110° = 180°
supplementary (add to 180°). a + 110° − 110° = 180° − 110°
a = 70°
2 The interior angles of a triangle sum to 180°. b + a + 80° = 180
3 Substitute 70° for a and solve for b. b + 70° + 80° = 180°

b + 150° = 180°
b = 30°
10.5.3 Exterior angles of a polygon

•• The exterior angles of a polygon are formed by the side of the polygon and an extension of its adja-
cent side. For example, x, y and z are external angles for the polygon (triangle) below.
y q
b s
x a c
z t
•• The exterior angle and interior angle at that vertex are supplementary (add to 180°). For example,
x + a = 180°.
•• Exterior angles of polygons can be measured in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
•• In a regular polygon, the size of the exterior angle can be found by dividing 360° by the number of
sides.
360°
Exterior angle =
n
•• The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon equals 360°.
•• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles.
Try out this interactivity: Angle sum of a polygon (int-0818)

Try out this interactivity: Exterior angles of a polygon (int-0819)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Deductive geometry III (doc-5284)

Exercise 10.5 Polygons
Individual pathways

1–7, 9 1–9, 12 1–12
Fluency
1. How are the internal and external angles of a polygon related to the number of sides in a polygon?
2. WE6 Calculate the values of the pronumerals in the diagrams below.
a. b.
b
m
120° a
c. d.
(t – 10)° 160°
15° 10°
70° 5x
3. For the five triangles below, evaluate the pronumerals and determine the size of the interior angles.
a. y b. 15° 160° c. n n
55° l 18°
d. e. 20°
4x
t
(3t + 10)°
105° x
92°
(2t – 2)°
4. For the five quadrilaterals below:

i. label the quadrilaterals as regular or irregular
ii. determine the value of the pronumeral for each shape.
a. x 120° b. c. d. y e.
70° t 3m
2y 2m
80° 65° p 4t
60°
20°

Understanding
5. The photograph below shows a house built on the side of a hill. Use your knowledge of angles to
calculate the values of the pronumerals.
133º
105º
x w
6. Calculate the values of the four interior angles of the front face of the building in the photograph below.
x + 15

7. Calculate the values of the pronumerals for the irregular polygons below.
a. f b.
b n
m
c
120° o
a d e
350°
8. Calculate the size of the exterior angle of a regular hexagon (6 sides).

Reasoning
9. A diagonal of a polygon joins two vertices.
a. Calculate the number of diagonals in a regular polygon with:
i. 4 sides ii. 5 sides iii. 6 sides iv. 7 sides.
b. Write a formula that relates the number of diagonals for an n-sided polygon.
10. The external angle of a polygon can be calculated using the formula:
360°
exterior angle =
n
Use the relationship between internal and external angles of a polygon to write a formula for the
internal angle of a regular polygon.
Problem solving
11. E H
J C
D
3 cm
F
G
m
4c
A 8 cm B
A piece of string is fixed at A and H as shown. The string is tight and fixed to the surface of the
cuboid. Locate the exact position of J on the edge CD.
12. ABCDEFGH is an octagon.
B
A (3x – 10)° C
2x° 3x°
H 3x° (3x + 5)° D
(3x – 10)° 4x°

G (4x + 20)° E
a. What is the sum of the interior angles of an octagon?

b. Find the value of x.

Reflection
How are the angles associated with polygons related to each other and the polygon?
10.6 Review
Fluency
1. Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the following sets of triangles, giving a reason for your
answer. All angles are in degrees and side lengths in cm. (The figures are not drawn to scale.)
a. 4 4
75° 75°
40° III
II 6 65°
4 6 6
I
75°
b.
I
6 8
10 6 6
II III
8
2. Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of congruent triangles. All angles are given in degrees
and side lengths in cm.
a.
2 2
8 x
b. x
70°
c. y z 60°
30°
x
3. a. Prove that the two triangles shown in the diagram below are congruent.
A B C
••
D

b. Prove that ΔPQR is congruent to ΔQPS.
S R
P Q
4. Test whether the following pairs of triangles are similar. For similar triangles find the scale factor. All
angles are in degrees and side lengths in cm.
a.
47° 47°
2 3
110° 110°
5
7.5
b.
3 5
50° 50°
1 2
c.
5. Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of similar triangles. All angles are given in degrees and
side lengths in cm.
a. A 5 B
b. A
48°
1 50°
y
C z E
2 B 1.5 44° x
D x E
8
3
y
C
D
c. P A
x
9 y 5
3
30°
Q z R C
4 B

6. Prove that ΔABC~ΔEDC.
A D
C
B
E
7. Prove that ΔPST~ΔPRQ.

Q
S
P R
T
8. Prove that the angles opposite the equal sides in an isosceles triangle are equal.
9. Two corresponding sides in a pair of similar octagons have lengths of 4 cm and 60 mm. The
respective scale factor in length is:
a. 4 : 60 b. 6 : 40 c. 40 : 60 d. 60 : 40
x+ 1
10. A regular nonagon has side length x cm. Use a scale factor of to find the side length of a
x
similar nonagon.
Problem solving
11. ABC is a triangle. D is the midpoint of AB, E is the midpoint of AC and F is the midpoint of BC.
DG ⟂ AB, EG ⟂ AC and FG ⟂ BC.
a. Prove that ΔGDA ≅ ΔGDB. b. Prove that ΔGDE ≅ ΔGCE.
c. Prove that ΔGBF ≅ ΔGCF. d. What does this mean about AG, BG and CG?
e. A circle centred at G is drawn through A.
What other points must it pass through?
A
D E
B F C
12. PR is the perpendicular bisector of QS. Prove that ΔPQS is isosceles.

P
Q S
R
13. Name any quadrilaterals that have diagonals that bisect the angles they pass through.
14. State three tests that can be used to show that a quadrilateral is a rhombus.
15. Prove that WXYZ is a parallelogram.
W X
130° 50°
Z Y

16. Prove that the diagonals in a rhombus bisect the angles they pass through.
17. Explain why the triangles shown below are not congruent.
5 cm

25° 80° 80° 25°

5 cm
18. State the definition of a rhombus.

19. Name any quadrilaterals that have equal diagonals.
20. This 8 cm by 12 cm rectangle is cut into two sections as shown.
6 cm 6 cm
8 cm 10 cm
12 cm
a. Draw labelled diagrams to show how the two sections can be rearranged to form:
i. a parallelogram
ii. a right-angled triangle
iii. a trapezium.
b. Comment on the perimeters of the figures.
Language
bisect diagonal rectangle
concave exterior angle reflex
congruency interior angle rhombus
convex parallelogram similarity
corresponding angles polygon square
corresponding sides quadrilateral trapezium

www.assesson.com.au

Enlargement activity
Enlargement is the construction of a bigger picture from a small one. The picture is identical to the
other except that it is bigger. The new picture is often called the image. This can also be called creat-
ing a similar figure.
The geometrical properties shared by a shape and its image under enlargement can be
listed as:
•• lines are enlarged as lines
•• sides are enlarged to corresponding sides by the same factor
•• matching angles on the two shapes are equal.
In this activity, we will start with a small cartoon character, and then ‘blow it up’ to almost
life-size.
Equipment: ruler, pencil, cartoon print, butcher’s paper or some other
large piece of paper.
1. Do some research on the internet and select a cartoon character or any
character of your choice.
2. Draw a grid of 2-cm squares over the small cartoon character.
Example: The small Casper is 9 squares wide and 7 squares tall.
3. Label the grids with letters across the top row and numbers down the
first column.
4. Get a large piece of paper and draw the same number of squares. You
will have to work out the ratio of similitude (e.g. 2 cm : 8 cm).

5. If your small cartoon character stretches from one side of the ‘small’ paper (the paper the image
is printed on) to the other, your ‘large’ Casper must stretch from one side of the ‘big’ paper to
the other. Your large grid squares may have to be 8 cm by 8 cm or larger, depending on the paper
size.
6. Draw this enlarged grid on your large paper. Use a metre ruler or some other long straight-edged
tool. Be sure to keep all of your squares the same size.
•• At this point, you are ready to DRAW. Remember, you do NOT have to be an artist to produce
an impressive enlargement.
•• All you do is draw EXACTLY what you see in each small cell into its corresponding large cell.
•• For example, in cell B3 of the Casper enlargement, you see the tip of his finger, so draw this in
the big grid.
•• If you take your time and are very careful, you will produce an extremely impressive enlargement.
•• What you have used is called a RATIO OF SIMILITUDE. This ratio controls how large the
new picture will be.
A 2 : 5 ratio will give you a smaller enlargement than a 2 : 7 ratio, because for every two units on
the original you are generating only 5 units of enlargement instead of 7.
If Casper’s ratio is 1 : 4, it produces a figure that has a linear measure that is four times bigger.
Big Casper’s overall area, however, will be 16 times larger than small Casper’s. This is because
area is found by taking length times width.
The length is 4 times longer and the width is 4 times longer.
Thus the area is 4 × 4 = 16 times larger than the original Casper.
His overall volume will be 4 × 4 × 4 or 64 times larger! This means that big Casper will weigh
64 times more than small Casper.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Why was the archaeologist upset? (doc-15935)

Answers
Topic 10 Deductive geometry
Exercise 10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence
1. a. a = 56° b. b = 30° c. c = 60° d. d = 120° e. e = 68°
2. a. I and III, SAS b. I and II, AAS c. II and III, RHS d. I and II, SSS
3. a. x = 6, y = 60° b. x = 80°, y = 50° c. x = 32°, y = 67° d. x = 45°, y = 45°
4. a. x = 3 cm b. x = 85° c. x = 80°, y = 30°, z = 70°
d. x = 30°, y = 7 cm e. x = 40°, y = 50°, z = 50°, m = 90°, n = 90°
5. a. Use SAS b. Use SAS. c. Use ASA. d. Use ASA. e. Use SSS.
6. C, D
7. a. x = 110°, y = 110°, z = 4 cm, w = 7 cm b. x = 70°
c. x = 30°, y = 65°
8. The third sides are not necessarily the same.
9. Corresponding sides are not the same.
10. Use SSS.
11, 12 Check with your teacher.
14. x = 20°, y = 10° and z = 40°
Exercise 10.3 Similar triangles

1. a. i and iii, RHS b. i and ii, SAS c. i and iii, SSS d. i and iii, AAA e. i and ii, SSS
2. a. Triangles PQR and ABC b. Triangles ADB and ADC c. Triangles PQR and TSR
d. Triangles ABC and DEC e. Triangles ABC and DEC
AB BC AC
3. a. = = b. f = 9, g = 8
AD DE AE
4. x = 4
1
5. x = 20°, y = 2
4
6. a. AAA b. x = 3, y = 4
7. The slide is 7.23 m long.
8. Radius = 0.625 m
9. a. x = 1, y = 7√2 b. x = 2.5, y = 3.91
10. Check with your teacher. One method would be to use Pythagorean triples.
11. a. ∠ ABD = ∠ ABC (common angle) b. ∠ ACD = ∠ BCA (common angle)
∠ ADB = ∠ BAC = 90° ∠ ADC = ∠ CAB = 90°
ΔABD ~ ΔACB (AAA) ΔACD ~ ΔACB (AAA)
12. Congruent triangles must be identical, that is, the angles must be equal and the side lengths must be equal. Therefore, it is not
enough just to prove that the angles are equal.
14. ∠ FEO = ∠ OGH (alternate angles equal as EF ‖ HG)
∠ EFO = ∠ OHG (alternate angles equal as EF ‖ HG)
∠ EOF = ∠ HOG (vertically opposite angles equal)
∴ Δ EFO ∼ Δ GHO (equiangular)
15. x = 6 or 11
Challenge 10.1
3
Exercise 10.4 Quadrilaterals

1. a. True b. True c. True d. False e. False f. False g. False h. False
2. a. x = 36°, y = 62° b. x = 5 cm, y = 90° c. x = 10°, y = 70° d. x = 40°, y = 60°
3. None are true, unless the trapezium is a regular trapezium, then e is true.
4. a, c, f

5. Parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square
6. Square
7. a. b. 6 sides c. 7 sides
d.
Table size Number of sides hit
5 cm × 3 cm 6
7 cm × 2 cm 7
4 cm × 3 cm 5
4 cm × 2 cm 1
6 cm × 3 cm 1
9 cm × 3 cm 2
1 2 cm × 4 cm 2
e. If the ratio of the sides is written in simplest form then the pattern is m + n − 2.
f. There are two routes for the ball when hit from B. Either 2 or 3 sides are hit. The ball does not end up in the same hole
each time.
A suitable justification would be a diagram — student to draw.
g. Isosceles triangles and parallelograms. The triangles are congruent.
h. The shapes formed are parallelograms. There is only one possible path although the ball could be hit in either of two
directions initially.
i. Given m:n is the ratio length to width in simplest form. When m is even and n is odd the destination pocket will be the
upper left. When m and n are both odd, the destination pocket will be the upper right. When m is odd and n is even the
destination pocket will be the lower right.
j. Students to investigate.
9. AX ‖ DY because ABCD is a parallelogram
AX = DY (given)
∴ AXYD is a parallelogram since opposite sides are equal and parallel.
10. a. Use SAS. b. Use SAS. c. Opposite sides are equal.
11. AC = DB (diameters of the same circle are equal)
AO = OC and OD = OB (radii of the same circle are equal)
∴ ABCD is a rectangle. (Diagonals are equal and bisect each other.)
13. PS = QR (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
PS ‖ QR (alternate angles are equal)
∴ PQRS is a parallelogram since one pair of opposite sides are parallel and equal.
14. MP = MQ (radii of same circle)
PN = QN (radii of same circle) and circles have equal radii.
∴ All sides are equal.
∴ PNQM is a rhombus.
16. a. One pair of opposite sides are parallel. b. x = 90°, y = 75°
y = √97
17. a. i. x = √41 ii. b. ∠BAD = ∠BCD = 117°23′
18. a. Rhombus, 2 cm b. Trapezium c. 40° d. Triangle BFC
e. Check with your teacher. f. Check with your teacher. g. x = (1 + √5 ) cm
19. 70°
Challenge 10.2
x = √10 cm
Exercise 10.5 Polygons
1. The sum of the interior angles is based on the number of sides of the polygon.
The size of the exterior angle can be found by dividing 360° by the number of sides.
2. a. m = 60° b. a = 45°, b = 45° c. t = 35° d. x = 10°

3. a. y = 35° b. t = 5° c. n = 81° d. x = 15° e. t = 30°
4. a. i. Irregular ii. x = 95° b. i. Irregular ii. p = 135°
t = 36°
c. i. Irregular ii. y = 70°
d. i. Irregular ii.
p = 36°
e. i. Irregular ii.
5. w = 75°, x = 105°, y = 94°, z = 133°
6. 82.5°, 82.5°, 97.5°, 97.5°
7. a. a = 120°, b = 120°, c = 60°, d = 60°, e = 120°, f = 240°
b. m = 10°, n = 270°, o = 50°
8. 60°
9. a. i. 2 ii. 5 iii. 9 iv. 14
1
b. Number of diagonals = n(n − 3)
2
360°
10. Internal angle = 180° −
n
24
11. J is cm from D.
7
12. a. 1080° b. 43°
10.6 Review
1. a. a I and III, ASA or SAS b. I and II, RHS
2. a. x = 8 cm b. x = 70° c. x = 30°, y = 60°, z = 90°
3. a. Use SAS. b. Use ASA.
4. a. Similar, scale factor = 1.5 b. Not similar c. Similar, scale factor = 2
5. a. x = 48°, y = 4.5 cm b. x = 86°, y = 50°, z = 12 cm c. x = 60°, y = 15 cm, z = 12 cm
6. Use the equiangular test.
7. Use the equiangular test.
8. A B
D C
Bisect ∠ BAC
AB = AC (given)
∠ BAD = ∠ DAC
AD is common.
∴ ΔABD ≅ ΔACD (SAS)
∴ ∠ ABD = ∠ ACD (corresponding sides
in congruent triangles are equal)
9. C
10. x + 1
11. a. Use SAS. b. Use SAS. c. Use SAS.
d. They are all the same length. e. B and C
12. Use SAS.
PQ = PS (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
13. Rhombus, square
14. A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:
a. all sides are equal
b. the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
c. the diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
15. WZ ‖ XY (co-interior angles are supplementary) and WZ = XY (given)
∴ WXYZ is a parallelogram since one pair of sides is parallel and equal.

16. A
B C
D
∠ ABD = ∠ ADB (angles opposite the equal sides in an isosceles triangle are equal)
∠ ABD = ∠ BDC (alternate angles equal as AB ‖ DC)
∴ ∠ ADB = ∠ BDC
∴ Diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
17. Corresponding sides are not the same.
18. A rhombus is a parallelogram with two adjacent sides equal in length.
19. Rectangle, square
20. a. i. 6 cm 6 cm
10 cm 8 cm
10 cm 8 cm 10 cm 10 cm 8 cm 10 cm
10 cm 8 cm
12 cm 6 cm
12 cm
12 cm
b. Perimeter of rectangle = 40 cm
Perimeter of parallelogram = 44 cm
Perimeter of triangle = 48 cm
Perimeter of trapezium = 44 cm
The triangle has the largest perimeter, while the rectangle has the smallest.


Project: Getting the budget in order
Scenario
Budgets are of great importance to everyone. From the federal budget down to the local council budget,
they all impact on our lives. On a smaller scale, but of no less importance, is the family budget.
As a financial planner, you have been asked to prepare a budget for the Thompson family. The Thompson
family lives in a major city in Australia and comprises Mr and Mrs Thompson and their two teenage
children. They want to go on a holiday and they plan to save for a year. Taking their ongoing expenses into
account, they want to see if and how they can afford this, following your recommendations.
You are to form a financial-planning group of three people. Each group member is to produce a budget
plan that addresses the following holiday and ongoing expenses.
•• Holiday: They want to be able to spend $5000 on a holiday within Australia. Where can they go and
for how long, taking flights, accommodation, meals and sightseeing expenses into account?
•• Phone plans: Their two children have phone plans that each cost $29 per month, currently paid by their
parents. However, to help fund the holiday, their parents need them to pay back the $29 per month,
with either simple interest or compound interest charged. What is the best option for the children?
How much do they need to work at their $9.75 -per-hour part-time jobs to cover the cost?
•• Rent: The Thompson family lives in a rental house within 50 km from a major city. How much rent
would they be paying?
•• Taxes
•• Utilities (electricity, water, gas, phone)
•• Food
•• Other expenses
Within the Thompson family, Mr Thompson takes care of the household duties and Mrs Thompson
works in a salaried position, earning $85 000 per annum. Their children have part-time jobs to repay the
cost of their phone plans and to try and save for new clothes.
Task
You will produce an oral presentation and a written budget plan with recommendations for the Thompsons’
family holiday. The budget plan will include the preferred method of interest charged to the children for the
cost of their phone plan and the hours per week the children need to work at their part-time jobs to make
this repayment. Your budget plan should also include value-for-money rentals located within 50 km of a
Project: Getting the budget in order 437

major city, which will help the family assess how much they should be spending on rent. You also need to
recommend a package holiday that includes flights and accommodation. Your presentation should explain
why you have made each of your recommendations and give evidence to back up your decisions, taking all
the expenses into account.
Process
•• Watch the introductory video lesson.
•• Navigate to your Research Forum. Here
you will find a series of topics that will
help you complete your task. Select the
expenses you are researching or add new
expenses you wish to include.
•• Research. Make notes of important infor-
mation and ideas that you discovered dur-
ing your research. Enter your findings as
articles under your topics in the Research
Forum. You should each find at least three
sources of information (including off-line
resources such as books and newspapers).
You can view and comment on other group members’ articles and rate the information they have
entered. When your research is complete, print your Research Report to hand in to your teacher.
•• Visit your Media Centre and download the budget template and PowerPoint sample to help you prepare
your presentation. Your Media Centre also includes images to help liven up your presentation.
•• Use the budget template to give a clear overview of all the expenses taken into account and to give
an overall summary of the whole family budget. Make sure you remember to address all the expenses
that the Thompson family has requested you take into account.
•• Use the PowerPoint template to develop your presentation. Remember that you are making
recommendations that you believe are best for the Thompson family. Make sure you cover all the
details they that have requested, and that your presentation will grab their attention.
SUGGESTED SOFTWARE
• ProjectsPLUS
• Microsoft Word
• PowerPoint, Prezi, Keynote or other presentation software
• Microsoft Excel
• CAS calculator (optional)

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
TOPIC 11
Probability
11.1 Overview
learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.

Probability is the mathematics of chance.
Our entire lives are affected by events that
are based on chance. Learning about probability will help you understand how chance is involved in
everyday events and in many decisions that you will make in your life.

1. THINK List what you know about chance. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show your list
2. PAIR Share what you know with a partner and then with a small group
knowledge of chance.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
11.1 Overview
11.2 Review of probability
11.3 Tree diagrams
11.4 Independent and dependent events
11.5 Conditional probability
11.6 Subjective probability
11.7 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: The mathematics of chance (eles-1851)
TOPIC 11 Probability 439

11.2 Review of probability
11.2.1 The language of probability
•• Probability measures the chance of an event taking place and ranges from zero (0) for an impossible
event to one (1) for a certain event.
Chances decrease
Highly Unlikely Even Likely Highly

unlikely chance likely
Impossible Very Less than Better than Very Certain
unlikely even chance even chance likely
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0% 50% 100%
Chances increase
•• The experimental probability of an event is based on the outcomes of experiments, simulations or

surveys.
•• A trial is a single experiment; for example, a single flip of a coin.
number of successful trials
Experimental probability =
total number of trials
•• The relative frequency of an event is the same as the experimental probability of that event.
•• The list of all possible outcomes of an experiment is known as the event space or sample space.
For example, when flipping a coin there are two possible outcomes: Heads or Tails. The event space
can be written, using set notation, as {H, T}.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The spinner shown here is made up of 4 equal-sized segments. It is known that

the probability that the spinner will land on any one of the four segments from II I
one spin is 14. To test if the spinner shown here is fair, a student spun the
spinner 20 times and each time recorded the segment in which the spinner III IV
stopped. The spinner landed as follows.

Segment I II III IV
Tally 5 4 8 3
a List the event space.

b Given the experimental results, determine the relative frequency for each segment.
c Compare the results from the experiment with the known probabilities and suggest how
the experiment could be changed to ensure that the results give a better estimate of the
true probability.
THINK WRITE
a The event space lists all possible outcomes a Event space = {I, II, III, IV}
from one spin of the spinner. There are
four possible outcomes.

number of successful trials
b 1 For segment I there were 5 successful b Relative frequencyI =
total number of trials
trials out of the 20. Substitute these 5
values into the relative frequency =
20
formula. = 0.25
2 Repeat for segments: Relative frequency = 4

II
•• II (4 successes) 20
= 0.2
•• III (8 successes)
8
•• IV (3 successes). Relative frequencyIII =
20
= 0.4
3
Relative frequencyIV =
20
= 0.15
c Compare the relative frequency values c The relative frequency of segment I was the only
with the known value of 14 (0.25). Answer segment that mirrored the known value. To ensure
the question. that relative frequency gives a better estimate of the
true probability, the spinner should be spun many
more times.
11.2.2 Two-way tables

•• The sample space can be displayed using a two-way table.
•• A two-way table represents two of the outcomes of events in a two-dimensional table. A two-way
table for the experiment of tossing a coin and rolling a die simultaneously is shown below.
Die outcomes
Coin outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6
H H, 1 H, 2 H, 3 H, 4 H, 5 H, 6
T T, 1 T, 2 T, 3 T, 4 T, 5 T, 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Two dice are rolled, and the values on the two uppermost faces are multiplied together.
Draw a diagram to illustrate the sample space.
THINK DRAW
The sample space for rolling 1 die is {1, 2, 3, 4, FIRST DIE
5, 6}. When two dice are rolled and the two
× 1 2 3 4 5 6
uppermost faces are multiplied, the sample space is
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
SECOND DIE
made up of 36 products. This is best represented

with the use of a two-way table. 2 2 4 6 8 10 12
•• Draw a 7 × 7 grid. 3 3 6 9 12 15 18
•• In the first row and column list the outcomes of 4 4 8 12 16 20 24
each die. 5 5 10 15 20 25 30
•• At the intersection of a column and row write the 6 6 12 18 24 30 36
product of the relevant die outcomes, as shown in
green.

11.2.3 Theoretical probability
•• Theoretical probability is the probability of an event occurring, based on the number of possible
favourable outcomes, n(A), and the total number of possible outcomes, n(ξ).
•• When all outcomes are equally likely, the theoretical probability of an event can be calculated using
the formula:
number of favourable outcomes n(E)
P(event) = or P(event) =
total number of possible outcomes n(ξ)
where n(E) is the number of favourable events and n(ξ) is the total number of possible outcomes.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A fair die is rolled and the value of the uppermost side is recorded. Calculate the theoretical
probability that a 4 is uppermost.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the number of favourable outcomes and n(E) = 1
the total number of possible outcomes. The n(ξ) = 6
number of fours on a fair die is 1. There are
6 possible outcomes.
n(E)
2 Substitute the values found in part 1 to calculate P(a four) =
n(ξ)
the probability of the event that a four is 1
uppermost when a die is rolled. =
6
3 Write the answer. The probability that a 4 is uppermost when
a fair die is rolled is 1.
6
11.2.4 Complementary events

•• The complement of the set A is the set of all elements that belong to the ξ
universal set (ξ) but that do not belong to A. For example, the complement A
of {blue socks in a drawer} is {all socks in the drawer that are not blue}.
A′
•• The complement of A is written as A′ and is read as ‘A dashed’ or
‘A prime’.
•• On a Venn diagram, complementary events appear as separate regions
that together occupy the whole universal set.
Since n(A) + n(A′) = n(ξ)
P(A) + P(A′) = 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A player is chosen from a cricket team. Are the events ‘selecting a

batsman’ and ‘selecting a bowler’ complementary events if a
player can have more than one role? Give a reason for your
answer.

THINK WRITE
Explain the composition of a cricket team. Players No, the events ‘selecting a batsman’ and ‘selecting
who can bat and bowl are not necessarily the only a bowler’ are not complementary events. These
players in a cricket team. There is a wicket-keeper events may have common elements; that is, the all
as well. Some players (all rounders) can bat and rounders in the team who can bat and bowl. The
bowl. cricket team also includes a wicket-keeper.
11.2.5 Mutually exclusive events (A or B)

•• Two events are mutually exclusive if one event happening excludes the ξ
other from happening. These events may not encompass all possible A B
events. For example, when selecting a card from a deck of cards, selecting
a black card excludes the possibility that the card is a Heart.
•• For events that are mutually exclusive: P(A ∩ B) = 0.
•• On a Venn diagram, mutually exclusive events appear as disjointed sets
within the universal set.
A and B are mutually exclusive events.
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)
11.2.6 Probability of intersecting events (A or B or both)

•• When two events have outcomes in common, P(A ∪ B) ≠ P(A) + P(B), ξ
since this would count the outcomes they have in common twice. A B
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)

•• This is known as the Addition Law of probability.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that the card is a heart
or a club?
THINK WRITE
1 Determine whether the given events are mutually The two events are mutually exclusive as they
exclusive. have no common elements.
13 13
2 Determine the probability of drawing a heart and P(heart) = 52
P(club) = 52
of drawing a club. 1 1
= 4
= 4
3 Write the Addition Law for two mutually P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
exclusive events. where A = drawing a heart
and B = drawing a club
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(heart or club) = P(heart) + P(club)
= 14 + 14
2
= 4
5 Evaluate and simplify. = 1

2

6 Write your answer. The probability of drawing a heart or a club is 12.
Note: Alternatively, we can use the formula for n(heart or club)
P(heart or club) =
theoretical probability. n(ξ)
= 26
52
1
= 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A die is rolled. Determine:

a P(an odd number)
b P(a number less than 4)
c P(an odd number or a number less than 4).
THINK WRITE
3
a 1 Determine the probability of obtaining an odd a P(odd) = 6
number; that is, {1, 3, 5}. = 1
2
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number is 1.

2
3
b 1 Determine the probability of obtaining a b P(less than 4) = 6
number less than 4; that is, {1, 2, 3}. 1
= 2
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining a number less

than 4 is 12.
c 1 Determine whether the given events are c The two events are not mutually exclusive as
mutually exclusive. they have common elements; that is, 1 and 3.
2 Write the Addition Law for two non-mutually P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)
exclusive events. where A = selecting an odd number and
B = selecting a number less than 4.
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P[odd number ∪ (number < 4)]
Note: P(A and B) = 26 (= 13) since the events = P(odd number) + P[(number < 4)]
have two elements in common. − P[odd number ∩ (number < 4)]
= 12 + 12 − 13
4 Evaluate and simplify. =2
3
5 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number or
a number less than 4 is 23.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Given P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.4 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.9:

a use the Addition Law of probability to calculate the value of P(A ∩ B)
b draw a Venn diagram to represent the universal set
c calculate P(A ∩ B′).

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the Addition Law of probability and a P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)

substitute given values. 0.9 = 0.6 + 0.4 − P(A ∩ B)
2 Collect like terms and rearrange to make P(A ∩ B) 0.9 = 0.6 + 0.4 − P(A ∩ B)
the subject. Solve the equation. 0.9 = 1.0 − P(A ∩ B)
P(A ∩ B) = 1.0 − 0.9
= 0.1
b 1 Draw intersecting sets A and B within the b ξ
universal set and write P(A ∩ B) = 0.1 inside the A B
overlapping section, as shown in blue. 0.1
2 • As P(A) = 0.6, 0.1 of this belongs in the overlap, ξ

the remainder of set A is 0.5 (0.6 − 0.1). A B
• Since P(B) = 0.4, 0.1 of this belongs in the 0.5 0.1 0.3
overlap, the remainder of set B is 0.3 (0.4 − 0.1).
3 The total probability for events A and B is 1. ξ

That means P(A ∪ B)′ = 0.1 . Write 0.1 outside sets A B
A and B to form the remainder of the universal set. 0.5 0.1 0.3
0.1
c P(A ∩ B′) is the overlapping region of P(A) and P(B′). c

ξ
Shade the region and write down the corresponding A B
probability value for this area.
0.5 0.1 0.3
0.1
P(A ∩ B′) = 0.5
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
a Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show the
position of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
b Determine:
i P(A) ii P(B) iii P(A ∩ B)
iv P(A ∪ B) v P(A′ ∩ B′)

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a rectangle with two partly intersecting a n(ξ ) = 20
circles labelled A and B.
A B
2 Analyse sets A and B and place any common
elements in the central overlap. 6 2 4
3 9
12 8 10
3 Place the remaining elements of set A in circle A. 15 14 16
18
4 Place the remaining elements of set B in circle B. 20
11 13
5 Place the remaining elements of the universal 1 5 7 17 19
set ξ in the rectangle.
b i 1 Write the number of elements that belong to b i n(A) = 6, n(ξ) = 20
set A and the total number of elements.
n(A)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(A) =
n(ξ)
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(A) = 6
20
10
ii 1 Write the number of elements that belong to ii n(B) = 10, n(ξ) = 20
set B and the total number of elements.
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(B) = n(B)
n(ξ)
10
P(B) = 20
1
= 2
iii 1 Write the number of elements that belong to iii n(A ∩ B) = 3, n(ξ) = 20
set A ∩ B and the total number of elements.
n(A ∩ B)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(A ∩ B) =
n(ξ)
3
P(A ∩ B) = 20
iv 1 Write the number of elements that belong iv n(A ∪ B) = 13, n(ξ) = 20

to set A ∪ B and the total number of
elements.
n(A ∪ B)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(A ∪ B) =
n(ξ)
13
P(A ∪ B) = 20
v 1 Write the number of elements that belong to v n(A′ ∩ B′) = 7, n(ξ) = 20

set A′ ∩ B′ and the total number of elements.
n(A′ ∩ B′)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(A′ ∩ B′) =
n(ξ)
7
P(A′ ∩ B′) = 20

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
In a class of 35 students, 6 students like all three subjects: PE, Science and Music. Eight of the
students like PE and Science, 10 students like PE and Music, and 12 students like Science and
Music. Also, 22 students like PE, 18 students like Science and 17 like Music. Two students don’t
like any of the subjects.
a Display this information on a Venn diagram.
b Determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i likes PE only
ii does not like Music.
c Find P[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a rectangle with three partly a n(ξ) = 35
intersecting circles, labelled PE, PE Science
Science and Music.
Music
2 Extract the information relating to n(ξ) = 35

students liking all three subjects. PE Science
Note: The central overlap is the key to
solving these problems. Six students
like all three subjects, so place the 6
number 6 into the section corresponding
to the intersection of the three circles.
Music
3 Extract the relevant information from the n(ξ) = 35

second sentence and place it into the PE Science
appropriate position.
Note: Eight students like PE and 2
Science; however, 6 of these students 6
have already been accounted for in step 2. 4 6
Therefore, 2 will fill the intersection of
only PE and Science. Similarly, 4 of the
Music
10 who like PE and Music will fill the
intersection of only PE and Music, and 6
of the 12 students will fill the intersection
of only Science and Music.

third sentence and place it into the PE Science
10 2 4
Note: Twenty-two students like PE and
12 have already been accounted for in 6
4 6
the set. Therefore, 10 students are
needed to fill the circle corresponding 1
to PE only. Similarly, 4 students are
Music
needed to fill the circle corresponding
to Science only to make a total of 18
for Science. One student is needed to
fill the circle corresponding to Music
only to make a total of 17 for Music.
final sentence and place it into the PE Science
Note: Two students do not like any of the 10 2 4
subjects, so they are placed in the 6
rectangle outside the three circles. 4 6
6 Check that the total number in all 1

positions is equal to the number in the Music 2
universal set.
10 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 35
b i 1 Write the number of students who like b i n(students who like PE only) = 10
PE only and the total number of n(ξ) = 35
students in the class.
n(likes PE only)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(likes PE only) =
n(ξ)
10
3 Substitute the known values into the P(likes PE only) = 35
rule.
7
5 Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who
likes PE only is 27.
ii 1 Write the number of students who do ii n(students who do not like Music) = 18
not like Music and the total number of n(ξ) = 35
students in the class.
Note: Add all the values that do not
appear in the Music circle as well as
the two that sit in the rectangle outside
the circles.
n(does not like Music)

2 Write the rule for probability. P(does not like Music) =
n(ξ)

3 Substitute the known values into the P(does not like Music) = 18
35
rule.
4 Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who does not
like Music is 18
35
.
c 1 Write the number of students who like c n[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′] = 11
Science and Music but not PE. n(ξ) = 35
Note: Add the values that appear in the
Science and Music circles but do not
overlap with the PE circle.
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b ii. P[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′]
n[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′]
=
n(ξ)
P[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′] = 11
35
.
The probability of selecting a student who
11
likes Science or Music but not PE is 35.
11.2.7 Odds
•• Probabilities in gambling can be expressed as odds.
•• Odds are common in racing, where they are given as ratios; for example 5–1 (or 51 or 5 : 1).
•• In the odds of a–b,
a−b
a is the chance b is the chance for

against the event the event
•• If the odds for a horse to win are given as 5–1, then from 6 races the horse is expected to lose 5 and
win 1. The probability that the horse wins or loses can be calculated from the odds given. These
calculations are shown below.
n(expected wins) n(expected losses)
P(win) = P(lose) =
n(races) n(races)
= 16 = 56
•• If given odds of a–b, then:
b
– P(win) =
a+b
a
– P(loss) =
a+b
11.2.8 Payouts
•• The payout in races is based on the odds given.
a
•• If the odds are a–b, you can win $ for every $1 bet or $a for every $b bet. The bookmaker will pay
b
out your win plus the initial amount wagered.
•• The TAB quotes a whole payout figure for a horse, made up of the winnings and the initial wager.

•• For example:
Odds Bet Winnings Payout figure
5
5–1 $10 $5 for every $1 bet: × $10 = $50 $60 ($50 + $10)
1
7
7–2 $14 $7 for every $2 bet: × $14 = $49 $63 ($49 + $14)
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The odds given for the horse Gunnawin to win the Melbourne Cup are 9–4.
a Determine the probability of Gunnawin winning the Melbourne Cup.

b Tony decides to bet $12 on Gunnawin to win. If the horse does win, what is Tony’s payout?
5
c In the same race, the probability that the horse ‘Can’t Lose’ wins is given as 17 . What are the
odds that this horse will win?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the number of ways Gunnawin can win (4) a n(Gunnawin wins) = 4
and the total number of outcomes (9 + 4 = 13). n(ξ) = 13
n(Gunnawin wins)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(Gunnawin wins) =
n(ξ)
4
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(Gunnawin wins) = 13
4 Write your answer. The probability of Gunnawin winning the

4
Melbourne Cup is 13 .

b 1 Explain what the ratio means and relate it to b In the odds 9–4 the punter can win $94 for
the bet. every $1 that is bet (or for every $4 bet the
punter will win $9). Therefore, if Tony bets
$12 he will win 94 × $12 = $27.
2 Add the original amount invested to the Payout = $27 + $12
amount returned. = $39
3 Write your answer. Tony’s payout will be $39.
c 1 Look at the given fraction. The numerator c This horse has been given the chance of
5
corresponds to the ‘win’ component (second winning as 17 . Therefore its chance of
number) of the ratio. losing is 12
17
.
2 The lose component of the ratio is always the Therefore the lose–win ratio is 12–5.
first number.
3 Write your answer. The odds of Can’t Lose winning the
Melbourne Cup are 12–5.
Try out this interactivity: Random number generator (int-0089)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Set notation (doc-5286)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Simplifying fractions (doc-5287)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Determining complementary events (doc-5288)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Addition and subtraction of fractions (doc-5289)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Working with Venn diagrams (doc-5291)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing odds as probabilities (doc-5292)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Writing probabilities as odds (doc-5293)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Distinguishing between complementary and mutually exclusive events
(doc-5294)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Introducing probability (doc-14590)
Exercise 11.2 Review of probability

Individual pathways
U■ PRACTISE U■ CONSOLIDATE U■ MASTER

1–8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23 1, 3–6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9–13, 15, 17, 19–24
22, 23

Fluency
1. Explain the difference between experimental and theoretical probability.
2. WE1 The spinner shown at right was spun 50 times and the outcome each time
was recorded in the table below. II
III I
Segment I II III IV V VI VI
IV
Tally 10 6 8 7 12 7 V
a. List the event space.
b. Given the experimental results, determine the relative frequency for each segment.
c. The theoretical probability of the spinner landing on any particular segment with one spin is 16.
How could the experiment be changed to give a better estimate of the true probabilities?
3. A laptop company conducted a survey to see what were the most appealing colours for laptop
computers among 15–18-year-old students. The results were as follows:
Colour Black Sizzling Power Blazing Gooey Glamour
Black Silver Pink Blue Green Gold
Number 102 80 52 140 56 70
a. How many students were surveyed?
b. What is the relative frequency of students who found silver the most appealing laptop colour?
c. What is the relative frequency of students who found black and green to be their most appealing
colours?
d. Which colour was found to be most appealing?
4. WE2 Two dice are rolled and the values on the two uppermost faces are added together.
a. Construct a table to illustrate the sample space.
b. What is the most likely outcome?
c. What is the least likely outcome?
5. WE7 Given P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.4 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.8:
a. use the Addition Law of probability to calculate the value of P(A ∩ B)
b. draw a Venn diagram to represent the universal set
c. calculate P(A ∩ B′).
6. Let P(A) = 0.25, P(B) = 0.65 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.05.
a. Calculate:
i. P(A ∪ B)
ii. P(A ∩ B)′.
b. MC Which Venn diagram below best illustrates P(A ∩ B)′?
a. ξ b. c. ξ
ξ
A B A B A B
d. ξ e. ξ
A B A B

7. WE3 A die is rolled. What is the probability that the outcome is an even number or a 5?
8. WE6 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Calculate:
a. P(a king is drawn)
b. P(a heart is drawn)
c. P(a king or a heart is drawn).
9. WE4 For each of the following pairs of events:
i. state, giving justification, if the pair are complementary events
ii. alter the statements, where applicable, so that the events become
complementary events.
a. Having Weet Bix or having Strawberry Pops for breakfast
b. Walking to a friend’s place or driving there
c. Watching TV or reading as a leisure activity
d. Rolling a number less than 5 or rolling a number greater than
5 with a ten-sided die with faces numbered 1 to 10
e. Passing a maths test or failing a maths test
10. a. WE8 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show the
position of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
ξ = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 }
A = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 }
B = { 1, 4, 9, 16 }
b. Calculate:
i. P(A) ii. P(B) iii. P(A ∩ B)
iv. P(A ∪ B) v. P(A′ ∩ B′).
11. Write the following odds as probabilities.
a. 5 – 1 b. 13 – 4 c. 7 – 1
2
12. MC The probability of 9 written as odds is:
a. 7–2 b. 2–7 c. 2–9
d. 9–2 e. 11–9
Understanding
13. You and a friend are playing a dice game. You have an eight-sided die (with faces numbered
1 to 8 inclusive) and your friend has a six-sided die (with faces numbered 1 to 6 inclusive).
You each roll your own die.
a. The person who rolls the number 4 wins. Is this game fair?
b. The person who rolls an odd number wins. Is this game fair?
14. A six-sided die has three faces numbered 5; the other faces are numbered 6. Are the events ‘rolling a 5’
and ‘rolling a 6’ equally likely?
15. 90 students were asked which lunchtime sports on offer, of basketball, netball and soccer, they had
participated in, on at least one occasion in the last week. The results are shown in the following
table.
Sport Basketball Netball Soccer Basketball Basketball Netball All three
and netball and soccer and soccer
Number of
35 25 39 5 18 8 3
students

a. Copy and complete the Venn diagram shown below to illustrate the sample space.
ξ B N
15
3
5
b. How many students did not play basketball, netball or soccer at lunchtime?
c. How many students played basketball and/or netball but not soccer?
d. How many students are represented by the region (basketball ∩ not netball ∩ soccer)?
e. Calculate the relative frequency of the region described in part d above.
f. Estimate the probability that a student will play 3 of the sports offered.
16. WE5 A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that
the card drawn is:
a. an ace b. a club c. a red card
d. not a jack e. a green card f. not a red card.
17. A bag contains 4 blue marbles, 7 red marbles and 9 yellow marbles. All marbles are of the same size.
A marble is selected at random. What is the probability that the marble is:
a. blue b. red c. not yellow d. black?
18. WE9 Thirty students were asked which lunchtime sports they n(ξ) = 30
enjoyed — volleyball, soccer or tennis. Five students chose all three Volleyball Soccer
sports. Six students chose volleyball and soccer, 7 students chose
volleyball and tennis, and 9 chose soccer and tennis. Fifteen students
chose volleyball, 14 students chose soccer and 18 students chose tennis.
a. Copy the Venn diagram shown and enter the given information.
b. If a student is selected at random, determine the probability of
selecting a student who: Tennis
i. chose volleyball
ii. chose all three sports
iii. chose both volleyball and soccer but not tennis
iv. did not choose tennis
v. chose soccer.
c. Determine:
i. P[(soccer ∪ tennis) ∩ volleyball′]
ii. P[(volleyball ∪ tennis) ∩ soccer′].
19. WE10 The odds given for the greyhound ‘Dog’s Breakfast’ to win its
race are 7–3.
a. Determine the probability of Dog’s Breakfast winning its race.
b. Maria decides to bet $15 on Dog’s Breakfast to win the race. If
Dog’s Breakfast wins, calculate Maria’s payout.
c. The dog ‘Zoom Top’ is also in the race. If the probability of Zoom
4
Top winning is 13 , what odds should be given for Zoom Top?

Reasoning
20. A six-sided die has three faces numbered 1 and the other three faces numbered 2. Are the events
‘rolling a 1’ and ‘rolling a 2’ equally likely?
21. Are the odds 10–6 the same as 5–3? Explain.
22. With the use of diagrams, show that P(A′ ∩ B′) = P(A ∪ B)′.
Problem solving
23. The Venn diagram at right shows the results of a survey completed Fried ξ
by a Chinese restaurateur to find out the food preferences of his rice
5
regular customers. 7 12
a. Determine the number of customers: 3
i. surveyed 10 5
Chicken
ii. showing a preference for fried rice only wings
8
iii. showing a preference for fried rice
Dim sims
iv. showing a preference for chicken wings and dim sims.
b. A customer from this group won the draw for a lucky door prize.
Determine the probability that this customer:
i. likes fried rice
ii. likes all three — fried rice, chicken wings and dim sims
iii. prefers chicken wings only.
c. A similar survey was conducted a month later with another group of 50 customers. This survey
yielded the following results: 2 customers liked all three foods; 6 preferred fried rice and chicken
wings only; 7 preferred chicken wings and dim sims only; 8 preferred fried rice and dim sims only;
22 preferred fried rice; 23 preferred chicken wings; and 24 preferred dim sims.
i. Display this information on a Venn diagram.
ii. What is the probability of selecting a customer who prefers all three foods, if a random selection
is made?
24. A pair of dice is rolled and the sum of the numbers shown is noted.
a. Show the sample space in a two-way table.
b. In how many different ways can the sum of 7 be obtained?
c. Are all outcomes equally likely?
d. Complete the given table.
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
Frequency
e. What are the relative frequencies of the following sums?

i. 2 ii. 7 iii. 11
f. What is the probability of obtaining the following sums?
i. 2 ii. 7 iii. 11
g. If a pair of dice is rolled 300 times, how many times do you expect to obtain the sum of 7?
Reflection
What basic formula must be remembered in order to calculate simple probabilities?

CHALLENGE 11.1
A drawer contains purple socks and red socks. The
chance of obtaining a red sock is 2 in 9. There are
10 red socks in the drawer. What is the smallest
number of socks that need to be added to the
drawer so that the probability of drawing a red sock
increases to 3 in 7?
11.3 Tree diagrams

11.3.1 Two-step chance experiments
• In two-step chance experiments the result is obtained after performing two trials. Two-step chance
experiments are often represented using tree diagrams.
• Tree diagrams are used to list all possible outcomes of two or more events that are not necessarily
equally likely.
• The probability of obtaining the result for a particular event is listed on the branches.
• The probability for each outcome in the sample space is the product of the probabilities associated
with the respective branches. For example, the tree diagram shown here represents the sample space
for flipping a coin, then choosing a marble from a bag containing three red marbles and one black
marble.
Coin Marble Outcomes Probability
toss pick
R HR P(HR) = 1–2 × 3–4 = 3–8

3–
4
H
1–
1– 4
2
B HB P(HB) = 1–2 × 1–4 = 1–8
1– R TR P(TR) = 1–2 × 3–4 = 3–8

2
3–
4
T
1–
4
B TB P(TB) = 1–2 × 1–4 = 1–8
4 possible
outcomes
• When added together, all the probabilities for the outcomes should sum to 1. They are complementary
events. For example,
P(HR) + P(HB) + P(TR) + P(TB) = 38 + 18 + 38 + 18
=1

•• Other probabilities can also be calculated from the tree diagram. For example, the probability of get-
ting an outcome that contains a red marble can be calculated by summing the probabilities of each of
the possible outcomes that include a red marble. Outcomes that contain a red marble are HR and TR,
therefore:
P(red marble) = P(HR) + P(TR)
3 3
= 8
+ 8
6
= 8
3
= 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A three-sided die is rolled and a name is picked out of a hat that contains 3 girls’ names and
7 boys’ names.
a Use a tree diagram to display the sample space.
b Calculate the probability of:
i rolling a 3, then choosing a boy’s name
ii choosing a boy’s name after rolling an odd number.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw 3 branches from the starting a Die Name Outcomes
point to show the 3 possible outcomes
G 1G
of rolling a three-sided die (shown in 3
10
blue), and then draw 2 branches off 1 7
10
each of these to show the 2 possible 1– B 1B
outcomes of choosing a name out of a 3
hat (shown in red). G 2G

3
2 Write probabilities on the branches to 1–
3 2
10
7
show the individual probabilities of 10
B 2B
rolling a 1, 2 or 3 on a three-sided die.
As these are equally likely outcomes, 1–
3
G 3G
P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = 13. 3
10
3
3 Write probabilities on the branches to 7
10
show the individual probabilities of B 3B
choosing a name. Since there are
3 girls’ names and 7 boys’ names in
3 7
the hat, P(G) = 10 and P(B) = 10 .
b i 1 Follow the pathway of rolling a 3 b i P(3B) = P(3) × P(B)
[P(3) = 3 ] and choosing a boy’s
1 1 7
= 3
× 10
name [P(B) = 7
10 ], and multiply = 7
30
the probabilities.
2 Write the answer. The probability of rolling a 3, then choosing
7
a boy’s name is 10 .

ii 1 To roll an odd number (1 or 3) then ii P(odd B) = P(1B) + P(3B)
choose a boy’s name: = P(1) × P(B) + P(3) × P(B)
•• roll a 1, then choose a boy’s name or = 13 × 10
7
+ 13 × 7
10
•• roll a 3, then choose a boy’s name. 7 7
= +
Find the probability of each of these 30 30
and add them together to find the = 14
30
total probability. 7
= 15
2 Write the answer. The probability of choosing a boy’s name after

7
rolling an odd number is 15 .
11.3.2 Three-step chance experiments

•• Outcomes are often made up of combinations of events. For example, when a coin is flipped three times,
three of the possible outcomes are HHT, HTH and THH. These outcomes all contain 2 Heads and 1 Tail.
•• The probability of an outcome with a particular order is written such that the order required is shown.
For example, P(HHT) is the probability of H on the first die, H on the second die and T on the third die.
•• The probability of an outcome with a particular combination of events in which the order is not important
is written describing the particular combination required. For example, P(2 Heads and 1 Tail).
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
A coin is biased so that the chance of it falling as a Head when flipped is 0.75.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent the coin being flipped three times.
b Calculate the following probabilities:
i P(HTT) ii P(1H and 2T) iii P(at least 2 Tails).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Tossing a coin has two outcomes. a 1st 2nd 3rd Outcomes
Draw 2 branches from the starting toss toss toss
point to show the first toss, 2 branches H HHH

0.75
off each of these to show the second H
0.25
0.75 T HHT
toss and then 2 branches off each of H
these to show the third toss. 0.25 H HTH
0.75
0.75 T
2 Write probabilities on the branches to 0.25
T HTT
show the individual probabilities of
H THH
tossing a Head (0.75) and a Tail. 0.75
Because tossing a Head and tossing a 0.25 H
0.25
0.75 T THT
Tail are mutually exclusive, T
P(T) = 1 − P(H) = 0.25. 0.25 H TTH
0.75
T 0.25
T TTT
b i •• P(HTT) implies the order: H (0.75), b i P(HTT) = P(H) × P(T) × P(T)

T (0.25), T (0.25). = (0.75) × (0.25)2
•• Multiply the probabilities. = 0.047

ii •• P(1H and 2T) implies: ii P(1H and 2T)
P(HTT), P(THT), P(TTH). = P(HTT) + P(THT) + P(TTH)
•• Add these probabilities. = 3(0.75 × 0.252)
= 0.141
iii •• P(at least 2 Tails) implies: P(HTT), iii P(at least 2T)
P(THT), P(TTH) and P(TTT). = P(HTT) + P(THT) + P(TTH) + P(TTT)
•• Add these probabilities. = 3(0.75 × 0.252) + 0.253
= 0.156
Watch this eLesson: Games at Wimbledon (eles-1032)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Multiplying fractions for calculating probabilities (doc-5290)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Tree diagrams (doc-14591)
Exercise 11.3 Tree diagrams

Individual pathways

1–7, 9, 11 1, 3–6, 8, 9, 11 1–12
Fluency Fish
1
1. Explain how a tree diagram can be used to 10
1–
calculate probabilities of events that are not Blue 5 Donkey
7
equally likely. 10
2. Use this tree diagram to answer the following Elephant
1– Fish
questions. 4
1
a. How many different outcomes are there? 10
1–
b. Are all outcomes equally likely? Explain. Red 5 Donkey
3 7
c. Is getting a red fish more, less or equally likely 20 10
than getting a green elephant? Elephant

Fish
d. What is the most likely outcome? 1 1
10
e. Calculate the following probabilities. 10
1–
Green Donkey
i. P(blue elephant) 5
7
ii. P(indigo elephant) 1–
2
10
Elephant
iii. P(donkey)
Fish
1
10
1–
Indigo 5 Donkey
7
10
Elephant

3. a. Copy the tree diagram shown here and complete the labelling for tossing a biased coin three times
when the chance of tossing one Head in one toss is 0.7.
1st 2nd 3rd Outcome P(outcome)
toss toss toss
H
H
T
H
H
T
T
H
H
T
T
H
T
T
b. What is the probability of tossing three Heads?

c. What is the probability of getting at least one Tail?
d. What is the probability of getting exactly two Tails?
4. The questions below relate to rolling a fair die.
a. What is the probability of each of the following outcomes from one roll of a die?
i. P(rolling number < 4)
ii. P(rolling a 4)
iii. P(rolling a number other than a 6)
b. The tree diagram shown below has been condensed to depict rolling a die twice, noting the number
relative to 4 on the first roll and 6 on the second. Complete a labelled tree diagram, showing
probabilities on the branches and all outcomes, similar to that shown.
1st roll 2nd roll
6
<4
6′
6
4
6′
6
>4
6′
c. What is the probability of rolling the following with 2 rolls of the die?
i. P(a 4 then a 6) ii. P(a number less than 4 then a 6)
iii. P(a 4 then 6′) iv. P(a number > 4 and then a number < 6)
5. WE11 The spinner shown at right is divided into 3 equal-sized wedges labelled 1, 2
and 3. It is spun three times, and it is noted whether the spinner lands on a prime 3 1
number, P = {2, 3} = ‘prime’, or not a prime number, P′ = {1} = ‘not prime’.
a. Construct a labelled tree diagram for 3 spins of the spinner, showing probabilities 2
on the branches and all possible outcomes.
b. Find the following probabilities.
i. P(3 prime numbers) ii. P(PPP′ in this order) iii. P(PPP′ in any order)

Understanding
6. WE12 A coin is biased so that the chance of it falling as a Tail when tossed is 0.2.
a. Draw a tree diagram to represent the coin being tossed three times.
b. What is the probability of getting the same outcome on each toss?
7. A die is tossed twice and each time it is recorded whether or not the number is a multiple of 3.
If M = the event of getting a multiple of 3 on any one toss and M′ = the event of not getting a
multiple of 3 on any one toss:
a. draw a tree diagram to represent the 2 tosses
b. what is the probability of getting two multiples of 3?
8. The biased spinner illustrated is spun three times.
a. Draw a completely labelled tree diagram for 3 spins of the spinner, 1 2
showing probabilities on the branches and all possible outcomes and
associated probabilities. 3 1
b. What is the probability of getting exactly 2 ones?
c. What is the probability of getting at most 2 ones?
Reasoning
9. A restaurant offers its customers a three-course dinner,
where they choose between two entrées, three main
meals and two desserts. The managers find that 30%
choose soup and 70% choose prawn cocktail for the
entrée; 20% choose vegetarian, 50% chicken, and the
rest have beef for their main meal; and 75% have sticky
date pudding while the rest have apple crumble for
dessert.
a. Draw a fully labelled tree diagram showing all
possible choices.
b. What is the probability that a customer will choose the
soup, chicken and sticky date pudding?
c. If there are 210 people booked for the following week at the restaurant, how many would you expect
to have the meal combination referred to in part b?
10. A bag contains 7 red and 3 white balls. A ball is taken at random, its colour noted and it is then placed
back in the bag before a second ball is chosen at random and its colour noted.
a. i. Show the possible outcomes with a fully labelled tree diagram.
ii. As the first ball was chosen, how many balls were in the bag?
iii. As the second ball was chosen, how many balls were in the bag?
iv. Does the probability of choosing a red or white ball change from the first selection to the second?
Explain.
v. Calculate the probability of choosing a red ball twice.
b. Suppose that after the first ball had been chosen it was not placed back in the bag.
i. As the second ball is chosen, how many balls are in the bag?
ii. Does the probability of choosing a red or white ball change from the first selection to the second?
Explain.
iii. Construct a fully labelled tree diagram to show all possible outcomes.
iv. Calculate the probability of choosing two red balls.

Problem solving
11. An eight-sided die is rolled three times to see whether 5 occurs.
a. Draw a tree diagram to show the sample space.
b. Calculate:
i. P(three 5s) ii. P(no 5s)
iii. P(two 5s) iv. P(at least two 5s).
12. A tetrahedral die (four faces labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously.
a. Show all the outcomes on a two-way table.
b. Draw a tree diagram and list all outcomes and their respective probabilities.
c. Calculate the probability of getting a Head on the coin and an even number on the die.
Reflection
WHOLE CLASS
What strategies would you use to remember how to construct tree diagrams?
11.4 Independent and dependent events

11.4.1 Independent events
•• If a coin is tossed the outcome is a Head or a Tail. The outcome of the first toss does not affect the
outcome of the next toss of the coin. The second toss will still yield a Head or a Tail irrespective of
the outcome of the first toss. Similarly, the outcome on the roll of a die will not affect the outcome
of the next roll.
•• If successive events have no effect on each other, they are called independent events.
•• If events A and B are independent then the Multiplication Law of probability states that:
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) or P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
•• The reverse is also true. If:
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) or P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
is true then event A and event B are independent events.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Adam is one of the 10 young golfers to represent his state. Paz is one of the 12 netball players
to represent her state. All the players in their respective teams have an equal chance of being
nominated as captains.
a Are the events ‘Adam is nominated as captain’ and ‘Paz is nominated as captain’ independent?
b Determine:
i P(Adam is nominated as captain) ii P(Paz is nominated as captain).
c What is the probability that both Adam and Paz are nominated as captains of their
respective teams?
THINK WRITE
a Determine whether the given events are a Adam’s nomination has nothing to do with Paz’s
independent and write your answer. nomination and vice versa. Therefore, the events
are independent.
b i 1 Determine the probability of Adam b i P(Adam is nominated) = P(A)
being nominated as captain. He is n(Adam is nominated)
=
one of 10 players. n(ξ)
1
P(Adam is nominated) = 10

2 Write your answer. The probability that Adam is nominated as
1
captain is 10 .
ii 1 Determine the probability of Paz ii P(Paz is nominated) = P(A)
being nominated as captain. She is n(Paz is nominated)
=
one of 12 players. n(ξ)
1
P(Paz is nominated) = 12
2 Write your answer. The probability that Paz is nominated
1
as captain is 12 .
c 1 Write the Multiplication Law c P(A and P)
of probability for independent = P(A ∩ P)
events. = P(A) × P(P)
P(Adam and Paz are nominated)
= P(Adam is nominated) × P(Paz is nominated)
2 Substitute the known values into the 1 1
= ×
rule. 10 12
3 Evaluate. 1
=
120
4 Write your answer. The probability that both Adam and Paz are
1
nominated as captains is 120 .
11.4.2 Dependent events

•• Sometimes one event affects the outcome of another. For example, if a card is drawn from a pack of
playing cards, the probability that its suit is hearts, P(hearts), is 13
52
(or 14). If this card is a heart and is
not replaced, then this will affect the probability of subsequent draws. The probability that the second
card drawn is a heart will be 12
51
, while the probability that the second card is not a heart will be 39 51
.
•• When one event affects the occurrence of another, the events are called dependent events.
•• If two events are dependent, then the probability of occurrence of one event affects that of the
subsequent event.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
A bag contains 5 blue, 6 green and 4 yellow marbles. The marbles are identical in all respects
except in their colours. Two marbles are picked in succession without replacement. Determine
the probability of picking 2 blue marbles.
THINK WRITE
n(B)
1 Determine the probability of picking the first P(picking a blue marble) =
n(ξ)
blue marble. 5
P(picking a blue marble) = 15
1
= 3

n(B)
2 Determine the probability of picking the second P(picking second blue marble) =
n(ξ)
blue marble. 4
Note: The two events are dependent since P(picking second blue marble) = 14
marbles are not being replaced. Since we have = 27
picked a blue marble this leaves 4 blue marbles
remaining out of a total of 14 marbles.
3 Calculate the probability of obtaining 2 blue P(2 blue marbles) = P(1st blue) × P(2nd blue)
marbles. = 1
× 27
3
2
= 21
2
4 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining 2 blue marbles is 21 .
Note: Alternatively, a tree diagram could be used —4

14
Blue
to solve this question.
5 Blue
The probability of selecting 2 blue marbles —
15
10
—
successively can be read directly from the first 14 Not blue
branch of the tree diagram. —5
14
Blue
10
—
15 Not blue
—9
14 Not blue
5 4
P(2 blue marbles) = 15
× 14
1
= 3
× 27
2
= 21
Try out this interactivity: Independent and dependent events (int-2787)

Try out this interactivity: Random numbers (int-0085)
Exercise 11.4 Independent and dependent events

Individual pathways

1–7, 9, 11, 13, 16 1, 3–6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16 1–17

Fluency
1. If A and B are independent events and P(A) = 0.7 and P(B) = 0.4, calculate:
a. P(A and B)
b. P(A′and B) where A′ is the complement of A
c. P(A and B′) where B′ is the complement of B
d. P(A′and B′).
Understanding
2. WE13 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed.
a. Are the outcomes independent?
b. Determine:
i. P(Head) on the coin
ii. P(6) on the die.
c. Determine P(6 on the die and Head on the coin).
3. A tetrahedron (4-faced) die and a 10-sided die are rolled simultaneously. What is the probability of
getting a 3 on the tetrahedral die and an 8 on the 10-sided die?
4. A blue die and a green die are rolled. What is the probability of getting a 5 on the blue die and not a 5
on the green die?
5. Dean is an archer. The experimental probability that Dean will hit the target is 45.
a. What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on two successive attempts?
b. What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on three successive attempts?
c. What is the probability that Dean will not hit the target on two successive attempts?
d. What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on the first attempt but miss on the second
attempt?
6. MC A bag contains 20 apples, of which 5 are bruised. Peter picks an apple and realises that it is
bruised. He puts the apple back in the bag and picks another one.
a. The probability that Peter picks 2 bruised apples is:
1 1 1
a. b. c.
4 2 16
3 15
d. e.
4 16
b. The probability that Peter picks a bruised apple first but a good one on
his second attempt is:
1 1 3
a. b. c.
4 2 4
3 1
d. e.
16 16

7. The probability that John will be late for a meeting is 17 and the probability that Phil will be late for a
3
meeting is 11 . What is the probability that:
a. John and Phil are both late
b. neither of them is late
c. John is late but Phil is not late
d. Phil is late but John is not late?
8. On the roulette wheel at the casino there are 37 numbers, 0 to 36 inclusive. Bidesi puts his chip on
number 8 in game 20 and on number 13 in game 21.
a. What is the probability that he will win in game 20?
b. What is the probability that he will win in both games?
c. What is the probability that he wins at least one of the games?
9. Based on her progress through the year, Karen was given a probability of 0.8 of passing the Physics
exam. If the probability of passing both Maths and Physics is 0.72, what is her probability of passing
the Maths exam?
10. Suresh found that, on average, he is delayed 2 times out of 7 at Melbourne airport. Rakesh made similar
observations at Brisbane airport, but found he was delayed 1 out of every 4 times. Find the probability
that both Suresh and Rakesh will be delayed if they are flying out of their respective airports.
11. Bronwyn has 3 pairs of Reebok and 2 pairs of Adidas running shoes. She has 2 pairs of Reebok, 3
pairs of Rio and a pair of Red Robin socks. Preparing for an early morning run, she grabs at random
for a pair of socks and a pair of shoes. What is the probability that she chooses:
a. Reebok shoes and Reebok socks
b. Rio socks and Adidas shoes
c. Reebok shoes and Red Robin socks
d. Adidas shoes and socks that are not Red Robin?

12. WE14 Two cards are drawn successively and without replacement from a pack of playing cards.
Determine the probability of drawing:
a. 2 hearts
b. 2 kings
c. 2 red cards.
13. In a class of 30 students there are 17 girls. Two students are picked randomly to represent the class in
the Student Representative Council. Determine the probability that:
a. both students are boys
b. both students are girls
c. one of the students is a boy.
Reasoning
14. Greg has tossed a tail on each of 9 successive coin tosses. He believes that his chances of tossing a
Head on his next toss must be very high. Is Greg correct? Justify your answer.
15. The multiplication law of probability relates to independent events. Tree diagrams can illustrate the
sample space of successive dependent events and the probability of any one combination of events can
be calculated by multiplying the stated probabilities along the branches. Is this a contradiction to the
multiplication law of probability? Explain.
Problem solving
16. A game at a carnival requires blindfolded contestants to throw balls at numbered ducks sitting
on 3 shelves. The game ends when 3 ducks have been knocked off the shelves. Assume that the
probability of hitting each duck is equal.
a. Are the events described in the game dependent or independent? 1 2 3 1 3
b. What are the initial probabilities of hitting each number?
c. Draw a labelled tree diagram to show the possible outcomes
1 1 2 1 3
for a contestant.
d. Calculate the probabilities of hitting the following:
i. P(1, 1, 1) 2 2 1 1 2
ii. P(2, 2, 2)
iii. P(3, 3, 3)
iv. P(at least one 3).
17. Question 16 described a game at a carnival. A contestant pays $3 to play and must make 3 direct hits
to be eligible for a prize. The numbers on the ducks hit are then summed and the contestant wins a
prize according to the winners table.
WINNERS’ TABLE
TOTAL SCORE PRIZE
9 Major prize ($30 value)
7–8 Minor prize ($10 value)
5–6 $2 prize
3–4 No prize
a. Calculate the probability of winning each prize listed.

b. Suppose 1000 games are played on an average show day. What profit could be expected to be made
by the sideshow owner on any average show day?
Reflection
How are dependent events, independent events and the multiplication law of probability reflected
on a tree diagram?

11.5 Conditional probability
11.5.1 Conditional probability
•• Conditional probability is when the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on another event
occurring first.
•• The effect of conditional probability is to reduce the event space and thus increase the probability of
the desired outcome.
•• For two events, A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A occurs, is denoted
by P(B|A) and can be calculated using the formula:
P(A ∩ B)
P(B|A) = , P(A) ≠ 0
P(A)
•• Conditional probability can be expressed using a variety of language. Some examples of conditional
probability statements follow. The key words to look for in a conditional probability statement have
been highlighted in each instance.
– If a student receives a B + or better in their first Maths test, then the chance of them receiving a B +
or better in their second Maths test is 75%.
– Given that a red marble was picked out of the bag with the first pick, the probability of a blue
marble being picked out with the second pick is 0.35.
– Knowing that the favourite food of a student is hot chips, the probability of their favourite condiment
being tomato sauce is 68%.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
A group of students was asked to nominate their favourite food, ξ

spaghetti (S) or lasagne (L). The results are illustrated in the S L
Venn diagram at right. Use the Venn diagram to calculate the 11 9 15
following probabilities relating to a student’s favourite food.
a What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers 5
spaghetti?
b What is the probability that a randomly selected student likes
lasagne given that they also like spaghetti?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 From 40 students surveyed, shown in a

ξ
blue, 20 nominated their favourite food S L
as ‘spaghetti’ or ‘spaghetti and
11 9 15
lasagne’ as shown in red.
2 The probability that a randomly number of favourable outcomes

P(event) =
selected student prefers spaghetti is total number of possible outcomes
found by substituting these values into 20
P(spaghetti) =
the probability formula. 40
= 12

b 1 The condition imposed ‘given they also b ξ
like spaghetti’ alters the sample space S L
to the 20 students described in part a, 11 9 15
as shaded in blue. Of these 20 students,
9 stated their favourite foods as lasagne
5
and spaghetti, as shown in red.
2 The probability that a randomly P( A ∩ B)
P(B|A) =
selected student likes lasagne, given P(A)
that they like spaghetti, is found by 9
40
substituting these values into the P(L|S) =
1
probability formula for conditional 2
probability. 9
= 20
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
If P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.6, calculate:

a P(A ∩ B) b P(B| A)
THINK WRITE
a 1 State the addition law for probability to a P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
determine P(A ∪ B).
2 Substitute the values given in the question into 0.6 = 0.3 + 0.5 − P(A ∩ B)
this formula and simplify. P(A ∩ B) = 0.3 + 0.5 − 0.6
= 0.2
b 1 State the formula for conditional probability. b P(A ∩ B)

P(B|A) = , P(A) ≠ 0
P(A)
2 Substitute the values given in the question into 0.2
P(B|A) =
this formula and simplify. 0.3
2
= 3
•• It is possible to transpose the formula for conditional probability to calculate P(A ∩ B):
P(A ∩ B)
P(B|A) = , P(A) ≠ 0
P(A)
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B|A)
This is called the multiplication rule for probability.
Exercise 11.5 Conditional probability

Individual pathways

1–7, 9, 11, 14 1, 3–6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14 1–15

Fluency
1. WE15 A group of students was asked to nominate their favourite form of dance, hip hop (H) or jazz (J).
The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram below. Use the Venn diagram given to calculate the
following probabilities relating to a student’s favourite form of dance.
ξ
H J
35 12 29
14
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers jazz?

b. What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers hip hop, given that they prefer
jazz?
2. A group of students was asked which seats they found most comfortable, the seats in the computer lab
or the science lab. The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram below. Use the Venn diagram given
to calculate the following probabilities relating to the most comfortable seats.
ξ
C S
15 8 5
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers the science lab?
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers the science lab, given that they might
prefer the computer lab or the science lab?
3. WE16 If P(A) = 0.7, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.9, calculate:
a. P(A ∩ B) b. P(B|A).
4. If P(A) = 0.65, P(B) = 0.75 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.45, calculate:
a. P(B|A) b. P(A|B).
Understanding
5. A medical degree requires applicants to participate in two tests, an aptitude test and an emotional
maturity test. This year 52% passed the aptitude test and 30% passed both tests. Use the condi-
tional probability formula to calculate the
probability that a student who passed the
aptitude test also passed the emotional
maturity test.
6. At a school classified as a ‘Music school for
excellence’, the probability that a student
elects to study Music and Physics is 0.2.
The probability that a student takes Music
is 0.92. What is the probability that a
student takes Physics, given that the student
is taking Music?

7. The probability that a student is well and misses a work shift the night before an exam is 0.045, and
the probability that a student misses a work shift is 0.05. What is the probability that a student is well,
given they miss a work shift the night before an exam?
8. Two marbles are chosen, without replace-
ment, from a jar containing only red and
green marbles. The probability of selecting
a green marble and then a red marble is
0.67. The probability of selecting a green
marble on the first draw is 0.8. What is the
probability of selecting a red marble on the
second draw, given the first marble drawn
was green?
9. Consider rolling a red and a black die and
the probabilities of the following events:
Event A the red die lands on 5
Event B the black die lands on 2
Event C the sum of the dice is 10.
a. MC The initial probability of each event described is:
1 5 5
A. P (A) = B. P(A) = C. P(A) =
6 6 6
1 2 2
P(B) = P(B) = P(B) =
6 6 6
1 7 5
P(C) = 6
P(C) = 36
P(C) = 18
1 1
D. P(A) = E. P(A) =
6 6
1 2
P(B) = P(B) =
6 6
1 1
P(C) = 12
P(C) = 12
b. Calculate the following probabilities.

i. P(A|B) ii. P(B|A) iii. P(C|A) iv. P(C|B)
10. MC A group of 80 schoolgirls consists of 54 dancers and 35 singers. Each member of the group is
either a dancer or a singer, or both. The probability that a randomly selected student is a singer given
that she is a dancer is:
a. 0.17 b. 0.44 c. 0.68 d. 0.11 e. 0.78
Reasoning
11. Explain how imposing a condition alters probability calculations.
12. At your neighbouring school, 65% of the students are male and 35% are female. Of the male students,
10% report that dancing is their favourite activity; of the female students, 25% report that dancing is
their favourite activity.
Find the probability that:
a. a student selected at random prefers dancing and is female
b. a student selected at random prefers dancing and is male.
13. Using the information presented in question 12, construct a tree diagram. From your diagram,
calculate:
a. the probability that a student is male and does not prefer dancing
b. the overall percentage of students who prefer dancing.

Problem solving
14. Two marbles are chosen, without replacement, from a jar containing only
red and green marbles. The probability of selecting a green marble and
then a red marble is 0.72. The probability of selecting a green marble on
the first draw is 0.85. What is the probability of selecting a red marble on
the second draw if the first marble drawn was green?
15. When walking home from school during the summer months, Harold
buys either an ice-cream or a drink from the corner shop. If Harold
bought an ice-cream the previous day, there is a 30% chance that he will
buy a drink the next day. If he bought a drink the previous day, there is a
40% chance that he will buy an ice-cream the next day. On Monday,
Harold bought an ice-cream. Determine the probability that he buys an
ice-cream on Wednesday.
Reflection
How does imposing a condition alter the probability of an event?
CHALLENGE 11.2
Four letters, A, B, C and D, are arranged in a row. What is the
probability that A and B will always be together?
11.6 Subjective probability

11.6.1 Subjective probability
• Consider the following claims:
‘I feel the Australian cricket team will win this year’s Test cricket series because, in my opinion, they
have a stronger side than the opposition.’ Claims like this are often made by people who may not have
all the facts, and may also be biased.
‘I think this summer will be a cold one.’ A statement like this will have merit if it comes from an
individual with relevant knowledge, such as a meteorologist or a scientist. However, often people
make these remarks with limited observation.
• Subjective probability is usually based on limited mathematical evidence and may involve one or
more of the following: judgements, opinions, assessments, estimations and conjectures by
individuals. It can also involve beliefs, sentiments and emotions that may result in a certain amount
of bias.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
On Anzac Day Peter plays two-up, which involves tossing two coins. Heads win if both
coins land Heads, while Tails win if both coins land Tails. If the coins land with one Head
and one Tail they are called ‘odd’, and the coins are tossed again until either Heads or
Tails wins.
After observing for a while, Peter notices that the last five tosses had either Tails winning or
were odd. This leads Peter to believe that Heads will win the next game, so he places $50 on
Heads and loses. Peter questions the fairness of the game and states that the game is biased and
favours Tails. Discuss the accuracy of Peter’s statement.
THINK WRITE
Discuss the statement made and comment on the Each game is independent, so five Tails or odd
probability of obtaining Heads or Tails in this outcomes in the previous games have no effect
particular game. on the outcome of the current game. The game
is not biased. Peter took a risk and paid for it.
He is wrong in suggesting that the game is not
fair.
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Subjective probability (doc-14592)
Exercise 11.6 Subjective probability

Individual pathways

1–6 1–7 1–7
Understanding
1. WE17 Discuss the accuracy of these statements.
a. The team batting last can never win a cricket match at the MCG.
b. The Australian cricket team is so good that not even bad weather can stop it from winning.
c. Two children in John’s family are girls so the third one will be a girl, too.
d. The Wallabies defeated the All Blacks three times last year so they will win the first game this
year.
e. It rained heavily on the last three consecutive Fridays so do not organise sport on a Friday.
f. According to the weather report only three in every twenty houses were damaged by the cyclone, so
my house will not be damaged.

g. New Zealand lost its cricket match against Australia because their team uniform looked boring.
h. This coin is biased because we obtained six Heads in a row.
i. The USA topped the medal tally in the last Olympics so they will do the same again in the next
Olympics.
j. Australian Rules football is the best sport in the world.
2. Comment on the accuracy of these statements.
a. I have bought only one ticket for the raffle, therefore I cannot win.
b. This particular horse has odds of 1–2. It is certain to win.
c. If you keep on betting on Heads, you cannot lose.
d. If you want to win at all times, bet on the favourites.
e. It is no use betting on the favourites as you cannot win a great deal of money, therefore you should
bet on the outsiders.
3. Assign a probability to each of the following, based on
your experience or judgement.
a. The probability that you will be late for a class this
week
b. The probability that your favourite sporting team will
win its next match
c. The probability that two traffic lights in a row will be
red when you approach successive intersections
d. The probability that you will see a dog some time
today
Reasoning
4. Comment on the contradictions involved in the following
statements.
a. That job was hers but she did not do well in the
interview.
b. The team had won the match but they became a little complacent towards the end.
c. ‘Makybe Diva’ was certain to win. I cannot believe she lost the race.
5. Explain why each of the following examples involves subjective probability.
a. A business must decide whether or not to market a new type of product. The decision will be based
on the fact that prior information suggests that there is an 80% chance of the product having market
acceptance.
b. I estimate that I have a 60% chance of being married by the time I am 30 years old.
c. The probability that the housing market bubble will burst in the next 12 months is estimated
to be 0.65.
Problem solving
6. A school is staging a musical and must have the scenery and programs ready for the opening night.
The following probabilities are estimated for the duration of the activities.
Task 5 days 6 days 7 days

Build scenery 0.1 0.45 0.45
Paint scenery 0.3 0.4 0.3
Print programs 0.5 0.3 0.2

a. What is the probability that the painting and building of the scenery takes exactly 13 days?
b. What is the probability that the three tasks together take exactly 19 days?
7. It has been estimated that there is a 60% chance of a major earthquake (7.5–8 on the Richter scale)
occuring in Southern California along the southern portion of the San Andreas fault within the next
thirty years. Based on this prediction, calculate the probability:
a. that Alaska, Chile and California, all of which lie on the San Andreas fault, will each suffer a major
earthquake in the next thirty years
b. that two of the three regions will suffer a major earthquake in the next thirty years.
11.7 Review
Fluency
1. Which of the following is always true for an event, M , and its complementary event, M′ ?
a. P(M) + P(M′) = 1 b. P(M) − P(M′) = 1 c. P(M) + P(M′) = 0
d. P(M) − P(M′) = 0 e. P(M) × P(M′) = 1
2. A number is chosen from the set { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 } . Which of the following pairs of
events is mutually exclusive?
a. { 2, 4, 6 } and { 1, 2, 3 } b. { 1, 2, 3, 5 } and { 4, 6, 7, 8 }
c. { 0, 1, 2, 3 } and { 3, 4, 5, 6 } d. { multiples of 2 } and { factors of 8 }
{ } {
e. even numbers and multiples of 3 }
3. Which of the following states the Multiplication Law of probability correctly?
a. P(A ∩ B) = P(A) + P(B) b. P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B) c. P(A ∪ B) = P(A) × P(B)
d. P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) e. P(A) = P(A ∪ B) + P(B)
4. The odds 3–2 expressed as a probability are:
1 3 1 2 1
a. 5
b. 5
c. 2
d. 5
e. 3
The following information relates to questions 5 and 6.
ξ = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 } and A = { 2, 3, 4 } and B = { 3, 4, 5, 8 }
5. A ∩ B equals:
a. { 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 8 } b. { 3, 4 } c. { 2, 3, 4 }
d. { 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 } e. { 2, 5, 8 }
6. A ∩ B′ equals:
a. { 3, 4 } b. { 2 } c. { 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 }
d. { 2, 3, 4 } e. { 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10 }

7. Shade the region stated for each of the following Venn diagrams.
a. A′ ∪ B b. A′ ∩ B′ c. A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C
A B ξ A B ξ A ξ
B
C
8. Convert the following odds to probabilities.
a. 3–7 b. 5–2 c. 12–5
9. Convert the following probabilities to odds.
7
a. 11 b. 67 c. 25
33
Problem solving
10. From past experience, it is concluded that there is a 99% probability that July will be a wet month in
Launceston (it has an average rainfall of approximately 80 mm). The probability that July will not be a
wet month next year in Launceston is:
1
a. 99% b. 0.99 c. 100 d. 1 e. 0
11. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the theoretical probability of not
selecting a red card?
a. 34 b. 14 1
c. 13 d. 12 e. 0
12. Which of the following events is not equally likely?
a. Obtaining a 5 or obtaining a 1 when a die is rolled
b. Obtaining a club or obtaining a diamond when a card is drawn from a pack of cards
c. Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 2 Tails when a coin is tossed twice
d. Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 1 Head when a coin is tossed twice
e. Obtaining a 3 or obtaining a 6 when a die is rolled
13. The Australian cricket team has won 12 of the last 15 Test matches. What is the experimental
probability of Australia not winning its next Test match?
a. 45 b. 15 c. 14 d. 34 e. 1
14. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards. What is the theoretical probability of drawing:
a. an ace b. a spade
c. a queen or a king d. not a heart?
15. The odds for a horse to win a race are 4–3.
a. What is the probability that this horse will win the race?
b. What is the probability that this horse will not win the race?
c. Charlie bets $12 that this horse will win. If the horse wins, what is Charlie’s payout?
16. A die is rolled five times.
a. What is the probability of rolling five 6s?
b. What is the probability of not rolling five 6s?
17. Alan and Mary own 3 of the 8 dogs in a race. What is the probability that:
a. one of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win?
b. none of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win?
18. A die is rolled. Event A is obtaining an even number. Event B is obtaining a 3.
a. Are events A and B mutually exclusive?
b. Calculate P(A) and P(B).
c. Calculate P(A ∪ B).

19. A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Event A is drawing a club and event B is
drawing an ace.
a. Are events A and B mutually exclusive?
b. Calculate P(A), P(B) and P(A ∩ B)
c. Calculate P(A ∪ B).
20. Discuss the accuracy of the following statements.
a. It did not rain on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday, so it will not rain on Thursday.
b. A cricket team lost because two of its batsmen scored ducks.
c. The Rams family had a boy, then a girl and then another boy. They must have a girl next.
21. Comment on the contradictions involved in these statements.
a. I was defeated by a loser.
b. The slowest motocross racer in the competition won the race.
c. The most popular person did not get elected.
22. A tetrahedral die is numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Two of these dice are rolled and the sum of the numbers
(the number on the face that the die sits on) is taken.
a. Show the possible outcomes in a two-way table.
b. Are all the outcomes equally likely?
c. Which total has the least chance of being rolled?
d. Which total has the best chance of being rolled?
e. Which sums have the same chance of being rolled?
23. A bag contains 20 pears, of which 5 are bad. Cathy picks 2 pears (without replacement) from the bag.
What is the probability that:
a. both pears are bad?
b. both pears are good?
c. one of the two pears is good?
24. Determine the probability of drawing 2 aces from a pack of cards if:
a. the first card is replaced before the second one is drawn
b. the first card drawn is not replaced.
25. On grandparents day at a school a group of grandparents was asked ξ
where they most like to take their grandchildren — the beach (B) or B S
shopping (S). The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram below. 5 8 2
Use the Venn diagram given to calculate the following probabilities
relating to the place grandparents most like to take their grandchildren.
10
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected grandparent preferred
to take their grandchildren to the beach or shopping?
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected grandparent preferred to take their grandchildren to
the beach, given that they preferred to take their grandchildren shopping?
26. When all of Saphron’s team players turn up for their twice weekly netball training the chance that
they then win their Saturday game is 0.65. If not all players are at the training session then the chance
of winning their Saturday game is 0.40. Over a four week period, Saphron’s players all turn up for
training three times.
a. Using a tree diagram, with T to represent all players training and W to represent a win, represent the
winning chance of Saphron’s netball team.
b. Using the tree diagram constructed in part a, determine the probability of Saphron’s team winning
their Saturday game. Write your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
c. Determine the exact probability that Saphron’s team did not train given that they won their Saturday
game.

27. Andrew does not know the answer to two questions on a multiple choice exam. The first question has
four choices and the second question he does not know has five choices.
a. What is the probability that he will get both questions wrong?
b. If he is certain that one of the choices cannot be the answer in the first question, how will this change
the probability that he will get both questions wrong?
28. Mariah the Mathematics teacher wanted to give her students a chance to win a reward at the end of the
term. She placed 20 cards into a box, and wrote the word ON on 16 cards, and OFF on 4 cards. After
a student chooses a card, that card is replaced into the box for the next student to draw. If a student
chooses an OFF card, then they do not have to attend school on a specified day. If they choose an ON
card, then they do not receive a day off.
a. Mick, a student, chose a random card from the box. What is the probability he received a day off?
b. Juanita, a student, chose a random card from the box after Mick. What is the probability that she did
not receive a day off?
c. What is the probability that Mick and Juanita both received a day off?
29. In the game of draw poker, a player is dealt 5 cards from a deck of 52. To obtain a flush, all 5 cards
must be of the same suit.
a. Determine the probability of getting a diamond flush.
b. Determine the probability of getting any flush.
30. a. A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or sisters.
She says, ‘Yes, I have one’. What is the probability that she has a sister?
b. A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or sisters. She says,
‘Yes, I have an older one’. What is the probability that she has a sister?
Language
array experimental probability random
certain favourable outcome relative frequency
chance impossible sample space
chance experiment independent scale
complement intersection subjective probability
complementary events likely theoretical probability
conditional mutually exclusive tree diagram
dependent odds trial
equally likely outcome two-way table
even chance payout Venn diagrams
event probability

www.assesson.com.au

Tricky dice
Dice games have been played throughout the world for many
years. Professional gamblers resort to all types of devious
measures in order to win. Often the other players are unaware of
the tricks employed.
Imagine you are playing a game that involves rolling two dice.
Instead of having each die marked with the numbers 1 to 6, let
the first die have only the numbers 1, 2 and 3 (two of each) and
the second die the numbers 4, 5 and 6 (two of each). If you
were an observer to this game, you would see the numbers 1 to
6 occurring and probably not realise that the dice were not the
regular type.
Die 1
1. Complete the grid at right to show the sample space on 1 2 3 1 2 3
rolling these two dice.
4
2. How many different outcomes are there? Compare this
with the number of different outcomes using two regular 5
dice. 6
Die 2
4
5
6
3. What is the chance of rolling a double using these dice? Die 1

4. The numbers on the two dice are added after rolling. 1 2 3 1 2 3
Complete the table at right to show the totals possible.
4
5
6
Die 2
4
5
6

5. How many different totals are possible? What are they?
6. Which total do you have the greatest chance of rolling? Which total do you have the least chance
of rolling?
7. If you played a game in which you had to bet on rolling a total of less than 7, equal to 7 or
greater than 7, which option would you be best to take? Explain why.
8. If you had to bet on an even-number outcome or an odd-number outcome, which would be the
better option? Explain your answer.
9. The rules are changed to subtracting the numbers on the two dice instead of adding them.
Complete the following table to show the outcomes possible.
Die 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
4
5
6
Die 2
4
5
6
10. How many different outcomes are possible in this case? What are they?
11. What is the most frequently occurring outcome? How many times does it occur?
12. Devise a game of your own using these dice. On a separate sheet of paper, write out rules for
your game and provide a solution, indicating the best options for winning.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: The study of . . . (doc-15937)

Answers
Topic 11 Probability
Exercise 11.2 Review of probability
1. Experimental probability is based on the outcomes of experiments, simulations or surveys. Theoretical probability is based on
the number of possible favourable outcomes and the total possible outcomes.
2. a. {I, II, III, IV, V, VI}
b. Frequency for I = 0.2
Frequency for II = 0.12
Frequency for III = 0.16
Frequency for IV = 0.14
Frequency for V = 0.24
Frequency for VI = 0.14
c. The spinner should be spun a larger number of times.
3. a. 500 students b. Frequency for silver = 0.16
c. Frequency for Black and Green = 0.316 d. Blazing Blue
4. a. + 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b. The sum of 7
c. The sum of 2 or 12
5. a. P(A ∩ B) = 0.1 b. ξ c. P(A ∩ B′ ) = 0.4
A B
0.4 0.1 0.3
0.2
6. a. i. P(A ∪ B) = 0.85 ii. P(A ∩ B)′ = 0.95

b. C
7. 23
1
8. a. 13 b. 14 4
c. 13
9. Answers may vary; check with your teacher.
a. i. No. There are many others foods one could have.
ii. Having Weet Bix and not having Weet Bix
b. i. No. There are other means of transport; for example, catching a bus.
ii. Walking to a friend’s place and not walking to a friend’s place
c. i. No. There are other possible leisure activities.
ii. Watching TV and not watching TV
d. i. No. The number 5 can be rolled too.
ii. Rolling a number less than 5 and rolling a number 5 or greater
e. Yes. There are only two possible outcomes; passing or failing.
10. a.
A B ξ
5
3
11 1 20
7 13 4
15 9
16
17
19 14
2 12
6 8 10 18
b. i. 10
20
= 12 4
ii. 20 = 15 2
iii. 20 1
= 10 iv. 12
20
= 35 8
v. 20 = 25

11. a. 16 4
b. 17 c. 18
12. A
13. a. No. For a 6-sided die, P(4) = 16; for an 8-sided die, P(4) = 18.
b. Yes; P(odd) = 12.
14. Yes; P(5) = 12, P(6) = 12.
15. a. ξ B N
2
15 15
3
15 5
16
S 19
b. 19 students c. 32 students d. 15 students

3
e. Frequency = 0.1667 f. Probability = 90
1
16. a. 13 b. 14 c. 12 d. 12
13
e. 0 f. 12
17. a. 15 7
b. 20 c. 11
20
d. 0
18. a. ξ = 30
Volleyball Soccer
7 1 4
5
2 4
7
Tennis
b. i. 1
2
ii. 16 1
iii. 30 iv. 25 7
v. 15
c. i. 12 8
ii. 15
3
19. a. 10 b. $50 c. 9–4
1
20. Yes. Both have a probability of 2
.
6
21. Yes, equivalent fractions; 16 = 38
22.
A B A B
Overlaying A ʹ and B ʹ shows The union of A and B is shown

A ʹ ∩ B ʹ as the area surrounding in brown, leaving the surrounding
A and B. area as (A ∪ B) ʹ.
23. a. i. 50 ii. 7 iii. 25 iv. 8

1 3 6
b. i. 2
ii. 50 iii. 25
c. i. n(ξ) = 50 1
ii. 25
Fried Chicken
rice wings
10 4 12
2
6 5
11
Dim sims

24. a. Die 2 outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)

Die 1 outcomes
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
b. 6
c. No. The frequency of the numbers is different.
d.
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
e. i. 36 ii. 16 1
iii. 18
1
f. i. 36 ii. 16 1
iii. 18
g. 50
Challenge 11.1
11 red and 4 purple, i.e. 15 socks more
Exercise 11.3 Tree diagrams

1. If the probabilities of 2 events are different, the first column of branches indicates the probabilities for the first event and the
second column of branches indicates the probabilities for the second event. The product of each branch gives the probability.
All probabilities add to 1.
2. a. 12 different outcomes
b. No. Each branch is a product of different probabilities.
c. Less likely
d. Indigo elephant
7
e. i. P (Blue elephant) = 40
7
ii. P(Indigo elephant) = 20
iii. P(Donkey) = 15
3. a. 1st 2nd 3rd Outcome P(outcome)

toss toss toss
0.7 H HHH 0.343
0.7 H
0.3 T HHT 0.147
H
0.7 H HTH 0.147
0.7 0.3 T
0.3 T HTT 0.063
0.7 H THH 0.147
0.7 H
0.3 T THT 0.063
0.3
T
0.7 H TTH 0.063
0.3 T
0.3 T TTT 0.027
b. P(HHH) = 0.343
c. P(at least 1 Tail) = 0.657
d. P(exactly 2 Tails) = 0.189

4. a. i. 12
ii. 16
iii. 56
b. 1
1
6 6 12
<4
1 5
2 5 6′ 12
6
1 1
1 6 36
6 6
4
5 5
6 6′ 36
1 1
1
6 6 18
3
>4
5
5 6′ 18
6
1
c. i. 36
1
ii. 12
5
iii. 36
5
iv. 18
1
5. a. 3 P′ P′P′P′ 1
27
1 P′ 2
3 2 P P′P′P 27
P′ 1 3 2
1 3 P′ P′PP′ 27
3 2 P
3 4
2 P P′PP 27
1 3 2
3 P′ PP′P′ 27
2 1 P′ 4
3 3 2 P PP′P 27
P 1 3 4
3 P′ PPP′ 27
2 P
3 8
2 P PPP 27
3
8
b. i. 27
4
ii. 27
iii. 12
27
6. a. 0.8 T′ T′T′T′ 0.512

0.8 T′
0.2 T T′T′T 0.128
T′ 0.8 T′ T′TT′ 0.128
0.8 0.2 T
0.2 T T′TT 0.032
0.8 T′ TT′T′ 0.128
0.8 T′
0.2 0.2 T TT′T 0.032
T
0.8 T′ TTT′ 0.032
0.2 T
0.2 T TTT 0.008
b. 0.520
7. a. 2
4
3 M′ M′M′ 9
2 M′
3 1 2
3 2 M M′ M 9
2
3 M′ MM′ 9
1
3 M
1 1
3 M MM 9
b. 19

8. a. 1
2 1
1
1 4
2
1 1 3
2 4
1
1
2
1
4 1
1 2 2
4
1 3
4
1 1
2 1
4
1 2
3 4
1 3
4
1 1
2 2 1
1
1 4
2
1 1 3
2 4
1
1 1
2
1
4 4 1
2 2 2
4
1 3
4
1 1
2 1
4
1 2
3 4
1 1 3
4 4
1
2 1
1
1 4
2
1 1 3
2 4
1
1
2
1
4 1
3 2 2
4
1 3
4
1 1
2 1
4
1 2
3 4
1 3
4
b. 38 c. 78
9. a. 0.75 Pudding
Vegetarian
0.25 Apple
0.2
0.75 Pudding
0.5
Soup Chicken
0.25 Apple
0.3 0.75 Pudding

0.3
Beef
0.25 Apple
0.75 Pudding
Vegetarian
0.7 Apple
0.2 0.25
0.75 Pudding
0.5
Prawn Chicken
0.25 Apple
0.3 0.75 Pudding

Beef
0.25 Apple
c. 0.1125 d. 24 people
10. a. i. 0.7 Red

Red
0.7 0.3 White
0.7 Red
0.3
White
0.3 White

ii. 10 balls iii. 10 balls
iv. No; the events are independent. v. P(RR) = 0.49
b. i. 9 balls
ii. Yes. One ball has been removed from the bag.
iii. 0.67 Red
Red
0.7 0.33 White
0.78 Red
0.3
White
0.22 White
7
iv. P(RR) = 15
or 0.469 using the rounded values from iii
11. a. 1 2 3 Outcomes Probability

1– 1
8 f fff —–
512
1– f 7– fʹ fffʹ —–7
8 512
8 1–
7
1– f 8 f ffʹf —–
512
8 7– fʹ 49
8 7– fʹ ffʹfʹ —–
512
8 1–
1–
8 f fʹff —–7
512
7– 8 f fʹ fʹffʹ 49
—–
8 fʹ 7–
1– 512
8
49
7– 8 f fʹfʹf —–
512
8 fʹ 343
7– fʹ fʹfʹfʹ —–
512
8
f = outcome of 5
1
b. i. 512
ii. 343
512
21
iii. 512 11
iv. 256
12. a. Die outcomes

1 2 3 4
outcomes
H (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4)

Coin
T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4)
b. Outcomes Probability
1– 1– 1–
1–
1 H1 2 × 4 = 8
4 1–
4 2 H2 1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
1–
H 4
3 H3
1–
× 1–
= 1–
2 4 8
1– 1–
2 4 4 H4
1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
1 T1
1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
1– 1–
1– 4
2 4 2 T2
1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
1–
T 4
3 T3 1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
1–
4 4 T4 1–
2 × 1–
4 = 1–
8
—
1
c. 14
Exercise 11.4 Independent and dependent events

1. a. 0.28 b. 0.12 c. 0.42 d. 0.18
1
2. a. Yes b. i. 2
ii. 16 1
c. 12
1
3. 40
5
4. 36
5. a. 16
25
64
b. 125 1
c. 25 4
d. 25
6. a. C b. D
3
7. a. 77 b. 48
77
8
c. 77 d. 18
77
1 1 73
8. a. 37 b. 1369 c. 1369
9. 0.9
1
10. 14
11. a. 15 b. 15 1
c. 10 d. 13

1 1 25
12. a. 17 b. 221 c. 102
26
13. a. 145 b. 136
435
c. 221
435
14. No. Coin tosses are independent events. No one toss affects the outcome of the next. The probability of a Head or Tail on
a fair coin is always 0.5. Greg has a 50% chance of tossing a Head on the next coin toss as was the chance in each of the
previous 9 tosses.
15. No. As events are illustrated on a tree diagram, the individual probability of each outcome is recorded. The probability of
a dependent event is calculated (altered according to the previous event) and can be considered as if it was an independ-
ent event. As such, the multiplication law of probability can be applied along the branches to calculate the probability of
successive events.
16. a. Dependent
7
b. P(1) = 15
5
P(2) = 15
3
P(3) = 15
5
c. 13 1
1 5
2
13
6
3 3
14
13
6
5 1
13
14 4
1 2 2
13
3 3
13 6
3 13 1
14
5
3 13 2
2 3
13
7
15 6
13 1
1 4 2
13
7
14 3 3
4 7 13
5 1
14 13
15 3
2 2 2
13
3 3
13
3 7
14 13 1
4
3 13 2
2 3
3
13
15
6
13 1
1 5
13 2
7
14 2 3
13
5 7
1
14 13
3 2 4 2
13
2 3
13
2 7
14 13 1
5
3 13 2
1 3
13
1 2 1
d. i. P(1, 1, 1) = 13 ii. P(2, 2, 2) = 91 iii. P(3, 3, 3) = 455 iv. P(at least one 3) = 47
91

1 66
17. a. P(9) = 455 P(7–8) = 455
P(5–6) = 248
455
4
P(3–4) = 13

b. $393.40
Exercise 11.5 Conditional probability
1. a. P(J) = 41
90
b. P(H | J) = 12
41
2. a. P(S) = 13
30
b. P(S | (C ∪ S)) = 13
28
3. a. 0.3 b. 37
9
4. a. 13 b. 35
5. 0.58 or 15
26
5
6. 0.22 or 23
7. 0.9
8. 0.8375
9. a. D
b. i. P(A | B) = 16 ii. P(B | A) = 16 iii. P(C | A) = 16 iv. P(C | B) = 0
10. A
11. Conditional probability is when the probability of one event depends on the outcome of another event.
12. a. 0.0875 b. 0.065
13. a. 0.585 b. 0.1525 or 15.25%.
14. 0.847
15. 0.61
Challenge 11.2
Probability = 12
Exercise 11.6 Subjective probability

1. a. The outcome depends upon whether it is a Test match or a one-day game and how effective the bowlers and batsmen are;
not forgetting the pitch usually favours spin bowling.
b. The outcome depends on which team is better on the day and which team can adjust to the conditions.
c. No. The third one has an equal chance of being a girl or a boy.
d. This is not necessarily true. Current position and form of both teams should be used as a gauge.
e. It does not mean it will rain again on Friday.
f. There is no certainty about that. It depends upon the condition and location of your house.
g. Cricket games are not won or lost by the attractiveness of the uniform.
h. It is possible to get 6 Heads in a row on a normal coin.
i. They will have a good chance but there is no certainty. The country with the best competitors on the day of each event
will win.
j. This is dependent on the person’s own interests.
2. a. You still have a chance.
b. No horse is certain to win. Lots of problems can occur on the track.
c. This is not true. Even though Heads and Tails have equal chances, it does not mean half the results will show Heads.
d. Favourites do not always win.
e. Sometimes outsiders pay well, if you back the right one! You can lose more money than you win.
3. Answers will vary. Class discussion is required as there are many factors to consider.
4. a. There is a contradiction. The job was never hers. She had to do well to win the position.
b. The team may have had a lead but a match is only won when finished.
c. No horse is certain to win.
5. a. It is only an estimation of success because the actual probability of success is unknown.
b. Being married by the age of 30 depends on many events occurring so this is a guess.
c. Nobody knows when and if the housing market bubble will burst so this is a guess.
6. In these answers we are making the assumption that the tasks cannot be completed concurrently.
a. 0.315 b. 0.231

7. In these answers we are making the assumption that the probability of an earthquake occurring at the different locations is the
same as in Southern California and that major earthquakes are independent events.
a. 0.216 b. 0.432
11.7 Review
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. d
5. b
6. b
7. a. A B ξ b. ξ c.
A B
A
ξ
B
C
7
8. a. 10 b. 27 5
c. 17
9. a. 4–7 b. 1–6 c. 8–25
10. c
11. d
12. d
13. b
1
14. a. 13 b. 14 2
c. 13 d. 34
15. a. 37 b. 47 c. $28
1
16. a. 7776 b. 7775
7776
17. a. 38 b. 58
18. a. Yes b. P(A) = 12 and P(B) = 16 c. 23
19. a. No
b. P(A) = 14, P(B) = 13
1 1
, P(A ∩ B) = 52
4
c. 13
20. a. Whether it rains or not on Thursday is not determined by what happened on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday. It can still
rain on Thursday.
b. The team’s win or loss depends upon how other players bat and bowl or how the other team plays.
c. There is an equal chance of having a boy or a girl.
21. a. If you were defeated, the opponent was the winner.
b. The motorcycle rider who crossed the line first and won the race would not be the slowest rider.
c. The person elected was the most popular choice for the position.
22. a. Die 2 outcomes
0 1 2 3
0 (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, 3)

Die 1 outcomes
1 (1, 0) (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3)
2 (2, 0) (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3)
3 (3, 0) (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3)
a. No b. 0 and 6
c. 3 d. 0 and 6, 1 and 5, 2 and 4
1
23. a. 19 b. 21
38
c. 15
38

1 1
24. a. 169 b. 221
25. a. 15
25
= 35 8
b. 10 = 45
26. a. 0.65 W b. 0.5875 8

c. 47
T
0.75 0.35 Wʹ
0.40 W
0.25
Tʹ
0.60 Wʹ
27. a. 35 8
b. 15
28. a. 15 b. 45 1
c. 25
29. a. 0.000 495 b. 0.001 981
30. a. 13 b. 12

1. Die 1 2. 9
3. 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
4. Die 1
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4)
1 2 3 1 2 3
5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5)
4 5 6 7 5 6 7
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6)
Die 2
5 6 7 8 6 7 8
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4)
6 7 8 9 7 8 9
Die 2
5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5)

4 5 6 7 5 6 7
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6)
5 6 7 8 6 7 8
6 7 8 9 7 8 9
5. 5; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
6. 7; 5, 9
7. Equal to 7; probability is the highest.
8. Odd-number outcome; probability is higher.
Die
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Head (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6) (H, 7) (H, 8)

Coin
Tail (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6) (T, 7) (T, 8)
9. Die 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 3 2 1 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 4 3 2
6 5 4 3 5 4 3
Die 2
4 3 2 1 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 4 3 2
6 5 4 3 5 4 3
10. 5; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
11. 3;12

TOPIC 12
Univariate data
12.1 Overview
embedded just where you need them, at
the point of learning, in your learnON title
at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you
to learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.
According to the novelist Mark Twain, ‘There
are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies and
statistics.’ There is so much information in
our lives, increasingly so with the World Wide
Web, smart phones and social media track-
ing our every move and accumulating vast
amounts of data about us. The data are used
to gather information about our likes and dis-
likes, our buying habits, our voting prefer-
ences and so on. Statistics can easily be used
to manipulate people unless they have an
understanding of the basic concepts involved.

1. THINK List what you know about data. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show your list.
knowledge of data.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
12.1 Overview
12.2 Measures of central tendency
12.3 Measures of spread
12.4 Box-and-whisker plots
12.5 The standard deviation
12.6 Comparing data sets
12.7 Review

Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Koby’s bid to make the Olympic athletics team (eles-1852)
TOPIC 12 Univariate data 491

12.2 Measures of central tendency
12.2.1 Univariate data
•• In this chapter you will learn how to measure and analyse univariate data. Univariate data are data
with one variable; for example, the heights of Year 10 students.
•• Measures of central tendency are summary statistics that measure the middle (or centre) of the data.
These are known as the mean, median and mode.
–– The mean is the average of all observations in a set of data.
–– The median is the middle observation in an ordered set of data.
–– The mode is the most frequent observation in a data set.
12.2.2 Ungrouped data

Mean, median and mode of ungrouped data
Mean
•• To obtain the mean of a set of ungrouped data, all numbers (scores) in the set are added together and
then the total is divided by the number of scores in that set.
sum of all scores
Mean =
number of scores
Σx
•• Symbolically this is written x = .
n
Median
•• The median is the middle value of any set of data arranged in numerical order. In the set of n numbers,
n+1
the median is located at the th score. The median is:
2
–– the middle score for an odd number of scores arranged in numerical order
–– the average of the two middle scores for an even number of scores arranged in numerical order.
Mode
•• The mode is the score that occurs most often in a set of data.
•• A set of data may contain:
1. no mode; that is, each score occurs once only
2. one mode
3. more than one mode.
For the data 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, find the:

a. mean b. median c. mode.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Calculate the sum of the scores; that is, Σx. a Σx = 6 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 5
= 33
2 Count the number of scores; that is, n. n = 8
Σx
3 Write the rule for the mean. x =
n
33
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. =
8

5 Evaluate. = 4.125
6 Answer the question. The mean is 4.125.
b 1 Write the median scores in ascending b 23444556
numerical order.
n+1
2 Locate the position of the median using the Median = th score
n+1 2
rule , where n = 8. This places the 8+1
2 = th score
median as the 4.5th score; that is, between the 2
= 4.5th score
4th and 5th score. 23444556
4+4
3 Obtain the average of the two middle scores. Median =
2
8
=
2
=4
4 Answer the question. The median is 4.
↓↓
c 1 Systematically work through the set and make c 23444556
note of any repeated values (scores). ↑↑ ↑
2 Answer the question. The mode is 4.
12.2.3 Calculating mean, median and mode from a frequency

distribution table
•• If data are presented in a frequency distribution table, the formula used to calculate the mean is
Σ (f × x)
x= .
n
•• Here, each value (score) in the table is multiplied by its corresponding frequency; then all the f × x
products are added together and the total sum is divided by the number of observations in the set.
•• To find the median, find the position of each score from the cumulative frequency column.
•• The mode is the score with the highest frequency.
For the table at right, find the:

Score (x) Frequency (f )
a mean
b median 4 1
c mode. 5 2
6 5
7 4
8 3
Total 15

THINK WRITE
1 Rule up a table with four columns titled Frequency Cumulative
Score (x), Frequency (f), Frequency × Score Frequency × score frequency
score (f × x) and Cumulative frequency (x) (f ) (f × x) (cf)
(cf ).
4 1 4 1
2 Enter the data and complete both 5 2 10 1 + 2 = 3
the f × x and cumulative frequency 6 5 30 3+5=8
columns.
7 4 28 8 + 4 = 12
8 3 24 12 + 3 = 15
n = 15 Σ (f × x) = 96
Σ (f × x)
a 1 Write the rule for the mean. a x=
n
96
2 Substitute the known values into the rule x=
and evaluate. 15
= 6.4
3 Answer the question. The mean of the data set is 6.4.
15 + 1
b 1 Locate the position of the median using b The median is the th or 8th score.
n+1 2
the rule , where n = 15.
2
This places the median as the 8th score.
2 Use the cumulative frequency column to The median of the data set is 6.
find the 8th score and answer the question.
c 1 The mode is the score with the highest c The score with the highest frequency is 6.
frequency.
2 Answer the question. The mode of the data set is 6.
12.2.4 Mean, median and mode of grouped data

Mean
•• When the data are grouped into class intervals, the actual values (or data) are lost. In such cases we
have to approximate the real values with the midpoints of the intervals into which these values fall.
For example, when measuring heights of students in a class, if we found that 4 students had a height
between 180 and 185 cm, we have to assume that each of those 4 students is 182.5 cm tall. The
formula for calculating the mean:
Σ ( f × x)
x=
n
Here x represents the midpoint (or class centre) of each class interval, f is the corresponding fre-
quency and n is the total number of observations in a set.
Median
•• The median is found by drawing a cumulative frequency curve (ogive) of the data and estimating the
median from the 50th percentile.

Modal class
•• The modal class is the class interval that has the highest frequency.
12.2.5 Cumulative frequency curves (ogives)

Ogives
•• Data from a cumulative frequency table can be plotted to form a cumulative frequency curve
(sometimes referred to as cumulative frequency polgons), which is also called an ogive (pronounced
‘oh-jive’).
•• To plot an ogive for data that is in class intervals, the maximum value for the class interval is used as
the value against which the cumulative frequency is plotted.
For example, the following table and graph show the mass of cartons of eggs ranging from 55 g to 65 g.
Cumulative Percentage cumulative

Mass (g) Frequency (f ) frequency (cf ) frequency (%cf )
55−<57 2 2 6%
57−<59 6 2+6=8 22%
59−<61 12 8 + 12 = 20 56%
61−<63 11 20 + 11 = 31 86%
63−<65 5 31 + 5 = 36 100%
Percentage cumulative frequency
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Mass (g)
Quantiles
•• An ogive can be used to divide the data into any given number of equal parts called quantiles.
•• Quantiles are named after the number of parts that the data are divided into.
–– Percentiles divide the data into 100 equal-sized parts.
–– Quartiles divide the data into 4 equal-sized parts. For example, 25% of the data values lie at or
below the first quartile.
Percentile Quartile and symbol Common name
25th percentile First quartile, Q1 Lower quartile
50th percentile Second quartile, Q2 Median
75th percentile Third quartile, Q3 Upper quartile
100th percentile Fourth quartile, Q4 Maximum
•• A percentile is named after the percentage of data that lies at or below that value. For example, 60%
of the data values lie at or below the 60th percentile.
•• Percentiles can be read off a percentage cumulative frequency curve.

•• A percentage cumulative frequency curve is created by:
– writing the cumulative frequencies as a percentage of the total number of data values
– plotting the percentage cumulative frequencies against the maximum value for each interval.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
For the given data: Class interval Frequency

a estimate the mean
60−<70 5
b estimate the median
c find the modal class. 70−<80 7
80−<90 10
90−<100 12
100−<110 8
110−<120 3
Total 45
THINK WRITE
1 Draw up a table with 5 columns Class Frequency × Cumulative
headed Class interval, Class centre Class centre Freq. class centre frequency
(x), Frequency ( f ), Frequency × interval (x) (f ) (f × x) (cf )
class centre ( f × x) and Cumulative
frequency (cf ). 60−<70 65 5 325 5
70−<80 75 7 525 12
2 Complete the x, f × x and cf
columns. 80−<90 85 10 850 22
90−<100 95 12 1140 34
100−<110 105 8 840 42
110−<120 115 3 345 45
n = 45 Σ( f × x) = 4025
a 1 Write the rule for the mean. a x = Σ ( f × x)

n
4025
2 Substitute the known values into x=
45
the rule and evaluate. ≃ 89.4
3 Answer the question. The mean for the given data is approximately 89.4.
b 1 Draw a combined cumulative b
45
frequency histogram and ogive, 40
Cumulative frequency
labelling class centres on the 35

horizontal axis and cumulative 30
25
frequency on the vertical axis. 20
Join the end-points of each class 15
interval with a straight line to 10
5
form the ogive. 0
65 75 85 95105115
Data

2 Locate the middle of the
45
cumulative frequency axis, which
40
is 22.5. 35
30
3 Draw a horizontal line from this 25
point to the ogive and a vertical 20
15
line to the horizontal axis. 10
5
0
65 75 85 95105115
Data
4 Read off the value of the median The median for the given data is approximately 90.
from the x-axis and answer the
question.
c 1 The modal class is the class inter- c The class internal 90–100 occurs twelve times, which is the
val with the highest frequency. highest frequency.
2 Answer the question. The modal class is the 90–100 class interval.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the mean of a small data set (doc-5299)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the median of a small data set (doc-5300)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the mode of a small data set (doc-5301)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the mean, median and mode from a stem-and-
leaf plot (doc-5302)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Presenting data in a frequency distribution table (doc-5303)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Drawing statistical graphs (doc-5304)
Exercise 12.2 Measures of central tendency

Individual pathways
VUPRACTISE VUCONSOLIDATE VUMASTER

1–10, 12, 15, 16, 18 1–10, 12, 14, 16, 18 1–19
Fluency
1. WE1 For each of the following sets of data find the:
i. mean ii. median iii. mode.
a. 3, 5, 6, 8, 8, 9, 10 b. 4, 6, 7, 4, 8, 9, 7, 10
c. 17, 15, 48, 23, 41, 56, 61, 52 d. 4.5, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.3
e. 7 12, 10 14, 12, 12 14, 13, 13 12, 13 12, 14

2. The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot below shows the test results
of 25 Year 10 students in Mathematics and Science. Find the mean,
median and mode for each of the two subjects.
Key: 3∣2 = 32
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Science Mathematics
873 3 29
96221 4 068
876110 5 135
97432 6 2679
8510 7 3678
73 8 044689
9 258
3. WE2 For the data shown in each of the following frequency distribution tables, find the:
i. mean ii. median iii. mode.
a. Score (x) Frequency ( f ) b. Score (x) Frequency ( f )
4 3 12 4
5 6 13 5
6 9 14 10
7 4 15 12
8 2 16 9
Total 24 Total 40
4. The following data show the number of
bedrooms in each of the 10 houses in a particular
neighbourhood: 2, 1, 3, 4, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3.
a. Calculate the mean and median number of
bedrooms.
b. A local motel contains 20 rooms. Add this
observation to the set of data and recalculate the
values of the mean and median.
c. Compare the answers obtained in parts a and b
and complete the following statement: When
the set of data contains an unusually large
value(s), called an outlier, the ________
(mean/median) is the better measure of central
tendency, as it is less affected by this extreme value.
5. WE3 For the given data:
a. estimate the mean b. estimate the median c. find the modal class.
Class interval Frequency
40−<50 2
50−<60 4
60−<70 6
70−<80 9
80−<90 5
90−<100 4
Total 30

6. Calculate the mean of the grouped data shown in the table below.
100–109 3
110–119 7
120–129 10
130–139 6
140–149 4
Total 30
7. Find the modal class of the data shown in the table below.
50–< 55 1
55−< 60 3
60−< 65 4
65−< 70 5
70−< 75 3
75−< 80 2
Total 18
8. MC The number of textbooks sold by various bookshops during the second week of December was
recorded. The results are summarised in the table below.
Number of books sold Frequency
220–229 2
230–239 2
240–249 3
250–259 5
260–269 4
270–279 4
Total 20
a. The modal class of the data is given by the class interval(s):

a. 220–229 and 230–239 b. 250–259
c. 260–269 and 270–279 d. of both A and C
b. The class centre of the first class interval is:
a. 224 b. 224.5 c. 224.75 d. 225
c. The median of the data is in the interval:
a. 230–239 b. 240–249 c. 250–259 d. 260–269
d. The estimated mean of the data is:
a. 251 b. 252 c. 253 d. 254

Understanding
9. A random sample was taken, composed of 30 people shopping at a Coles supermarket on a Tuesday
night. The amount of money (to the nearest dollar) spent by each person was recorded as follows:
6, 32, 66, 17, 45, 1, 19, 52, 36, 23, 28, 20, 7, 47, 39
6, 68, 28, 54, 9, 10, 58, 40, 12, 25, 49, 74, 63, 41, 13
a. Find the mean and median amount of money spent
at the checkout by the people in this sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of 10 and
complete the frequency distribution table. Use
this table to estimate the mean amount of
money spent.
c. Add the cumulative frequency column to your table
and fill it in. Hence, construct the ogive. Use the
ogive to estimate the median.
d. Compare the mean and the median of the original
data from part a with the mean and the median
obtained for grouped data in parts b and c. Were the
estimates obtained in parts b and c good enough?
Explain your answer.
10. a. Add one more number to the set of data 3, 4,
4, 6 so that the mean of a new set is equal to
its median.
b. Design a set of five numbers so that mean =
median = mode = 5.
c. In the set of numbers 2, 5, 8, 10, 15, change one
number so that the median remains unchanged while
the mean increases by 1.
11. Thirty men were asked to reveal the number of hours they spent doing housework each week. The
results are detailed below.
1 5 2 12 2 6 2 8 14 18
0 1 1 8 20 25 3 0 1 2
7 10 12 1 5 1 18 0 2 2
a. Present the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use class intervals of 0–4, 5–9 etc.)
b. Use your table to estimate the mean number of hours that the men spent doing housework.
c. Find the median class for hours spent by the men at housework.
d. Find the modal class for hours spent by the men at housework.
Reasoning
12. The data at right give the age of 25 patients admitted to the emergency 18 16 6 75 24
ward of a hospital. 23 82 75 25 21
a. Present the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use class intervals
43 19 84 76 31
of 0−<15, 15−<30 and so on.)
78 24 20 63 79
b. Draw a histogram of the data.
c. What word could you use to describe the pattern of the data in this 80 20 23 17 19
distribution?

d. Use your table to estimate the mean age of
patients admitted.
e. Find the median class for age of patients
admitted.
f. Find the modal class for age of patients
admitted.
g. Draw an ogive of the data.
h. Use the ogive to determine the median age.
i. Do any of your statistics (mean, median or mode)
give a clear representation of the typical age of an
emergency ward patient?
j. Give some reasons which could explain the
pattern of the distribution of data in this question.
13. The batting scores for two cricket players over 6 innings are as
follows:
Player A 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41
Player B 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
a. Find the mean score for each player.
b. Which player appears to be better, based upon
mean result?
c. Find the median score for each player.
d. Which player appears to be better when the decision is based
on the median result?
e. Which player do you think would be the most useful to have
in a cricket team and why? How can the mean result some-
times lead to a misleading conclusion?
14. The resting pulse rate of 20 female athletes was measured.
The results are detailed below.
50 52 48 52 71 61 30 45 42 48
43 47 51 62 34 61 44 54 38 40
a. Construct a frequency distribution table. (Use class sizes of
1−<10, 10−<20 etc.)
b. Use your table to estimate the mean of the data.
c. Find the median class of the data.
d. Find the modal class of the data.
e. Draw an ogive of the data. (You may like to use a graphics calculator for this.)
f. Use the ogive to determine the median pulse rate.
15. MC In a set of data there is one score that is extremely small when compared to all the others.
This outlying value is most likely to:
a. have greatest effect upon the mean of the data.
b. have greatest effect upon the median of the data.
c. have greatest effect upon the mode of the data.
d. have very little effect on any of the statistics as we are told that the number is
extremely small.

16. The following frequency table gives the number of employees in different salary brackets for a small
manufacturing plant.
Number of
Position Salary ($) employees
Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief executive 80 000 1
officer
a. Workers are arguing for a pay rise but the

management of the factory claims that workers are
well paid because the mean salary of the factory is
$22 100. Are they being honest?
b. Suppose that you were representing the factory
workers and had to write a short submission in support of the pay rise. How could you explain the
management’s claim? Quote some other statistics in favour of your case.
17. Design a set of five numbers with:
a. mean = median = mode
b. mean > median > mode
c. mean < median = mode.
Problem solving
18. The numbers 15, a, 17, b, 22, c, 10 and d have a mean of 14. Find the mean of a, b, c and d.
19. The numbers m, n, p, q, r, and s have a mean of a while x, y and z have a mean of b. Find the mean
of all nine numbers.
Reflection
Under what circumstances might the median be a more reliable measure of centre
than the mean?
CHALLENGE 12.1
The mean and median of six two-digit prime numbers is 39 and the mode
is 31. The smallest number is 13. What are the six numbers?

12.3 Measures of spread
12.3.1 Measures of spread
•• Measures of spread describe how far data values are spread from the centre or from each other.
•• A music store proprietor has stores in Newcastle and Wollongong. The number of CDs sold each day
over one week is recorded below.
Newcastle: 45, 60, 50, 55, 48, 40, 52

Wollongong: 20, 85, 50, 15, 30, 60, 90
In each of these data sets consider the measures of central tendency.
Newcastle: Mean = 50 Wollongong: Mean = 50

Median = 50 Median = 50
No mode No mode
With these measures being the same for both data sets we could come to the conclusion that both
data sets are very similar; however, if we look at the data sets, they are very different. We can see that
the data for Newcastle are very clustered around the mean, whereas the Wollongong data are spread
out more.
•• The data from Newcastle are between 45 and 60, whereas the Wollongong data are between 15 and 90.
•• Range and interquartile range (IQR) are both measures of spread.
12.3.2 Range
•• The most basic measure of spread is the range. It is defined as the difference between the highest and
the lowest values in the set of data.
Range = highest score − lowest score
⇒ Range = Xmax − Xmin
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find the range of the given data set: 2.1, 3.5, 3.9, 4.0, 4.7, 4.8, 5.2.
THINK WRITE
1 Identify the lowest score (Xmin) of the data set. Lowest score = 2.1
2 Identify the highest score (Xmax) of the data set. Highest score = 5.2
3 Write the rule for the range. Range = Xmax − Xmin
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. = 5.2 − 2.1
5 Evaluate. = 3.1
12.3.3 Interquartile range

•• The interquartile range (IQR) is the range of the
middle 50% of all the scores in an ordered set. 25% 25% 25% 25%
When calculating the interquartile range, the data Minimum Q1 Q2 Q3 Maximum
are first organised into quartiles, each containing Lower Median Upper
25% of the data. The word ‘quartile’ comes from quartile quartile
the word ‘quarter’.

Interquartile range = upper quartile − lower quartile
This can be written as:
IQR = Qupper − Qlower
or
IQR = Q3 − Q1
•• The IQR is not affected by extremely large or extremely small data values (outliers), so in some
circumstances the IQR is a better indicator of the spread of data than the range.
Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) of the following set of data: 3, 2, 8, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7, 6.

THINK WRITE
1 Arrange the scores in order. 123356678
2 Locate the median and use it to divide the 1233 5 6678
data into two halves. Note: The median is the
5th score in this data set and should not be
included in the lower or upper ends of the data.
2+3
3 Find Q1, the median of the lower half Q1 =
2
of the data. 5
=
2
= 2.5
6+7
4 Find Q3, the median of the upper half Q3 =
2
of the data. 13
=
2
= 6.5
5 Calculate the interquartile range. IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 6.5 − 2.5
=4
12.3.4 Determining the IQR from a graph

•• When data are presented in a frequency distribution table, either ungrouped or grouped, the interquar-
tile range is found by drawing an ogive.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The following frequency distribution table gives the number of customers who order different
volumes of concrete from a readymix concrete company during the course of a day. Find the
interquartile range of the data.
Volume (m3) Frequency Volume (m3) Frequency

0.0−<0.5 15 1.5−<2.0 8
0.5−<1.0 12 2.0−<2.5 2
1.0−<1.5 10 2.5−<3.0 4

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 To find the 25th and 75th percentiles from the Class
ogive, first add a class centre column and a Volume centre f cf
cumulative frequency column to the frequency
distribution table and fill them in. 0.0−<0.5 0.25 15 15
0.5−<1.0 0.75 12 27
1.0−<1.5 1.25 10 37
1.5−<2.0 1.75 8 45
2.0−<2.5 2.25 2 47
2.5−<3.0 2.75 4 51
2 Draw the ogive. A percentage axis will be useful.
Cumulative frequency (%)

50 100%
40 75%
30
50%
20
10 25%
0 5 75 25 5 5 75
0.2 0. 1. 1.7 2.2 2.
Volume (m3)
3 Find the upper quartile (75th percentile) and Q3 = 1.6 m3

lower quartile (25th percentile) from the ogive. Q1 = 0.4 m3
4 The interquartile range is the difference between IQR = Q3 − Q1

the upper and lower quartiles. = 1.6 − 0.4
= 1.2 m3
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Univariate data I (doc-14595)
Exercise 12.3 Measures of spread

Individual pathways

1–7, 10, 12 1–8, 10, 11, 12 1–13
Fluency
1. WE4 Find the range for each of the following sets of data.
a. 4, 3, 9, 12, 8, 17, 2, 16 b. 49.5, 13.7, 12.3, 36.5, 89.4, 27.8, 53.4, 66.8
1 3 1 2 1 3
c. 7 2, 12 4, 5 4, 8 3, 9 6, 3 4

2. WE5 Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) for the following sets of data.
a. 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14
b. 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 23
c. 66, 68, 68, 70, 71, 74, 79, 80
d. 19, 25, 72, 44, 68, 24, 51, 59, 36
3. The following stem-and-leaf plot shows the mass of newborn babies (rounded to the nearest 100 g).
Find the:
a. range of the data b. IQR of the data.
Key: 1* ∣ 9 = 1.9 kg
Stem Leaf
1* 9
2 24
2* 6789
3 001234
3* 55678889
4 01344
4* 56689
5 0122
4. Use the ogive at right to determine the

interquartile range of the data. 50 100%
40
30
50%
5. WE6 The following frequency distribution table 20
gives the amount of time spent by 50 people 10
on shopping for Christmas presents. 0 0
100 120 140 160 180
Estimate the IQR of the data. Height (cm)
Time (h) 0−<0.5 0.5−<1 1−<1.5 1.5−<2 2−<2.5 2.5−<3 3−<3.5 3.5−<4
Frequency 1 2 7 15 13 8 2 2
6. MC Calculate the interquartile range of the following data:

17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 25
a. 8 b. 18 c. 4 d. 20
Understanding
7. The following frequency distribution table shows the life expectancy in hours of 40 household
batteries.
Life (h) 50−<55 55−<60 60−<65 65−<70 70−<75 75−<80
Frequency 4 10 12 8 5 1
a. Draw an ogive curve that represents the data in the table above.

b. Use the ogive to answer the following questions.
i. What is the median score?
ii. What are the upper and lower quartiles?
iii. What is the interquartile range?
iv. How many batteries lasted less than 60 hours?
v. How many batteries lasted 70 hours or more?
8. Calculate the IQR for the following data.
120−<130 2
130−<140 3
140−<150 9
150−<160 14
160−<170 10
170−<180 8
180−<190 6
190−<200 3
9. For each of the following sets of data, state: i the range and ii the IQR of each set.
a. 6, 9, 12, 13, 20, 22, 26, 29
b. 7, 15, 2, 26, 47, 19, 9, 33, 38
c. 120, 99, 101, 136, 119, 87, 123, 115, 107, 100
Reasoning
10. As newly appointed coach of Terrorolo’s Meteors netball team, Kate decided to record each player’s
statistics for the previous season. The number of goals scored by the leading goal shooter was:
1, 3, 8, 18, 19, 23, 25, 25, 25, 26, 27, 28,
28, 28, 28, 29, 29, 30, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40.
a. Find the mean of the data.
b. Find the median of the data.
c. Find the range of the data.
d. Find the interquartile range of the data.
e. There are three scores that are much lower than most. Explain the effect these scores have on the
summary statistics.
11. The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the ages of 30 pairs of men and women when
entering their first marriage.
Key: 1 ∣ 6 = 16 years old
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Men Women
998 1 67789
99887644320 2 001234567789
9888655432 3 01223479
6300 4 1248
60 5 2
a. Find the mean, median, range and interquartile range of each set.
b. Write a short paragraph comparing the two distributions.

Problem solving
12. Find the mean, median, mode, range and
IQR of the following data collected when
the temperature of the soil around 25
germinating seedlings was recorded: 28.9,
27.4, 23.6, 25.6, 21.1, 22.9, 29.6, 25.7,
27.4, 23.6, 22.4, 24.6, 21.8, 26.4, 24.9,
25.0, 23.5, 26.1, 23.6, 25.3, 29.5, 23.5,
22.0, 27.9, 23.6.
13. Four positive numbers a, b, c and d have a
mean of 12, a median and mode of 9 and a
range of 14. Find the values of a, b, c and d.
Reflection
What do measures of spread tell us about a set of data?
12.4 Box-and-whisker plots

12.4.1 Five-number summary
•• A five-number summary is a list consisting of the lowest score, lower quartile, median, upper quartile
and greatest score of a set of data.
Xmin Q1 Median (Q2) Q3 Xmax
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
From the following five-number summary, find:

a the interquartile range
b the range.
Xmin Q1 Median (Q2) Q3 Xmax
29 37 39 44 48
THINK WRITE
Q3 = 44, X max = 48
a The interquartile range is the difference a IQR = Q3 − Q1
between the upper and lower quartiles. = 44 − 37
=7
b The range is the difference between the b Range = X max − X min
greatest score and the lowest score. = 48 − 29
= 19
12.4.2 Box-and-whisker plots

•• A box-and-whisker plot (or boxplot) is a graph of the five-number summary.
•• Box-and-whisker plots consist of a central divided box with attached whiskers.
•• The box spans the interquartile range.
•• The median is marked by a vertical line drawn inside the box.

•• The whiskers indicate the range of scores:
The lowest The lower The The upper The greatest

score quartile median quartile score
Xmin Q1 Med. Q3 Xmax
(Lower extreme) (Upper extreme)
•• Box-and-whisker plots are always drawn to scale.

•• They are presented either with the five-number summary figures 4 15 21 23 28
attached as labels (diagram at right) or with a scale presented
alongside the box-and-whisker plot like the diagram below. They
can also be drawn vertically.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Scale
12.4.3 Identification of extreme values

•• If an extreme value or outlier occurs in a set of data, it can be denoted by a small cross on the box-
and-whisker plot. The whisker is then shortened to the next largest (or smallest) figure.
The box-and-whisker plot below shows that the lowest score was 5. This was an extreme value as
the rest of the scores were located within the range 15 to 42.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Scale
12.4.4 Describing distributions

Symmetry and skewness
•• A symmetrical plot has data that are evenly spaced around a central point. Examples of a stem-and-
leaf plot and a symmetrical boxplot are shown below.
Stem Leaf
26* 6
27 0 1 3
27* 5 6 8 9 x
20 22 24 26 28 30
28 0 1 1 1 2 4
28* 5 7 8 8
29 2 2 2
29* 5
•• A negatively skewed plot has larger amounts of data at the higher end. This is illustrated by the stem-
and-leaf plot below where the leaves increase in length as the data increase in value. It is illustrated on
the boxplot when the median is to the right within the box.
Stem Leaf
5 1
6 29
7 1122 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
8 144566
9 534456777

•• A positively skewed plot has larger amounts of data at the lower end. This is illustrated on the stem-
and-leaf plot below where the leaves increase in length as the data decrease in value. It is illustrated on
the boxplot when the median is to the left within the box.
Stem Leaf
5 134456777
6 244566
7 1122 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
8 16
9 5
The following stem-and-leaf plot gives the speed of 25 cars caught by a roadside speed camera.
Key: 8 | 2 = 82 km/h, 8* | 6 = 86 km/h
Stem Leaf
8 224444
8* 55667999
9 01124
9* 569
10 02
10*
11 4
a Prepare a five-number summary of the data.

b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. (Identify any extreme values.)
c Describe the distribution of the data.
THINK WRITE
1 First identify the positions of the median and upper The median is the 25 2+ 1th score — that is,
and lower quartiles. There are 25 data values. the 13th score.
n+1 Q1 is the 12 2+ 1th score in the lower half —
The median is the th score.
2 that is, the 6.5th score. That is, halfway
The lower quartile is the median of the lower between the 6th and 7th scores.
half of the data. The upper quartile is the Q3 is halfway between the 6th and 7th scores
median of the upper half of the data (each in the upper half of the data.
half contains 12 scores).
2 Mark the positions of the median and upper and 8 2 = 82 km/h
Key: 8*
lower quartiles on the stem-and-leaf plot. 6 = 86 km/h
Stem Leaf Q1
8 2 2 4 4 4 4| Median
8* 5 5 6 6 79 9 9
9 0 1 1 2 4|
9* 569
Q3
10 02
10*
11 4

a Write the five-number summary: a Five-number summary:
The lowest score is 82. Xmin Q1 Median Q3 Xmax
The lower quartile is between 84 and 85;
82 84.5 89 94.5 114
that is, 84.5.
The median is 89.
The upper quartile is between 94 and 95;
that is, 94.5.
The greatest score is 114.
b Draw a labelled axis using an appropriate scale. b Speed (km/h)
Plot the points from the five-number summary. 80 90 100 110
c Describe the distribution. c The data are skewed (positively).
12.4.5 Shapes of graphs

Boxplots and dot plots
•• Boxplots are a concise summary of data. A boxplot can be directly related to a dot plot.
•• Dot plots display each data value represented by a dot placed on a number line.
The following data are the amount of money (in $) that a group of 27 five-year-olds had with them on
a day visiting the zoo with their parents.
0 1.65 0 2.60 3 8.45 4 0.55 4.10 3.35 3.25
2 2.85 2.90 1.70 3.65 1 0 0 2.25 2.05 3
3.80 2.65 4.75 3.90 2.95
•• The dot plot below and its comparative boxplot show the distribution of these data.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Amount of money ($)
Both graphs indicate that the data are positively skewed. The dot plot clearly shows the presence of
the outlier. This is less obvious with the boxplot. However, the boxplot provides an excellent summary
of the centre and spread of the distribution.
Boxplots and histograms
•• Histograms are graphs that display continuous numerical variables and do not retain all original data.
•• The following data are the number of minutes, rounded to the nearest minute, that forty Year 10 students
take to travel to their school on a particular day.
15 22 14 12 21 34 19 11 13 0 16
4 23 8 12 18 24 17 14 3 10 12
9 15 20 5 19 13 17 11 16 19 24
12 7 14 17 10 14 23

The data are displayed in the histogram and boxplot shown.
16
14
Frequency
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of minutes
Both graphs indicate that the data are slightly positively skewed. The histogram clearly shows the
frequencies of each class interval. Neither graph displays the original values. The histogram does not
give precise information about the centre, but the distribution of the data is visible. However, the box-
plot provides an excellent summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.
12.4.6 Parallel boxplots

• A major reason for developing statistical skills is
to be able to make comparisons between sets of
data.
• Consider the following scenario.
– Each member of a class was given a jelly snake
to stretch. They each measured the initial length
of their snake to the nearest centimetre and then
slowly stretched the snake to make it as long
as possible. They then measured the maximum
length of the snake by recording how far it had stretched at the time it broke. The results were
recorded in the following table.
Initial length Stretched length Initial length Stretched length

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
13 29 14 27
14 28 13 27
17 36 15 36
10 24 16 36
14 35 15 36
16 36 16 34
15 37 17 35
16 37 12 27
14 30 9 17
16 33 16 41
17 36 17 38
16 38 16 36
17 38 17 41
14 31 16 33
17 40 11 21

– The data were then displayed on parallel boxplots, with the axis displaying in millimetres.
– By drawing the two boxplots on a single axis, it is easy to compare them.
Stretched
Initial
100 200 300 400 500

Length of snake in mm
The change in the length of the snake when stretched is evidenced by the increased median and spread
shown on the boxplots. The median snake length before being stretched was 150 mm, but the median snake
length after being stretched was 350 mm. The range increased after stretching, as did the IQR.
Exercise 12.4 Box-and-whisker plots

Individual pathways

1–7, 10, 13, 16, 19 1–8, 10–12, 14, 16, 19 1–20
 Individual pathway interactivity: int-4623 ONLINE ONLY
Fluency
1. WE7 From the following five-number summary find:
Xmin Q1 Median Q3 Xmax
6 11 13 16 32
a. the interquartile range
b. the range.
2. From the following five-number summary find:
101 119 122 125 128
b. the range.
3. From the following five-number summary find:
39.2 46.5 49.0 52.3 57.8
b. the range.
4. The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the 50 70 90 110 130 150 Points
distribution of final points scored by a football
team over a season’s roster.
a. What was the team’s greatest points score?
b. What was the team’s least points score?

c. What was the team’s median points score?
d. What was the range of points scored?
e. What was the interquartile range of points scored?
5. The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the distribution Number of
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 gummy bears
of data formed by counting the number of gummy bears
in each of a large sample of packs.
a. What was the largest number of gummy bears in
any pack?
b. What was the smallest number of gummy bears in
any pack?
c. What was the median number of gummy bears in
any pack?
d. What was the range of numbers of gummy bears
per pack?
e. What was the interquartile range of gummy bears
per pack?
Questions 6 to 8 refer to the following box-and-whisker plot.
5 10 15 20 25 30 Score
6. MC The median of the data is:

a. 20 b. 23 c. 25 d. 31
7. MC The interquartile range of the data is:
a. 23 b. 26 c. 5 d. 20 to 25
8. MC Which of the following is not true of the data represented by the box-and-whisker plot?
a. One-quarter of the scores are between 5 and 20.
b. Half of the scores are between 20 and 25.
c. The lowest quarter of the data is spread over a wide range.
d. Most of the data are contained between the scores of 5 and 20.
Understanding
9. The number of sales made each day by a salesperson is recorded over
a 2-week period:
25, 31, 28, 43, 37, 43, 22, 45, 48, 33
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data. (There is no need to draw
a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. Just arrange them in order of size.)
b. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
10. The data below show monthly rainfall in millimetres.
J F M A M J J A S O N D
10 12 21 23 39 22 15 11 22 37 45 30
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data.


11. WE8 The stem-and-leaf plot at right details the age of Key: 1 ∣ 8 = 18 years
25 offenders who were caught during random breath testing. Stem Leaf
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data. 1 88999
b. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. 2 000113469
c. Describe the distribution of the data.
3 0127
4 25
5 368
6 6
7 4
12. The following stem-and-leaf plot details the price at which
30 blocks of land in a particular suburb sold for.
Key: 12 ∣ 4 = $124 000
Stem Leaf
12 4 7 9
13 0 0 2 5 5
14 0 0 2 3 5 5 7 9 9
15 0 0 2 3 7 7 8
16 0 2 2 5 8
17 5
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data.
13. Prepare comparative boxplots for the following dot plots (using the same axis) and describe what each
plot reveals about the data.
a. Number of sick days taken by workers last year at factory A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b. Number of sick days taken by workers last year at factory B
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
14. An investigation into the transport needs of an outer suburb community
recorded the number of passengers boarding a bus during each of its
journeys, as follows.
12, 43, 76, 24, 46, 24, 21, 46, 54, 109, 87, 23, 78, 37, 22, 139, 65, 78, 89,
52, 23, 30, 54, 56, 32, 66, 49
Display the data by constructing a histogram using class intervals of
20 and a comparative boxplot on the same axis.
15. At a weight-loss clinic, the following weights (in kilograms) were recorded before and after treatment.
Before 75 80 75 140 77 89 97 123 128 95 152 92
After 69 66 72 118 74 83 89 117 105 81 134 85
Before 85 90 95 132 87 109 87 129 135 85 137 102

After 79 84 90 124 83 102 84 115 125 81 123 94
a. Prepare a five-number summary for weight before and after treatment.
b. Draw parallel boxplots for weight before and after treatment.
c. Comment on the comparison of weights before and after treatment.

Reasoning
16. The following data detail the number of hamburgers sold by
a fast food outlet every day over a 4-week period.
M T W T F S S
125 144 132 148 187 172 181
134 157 152 126 155 183 188
131 121 165 129 143 182 181
152 163 150 148 152 179 181
a. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. (Use a class size of 10.)
c. What do these graphs tell you about hamburger sales?
17. The following data show the ages of 30 mothers upon the birth of their first baby.
22 21 18 33 17 23 22 24 24 20
25 29 32 18 19 22 23 24 28 20
31 22 19 17 23 48 25 18 23 20
a. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. (Use a class size of 5.)
b. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. Indicate any extreme values appropriately.
c. Describe the distribution in words. What does the distribution say about the age that mothers have
their first baby?
18. MC Match the box-and-whisker plot with its most likely histogram.
a. f b. f
Size Size
c. f d. f
Size Size
Problem solving
19. Consider the box-and-whisker plot below which shows the number of weekly sales of houses by
two real estate agencies.
HJ Looker
Hane & Roarne
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of
weekly sales
a. What is the median number of weekly sales for each real estate agency?
b. Which agency had the greater range of sales?
c. Which agency had the greater interquartile range of sales?
d. Which agency performed better? Explain your answer.

20. Fifteen French restaurants were visited by three newspaper restaurant reviewers. The average price of
a meal for a single person was investigated. The following box-and-whisker plot shows the results.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Price in $
a. What was the price of the cheapest meal?

b. What was the price of the most expensive meal?
c. What is the median cost of a meal?
d. What is the interquartile range for the price of a meal?
e. What percentage of the prices were below the median?
Reflection
What advantages and disadvantages do box-and-whisker plots have as a visual form of
representing data?
12.5 The standard deviation

12.5.1 Standard deviation
•• The standard deviation for a set of data is a measure of how far the data values are spread out
(deviate) from the mean.
•• Deviation is the difference between each data value and the mean (x − x ). The standard deviation is
calculated from the square of the deviations.
•• Standard deviation is denoted by the Greek letter sigma, σ, and can be calculated by using the formula
√
∑ f(x − x) 2
σ=
n v
where x is the mean of the data values and n is the number of data values.
•• A low standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be close to the mean.
•• A high standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be spread out over a large range, away
from the mean.
•• Standard deviation can be calculated using a scientific or graphics calculator, or it can be calculated
from a frequency table by following the steps below.
Step 1 Calculate the mean. Step 2 Calculate the deviations.
Step 3 Square each deviation. Step 4 Sum the squares.
Step 5 Divide the sum of the squares by the Step 6 Take the square root of the result.
number of data values.
The number of lollies in each of 8 packets is 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19
1 Calculate the mean. x=
8
120
=
8
= 15

2 To calculate the deviations (x − x ), set up a No. of lollies (x) (x − x )
frequency table as shown and complete.
11 11 − 15 = −4
12 −3
13 −2
14 −1
16 1
17 2
18 3
19 4
Total
3 Add another column to the table to¯ calculate No. of lollies

2
the square of the deviations, (x − x) . (x) (x − x ) (x − x ) 2
Then sum the results: ∑ (x − x) 2.
11 11 − 15 = −4 16
12 −3 9
13 −2 4
14 −1 1
16 1 1
17 2 4
18 3 9
19 4 16
Total
∑ (x − x) 2 = 60
4 To calculate the standard deviation, divide
σ =√
∑ (x − x )
2
the sum of the squares by the number of data
values, then take the square root of the result. n
=√
60
8
≈ 2.74 (correct to 2 decimal places)
5 Check the result using a calculator. The calculator returns an answer of σn = 2.738 61.
Answer confirmed.
6 Interpret the result. The average (mean) number of lollies in each pack
is 15 with a standard deviation of 2.74, which means
that the number of lollies in each pack differs from
the mean by an average of 2.74.
•• When calculating the standard deviation from a frequency table, the frequencies must be taken into
account. Therefore, the following formula is used.
√
∑ f(x − x) 2
σ=
n

Lucy’s scores in her last 12 games of golf were 87, 88, 88, 89, 90, 90, 90, 92, 93, 93, 95 and 97.
Calculate the mean score and the standard deviation correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1 To calculate the mean, first set Golf score (x) Frequency (f) fx
up a frequency table. 87 1 87
88 2 176
89 1 89
90 3 270
92 1 92
93 2 186
95 1 95
97 1 97
Total ∑ f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092
∑ fx
2 Calculate the mean. x=
∑f
1092
=
12
= 91
3 To calculate the deviations Golf Frequency
(x − x ), add another column score (x) (f) fx (x − x )
to the frequency table and 87 1 87 87 − 91 = −4
complete. 88 2 176 –3
89 1 89 –2
90 3 270 –1
92 1 92 1
93 2 186 2
95 1 95 4
97 1 97 6
Total ∑f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092
4 Add another column to the Golf

table and multiply the square score Frequency
of the deviations, (x − x ) 2, by (x) (f) fx (x − x) f (x − x)2
the frequency f(x − x ) 2. 87 1 87 87 − 91 = −4 1 × (−4)2 = 16
Then sum the results: 88 2 176 –3 18
89 1 89 –2 4
∑ f(x − x ) 2. 90 3 270 –1 3
92 1 92 1 1
93 2 186 2 8
95 1 95 4 16
97 1 97 6 36
Total ∑ f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092 ∑ f(x − x)2 = 102

5 Calculate the standard
σ=√
∑ f(x − x) 2
deviation using the formula.
n
=√
120
12
≈ 2.92
(correct to 2 decimal places)
6 Check the result using a The calculator returns an answer of σn = 2.915 48.
calculator. The answer is confirmed.
7 Interpret the result. The average (mean) score for Lucy is 91 with a standard deviation
of 2.92, which means that her score differs from the mean by an
average of 2.92.
12.5.2 Why the deviations are squared

•• For large data sets that are symmetrically distributed, the sum of the deviations is usually zero, that
is, ∑ (x − x ) = 0. When the mean is greater than the data value (x > x), the deviation is negative.
When the mean is smaller than the data value (x < x), the deviation is positive. The negative and posi-
tive deviations cancel each other out; therefore, calculating the sum and average of the deviations is
not useful. This explains why the standard deviation is calculated using the squares of the deviations,
(x − x) 2, for all data values.
12.5.3 Standard deviations of populations and samples

•• So far we have calculated the standard deviation for a population of data, that is, for complete sets of
data. There is another formula for calculating standard deviation for samples of data, that is, data that
have been randomly selected from a larger population.
•• For example, a sample of 100 Year 10 students from New South Wales is taken to determine the
amount of time they spend on their mobile phones. In this case, the standard deviation formula,
denoted by s, that would apply is
√
∑ f(x − x) 2
s=
n−1
•• The calculator usually displays both values for the standard deviation, so it is important to understand
the difference between them. However, in this course we will use the formula for populations, σ.
12.5.4 Effects on standard deviation

•• The standard deviation is affected by extreme values.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
On a particular day Lucy played golf brilliantly and scored

60. The scores in her previous 12 games of golf were 87, 88,
88, 89, 90, 90, 90, 92, 93, 93, 95 and 97 (see Worked example 10).
Comment on the effect this latest score has on the
standard deviation.

THINK WRITE
1 Use a calculator to cal- x = 88.6154 σ = 8.7225
culate the mean and the ≈ 88.62 ≈ 8.72
standard deviation.
2 Interpret the result and In the first 12 games Lucy’s mean score was 91 with a standard
compare it to the results deviation of 2.92. This implied that Lucy’s scores on average were
found in Worked 2.92 either side of her average of 91. Lucy’s latest performance resulted
example 10. in a mean score of 88.62 with a standard deviation of 8.72. This indi-
cates a slightly lower mean score, but the much higher standard devia-
tion indicates that the data are now much more spread out and that the
extremely good score of 60 is an anomaly.
12.5.5 Properties of standard deviation

•• If a constant c is added to all data values in a set, the deviations (x − x ) will remain unchanged and
consequently the standard deviation remains unchanged.
•• If all data values in a set are multiplied by a constant k, the deviations (x − x ) will be multiplied by k,
that is k(x − x ); consequently the standard deviation is increased by a factor of k.
•• Standard deviation can be used to measure consistency.
•• When the standard deviation is low we are able to say that the scores in the data set are more consist-
ent with each other.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
For the data 5, 9, 6, 11, 10, 7:

a calculate the standard deviation
b calculate the standard deviation if 4 is added to each data value. Comment on the effect.
c calculate the standard deviation if all data values are multiplied by 2. Comment on the effect.
THINK WRITE
5 + 9 + 6 + 11 + 10 + 7
a 1 Calculate the mean. a x=
6
=8
2 Set up a frequency table and enter the (x) (x − x ) (x − x) 2
squares of the deviations.
5 5 − 8 = −3 9
6 –2 4
7 –1 1
9 1 1
10 2 4
11 3 9
Total ∑ (x − x) 2 = 28

3 To calculate the standard deviation,
√
∑
(x − x)2
apply the formula for standard
σ=
deviation. n
=√
28
6
≈ 2.16
b 1 Add 4 to each data value in the set. b 9, 13, 10, 15, 14, 11
2 Calculate the mean. 9 + 13 + 10 + 15 + 14 + 11
x=
6
= 12
3 Set up a frequency table and enter the (x) (x−x) (x−x) 2
9 9 − 12 = −3 9
10 –2 4
11 –1 1
13 1 1
14 2 4
15 3 9
Total ∑ (x−x)
2
= 28
√
∑
(x − x)2
apply the formula for standard
σ=
deviation. n
=√
28
6
≈ 2.16
5 Comment on the effect of adding of 4 to Adding 4 to each data value increased the mean
each data value. but had no effect on the standard deviation, which
remained at 2.16.
c 1 Multiply each data value in the set by 2. c 10, 18, 12, 22, 20, 14
2 Calculate the mean. 10 + 18 + 12 + 22 + 20 + 14
x=
6
= 16
3 Set up a frequency table and enter the (x) (x − x ) (x−x) 2
10 10 − 16 = −6 36
12 −4 16
14 −2 4
18 2 4
20 4 16
22 6 36
Total ∑ (x − x) 2 = 112

σ=√
∑ (x − x) 2
=√
apply the formula for standard 112
deviation. n 6
≈ 4.32
5 Comment on the effect of multiplying Multiplying each data value by 2 doubled the mean
each data value by 2. and doubled the standard deviation, which changed
from 2.16 to 4.32.
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Univariate data II (doc-14596)
Exercise 12.5 The standard deviation

Individual pathways

1–7, 9, 10, 13 1–11, 13 1–14
Fluency
1. WE9 Calculate the standard deviation of each of the following data sets, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. 3, 5, 8, 2, 7, 1, 6, 5 b. 11, 8, 7, 12, 10, 11, 14
c. 25, 15, 78, 35, 56, 41, 17, 24 d. 5.2, 4.7, 5.1, 12.6, 4.8
2. WE10 Calculate the standard deviation of each of the following data sets, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. Score (x) Frequency (f ) b. Score (x) Frequency (f )
1 1 16 15
2 5 17 24
3 9 18 26
4 7 19 28
5 3 20 27
c.

Score (x) Frequency (f ) d. Score (x) Frequency (f )
8 15 65 15
10 19 66 15
67 16
12 18
68 17
14 7 69 16
16 6 70 15
18 2 71 15
72 12

3. Complete the following frequency distribution table and use the table to calculate the standard
deviation of the data set, correct to 2 decimal places.
Class Class centre (x) Frequency ( f)
1–10 6
11–20 15
21–30 25
31–40 8
41–50 6
4. First-quarter profit increases for 8 leading companies are given below as percentages.
2.3 0.8 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.9
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
5. The heights in metres of a group of army recruits are given below.
1.8 1.95 1.87 1.77 1.75 1.79 1.81 1.83 1.76 1.80 1.92 1.87 1.85 1.83
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
Key: 11 ∣ 0 = 11.0 s
6. Times (to the nearest tenth of a second) for the heats in the
open 100 m sprint at the school sports are given at right. Stem Leaf
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and 11 0
express your answer correct to 2 decimal places. 11 2 3
11 4 4 5
11 6 6
11 8 8 9
12 0 1
12 2 2 3
12 4 4
12 6
12 9
7. The number of outgoing phone calls from an office each day Key: 1 ∣ 3 = 13 calls
over a 4-week period is shown on the stem plot at right. Stem Leaf
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and 0 89
express your answer correct to 2 decimal places. 1 3479
8. MC A new legal aid service has been operational for only 5 2 01377
weeks. The number of people who have made use of the 3 34
service each day during this period is set out below. 4 15678
Key: 1 ∣ 6 = 16 people 5 38
Stem Leaf
0 24
0 779
1 014444
1 5667889
2 122333
2 7
The standard deviation (to 2 decimal places) of these data is:
a. 6.00 b. 6.34 c. 6.47 d. 15.44

Understanding
9. WE11 The speeds, in km/h, of the first 25 cars caught by a roadside speed camera on a particular
day were:
82, 82, 84, 84, 84, 84, 85, 85, 85, 86, 86, 87, 89, 89, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102
The next car that passed the speed camera was travelling at 140 km/h. Comment on the effect of the
speed of this last car on the standard deviation for the data.
Reasoning
10. WE12 For the data 1, 4, 5, 9, 11:
a. calculate the standard deviation
b. calculate the standard deviation if 7 is added to each data value. Comment on the effect.
c. calculate the standard deviation if all data values are multiplied by 3. Comment on the effect.
11. Show using an example the effect, if any, on the standard deviation of adding a data value to a set of
data that is equivalent to the mean.
12. If the mean for a set of data is 45 and the standard deviation is 6, how many standard deviations above
the mean is a data value of 57?
Problem solving
13. Five numbers a, b, c, d and e have a mean of 12 and a standard deviation of 4.
a. If each number is increased by 3, find the new mean and standard deviation in terms of the original
mean and standard deviation.
b. If each number is multiplied by 3, find the new mean and standard deviation in terms of the original
mean and standard deviation.
14. Twenty-five students sat a test and the results for 24 Stem Leaf
of the students are given in the following stem-and-leaf 0 89
plot. 1 123789
a. If the average mark for the test was 27.84, determine 2 23568
the mark obtained by the 25th student.
3 012468
b. How many students scored higher than the median
4 02568
score?
c. Find the standard deviation of the marks, giving your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Reflection
What does the standard deviation tell us about a set of data?

12.6 Comparing data sets
12.6.1 Comparing data sets
•• Besides locating the centre of the data (the mean, median or mode), any analysis of data must measure
the extent of the spread of the data (range, interquartile range and standard deviation). Two data sets
may have centres that are very similar but be quite differently distributed.
•• Decisions need to be made about which measure of centre and which measure of spread to use when
analysing and comparing data.
•• The mean is calculated using every data value in the set. The median is the middle score of an ordered
set of data, so it does not include every individual data value in its calculation. The mode is the most fre-
quently occurring data value, so it also does not include every individual data value in its calculation.
•• The range is calculated by finding the difference between the maximum and minimum data values, so
it includes outliers. It provides only a rough idea about the spread of the data and is inadequate in
providing sufficient detail for analysis. It is useful, however, when we are interested in extreme values
such as high and low tides or maximum and minimum temperatures.
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles, so it does not include
every data value in its calculation, but it will overcome the problem of outliers skewing data.
The standard deviation is calculated using every data value in the set.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
For the two sets of data 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12, 4, 10, 11, 3:

a calculate the mean
b calculate the standard deviation
c comment on the similarities and differences.
THINK WRITE
6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
a 1 Calculate the a x1 =
5
mean of the first =8
set of data.
12 + 4 + 10 + 11 + 3
2 Calculate the x2 =
5
mean of the =8
second set of data.
b 1 Calculate the b
√
(6 − 8) 2 + (7 − 8) 2 + (8 − 8) 2 + (9 − 8) 2 + (10 − 8) 2
standard deviation σ1 =
5
of the first set of
data. ≈ 1.41
2 Calculate the
√
(12 − 8) 2 + (4 − 8) 2 + (10 − 8) 2 + (11 − 8) 2 + (3 − 8) 2
standard deviation σ2 =
5
of the second set
of data. ≈ 3.74
c Comment on the c For both sets of data the mean was the same, 8. However, the standard
findings. deviation for the second set (3.74) was much higher than the standard
deviation of the first set (1.41), implying that the second set is more
widely distributed than the first. This is confirmed by the range, which
is 10 − 6 = 4 for the first set and 12 − 3 = 9 for the second.

•• When multiple data displays are used to display similar sets of data, comparisons and conclusions can
then be drawn about the data.
•• We can use back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots and multiple or parallel box-and-whisker plots to help
compare statistics such as the median, range and interquartile range.
Below are the scores achieved by two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year.
John: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Penny: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a Determine the most appropriate measure of centre and measure of spread to compare the
performance of the students.
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
THINK WRITE
a In order to include all data values in the a John: x = 57, σ = 6
calculation of measures of centre and spread, Penny: x = 57.5, σ = 17.4
calculate the mean and standard deviation.
b Compare the mean for each student. The b Penny performed slightly better on average as
student with the higher mean performed her mean mark was higher than John’s.
better overall.
c Compare the standard deviation for each c John was the more consistent student because his
student. The student with the lower standard standard deviation was much lower than Penny’s.
deviation performed more consistently. This means that his test results were closes to his
mean score than Penny’s were to hers.
Try out this interactivity: Parallel boxplots (int-2788)
Exercise 12.6 Comparing data sets

Individual pathways

1–7, 9, 10, 12, 14 1–12, 15 1–18
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every q uestion,

Fluency
1. WE13 For the two sets of data 65, 67, 61, 63, 62, 60 and 56, 70, 65, 72, 60, 55:
a. calculate the mean
b. calculate the standard deviation
c. comment on the similarities and differences.
2. A bank surveys the average morning and afternoon waiting times for customers. The figures were
taken each Monday to Friday in the morning and afternoon for one month. The stem-and-leaf plot
below shows the results.
Key: 1 ∣ 2 = 1.2 minutes
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Morning Afternoon
7 0 788
86311 1 1124456667
9666554331 2 2558
952 3 16
5 4
5 7
a. Find the median morning waiting time and the median afternoon waiting time.
b. Calculate the range for morning waiting times and the range for afternoon waiting times.
c. What conclusions can be made from the display about the average waiting time at the bank in the
morning compared with the afternoon?
3. In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured (in metres) and are
listed below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66,
1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59, 1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69,
1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
4. The stem-and-leaf plot at right is used to display the number Key: 1 ∣ 5 = 15 vehicles
of vehicles sold by the Ford and Holden dealerships in a
Leaf: Ford Stem Leaf: Holden
Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
74 0 39
a. State the median of both distributions.
b. Calculate the range of both distributions. 952210 1 111668
c. Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions. 8544 2 2279
d. Show both distributions on a box-and-whisker plot. 0 3 5
5. The box-and-whisker plot drawn below displays
statistical data of two AFL teams over a season.
Sydney Swans
Brisbane Lions
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Points
a. Which team had the higher median score?

b. What was the range of scores for each team?
c. For each team calculate the interquartile range.

Understanding
6. Tanya measures the heights (in m) of a group of Year
10 boys and girls and produces the following
five-point summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.45, 1.56, 1.62, 1.70, 1.81
Girls: 1.50, 1.55, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a. Draw a box-and-whisker plot for both sets of data
and display them on the same scale.
b. What is the median of each distribution?
c. What is the range of each distribution?
d. What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e. Comment on the spread of the heights among
the boys and the girls.
Summer
7. The box-and-whisker plots at right show the average
daily sales of cold drinks at the school canteen in
Winter
summer and winter.
a. Calculate the range of sales in both summer and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Daily sales
of cold
winter. drinks
b. Calculate the interquartile range of the sales in both summer and winter.
c. Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms of measures of centre and
measures of spread.
8. MC Andrea surveys the age of people at two movies being Movie A
shown at a local cinema. The box-and-whisker plot at right
shows the results. Movie B
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn based 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age
on the above information?
a. Movie A attracts an older audience than Movie B.
b. Movie B attracts an older audience than Movie A.
c. Movie A appeals to a wider age group than Movie B.
d. Movie B appeals to a wider age group than Movie A.
The figures below show the age of the first 10 men and women to finish a marathon.
Men: 28, 34, 25, 36, 25, 35, 22, 23, 40, 24
Women: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Which of the following statements is correct?
a. The mean age of the men is greater than the mean age of the women.
b. The range is greater among the men than among the women.
c. The interquartile range is greater among the men than among the women.
d. The standard deviation is greater among the men than among the women.
Reasoning
10. WE14 Cory recorded his marks for each test that he did in English and Science throughout the year.
English: 55, 64, 59, 56, 62, 54, 65, 50
Science: 35, 75, 81, 32, 37, 62, 77, 75
a. In which subject did Cory achieve the better average mark?
b. In which subject was Cory more consistent? Explain your answer.

11. The police set up two radar speed checks on a back street of Sydney and on a main road. In both
places the speed limit is 60 km/h. The results of the first 10 cars that have their speed checked are
given below.
Back street: 60, 62, 58, 55, 59, 56, 65, 70, 61, 64
Main road: 55, 58, 59, 50, 40, 90, 54, 62, 60, 60
a. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the readings taken at each point.
b. On which road are drivers generally driving faster?
c. On which road is the spread of the reading taken greater? Justify your answer.
12. Nathan and Timana are wingers in their local rugby league team. The number of tries they have scored
in each season are listed below.
Nathan: 25, 23, 13, 36, 1, 8, 0, 9, 16, 20
Timana: 5, 10, 12, 14, 18, 11, 8, 14, 12, 19
a. Calculate the mean number of tries scored by each player.
b. What is the range of tries scored by each player?
c. What is the interquartile range of tries scored by each player?
d. Which player would you consider to be the more consistent player? Justify your answer.
13. In boxes of Smarties it is advertised that there are 50 Smarties in each box. Two machines are used to
distribute the Smarties into the boxes. The results from a sample taken from each machine are shown
in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 5 ∣ 1 = 51 5* ∣ 6 = 56
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Machine A Machine B
4 4
9 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4* 5 7 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3
5 5 5* 9
a. Display the data from both machines on parallel
box-and-whisker plots.
b. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of
the number of Smarties distributed from both
machines.
c. Which machine is the more dependable? Justify your
answer.
14. Year 10 students at Merrigong High School sit exams in
Science and Maths. The results are shown in the table
below.
Mark Number of students in Science Number of students in Maths
51–60 7 6
61–70 10 7
71–80 8 12
81–90 8 9
91–100 2 6
a. Is either distribution symmetrical?
b. If either distribution is not symmetrical, state whether it is positively or negatively skewed.
c. Discuss the possible reasons for any skewness.

d. State the modal class of each distribution.
e. In which subject is the standard deviation greater? Explain your answer.
15. Draw an example of a graph that is:
a. symmetrical
b. positively skewed with one mode
c. negatively skewed with two modes.
16. A new drug for the relief of cold symptoms has been developed. To test the drug, 40 people were
exposed to a cold virus. Twenty patients were then given a dose of the drug while another 20 patients
were given a placebo. (In medical tests a control group is often given a placebo drug. The subjects in
this group believe that they have been given the real drug but in fact their dose contains no drug at
all.) All participants were then asked to indicate the time when they first felt relief of symptoms. The
number of hours from the time the dose was administered to the time when the patients first felt relief
of symptoms are detailed below.
Group A (drug)
25 29 32 45 18 21 37 42 62 13
42 38 44 42 35 47 62 17 34 32
Group B (placebo)
25 17 35 42 35 28 20 32 38 35
34 32 25 18 22 28 21 24 32 36
a. Detail the data on a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b. Display the data for both groups on a box-and-whisker plot.
c. Make comparisons of the data. Use statistics in your answer.
d. Does the drug work? Justify your answer.
e. What other considerations should be taken into account when trying to draw conclusions from
an experiment of this type?
Problem solving
17. The heights of Year 10 and Year 12 students (to the nearest centimetre) are being investigated.
The results of some sample data are shown below.
Year 10 160 154 157 170 167 164 172 158 177 180 175 168 159 155 163 163 169 173 172 170
Year 12 160 172 185 163 177 190 183 181 176 188 168 167 166 177 173 172 179 175 174 180
a. Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
b. Draw a parallel boxplot.
c. Comment on what the plots tell you about the heights of Year 10 and Year 12 students.

18. Kloe compares her English and Maths marks. The results of eight tests in each subject are shown below.
English: 76, 64, 90, 67, 83, 60, 85, 37
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62
a. Calculate Kloe’s mean mark in each subject.
b. Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c. Calculate the standard deviation of marks in each subject.
d. Based on the above data, in which subject would you say that Kloe has performed more consistently?
Reflection
Which data display is best for comparing data sets?
CHALLENGE 12.2
A sample of 50 students was surveyed on whether they owned an iPod or a mobile phone.
The results showed that 38 per cent of the students owned both. Sixty per cent of the
students owned a mobile phone and there were four students who had an iPod only. What
percentage of students did not own a mobile phone or an iPod?
12.7 Review
Fluency
1. Find the mean, median and mode for each of the following sets of data:
a. 7, 15, 8, 8, 20, 14, 8, 10, 12, 6, 19
b. Key: 1 ∣ 2 = 12 c. Score (x) Frequency ( f )
Stem Leaf 70 2
1 26 71 6
2 178 72 9
3 033468 73 7
4 01159
74 4
5 136
2. For each of the following data sets, find the range.

a. 4, 3, 6, 7, 2, 5, 8, 4, 3
b. x 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
f 3 6 7 12 6 7 8
c. Key: 1 ∣ 8 = 18
Stem Leaf
1 7889
2 12445777899
3 0001347

3. For each of the following data sets, find the interquartile range.
a. 18, 14, 15, 19, 20, 11, 16, 19, 18, 19
b. Key: 9 ∣ 8 = 9.8
Stem Leaf
8 7889
9 02445777899
10 0 1 1 1 3
4. The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the typing speed in words per minute (wpm) of
30 Year 8 and Year 10 students.
Key: 2 ∣ 6 = 26 wpm
Leaf Year 8 Stem Leaf Year 10
99 0
9865420 1 79
988642100 2 23689
9776410 3 02455788
86520 4 1258899
5 03578
6 003
a. Using a calculator or otherwise, construct a pair of parallel box-and-whisker plots to represent the
two sets of data.
b. Find the mean, median, range, interquartile range and standard deviation of each set.
c. Compare the two distributions, using your answers to parts a and b.
5. Consider the box-and-whisker plot drawn below.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Score
a. Find the median.
b. Find the range.
c. Find the interquartile range.
6. The following data give the amount of cut meat (in kg) obtained from each of 20 lambs.
4.5 6.2 5.8 4.7 4.0 3.9 6.2 6.8 5.5 6.1
5.9 5.8 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.3 4.2 4.8
a. Detail the data on a stem-and-leaf plot. (Use a class size of 0.5 kg.)
b. Prepare a five-point summary of the data.
c. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
7. Find the standard deviation of each of the following data sets correct to one decimal place.
a. 58, 12, 98, 45, 60, 34, 42, 71, 90, 66
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 6 12 8 5
b. Key: 1 ∣ 4 = 14
Stem Leaf
0 1344578
1 00012245789
2 022357

8. The Millers obtained a number of quotes on the price of having their home painted. The quotes, to the
nearest hundred dollars, were:
4200 5100 4700 4600
4800 5000 4700 4900
The standard deviation for this set of data, to the nearest whole dollar, is:
a. 260 b. 278 c. 324 d. 325
9. The number of Year 12 students who, during semester 2, spent all their spare periods studying in the
resource centre is shown on the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 2 ∣ 5 = 25 students
Stem Leaf
0 8
1
2 5667
3 02369
4 79
5 6
6 1
The standard deviation for this set of data, to the nearest whole number is:
a. 12 b. 14 c. 17 d. 35
10. Each week, varying amounts of a chemical are added to a filtering system. The amounts required
(in mL) over the past 20 weeks are shown in the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 3 ∣ 8 represents 0.38 mL
Stem Leaf
2 1
2 22
2 4445
2 66
2 8899
3 0
3 22
3 45
3 6
3 8
Calculate to 2 decimal places the standard deviation of the amounts used.
Problem solving
11. A sample of 30 people was selected at random from those attending a local swimming pool. Their
ages (in years) were recorded as follows:
19 7 58 41 17 23 62 55
40 37 32 29 21 18 16 10
40 36 33 59 65 68 15 9
20 29 38 24 10 30
a. Find the mean and the median age of the people in this sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of 10 (0–9 etc.) and complete the frequency distribution table.
c. Use the frequency distribution table to estimate the mean age.
d. Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence, plot the ogive.

e. Estimate the median age from the ogive.
f. Compare the mean and median of the original data in part a with the estimates of the mean and the
median obtained for the grouped data in parts c and e.
g. Were the estimates good enough? Explain your answer.
12. Consider the data set represented by the frequency histogram at right. 10
a. Are the data symmetrical? 9
b. Can the mean and median of the data be seen? If so, what are their values? 8
7
c. What is the mode of the data? 6
13. The table below shows the number of cars that are garaged at each house in a
Frequency
5
certain street each night. 4
3
Number of cars Frequency 2
1
1 9 0
1 2 3 4 5
2 6 Score
3 2
4 1
5 1
a. Show these data in a frequency histogram.
b. Are the data positively or negatively skewed? Justify your answer.
14. Find the mean, median and mode of this data set: 2, 5, 6, 2, 5, 7, 8. Comment on the shape of the
distribution.
15. A data set has a mean of 75 and a standard deviation of 5. Another score of 50 is added to the data
set. Which of the following will occur?
a. The mean will increase and the standard deviation will increase.
b. The mean will increase and the standard deviation will decrease.
c. The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will increase.
d. The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will decrease.
16. Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
A data set has a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 10. A score of 100 is added to the data set.
This score becomes the highest score in the data set. Which of the following will increase?
a. Mean b. Standard deviation c. Range d. Interquartile range
m
17. There are 3m values in a data set for which x = m and σ = .
2
a. Comment on the changes to the mean and standard deviation if each value of the data set is
multiplied by m.
b. An additional value is added to the original data set, giving a new mean of m + 2. Find the additional
value.
18. The following data show the number of pets in each of the 12 houses in Coral Avenue, Rosebud.
2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 1, 1, 0
a. Calculate the mean and median number of pets.
b. The empty block of land at the end of the street was bought by a Cattery and now houses 20 cats.
Recalculate the mean and median.
c. Explain why the answers are so different, and which measure of central tendency is best used for
certain data.
19. The number of Year 10 students in all the 40 schools in the Northern District of the Education
Department was recorded as follows:
56, 134, 93, 67, 123, 107, 167, 124, 108, 78, 89, 99, 103, 107, 110, 45, 112, 127, 106, 111,
127, 145, 87, 75, 90, 123, 100, 87, 116, 128, 131, 106, 123, 87, 105, 112, 145, 115, 126, 92

a. Using an interval of 10, produce a table showing the frequency for each interval.
b. Use the table to estimate the mean.
c. Calculate the mean of the ungrouped data.
d. Compare the results from parts b and c and explain any differences.
Language
effectively. Create a summary of the topic using the key terms below. You can present your summary in
writing or using a concept map, a poster or technology.
box-and-whisker plot histogram percentile
cumulative frequency curve interquartile range positively skewed
data interval quartile
data sets mean range
dot plot measures of central tendency score
extreme values median skewed
five-number summary modal class skewness
frequency mode spread
frequency distribution negatively skewed stem-and-leaf plot
frequency distribution table ogive symmetrical
grouped data outlier

www.assesson.com.au

Cricket scores
Data are used to predict, analyse, compare and measure many
aspects of the game of cricket. Attendance is tallied at every
match. Players’ scores are analysed to see if they should be
kept on the team. Comparisons of bowling and batting averages
are used to select winners for awards. Runs made, wickets
taken, no-balls bowled, the number of ducks scored in a game
as well as the number of 4s and 6s are all counted and analysed
after the game. Data of all sorts are gathered and recorded, and
measures of central tendency and spread are then calculated
and interpreted.
Sets of data have been made available for you to analyse, and
decisions based on the resultant measures can be made.
Batting averages
The following table shows the runs scored by four cricketers who are vying for selection to the state
team.
Player Runs in the last 25 matches Mean Median Range IQR
Allan 13, 18, 23, 21, 9, 12, 31, 21, 20, 18, 14, 16, 28,
17, 10, 14, 9, 23, 12, 24, 0, 18, 14, 14, 20
Shane 2, 0, 112, 11, 0, 0, 8, 0, 10, 0, 56, 4, 8, 164, 6,
12, 2, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 8, 18, 0
Glenn 12, 0, 45, 23, 0, 8, 21, 32, 6, 0, 8, 14, 1, 27, 23,
43, 7, 45, 2, 32, 0, 6, 11, 21, 32
Rod 2, 0, 3, 12, 0, 2, 5, 8, 42, 0, 12, 8, 9, 17, 31, 28,
21, 42, 31, 24, 30, 22, 18, 20, 31
1. Find the mean, median, range and IQR scored for each cricketer.
2. You need to recommend the selection of two of the four cricketers. For each player, write two
points as to why you would or would not select them. Use statistics in your comments.
a. Allan ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b. Shane ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c. Glenn ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d. Rod _______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Bowling averages
The bowling average is the number of runs per wicket taken
no. of runs scored
Bowling average =
no. of wickets taken
The smaller the average, the better the bowler has performed.
Brad and Dennis were competing for three bowling awards:
• Best in semifinal
•• Best in final
•• Best overall
The following table gives their scores.
Semifinal Final
Runs scored Wickets taken Runs scored Wickets taken
Brad 12 5 28 6
Dennis 10 4 15 3
3. Calculate the bowling averages for the following and fill in the table below.
•• Semifinal
•• Final
•• Overall
Semifinal average Final average Overall average

Brad
Dennis
4. Explain how Dennis can have the better overall average when Brad has the better average in both
the semifinal and final.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Medical discovery of 1928 (doc-15939)

Answers
Topic 12 Univariate data
Exercise 12.2 Measures of central tendency
1. a. i. 7 ii. 8 iii. 8
b. i. 6.875 ii. 7 iii. 4, 7
c. i. 39.125 ii. 44.5 iii. No mode
d. i. 4.857 ii. 4.8 iii. 4.8
e. i. 12 ii. 12.625 iii. 13.5
2. Science: mean = 57.6, median = 57, mode = 42, 51
Maths: mean = 69.12, median = 73, mode = 84
3. a. i. 5.83 ii. 6 iii. 6
b. i. 14.425 ii. 15 iii. 15
4. a. Mean = 2.5, median = 2.5 b. Mean = 4.09, median = 3 c. Median
5. a. 72 23 b. 73 c. 70−<80
6. 124.83
7. 65−<70
8. a. B b. B c. C d. D
9. a. Mean = $32.93, median = $30
b. Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency
0–9 5 5
10–19 5 10
20–29 5 15
30–39 3 18
40–49 5 23
50–59 3 26
60–69 3 29
70–79 1 30
Total 30
Mean = $32.50, median = $30

c. 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Amount spent ($)
d. The mean is slightly underestimated; the median is exact. The estimate is good enough as it provides a guide only to the
amount that may be spent by future customers.
10. a. 3 b. 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 (one possible solution)
c. One possible solution is to exchange 15 with 20.
11. a. Frequency column: 16, 6, 4, 2, 1, 1 b. 6.8
c. 0–4 hours d. 0–4 hours
12. a. Frequency column: 1, 13, 2, 0, 1, 8 b. Age of emergency
15 ward patients
Frequency
10
0
7.5 22.5 37.5 52.5 67.5 82.5
Age

c. Asymmetrical or bimodal (as if the data come from two separate graphs).
d. 44.1 e. 15−<30 f. 15−<30
g. 26 h. 28 i. No

Cumulative frequency 100%
24
22
20
18
16
14
12 50%
10
8
6
4
2
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Age
j. Class discussion
13. a. Player A median = 34.33, Player B median = 41.83
b. Player B
c. Player A median = 32.5, Player B median = 0
d. Player A
e. Player A is more consistent. One large score can distort the mean.
14. a. Frequency column: 3, 8, 5, 3, 1
b. 50.5 c. 40−<50 d. 40−<50
e. Ogive of pulse rate
of female athletes
20 100%
15
10 50%
5
30 50 70
Beats per minute
f. Approximately 48 beats/min
15. A
17. Answers will vary. Examples given.
a. 3, 4, 5, 5, 8 b. 4, 4, 5, 10, 16 c. 2, 3, 6, 6, 12
18. 12
2a + b
19.
3
Challenge 12.1
13, 31, 31, 47, 53, 59
Exercise 12.3 Measures of spread
1. a. 15 b. 77.1 c. 9
2. a. 7 b. 7 c. 8.5 d. 39
3. a. 3.3 kg b. 1.5 kg
4. 22 cm
5. 0.8
6. C
7. a.
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Battery life (h)

b. i. 62.5 ii. Q1 = 58, Q3 = 67 iii. 9
iv. 14 v. 6
8. IQR = 27
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
120130 140 150160170180190 200
Class interval
9. a. i. Range = 23 ii. IQR = 13.5

b. i. Range = 45 ii. IQR = 27.5
c. i. Range = 49 ii. IQR = 20
10. a. 25.5 b. 28 c. 39 d. 6
e. The three lower scores affect the mean but not the median or mode.
11. a. Men: mean = 32.3; median = 32.5; range = 38; IQR = 14
Women: mean = 29.13; median = 27.5; range = 36; IQR = 13
b. Typically, women marry younger than men, although the spread of ages is similar.
12. Mean = 25.036, median = 24.9, mode = 23.6

range = 8.5, IQR = 3.4
13. a = 22, b = 9, c = 9 and d = 8
Exercise 12.4 Box-and-whisker plots
1. a. 5 b. 26
2. a. 6 b. 27
3. a. 5.8 b. 18.6
4. a. 140 b. 56 c. 90 d. 84 e. 26
5. a. 58 b. 31 c. 43 d. 27 e. 7
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. a. (22, 28, 35, 43, 48) b. 20 30 40 50 Sales
10. a. (10, 13.5, 22, 33.5, 45) b. 0 10 20 30 40 50 Rainfall (mm)
11. a. (18, 20, 26, 43.5, 74) b. 10 30 50 70 Age
c. The distribution is positively skewed, with most of the offenders being young drivers.
12. a. (124 000, 135 000, 148 000, 157 000, 175 000) b. 120 140 160 180 ($×1000)
13. a. b.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Both graphs indicate that the data is slightly positively Both graphs indicate that the data is slightly negatively
skewed. However, the boxplot provides an excellent skewed. However, the boxplot provides an excellent
summary of the centre and spread of the distribution. summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.

14.
10
Frequency 8
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Number of passengers on bus journeys
15. a. Xmin Q1 Median Q3 Xmax

Before 75 86 95 128.5 152
After 66 81 87 116 134
b. After
Before
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

c. As a whole, the program was effective. The median weight dropped from 95 kg to 87 kg, a loss of 8 kg. A noticeable
shift in the graph shows that after the program 50% of participants weighed between 66 and 87 kg, compared to 25% of
participants weighing between 75 and 86 kg before they started. Before the program the range of weights was 77 kg (from
75 kg to 152 kg); after the program the range had decreased to 68 kg. The IQR also diminished from 42.5 kg to 35 kg.
16. a. Key: 12 ∣ 1 = 121
Stem Leaf
12 1569
13 124
14 3488
15 022257
16 35
17 29
18 1112378
b. 120 140 160 180 Number sold
c. On most days the hamburger sales are less than 160. Over the weekend the sales figures spike beyond this.
17. a. Key: 1* ∣ 7 = 17 years
Stem Leaf
1* 7788899
2 000122223333444
2* 5589
3 123
3*
4
4* 8
b. 15 25 35 45 Age
×
c. The distribution is positively skewed, with first-time mothers being under the age of 30. There is one outlier (48) in this
group.

18. C
19. a. HJ Looker: median = 5;
Hane and Roarne: median = 6
b. HJ Looker
c. HJ Looker
d. Hane and Roarne had a higher median and a lower spread and so they appear to have performed better.
20. a. $50 b. $135 c. $100 d. $45 e. 50%
Exercise 12.5 The standard deviation
1. a. 2.29 b. 2.19 c. 20.17 d. 3.07
2. a. 1.03 b. 1.33 c. 2.67 d. 2.22
3. 10.82
4. 0.45%
5. 0.06 m
6. 0.49 s
7. 15.10 calls
8. B
9. The mean of the first 25 cars is 89.24 km/h with a standard deviation of 5.60. The mean of the first 26 cars is 91.19 with a
standard deviation of 11.20, indicating that the extreme speed of 140 km/h is an anomaly.
10. a. σ ≈ 3.58
b. The mean is increased by 7 but the standard deviation remains at σ ≈ 3.58.
c. The mean is tripled and the standard deviation is tripled to σ ≈ 10.74.
11. The standard deviation will decrease because the average distance to the mean has decreased.
12. 57 is two standard deviations above the mean.
13. a. New mean is the old mean increased by 3 but no change to the standard deviation.
b. New mean is 3 times the old mean and new standard deviation is 3 times the old standard deviation.
14. a. 43 b. 12 c. 12.19
Exercise 12.6 Comparing data sets
1. a. The mean of the first set is 63. The mean of the second set is 63.
b. The standard deviation of the first set is 2.38. The standard deviation of the second set is 6.53.
c. For both sets of data the mean is the same, 63. However, the standard deviation for the second set (6.53) is much higher
than the standard deviation of the first set (2.38), implying that the second set is more widely distributed than the first. This
is confirmed by the range, which is 67 − 60 = 7 for the first set and 72 − 55 = 17 for the second.
2. a. Morning: median = 2.45; afternoon: median = 1.6
b. Morning: range = 3.8; afternoon: range = 5
c. The waiting time is generally shorter in the afternoon. One outlier in the afternoon data causes the range to be larger.
Otherwise the afternoon data are far less spread out.
3. Key: 16 ∣ 1 = 1.61 m
Leaf: Boys Stem Leaf: Girls
997 15 1256788
98665540 16 4467899
4421 17 0
4. a. Ford: median = 15; Holden: median = 16
b. Ford: range = 26; Holden: range = 32
c. Ford: QR = 14; Holden: IQR = 13.5
d. Ford
Holden
0 5 10 15 2025303540
5. a. Brisbane Lions
b. Brisbane Lions: range = 63;
Sydney Swans: range = 55
c. Brisbane Lions: IQR = 40;
Sydney Swans: IQR = 35

6. a. Girls
Boys
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Height
b. Boys: median = 1.62; girls: median = 1.62
c. Boys: range = 0.36; girls: range = 0.23
d. Boys: IQR = 0.14; girls: IQR = 0.11
e. Although boys and girls have the same median height, the spread of heights is greater among boys as shown by the greater
range and interquartile range.
7. a. Summer: range = 23; winter: range = 31
b. Summer: IQR = 14; winter: IQR = 11
c. There are generally more cold drinks sold in summer as shown by the higher median. The spread of data is similar as
shown by the IQR although the range in winter is greater.
8. A
9. A, B, C, D
10. a. Cory achieved a better average mark in Science (59.25) than he did in English (58.125).
b. Cory was more consistent in English (σ = 4.9) than he was in Science (σ = 19.7)
11. a. Back street: x = 61, σ = 4.3;
main road: x = 58.8, σ = 12.1

b. The drivers are generally driving faster on the back street.
c. The spread of speeds is greater on the main road as indicated by the higher standard deviation.
12. a. Nathan: mean = 15.1; Timana: mean = 12.3
b. Nathan: range = 36; Timana: range = 14
c. Nathan: IQR = 15; Timana: IQR = 4
d. Timana’s lower range and IQR shows that he is the more consistent player.
13. a. Machine A
Machine B
40 42 44 46 47 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
Number of Smarties in a box
b. Machine A: mean = 49.88,
standard deviation = 2.87;
Machine B: mean = 50.12,
standard deviation = 2.44
c. Machine B is more reliable, as shown by the lower standard deviation and IQR. The range is greater on machine B only
because of a single outlier.
14. a. Yes — Maths
b. Science: positively skewed
c. The Science test may have been more difficult.
d. Science: 61−70 , Maths: 71−80
e. Maths has a greater standard deviation (12.6) compared to Science (11.9).
15. Answers will vary. Check with your teacher.
16. a. Key: 2 ∣ 3 = 2.3 hours
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Group A Group B
873 1 78
951 2 01245588
875422 3 222455568
754222 4 2
5
22 6

b. Five-point summary
Group A: 13 27 36 43 62
Group B: 17 23 30 35 42
Group B
Group A
Hours
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Nouns
c. Student comparison
Statistics Group A Group B
Five-point summary 13 27 36 43 62 17 23 30 35 42
x 35.85 hours 28.95 hours
Range 49 hours 25 hours
IQR 16 hours 12 hours
σ 13 hours 7 hours
d. Student decision, justifying answer
e. Class discussion
17. a.
Leaf: Year 10 Stem Leaf: Year 11
98754 15
9874330 16 03678
7532200 17 223456779
0 18 01358
19 0
b. Year 12
Year 10
x
150 160 170 180 190
c. On average, the Year 12 students are about 6–10 cm taller than the Year 10 students. The heights of the majority of Year
12 students are between 170 cm and 180 cm, whereas the majority of the Year 10 students are between 160 and 172 cm in height.
18. a. English: mean = 70.25; Maths: mean = 69
b. English: range = 53; Maths: range = 37
c. English: σ = 16.1; Maths: σ = 13.4
d. Kloe has performed more consistently in Maths as the range and standard deviation are both lower.
Challenge 12.2
32%
12.7 Review
1. a. Mean = 11.55; median = 10; mode = 8
b. Mean = 36; median = 36; mode = 33, 41
c. Mean = 72.18; median = 72; mode = 72
2. a. 6 b. 6 c. 20
3. a. 4 b. 8.5
4. a. Year 10
Year 8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
b. Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39, IQR = 19, sd = 11.45
Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5, range = 46, IQR = 20, sd = 12.98

c. The typing speed of Year 10 students is about 13 to 14 wpm faster than that of Year 8 students. The spread of data in Year 8
is slightly less than in Year 10.
5. a. 20 b. 24 c. 8

6. a. Key: 3* ∣ 9 = 3.9 kg
Stem Leaf
3* 9
4 0023
4* 5 6 7 8 8
5 03
5* 5 8 8 9
6 122
6* 8
b. (3.9, 4.4, 4.9, 5.85, 6.8)
c. 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 kg
7. a. 24.4 b. 1.1 c. 7.3

8. A
9. B
10. 0.05 mL
11. a. Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5
b. Class interval Frequency
0–9 2
10–19 7
20–29 6
30–39 6
40–49 3
50–59 3
60–69 3
Total 30
c. Mean = 31.83
d.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age
e. Median = 30
f. Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate.
g. Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of the raw data.
12. a. Yes b. Yes. Both are 3. c. 3
13. a.
9
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
Number of cars
b. Positively skewed — a greater number of scores is distributed at the lower end of the distribution.
14. Mean = 5, median = 5, mode = 2 and 5. The distribution is positively skewed and bimodal.

15. C
16. A, B and C
m2
17. a. x = m2 σ = b. 7m + 2
2
18. a. Mean = 2.17, median = 2
b. Mean = 3.54, median = 2
c. The median relies on the middle value of the data and won’t change much if an extra value is added. The mean however
has increased because this large value will change the average of the numbers. The mean is used as a measure of central
tendency if there are no outliers or if the data are symmetrical. The median is used as a measure of central tendency if
there are outliers or the data are skewed.
19. a. Interval Frequency (f) Midpoint × (f)
40–49 1 44.5 × 1 = 44.5
50–59 1 54.5 × 1 = 54.5
60–69 1 64.5 × 1 = 64.5
70–79 2 74.5 × 2 = 149
80–89 4 84.5 × 4 = 338
90–99 4 94.5 × 4 = 378
100–109 8 104.5 × 8 = 836
110–119 6 114.5 × 6 = 687
120–129 8 124.5 × 8 = 996
130–139 2 134.5 × 2 = 269
140–149 2 144.5 × 2 = 289
150–159 0 154.5 × 0 = 0
160–169 1 164.5 × 1 = 164.5
Total 40 4270
b. 106.75
c. 107.15
d. The differences in this case were minimal; however, the grouped data mean is not based on the actual data but on the fre-
quency in each interval and the interval midpoint. It is unlikely to yield an identical value to the actual mean. The spread of
the scores within the class interval has a great effect on the grouped data mean.
1. Player Runs in the last 25 matches Mean Median Range IQR
Allan 13, 18, 23, 21, 9, 12, 31, 21, 20, 18, 14, 16, 28, 17, 10, 14, 16.76 17 31 8.5
9, 23, 12, 24, 0, 18, 14, 14, 20
Shane 2, 0, 112, 11, 0, 0, 8, 0, 10, 0, 56, 4, 8, 164, 6, 12, 2, 0, 5, 0, 0, 17.04 4 164 10.5
0, 8, 18, 0
Glenn 12, 0, 45, 23, 0, 8, 21, 32, 6, 0, 8, 14, 1, 27, 23, 43, 7, 45, 16.76 12 45 25.5
2, 32, 0, 6, 11, 21, 32
Rod 2, 0, 3, 12, 0, 2, 5, 8, 42, 0, 12, 8, 9, 17, 31, 28, 21, 42, 31, 16.72 17 42 25
24, 30, 22, 18, 20, 31
2. a. Allan: has a similar mean and median, which shows he was fairly consistent. The range and IQR values are low
indicating that his scores remain at the lower end with not much deviation for the middle 50%.
b. Shane: has the best average but a very low median indicating his scores are not consistent. The range is extremely high
and the IQR very low in comparison showing he can score very well at times but is not a consistent scorer.
c. Glenn: has a similar mean to Allan and Rod but a lower median, indicating his scores are sometimes high but
generally are lower than the average. The range and IQR show a consistent batting average and spread with only a few
higher scores and some lower ones.
d. Rod: has a similar mean and median which shows he was a consistent player. The range and IQR show a consistent
batting average and spread.

Players to be selected:
Would recommend Allan if the team needs someone with very consistent batting scores every game but no outstanding runs.
Would recommend Shane if the team needs someone who might score very high occasionally but in general fails to score
many runs.
Would recommend Glenn if the team needs someone who is fairly consistent but can score quite well at times and the rest
of the time does OK.
Would recommend Rod if the team needs someone who is fairly consistent but can score quite well at times and the rest
of the time has a better median than Glenn.
3. Semifinal average Final average Overall average
Brad 2.4 4.67 3.64
Dennis 2.5 5 3.57
a. Brad was best in the semifinal.
b. Brad was best in the final.
c. Dennis was best overall.
4. In the final, wickets were more costly than in the semifinal. Brad therefore conceded many runs in getting his six wickets.
This affected the overall mean. In reality Brad was the most valuable player overall, but this method of combining the data
of the two matches led to this unexpected result.

TOPIC 13
Bivariate data
13.1 Overview
this topic.

Observations of two or more variables are often recorded, for
example, the heights and weights of individuals. Studying the
data allows us to investigate whether there is any relationship
between the variables, how strong the relationship is, and whether
one variable can be effectively predicted from information about
another variable. Statistics can be applied to medical research,
sport, agriculture, sustainability, weather forecasting and fashion
trends, to name but a few fields. The capacity to analyse data and
draw conclusions is an essential skill in a world where information
is readily available and often manipulated.

1. THINK List what you know about interpreting bivariate data. Use a thinking tool such as a concept
knowledge of interpreting bivariate data.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
13.1 Overview
13.2 Bivariate data
13.3 Lines of best fit
13.4 Time series
13.5 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Florence Nightingale (eles-1853)
TOPIC 13 Bivariate data 549

13.2 Bivariate data
13.2.1 Bivariate data
•• Bivariate data are data with two variables.
•• The list of bivariate data can be considered as numerical pairs of the type:
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), … , (xn, yn)
•• Bivariate data are usually represented graphically on scatterplots.
13.2.2 Scatterplots
•• A scatterplot is a graph that shows whether there is a relationship between two variables.
•• Each data value on a scatterplot is shown by a point on a Cartesian plane.
13.2.3 Dependent and independent variables

•• One variable is generally the dependent variable, and the other the independent variable.
•• The dependent variable, as the name suggests, is the one whose value depends on the other variable.
The independent variable takes on values that do not depend on the value of the other variable.
•• When data are expressed in the form of a table, generally the independent variable is written in the
first row or the first column.
•• The independent variable is placed on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The table shows the total revenue from selling tickets for a number of different chamber music
concerts. Represent these data on a scatterplot.
Number of
400 200 450 350 250 300 500 400 350 250
tickets sold
Total revenue ($) 8000 3600 8500 7700 5800 6000 11 000 7500 6600 5600
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Determine which is the dependent variable and which The total revenue depends on the number
is the independent variable. of tickets being sold, so the number of
tickets is the independent variable and the
total revenue is the dependent variable.
2 Rule up a set of axes. Label the title of the graph. Label Revenue obtained from selling
music concert tickets
the horizontal axis ‘Number of tickets sold’ and the 11 000
vertical axis ‘Total revenue ($)’. 10 000
9000
Total revenue ($)
3 Use an appropriate scale on the horizontal and vertical 8000

axes. 7000
6000
4 Plot the points on the scatterplot. 5000
4000
3000
0
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Number of tickets sold

13.2.4 Correlation
•• Correlation is a descriptive measure of the relationship between two variables.
•• Correlation describes the strength, the direction and the form of the relationship between the two
variables.
•• The closer the points are to a straight line form, the stronger the correlation between the two variables.
The strength is described as weak, moderate or strong.
•• If the points on a scatterplot have a generally positive slope, the relationship has a positive direction.
If the slope is negative, the direction is negative.
Strong positive linear Weak positive linear Weak negative linear Strong negative linear
correlation correlation No correlation correlation correlation
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
State the type of correlation between the variables x and y, y

shown on the scatterplot.
x
THINK WRITE
Carefully analyse the The points on the scatterplot are close together and constantly increasing
scatterplot and comment therefore the relationship is linear.
on its form, direction and The path is directed from the bottom left corner to the top right corner
strength. and the value of y increases as x increases. Therefore the correlation is
positive.
The points are close together so the correlation can be classified as
strong.
There is a strong, positive, linear relationship between x and y.
13.2.5 Correlation and causation

•• Even a strong correlation does not necessarily mean that the increase or decrease in the level of one
variable causes an increase or decrease in the level of the other. It is best to avoid statements such as:
‘An increase in rainfall causes an increase in the wheat growth.’
•• The following guidelines should be closely followed in order to draw a conclusion about the relation-
ship between the two variables based on the scatterplot.
– If the correlation between x and y is weak, we can conclude that there is little evidence to show that
the larger x is, the larger (positive correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.
– If the correlation between x and y is moderate, we can conclude that there is evidence to show that
the larger x is, the larger (positive correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.
– If the correlation between x and y is strong, we can conclude that the larger x is, the larger (positive
correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.

Mary sells business shirts in a department store. She always records the number of different
styles of shirt sold during the day. The table below shows her sales over one week.
Price ($) 14 18 20 21 24 25 28 30 32 35
Number of shirts sold 21 22 18 19 17 17 15 16 14 11
a Construct a scatterplot of the data.
b State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Price ($)’ a
28
(independent variable) on the horizontal axis and 26
Number of shirts sold

‘Number of shirts sold’ (dependent variable) on 24
the vertical axis. 22
20
18
16
14
12
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Price ($)
b 1 Carefully analyse the scatterplot and comment b The points on the plot form a path that
on its form, direction and strength. resembles a straight, narrow band, directed
from the top left corner to the bottom right
corner. The points are close to forming a
straight line. There is a strong, negative,
linear correlation between the two variables.
2 Draw a conclusion corresponding to the The price of the shirt appears to affect the
analysis of the scatterplot. number sold; that is, the more expensive the
shirt the fewer sold.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5405)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts
(doc-5406)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Transposing linear equations to standard form (doc-5407)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5408)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the gradient given two points (doc-5409)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept method
(doc-5410)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Determining independent and dependent variables (doc-5411)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Determining the type of correlation (doc-5413)

Exercise 13.2 Bivariate data
Individual pathways

1a–d, 2–6, 8, 12 1d–g, 2–5, 7, 9, 12 1e–h, 2–4, 7–13
Fluency
1. For each of the following pairs, decide which of the
variables is independent and which is dependent.
a. Number of hours spent studying for a Mathematics test
and the score on that test
b. Daily amount of rainfall (in mm) and daily attendance at
the Botanical Gardens
c. Number of hours per week spent in a gym and the annual
number of visits to the doctor
d. The amount of computer memory taken by an essay and
the length of the essay (in words)
e. The cost of care in a childcare centre and attendance at
the childcare centre
f. The cost of the property (real estate) and the age of the
property
g. The entry requirements for a certain tertiary
course and the number of applications for that
course
h. The heart rate of a runner and the running
speed
2. WE1 The following table shows the cost of a wedding
reception at 10 different venues. Represent the data on a
scatterplot.
No of guests 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Total cost (× $1000) 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.3 2.9 4 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6
3. WE2 State the type of relationship between x and y for each of the following scatterplots.
a. y b. y c. y
x x x

d. y e. y f. y
x x x
g. y h. y i. y
x x x
j. y k. y l. y
x x x
m. y n. y o. y
x x x
4. WE3 Eugene is selling leather bags at the local market. During the day he keeps records of his sales.
The table below shows the number of bags sold over one weekend and their corresponding prices
(to the nearest dollar).
Price ($) of a bag 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Number of bags sold 10 12 8 6 4 3 4 2 2 1 1
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data.

b. State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw
a corresponding conclusion.
Understanding
5. The table below shows the number of bedrooms and the price of each of 30 houses.
Number of Price Number of Price Number of Price
bedrooms (× $1000) bedrooms (× $1000) bedrooms (× $1000)
2 180 3 279 3 243
2 160 2 195 3 198
3 240 6 408 3 237
2 200 4 362 2 226
2 155 2 205 4 359

Number of Price Number of Price Number of Price
bedrooms (× $1000) bedrooms (× $1000) bedrooms (× $1000)
4 306 7 420 4 316
3 297 5 369 2 200
5 383 1 195 2 158
2 212 3 265 1 149
4 349 2 174 3 286
b. State the type of correlation between the number of bedrooms and the price of the house and, hence,
draw a corresponding conclusion.
c. Suggest other factors that could contribute to the price of the house.
6. The table below shows the number of questions solved by each student on a test, and the
corresponding total score on that test.
Number of questions 2 4 7 10 5 2 6 3 9 4 8 3 6
Total score (%) 22 39 69 100 56 18 60 36 87 45 84 32 63

b. What type of correlation does the scatterplot suggest?
c. Give a possible explanation as to why the scatterplot is not perfectly linear.
7. A sample of 25 drivers who had obtained a full licence within the last month was asked to recall the
approximate number of driving lessons they had taken (to the nearest 5), and the number of accidents
they had while being on P plates. The results are summarised in the table that follows.
Number of lessons Number of accidents Number of lessons Number of accidents

5 6 5 5
20 2 20 3
15 3 40 0
25 3 25 4
10 4 30 1
35 0 15 4
5 5 35 1
15 1 5 4
10 3 30 0
20 1 15 2
40 2 20 3
25 2 10 4
10 5
a. Represent these data on a scatterplot.

b. Specify the relationship suggested by the scatterplot.
c. Suggest some reasons why this scatterplot is not perfectly linear.

Reasoning
8. Each point on the scatterplot below shows the time (in weeks) spent by a person on a healthy diet and
the corresponding mass lost (in kg).

Loss in mass (kg)

Number of weeks
Study the scatterplot and state whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. The number of weeks that the person stays on a diet is the independent variable.
b. The y-coordinates of the points represent the time spent by a person on a diet.
c. There is evidence to suggest that the longer the person stays on a diet, the greater the loss in mass.
d. The time spent on a diet is the only factor that contributes to the loss in mass.
e. The correlation between the number of weeks on a diet and the number of kilograms lost
is positive.
9. MC The scatterplot that best represents the relationship between the amount of water consumed daily
by a certain household for a number of days in summer and the daily temperature is:
a. b.
Temperature (°C)
Water usage (L)
Water usage (L) Temperature (°C)
c. d.
Temperature (°C)
Water usage (L)
Temperature (°C) Water usage (L)
10. MC The scatterplot at right shows the number of sides and the 1300
sum of interior angles for a number of polygons. 1200
Which of the following statements is not true? 1100
1000
Sum of angles (°)
a. The correlation between the number of sides and the angle 900
sum of the polygon is perfectly linear. 800
700
b. The increase in the number of sides causes the increase in the
600
size of the angle sum. 500
c. The number of sides depends on the sum of the angles. 400
300
d. The correlation between the two variables is positive. 200
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of sides

11. MC After studying a scatterplot, it was concluded that there was evidence that the greater the level of
one variable, the smaller the level of the other variable. The scatterplot must have shown a:
a. strong, positive correlation
b. strong, negative correlation
c. moderate, positive correlation
d. moderate, negative correlation
Problem solving
12. The table below gives the number of kicks and handballs obtained by the top 8 players in
an AFL game.
Player A B C D E F G H
Number of kicks 20 27 21 19 17 18 21 22
Number of handballs 11 3 11 6 5 1 9 7
a. Represent this information on a scatterplot by using

the x-axis as the number of kicks and the y-axis as the
number of handballs.
b. Does the scatterplot support the claim that the more
kicks a player obtains, the more handballs he gives?
13. The scatterplot shown gives the marks obtained by students in

two mathematics tests. Mardi’s score in the tests is represented (iii)
by M. Which point represents each of the following students? (v)
(ii) (iv)
a. Mandy, who got the highest mark in both tests
(vi) M
Test 2
b. William, who got the top mark in test 1 but not in test 2
(i) (viii)
c. Charlotte, who did better on test 1 than Mardi but not as well
in test 2 (vii)
d. Dario, who did not do as well as Charlotte in both tests

e. Edward, who got the same mark as Mardi in test 2 but did Test 1
not do so well in test 1
f. Cindy, who got the same mark as Mardi for test 1 but did better than her for test 2
g. Georgina, who was the lowest in test 1
h. Harrison, who had the greatest discrepancy between his two marks
Reflection
How could you determine whether the change in one variable causes the change in another
variable?

13.3 Lines of best fit
13.3.1 Lines of best fit
•• If the points on a scatterplot appear to lie fairly closely distributed in a linear pattern, a straight line
can be drawn through the data. The line can then be used to make predictions about the data.
•• A line of best fit is a line on a scatterplot that is positioned so that it is as close as possible to all the
data points.
•• A line of best fit is used to generalise the relationship between two variables.
13.3.2 Lines of best fit by eye
•• A line of best fit can be drawn on a scatterplot by eye. This means that a line is positioned so that
there is an equal number of points above and below the line.
•• Once a line of best fit has been placed on the scatterplot, an equation for this line can be established,
using the coordinates of any two points on the line. These two points do not necessarily have to be actual
data points, but if any data points do lie on the line, these are chosen as their values are known accu-
rately.
•• The equation for the line passing through the two selected points can then be calculated.
The equation through the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by:
y − y1
y = mx + c where m = 2 .
x2 − x1
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The data in the table show the cost of using the internet at a number of different internet cafes
based on hours used per month.
Hours used per month 10 12 20 18 10 13 15 17 14 11
Total monthly cost ($) 15 18 30 32 18 20 22 23 22 18
b Draw in the line of best fit by eye.
c Find the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the variables n (number of hours) and C
(monthly cost).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Draw the scatterplot placing the independent a
32
variable (hours used per month) on the hori- 30
Total monthly cost ($)
zontal axis and the dependent variable (total 28

monthly cost) on the vertical axis. 26
24
Label the axes. 22
20
18
16
14
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hours used per month

b 1 Carefully analyse the scatterplot. b 32
2 Position the line of best fit so there is 30
Total monthly cost ($)

28 (20, 30)
approximately an equal number of data
26
points on either side of the line and so that 24
all points are close to the line. 22
Note: With the line of best fit, there is no 20
(13, 20)
18
single definite solution.
16
14
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Hours used per month
c 1 Select two points on the line that are not too c Let (x1, y1) = (13, 20) and (x2, y2) = (20, 30).
close to each other.
2 Calculate the gradient of the line. y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
30 − 20
m= 20 − 13
10
= 7
3 Write the rule for the equation of a straight y = mx + c

line.
10
4 Substitute the known values into the y = 7
x +c
equation.
10
5 Substitute one pair of coordinates (say, 13, 20 = 7
(13) + c
20) into the equation to calculate c. c = 20 − 1307
140 − 130
= 7
10
= 7
10 10
6 Write the equation. y = 7
x + 7
10 10
7 Replace x with n (number of hours used) C = 7
n + 7
and y with C (the total monthly cost) as
required.
13.3.3 Making predictions

•• The line of best fit can be used to predict the value of one variable from that of another. Because of the
subjective nature of the line, it should be noted that predictions are not accurate values, but rough esti-
mates. Although this is the case, predictions using this method are considered valuable when no other
methods are available.
•• If the equation of the line of best fit is known, or can be derived, predictions can be made by substitut-
ing known values into the equation of the line of best fit.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict: y

a the value of y when x = 10 45
40
b the value of x when y = 10. 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Locate 10 on the x-axis and draw a vertical a y
45
line until it meets with the line of best fit. 40
From that point, draw a horizontal line to the 35
y-axis. Read the value of y indicated by the 30
horizontal line. 25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
2 Write your answer. When x = 10, y is predicted to be 35.

b 1 Locate 10 on the y-axis and draw a b y
45
horizontal line until it meets with the line of 40
best fit. From that point draw a vertical line to 35
the x-axis. Read the value of x indicated by 30
the vertical line. 25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
2 Write your answer. When y = 10, x is predicted to be 27.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The table below shows the number of boxes of tissues purchased by hayfever sufferers and the
number of days affected by hay fever during the blooming season in spring.
Number of days affected
by hay fever (d) 3 12 14 7 9 5 6 4 10 8
Total number of boxes of

tissues purchased (T) 1 4 5 2 3 2 2 2 3 3
a Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw a line of best fit.

b Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
c Interpret the meaning of the gradient.

d Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the number of boxes of tissues purchased by
people suffering from hay fever over a period of:
i 11 days
ii 15 days.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw the scatterplot showing the independent a T
variable (number of days affected by hay fever) 5
on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable
(total number of boxes of tissues purchased) on 4
the vertical axis.
3
0 d
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
2 Position the line of best fit on the scatterplot so T

there is approximately an equal number of data 5
points on either side of the line. (14,5)
4
1
(3,1)
0 d
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
b 1 Select two points on the line that are not too b Let (x1, y1) = (3, 1) and (x2, y2) = (14, 5).
close to each other.
y2 − y1
2 Calculate the gradient of the line. m=
x2 − x1
5−1 4
m= =
14 − 3 11
3 Write the rule for the equation of a straight line. y = mx + c
4
4 Substitute the known values into the equation, y= 11
x+c
say, 3, 1, into the equation to calculate C. 4
1= 11
(3) + c
c= 1 − 1211
−1
= 11
4 1
y= 11
x − 11
4 1
5 Replace x with d (number of days with hay T = 11
d − 11
fever) and y with T (total number of boxes of
tissues used) as required.

c Interpret the meaning of the gradient of the line of c The gradient indicates an increase in sales
best fit. of tissues as the number of days affected
by hay fever increases. A hay fever sufferer
4
is using on average 11 (or about 0.36) of a
box of tissues per day.
d i 1 Substitute the value d = 11 into the equation d i When d = 11,

4 1
and evaluate. T = 11 × 11 − 11
1
= 4 − 11
= 310
11
2 Interpret and write your answer. In 11 days the hay fever sufferer will
need about 4 boxes of tissues.
ii 1 Substitute the value d = 15 into the equation ii When d = 15,
4 1
of the line of best fit and evaluate. T = 11 × 15 − 11
60 1
= 11
− 11
4
= 511
2 Interpret and write your answer. In 15 days the hay fever sufferer will
need 6 boxes of tissues.
13.3.4 Interpolation and extrapolation

•• Interpolation is the term used for predicting a value of a variable from within the range of the given data.
•• Extrapolation occurs when the value of the variable being predicted is outside the range of the given
data. T
•• In Worked example 6, the number of days ranged from 3 days 5
Extrapolation (14, 5)
to 14 days. Making a prediction for 11 days is an example of
(outside the
interpolation, whereas making a prediction for 15 days is an 4 given range)
example of extrapolation. 3 Interpolation
•• Predictions involving interpolation are considered to be quite (inside the
2 given range)
reliable. Those involving extrapolation should be treated with
caution, as they rely on the trend of the line remaining 1 (3, 1)
unchanged beyond the range of the data. 0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d
13.3.5 Reliability of predictions
•• When predictions of any type are made, it is useful to know whether they are reliable or not.
•• If the line of best fit is used to make predictions, they can be considered to be reliable if each of the
following is observed.
– The number of data values is large.
– The scatterplot indicates reasonably strong correlation between the variables.
– The predictions are made using interpolation.

13.3.6 Least squares regression y
•• Least squares regression involves an exact

mathematical approach to fitting a line of best
fit to bivariate data that show a strong linear
correlation.
•• Consider the regression line shown at right. The
vertical lines give an indication of how well the
line best ‘fits’ the data. The line of best fit is
placed so that these ‘error’ lines are minimised, x
by balancing the errors above and below the y
line.
•• Least-squares regression takes these error lines,
forms squares, and minimises the sum of the
areas of the squares.
•• The actual calculation of the equation of a least
squares regression line is complicated; however,
a calculator can generate the equation with ease.
x
13.3.7 Correlation coefficient
•• Once a relationship between two variables has been established, it is helpful to develop a quantitative
value to measure the strength of the relationship. One method is to calculate a correlation
coefficient (r). This is easily done using a calculator, but a manual method is shown below.
•• The formula for the correlation coefficient r is:
– –
∑ (x − x) (y − y)
r=
√ ∑ (x − x) ∑ (y − y)
2 – 2 –
where x and y are the two sets of scores

– –
x and y are the means of those scores
the symbol ∑ representing the sum of the expressions indicated.
•• The correlation coefficient is a value in the range −1 to +1. 1
Strong positive linear association
0.75
The value of −1 indicates a perfect negative relationship Moderate positive linear association
0.5
between the two variables, while the value of +1 indicates a Weak positive linear association
Value of r
0.25
perfect positive relationship. For values within this range, a 0 No linear association
variety of descriptors are used. –0.25
Weak negative linear association
–.5
Moderate negative linear association
–0.75
Strong negative linear association
–1
The percentages from two tests (English and Maths) Student English (%) Maths (%)
for a group of 5 students are as shown.
1 95 85
a Calculate the correlation coefficient between the
two sets of results. 2 85 95
b Based on this value, describe the relationship 3 80 70
between the English and Maths results for this 4 70 65
group of students. 5 60 70

THINK WRITE
a 1 Draw up a table to a x y (x − x) (x − x) 2 (y − y) (y − y) 2 (x − x)(y − y)
calculate all the
necessary data: 95 85 17 289 8 64 136
x, y, (x − x), (y − y), 85 95 7 49 18 324 126
(x − x) 2, (y − y) 2 80 70 2 4 −7 49 −14
70 65 −8 64 −12 144 96
60 70 −18 324 −7 49 126
Σ 390 385 730 630 470
Mean 78 77
2 Substitute into the

∑ (x − x– ) (y − y– )
formula to calculate the
r=
correlation
√∑
coefficient r. (x − x– ) 2 ∑ (y − y– ) 2
470
=
√730 × 630
= 0.69
b Describe the relationship. b A correlation coefficient of 0.69 indicates that the relationship
between English and Maths marks for this group of students is only
moderate. This seems to indicate that students who are good at
English are not necessarily good at Maths, and vice versa.
Try out this interactivity: Applying lines of best fit (int-2798)
Try out this interactivity: Extrapolation (int-1154)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Lines of best fit (doc-14599)
Exercise 13.3 Lines of best fit

Individual pathways

1–7, 11 1–8, 10, 11 1–12

Fluency
1. WE4 The data in the table below show the distances travelled by
10 cars and the amount of petrol used for their journeys (to the
nearest litre).
b. Draw in the line of best fit.
c. Determine the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the
variables d (distance travelled) and P (petrol used).
Distance travelled (km), d 52 36 83 12 44 67 74 23 56 95
Petrol used (L), P 7 5 9 2 7 9 12 3 8 14
2. A random sample of ten Year 10 students who have part-time jobs was selected. Each student was
asked to state the average number of hours they work per week and their average weekly earnings (to
the nearest dollar). The results are summarised in the table below.
Hours worked, h 4 8 15 18 10 5 12 16 14 6
Weekly earnings ($), E 23 47 93 122 56 33 74 110 78 35
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data using technology.
b. Draw in the line of best fit using technology.
c. Write the equation of the line of best fit, in terms of variables h (hours worked) and E (weekly earnings).
d. Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
Understanding
3. WE5 Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict:
y
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
a. the value of y when x = 45

b. the value of x when y = 15.
4. Analyse the following graph.
y
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x
a. Use the line of best fit to predict the value of y when the value of x is:
i. 7 ii. 22 iii. 36.
b. Use the line of best fit to predict the value of x when the value of y is:
i. 120 ii. 260 iii. 480.
c. Determine the equation of the line of best fit, if it is known that it passes through the points (5, 490)
and (40, 80).
d. Use the equation of the line to verify the values obtained from the graph in parts a and b.

5. WE6 The following table shows the average weekly expenditure on food for households of various
sizes.
Number of people in a
1 2 4 7 5 4 3 5
household
Cost of food ($ per week) 70 100 150 165 150 140 120 155
Number of people in a
2 4 6 5 3 1 4
household
Cost of food ($ per week) 90 160 160 160 125 75 135
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw in the

line of best fit.
b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write it
in terms of variables n (for the number of people in a
household) and C (weekly cost of food).
c. Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
d. Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the weekly
food expenditure for a family of:
i. 8 ii. 9 iii. 10.
6. The following table shows the gestation time and the birth mass
of 10 babies.
Gestation time
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(weeks)
Birth mass (kg) 1.080 1.470 1.820 2.060 2.230 2.540 2.750 3.110 3.080 3.370
Use technology to answer the following questions.

a. Construct a scatterplot of the data. What type of correlation does the scatterplot suggest?
b. Draw in the line of best fit and determine its equation. Write it in terms of the variables t (gestation
time) and M (birth mass).
c. What does the value of the gradient represent?
d. Although full term of gestation is considered to be 40 weeks, some pregnancies last longer. Use the
equation obtained in part b to predict the birth mass of babies born after 41 and 42 weeks of
gestation.
e. Many babies are born prematurely. Using the equation obtained in part b, predict the birth mass of a
baby whose gestation time was 30 weeks.
f. If the birth mass of the baby was 2.390 kg, what was his or her gestation time (to the nearest
week)?
7. WE7 The number of hours spent studying, and the marks obtained by a group of students on a test are
shown in this table.
Hours spent studying 45 30 90 60 105 65 90 80 55 75

Marks obtained 40 35 75 65 90 50 90 80 45 65
a. Calculate the correlation coefficient between the two sets of data.

b. Based on this value, describe the relationship between the number of hours spent studying, and the
mark obtained.

Reasoning
8. As a part of her project, Rachel is growing a crystal. Every day she
measures the crystal’s mass using special laboratory scales and
records it. The table below shows the results of her experiment.
Day number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 15 16
Mass (g) 2.5 3.7 4.2 5.0 6.1 8.4 9.9 11.2 11.6 12.8 16.1 17.3
Measurements on days 6, 7, 13 and 14 are missing, since these were 2 consecutive weekends and,
hence, Rachel did not have a chance to measure her crystal, which is kept in the school laboratory.
a. Construct the scatterplot of the data and draw in the line of best fit.
b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write the equation, using variables d (day of the experi-
ment) and M (mass of the crystal).
c. Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
d. For her report, Rachel would like to fill in the missing measurements (that is, the mass of the crystal
on days 6, 7, 13 and 14). Use the equation of the line of best fit to help Rachel find these measure-
ments. Is this an example of interpolation or extrapolation? Explain your answer.
e. Rachel needed to continue her experiment for 2 more days, but she fell ill and had to miss school.
Help Rachel to predict the mass of the crystal on those two days (that is, days 17 and 18), using the
equation of the line of best fit. Are these predictions reliable? Explain your answer.
9. MC Consider the figure shown below.
y
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
The line of best fit on the scatterplot is used to predict the values of y when x = 15 , x = 40 and x = 60 .
a. Interpolation would be used to predict the value of y when the value of x is:
a. 15 and 40 b. 15 and 60 c. 15 only d. 40 only e. 60 only
b. The prediction of the y-value(s) can be considered reliable when:
a. x = 15 and x = 40 b. x = 15 , x = 40 and x = 60
c. x = 40 d. x = 40 and x = 60
e. x = 60
10. MC The scatterplot below is used to predict the value of y when x = 300 . This prediction is:
y
500
400
300
200
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 x
a. reliable, because it is obtained using interpolation

b. not reliable, because it is obtained using extrapolation
c. not reliable, because only x-values can be predicted with confidence

d. reliable because the scatterplot contains a large number of points
e. not reliable, because there is no correlation between x and y
Problem solving
11. For his birthday, Ari was given a small white rabbit. To monitor the rabbit’s growth, Ari decided to
measure it once a week. The table below shows the length of the rabbit for various weeks.
Week number, n 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 14 17 20
Length (cm), l 20 21 23 24 25 30 32 35 36 37 39
b. Draw a line of best fit and determine its equation.
c. As can be seen from the table, Ari did not measure his
rabbit on weeks 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18 and 19. Use the
equation of the line of best fit to predict the length of the
rabbit for those weeks.
d. Were the predictions made in part c an example of
interpolation or extrapolation? Explain.
e. Predict the length of the rabbit in the next three weeks (that
is, weeks 21–23), using the line of best fit from part c.
f. Are the predictions that have been made in part e
reliable? Explain.
g. Check your results using technology.
12. Laurie is training for the long jump, hoping to make the Australian Olympic team. His best jump each
year is shown in the table below.
Age (a) Best jump (B) (metres)
8 4.31
9 4.85
10 5.29
11 5.74
12 6.05
13 6.21
14 —
15 6.88
16 7.24
17 7.35
18 7.57
a. Plot the points generated by the table on a scatterplot.
b. Join the points generated with straight line segments.
c. Draw a line of best fit and determine its equation.
d. The next Olympic Games will occur when Laurie is 20 years old. Use the equation of the line of best
fit to estimate Laurie’s best jump that year and whether it will pass the qualifying mark of 8.1 metres.
e. Is a line of best fit a good way to predict future improvement in this situation? What problems are
there with using a line of best fit?
f. Olympic Games will also be held when Laurie is 24 years old and 28 years old. Using extrapolation,
what length would you predict Laurie could jump at these two ages? Is this realistic?
g. When Laurie was 14, he twisted a knee in training and did not compete for the whole season. In that
year, a national junior championship was held. The winner of that championship jumped 6.5 metres.
Use your line of best fit to predict whether Laurie would have won that championship.

Reflection
Why is extrapolation considered to be not reliable?
CHALLENGE 13.1
Sam has a mean score of 88 per cent for his first nine tests of the
semester. In order to receive an A+ his score must be 90 per cent or
higher. There is one test remaining for the semester. Is it possible for
him to receive an A+? Why or why not?
13.4 Time series

13.4.1 Time series
•• Time series data are any data that have time as the independent variable.
•• The data are graphed and the graphs are used to determine if a trend is present in the data.
•• Identifying a trend can help when making predictions about the future.
13.4.2 Types of trends

•• A general upward or downward trend is a graph that overall goes up or down as illustrated in the
graph shown below.
33.0
32.5
Temp. (°C)
32.0
31.5
31.0
30.5
30.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
Hours
•• A seasonal pattern displays fluctuations that repeat at the same time each week, month or quarter and usu-
ally last less than one year. The graph below illustrates that the peak selling time for houses is in the spring.
Cycle peaks every 12 months
12
10
Houses sold
8
6
4
2
0 t
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2003 2004 2005

•• A cyclical pattern displays fluctuations that repeat but will usually take longer than a year to repeat.
An example of this is shown in the graph below, which depicts software products sold.
No regular periods between peaks
300
products sold
250
Software
200
150
100
50
0 t
Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4
2003 2004 2005
•• Random patterns do not show any regular fluctuation. They are usually caused by unpredictable
events such as the economic recession illustrated in the graph below.
30
26
Profits
22
18
14 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
•• Trends can work in combinations; for example, you can have a seasonal pattern with an upward trend.
y
20
Sales
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t
Quarters
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Classify the trend suggested by the time series graph at right as being linear or non-linear, and
upward, downward or no trend.
Data
THINK WRITE
Carefully analyse the given graph and comment on The time series graph does not resemble a straight
whether the graph resembles a straight line or not line and overall the level of the variable, y,
and whether the values of y increase or decrease decreases over time. The time series graph
over time. suggests a non-linear downward trend.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The data below show the average daily mass of a person (to the nearest 100 g), recorded over a
period of 4 weeks.
63.6, 63.8, 63.5, 63.7, 63.2, 63.0, 62.8, 63.3, 63.1, 62.7, 62.6, 62.5, 62.9, 63.0, 63.1, 62.9, 62.6, 62.8,
63.0, 62.6, 62.5, 62.1, 61.8, 62.2, 62.0, 61.7, 61.5, 61.2
a Plot these masses as a time series graph.
b Comment on the trend.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw the points on a scatterplot with day a
on the horizontal axis and mass on the 64.0
63.8
vertical axis. 63.6
63.4
63.2
63.0
62.8
Mass (kg)
62.6
62.4
62.2
62.0
61.8
61.6
61.4
61.2
61.0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day
2 Join the points with straight line segments

to create a time series plot.
b Carefully analyse the given graph and b The graph resembles a straight line that slopes
comment on whether the graph resembles a downwards from left to right (that is, mass
straight line or not and whether the values of decreases with increase in time). Although a
y (in this case, mass) increase or decrease person’s mass fluctuates daily, the time series
over time. graph suggests a downward trend. That is, overall,
the person’s mass has decreased over the 28-day
period.
13.4.3 Trend lines

•• A trend line is a type of line of best fit. Trend lines indicate the general trend of the data.
•• Trend lines are useful in forecasting, or making predictions about the future, by extrapolation. Extrap-
olation can have limited reliability, as predictions are based on the assumption that the current trend
will continue into the future.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The graph at right shows the average cost of renting

300
a one-bedroom flat, as recorded over a 10-year 280
period.
Cost of rent ($)

260
a If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and 240
220
comment on the type of the trend. 200
b Assuming that the current trend will continue, use 180
the line of best fit to predict the cost of rent in 160
140
5 years’ time.
1 5 10 15
Year
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Analyse the graph and observe what occurs over a
300
a period of time. Draw a line of best fit. 280
Cost of rent ($)

260
240
220
200
180
160
140
1 5 10 15
Year
2 Comment on the type of trend observed. The graph illustrates that the cost of rent
increases steadily over the years. The time
series graph indicates an upward linear trend.
b 1 Extend the line of best fit drawn in part a. The b
last entry corresponds to the 10th year and we
need to predict the cost of rent in 5 years’ time;
that is, in the 15th year.
2 Locate the 15th year on the time axis and draw
300
a vertical line until it meets with the line of best 280
fit. From the trend line (line of best fit) draw a
Cost of rent ($)
260
horizontal line to the cost axis. 240
220
200
180
160
140
1 5 10 15
Year
3 Read the cost from the vertical axis. Cost of rent = $260
4 Write your answer. Assuming that the cost of rent will continue
to increase at the present rate, in 5 years
we can expect the cost of rent to reach
$260 per week.

13.4.4 Using spreadsheets to determine the correlation
It is possible to draw scatterplots and time series graphs using a variety of digital technologies, including
spreadsheets.
Data were recorded about the number of families who moved from Sydney to Newcastle over the
past 10 years.
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Number moved 97 118 125 106 144 155 162 140 158 170
a Use technology to construct a time series graph, with a line of best fit, that represents the data.
b Describe the trend.
c Measure the correlation.
d Comment on the results.
THINK WRITE
a Enter the data into a spreadsheet. a
Select the type of graph — a scatter-
plot with the points joined and a trend
line fitted.
b Describe the trend. b There appears to be an upward trend over the 10 years.
c To measure the correlation, place the c The correlation is 0.8761.
cursor in a cell — see the purple cell.
From the menu ribbon, select ‘More
formulas’, then ‘Statistics’, then
‘CORREL’. Complete the values for
the relevant cells and press Enter.
The correlation value will be shown.
d Interpret the results. d Over the last 10 years, an increasing number of families
have decided to make the move from Sydney to
Newcastle. The correlation is strong and positive
(0.8761), making it possible to predict that this trend is
likely to continue.
Watch this eLesson: Fluctuations and cycles (eles-0181)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Time series (doc-14600)

Exercise 13.4 Time series
Individual pathways

1–3, 5–7, 9 1–7, 9, 10 1–11
Fluency
1. WE8 Classify the trend suggested by each time series graph as being linear or non-linear, and upward,
downward or stationary in the mean (no trend).
a. Data b. Data c. Data
t t t
d. Data e. Data f. Data
t t t
g. Data h. Data
t t
2. WE9 The data below show the average daily temperatures recorded
in June.
17.6, 17.4, 18.0, 17.2, 17.5, 16.9, 16.3, 17.1, 16.9, 16.2, 16.0, 16.6,
16.1, 15.4, 15.1 15.5, 16.0, 16.0, 15.4, 15.2, 15.0, 15.5, 15.1, 14.8,
15.3, 14.9, 14.6, 14.4, 15.0, 14.2
a. Plot these temperatures as a time series graph.
b. Comment on the trend.

Understanding
3. The data below show the quarterly sales (in thousands of
dollars) recorded by the owner of a sheepskin product store
over a period of 4 years.
Quarter 2006 2007 2008 2009
1 57 59 50 52
2 100 102 98 100
3 125 127 120 124
4 74 70 72 73
a. Plot the time series.
b. The time series plot displays seasonal fluctuations of period 4 (since there are four quarters). Explain
in your own words what this means. Also write one or two possible reasons for the occurrence of
these fluctuations.
c. Overall, does the time series plot indicate upward, downward or no trend?
4. The table below shows the total monthly revenue (in thousands of dollars) obtained by the owners of a
large reception hall. The revenue comes from rent and catering for various functions over a period of
3 years.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
2007 60 65 40 45 40 50 45 50 55 50 55 70
2008 70 65 60 65 55 60 60 65 70 75 80 85
2009 80 70 65 70 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
a. Construct a time series plot for these data.
b. Describe the graph (peaks and troughs, long-term trend, any other patterns).
c. Try to give possible reasons for monthly fluctuations.
d. Does the graph show seasonal fluctuations of period 12? Are there any patterns that repeat from year
to year?
5. The owner of a motel and caravan park in a small town keeps records of the total number of rooms
and total number of camp sites occupied per month. The time series plots based on his records are
shown below.
Number of rooms/sites occupied
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan. Apr. Aug. Dec.
Month
Camp sites Motel rooms
a. Describe each graph, discussing general trend, peaks and troughs and so on. Explain particular
features of the graphs and give possible reasons.
b. Compare the two graphs and write a short paragraph commenting on any similarities and differences
between them.

6. WE10 The graph below shows enrolments in the Health and Nutrition course at a local college over a
10-year period.
120
100
90
80
Enrolment
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Year
a. If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and comment on the type of the trend.
b. Assuming that the trend will continue, use the line of best fit to predict the enrolment for the course
in 5 years’ time; that is, in the 15th year.
Reasoning
7. WE11 In June a new childcare centre was opened. The number of children attending full time (accord-
ing to the enrolment at the beginning of each month) during the first year of operation is shown in the
table below.
June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
6 8 7 9 10 9 12 10 11 13 12 14
a. Plot this time series using a digital technology. (Hint: Let June = 1, July = 2 etc.)
b. Is the child care business going well? Justify your answer.
c. Draw a line of best fit and find its equation, using coordinates of any two points on the line.
d. Use your equation of the line of best fit to predict the enrolment in the centre during the second year
of operation at the beginning of:
i. August
ii. January.
What assumptions have you made?
8. The graph below shows the monthly sales of a certain book since its publication. Explain in your own
words why linear trend forecasting of the future sales of this book is not appropriate.
Sales
Time
9. a. Choose an object or subject that is of interest to you and that can be observed and measured during
one day. For example, you might decide to measure your own pulse rate.

b. Prepare a table where you will record your results every hour within the school day. For example, for
the pulse rate the table might look like this.
Time 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm
Pulse rate
c. Take your measurements at the regular time intervals you have decided on and record them in the
table.
d. Plot the time series obtained as a result of your experiment.
e. Describe the graph and comment on the trend.
f. If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and predict the values (that is, your pulse rate) for the
next 2–3 hours.
g. Take the actual measurements during the hours you have made predictions for. Compare your
predictions with the actual measurements. Were your predictions accurate? Why or why not?
Problem solving
10. Running a small business is difficult when your business is affected by seasonal patterns. It can make it
difficult to do a budget when you have a fluctuating income. For example, if you owned a cafe at
Mt Buller you would have a lot of business during the ski season but very little business over summer. If
you wish to remain open over the summer, you need to find a way to remove the impact of the seasons from
your sales data to see if it is viable. Investigate a way of removing the effects of the seasons from the data.
11. The table below gives the quarterly sales figures for a second-hand car dealer over a three-year period.
Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2012 75 65 92 99
2013 91 79 115 114
2014 93 85 136 118
a. Represent this data on a time series plot.
b. Briefly describe how the car sales have altered over the time period.
c. Does it appear that the car dealer can sell more cars in a particular period each year?
Reflection
Why are predictions in the future appropriate for time series even though they involve extrapolation?
CHALLENGE 13.2
Mr MacDonald recorded the test marks for his Year 10 class of 25 students.
He calculated the average mark to be 72. Sandra’s mark of 86 was incorrectly
marked as 36. What was the correct average mark for the test?

13.5 Review
Fluency
1. As preparation for a Mathematics test, a group of 20 students was given a revision sheet containing
60 questions. The table below shows the number of questions from the revision sheet successfully
completed by each student and the mark, out of 100, of that student on the test.
Number of questions 9 12 37 60 55 40 10 25 50 48 60
Test result 18 21 52 95 100 67 15 50 97 85 89
Number of questions 50 48 35 29 19 44 49 20 16 58 52
Test result 97 85 62 54 30 70 82 37 28 99 80
a. State which of the variables is dependent and which is independent.
b. Construct a scatterplot of the data.
c. State the type of correlation between the two variables suggested by the scatterplot and draw a
corresponding conclusion.
d. Suggest why the relationship is not perfectly linear.
2. a. Use the line of best fit shown on the graph at right to y
predict the value of y, when the value of x is: 50
i. 10 45
40
ii. 35.
35
b. Use the line of best fit to predict the value of x, when the
30
value of y is:
25
i. 15
20
ii. 30.
15
c. Find the equation of a line of best fit if it is known that it
10
passes through the points (5, 5) and (20, 27).
5
d. Use the equation of the line to algebraically verify the values
x
obtained from the graph in parts a and b. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
3. The graph shows the number of occupants of a large nursing
home over the last 14 years.
a. Comment on the type of trend displayed.
b. Explain why it is appropriate to draw in a line of best fit.
c. Draw a line of best fit and use it to predict the number of occupants in the nursing home in 3 years’
time.
d. What assumption has been made when predicting figures for part c?
130
Number of occupants
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
09
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
Year

4. The table below shows the advertised sale price ('000s dollars) and the land size (m2) for ten vacant
blocks of land.
Land size (m2) Sale price (×$1000)
632 36
1560 58
800 40
1190 44
770 41
1250 52
1090 43
1780 75
1740 72
920 43
a. Construct a scatterplot and determine the equation of the line of best fit.
b. What does the gradient represent?
c. Using the line of best fit, predict the approximate sale price, to the nearest thousand dollars for a
block of land with an area of 1600 m2.
d. Using the line of best fit, predict the approximate land size, to the nearest 10 square metres, you
could purchase with $500 000.
5. The table below shows, for fifteen students, the amount of pocket money they receive and spend at the
school canteen in an average week.
Pocket money ($) Canteen spending ($) Pocket money ($) Canteen spending ($)
30 16 25 15
40 17 15 13
15 12 50 19
25 14 20 14
40 16 35 17
15 14 20 15
30 16 10 13
30 17
c. Using your line of best fit, predict the amount of money spent at the canteen for a student receiving
$45 pocket money a week.
d. Using your line of best fit, predict the amount of money spent at the canteen by a student who
receives $100 pocket money each week? Does this seem reasonable? Explain.
6. The table below shows, for 10 ballet students, the number of hours a week spent training and the
number of pirouettes in a row they can complete.
Training (h) 11 11 2 8 4 16 11 16 5 3
Number of pirouettes 15 13 3 12 7 17 13 16 8 5

c. Using your line of best fit, predict the number of pirouettes that could be complete if a student
undertakes 14 hours of training.
d. Professional ballet dancers may undertake up to 30 hours of training a week. Using your line best fit,
predict the number of pirouettes they should be able to do in a row. Comment on your findings.
7. a. Use the data given below to draw a scatterplot and determine the equation of the line of best fit.
Age in years 7 11 8 16 9 8 14 19 17 10 20 15
Hours of television
20 19 25 55 46 50 53 67 59 25 70 58
watched in a week
b. Use the line of best fit to predict the value of the number of hours of television watched by a person
aged 15.
c. Determine the age when the number of hours of television watched is 60.
Problem solving
8. Describe the trends present in the following time series data that shows the mean monthly daily hours
of sunshine in Melbourne from January to December.
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Daily hours of sunshine 8.7 8.0 7.5 6.4 4.8 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.3 7.3 7.5 8.3
9. The existence of the following situations is often considered an obstacle to making estimates from
data.
a. Outlier
b. Extrapolation
c. Small range of data
d. Small number of data points
Explain why each of these situations is considered an obstacle to making estimates of data and how
each might be overcome.
10. The table below shows the heights of 10 students and the distances along the ground between their
feet as they attempt to do the splits.
Height (cm) Distance stretched (cm)
134.5 150
156 160
133.5 147
145 160
160 162
135 149
163 163
138 149
152 158
159 160
Using the data, estimate the distance a person 1.8 m tall can achieve when attempting the splits. Write
a detailed analysis of your result. Include:
•• an explanation of the method(s) used
•• any plots or formula generated
•• comments on validity of the estimate
•• any ways the validity of the estimate could be improved.

Language
bivariate independent strength
continuous independent variable strong
denominator line of best fit time series
dependent variable moderate trend
direction predictions univariate
discrete relationship variable
form scatterplot weak

www.assesson.com.au

Collecting, recording and analysing data
over time
A time series is a sequence of measurements taken
at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly and so
on) over a certain period of time. Time series are
best represented using time-series plots, which are
line graphs with the time plotted on the horizontal
axis. Examples of time series include daily tempera-
ture, monthly unemployment rates and daily share
prices.
When data are recorded on a regular basis, the
value of the variable may go up and down in what
seems to be an erratic pattern. These are called
fluctuations. However, over a long period of time,

the time series usually suggests a certain trend. These trends can be classified as being linear or
non-linear, and upward, downward or stationary (no trend).
Time series are often used for forecasting, that is, making predictions about the future. The
predictions made with the help of time series are always based on the assumption that the
observed trend will continue in the future.
1. Choose a subject that is of interest to you and that can be observed and measured during one day
or over the period of a week or more. (Suitable subjects are shown in the list below.)
2. Prepare a table for recording your results. Select appropriate regular time intervals. An example is
shown below.
Time 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm
Pulse rate
3. Take your measurements at the selected time intervals and record them in the table.
4. Use your data to plot the time series. You can use software such as Excel or draw the scatterplot
by hand.
5. Describe the graph and comment on its trend.
6. If appropriate, draw a line of best fit and predict the next few data values.
7. Take the actual measurements during the hours you have made predictions for. Compare the
predictions with the actual measurements. Were your predictions good? Give reasons.
Here are some suitable subjects for data observation and recording:
•• minimum and maximum temperatures each day for 2 weeks
(use the TV news or newspaper as resources)
•• the value of a stock on the share market (e.g. Telstra,
Wesfarmers and Rio Tinto)
•• your pulse over 12 hours (ask your teacher how to do this or
check on the internet)
•• the value of sales each day at the school canteen
•• the number of students absent each day
•• the position of a song in the Top 40 over a number of weeks
•• petrol prices each day for 2 weeks
•• other measurements (check with your teacher)
•• world population statistics over time.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: What did the chewing gum say to the shoe? (doc-15941)

Answers
Topic 13 Bivariate data
Exercise 13.2 Bivariate data
1. Independent Dependent
a. Number of hours Test results
b. Rainfall Attendance
c. Hours in gym Visits to the doctor
d. Lengths of essay Memory taken
e. Cost of care Attendance
f. Age of property Cost of property
g. Number of applicants Cut-off OP score
h. Running speed Heart rate
2.
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
Cost ($1000)
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Number of guests
3. a. Perfectly linear, positive b. No correlation c. Non-linear, negative, moderate
d. Strong, positive, linear e. No correlation f. Non-linear, positive, strong
g. Strong, negative, negative h. Non-linear, moderate, negative i. Weak, negative, linear
j. Non-linear, moderate, positive k. Positive, moderate, linear l. Non-linear, strong, negative
m. Strong, negative, linear n. Weak, positive, linear o. Non-linear, moderate, positive
4. a.
12
11
10
Number of bags sold
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Cost ($)
b. Negative, linear, moderate. The price of the bag appeared to affect the numbers sold; that is, the more expensive the bag,
the fewer sold.
5. a.
420
400
380
360
340
Price ($1000)
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of bedrooms

b. Moderate positive linear correlation. There is evidence to show that the larger the number of bedrooms, the higher the price
of the house.
c. Various answers; location, age, number of people interested in the house, and so on.
6. a. 100
90
Total score (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of questions completed
b. Strong, positive, linear correlation
c. Various answers — some students are of different ability levels and they may have attempted the questions but had
incorrect answers.
7. a.
Number of accidents
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Number of lessons
b. Weak, negative, linear relation
c. Various answers, such as some drivers are better than others, live in lower traffic areas, traffic conditions etc.
8. a. T b. F c. T d. F e. T
9. B
10. C
11. D
12. a.
12
A C
10
Number of handballs
G
8
H
6 D
E
4
B
2
F
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Number of kicks
b. This scatterplot does not support the claim.
13. a. Mandy (iii) b. William (iv) c. Charlotte (viii) d. Dario (vii)
e. Edward (vi) f. Cindy (v) g. Georgina (i) h. Harrison (ii)
Exercise 13.3 Lines of best fit

Note: Answers may vary depending on the line of best fit drawn.
1. a, b. P
14
13
12
11
10
Petrol used (L)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 d
5
c. Using (23, 3) and (56, 8), the equation is P = 33 d − 16
33
.

2. a, b. E
140
130
120
110
100
Earnings ($)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 h
Hours worked
c. Using (8, 47) and (12, 74), the equation is E = 6.75h − 7.
d. On average, students were paid $6.75 per hour.
3. a. 38 b. 18
4. a. i. 460 ii. 290 iii. 130
b. i. 39 ii. 24 iii. 6
c. y = −11.71x + 548.57
d. y-values:
i. 466.60 ii. 290.95 iii. 127.01
x-values:
i. 36.60 ii. 24.64 iii. 5.86
5. a. C
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
Cost of food ($)
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
Number of people
b. Using (1, 75) and (5, 150), the equation is C = 18.75n + 56.25.
c. On average, weekly cost of food increases by $18.75 for every extra person.
d. i. $206.25 ii. $225.00 iii. $243.75
6. a. M
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
Mass (kg)
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 t
Weeks
Positive, strong, linear correlation
b. Using (32, 1.470) and (35, 2.230), M = 0.25t − 6.5.
c. With every week of gestation the mass of the baby increases by approximately 250 g.
d. 3.75 kg; 4 kg e. Approximately 1 kg f. Between 35 and 36 weeks

7. a. r = 0.9
b. There is a strong positive relationship between the number of hours spent studying and the marks obtained. This seems to
indicate that greater dedication to studying will produce better results.
8. a. M
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
Mass (g)
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516 d
Day
b. Using (2, 3.7) and (10, 11.2), M = 0.973d + 1.285.
c. Each day Rachel’s crystal gains 0.973 g in mass.
d. 7.123 g; 8.096 g; 13.934 g; 14.907 g; interpolation (within the given range of 1–16)
e. 17.826 g; 18.799 g; predictions are not reliable, since they were obtained using extrapolation.
9. a. D b. C
10. E
11. a. L
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
Length (cm)
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920 n
Week
b. Using (2, 21) and (17, 37), L = 1.07n + 18.9.
c. 24.25 cm; 26.39 cm; 28.53 cm; 30.67 cm; 31.74 cm; 34.95 cm; 36.02 cm; 38.16 cm; 39.23 cm
d. Interpolation (within the given range of 1–20)
e. 41.37 cm; 42.44 cm; 43.51 cm
f. Not reliable, because extrapolation has been used.
12. a.
8
7
Best jump (metres)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Age
b.
8
7
Best jump (metres)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Age

c. B
8
7
Best jump (metres)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
a
Age
d. Yes. Using points (9, 4.85) and (16, 7.24), B = 0.34a + 1.8; estimated best jump = 8.6 m.
e. No, trends work well over the short term but long term are affected by other variables.
f. 24 years old: 9.97 m; 28 years old: 11.33 m. It is unrealistic to expect his jumping distance to increase indefinitely.
g. Equal first
Challenge 13.1
No. He would have to get 108%, which would be impossible on a test.
Exercise 13.4 Time series

1. a. Linear, downward b. Non-linear, upward c. Non-linear, stationary in the mean
d. Linear, upward e. Non-linear, downward f. Non-linear, stationary in the mean
g. Non-linear, stationary in the mean h. Linear, upward
2. a.
18.0 May temperature
17.8
17.6
17.4
17.2
17.0
16.8
Temperature (°C)
16.6
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Day
b. Linear downward trend
3. a.
130
125
120
115
110
105
Sales (× $1000)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Quarter
2006 2007 2008 2009 Year
b. Sheepskin products more popular in the third quarter (presumably winter) — discount sales, increase in sales, and so on.
c. No trend
4. a. 100
Revenue ($1000)
90
80
70
60
50
40
35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 Month
2007 2008 2009 Year

b. General upward trend with peaks around December and troughs around April.
c. Peaks around Christmas where people have lots of parties, troughs around April where weather gets colder and people less
inclined to go out.
d. Yes. Peaks in December, troughs in April.
5. a. Peaks around Christmas holidays and a minor peak at Easter. No camping in colder months.
6. a.
120
110
100
90
80
Enrolment
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Year
Upward linear
b. In 15th year the expected amount = 122
7. a.
14
13
Number of children
12 (8, 11)
11
10
9
8 (1, 7)
7
6
5
June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Month
b. Yes, the graph shows an upward trend.
4 45
c. y = x +
7 7
d. i. 15
ii. 18 (The assumption made was that business will continue on a linear upward trend.)
8. The trend is non-linear, therefore unable to forecast future sales.
10. Check with your teacher. Some methods could involve ‘smoothing’ and ‘seasonal adjustments’.
11. a.
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
Cars sold
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2012 2013 2014
b. Secondhand car sales per quarter have shown a general upward trend but with some major fluctuations.
c. More cars are sold in the third and fourth quarters compared to the first and second quarters.
Challenge 13.2
74

13.5 Review
1. a. Number of questions — independent; test result — dependent
b.
100
90
80
70
Test result
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Number of questions
c. Strong, positive, linear correlation; the larger the number of completed revision questions, the higher the mark on the test.
d. Different abilities of the students
2. a. i. 12.5
ii. 49
b. i. 12
ii. 22.5
c. y = 22
15
x − 73
d. i. 12.33
ii. 49
and
i. 11.82
ii. 22.05
3. a. Linear downwards
b. The trend is linear.
c. About 65 occupants
d. Assumes that the current trend will continue.
4. a. P = 31.82a + 13 070.4, where P is the sale price and a is the land area.
b. The price of land is approximately $31.82 per square metre.
c. $64 000
d. 1160 m2
5. a. C = 0.15p + 11.09, where C is the money spent at the canteen and p represents the pocket money received.
b. Students spend 15 cents at the canteen per dollar received for pocket money.
c. $18
d. $26. This involves extrapolation, which is considered unreliable. It does not seem reasonable that, if a student receives
more money, they will eat more or have to purchase more than any other student.
6. a. P = 0.91t + 2.95, where P is the number of pirouettes and t is the number of hours of training.
b. Ballet students can do approximately 0.91 pirouettes for each hour of training.
c. Approximately 15 pirouettes
d. Approximately 30 pirouettes. This estimate is based on extrapolation, which is considered unreliable. To model this data
linearly as the number of hours of training becomes large is unrealistic.
7. a. Hours of TV watched = 3.31 × age + 3.05
b. Approximately 53 hours
c. Approximately 17 years old
8. Overall the data appears to be following a seasonal trend, with peaks at either end of the year and a trough in the middle.
9. a. Outliers can unfairly skew data and as such dramatically alter the line of best fit. Identify and remove any outliers from the
data before determining the line of best fit.
b. Extrapolation involves making estimates outside the data range and this is considered unreliable. When extrapolation is
required, consider the data and the likelihood that the data would remain linear if extended. When giving results, make
comment on the validity of the estimation.

c. A small range may not give a fair indication if a data set shows a strong linear correlation. Try to increase the range of the
data set by taking more measurements or undertaking more research.
d. A small number of data points may not be able to establish with confidence the existence of a strong linear correlation. Try
to increase the number of data points by taking more measurements or undertaking more research.
10. About 170 cm; data was first plotted as a scatter plot. (145, 160) was identified as an outlier and removed from the data set. A
line of best fit was then fitted to the remaining data and its equation determined as d = 0.5h + 80, where d is the distance
stretched and h is the height. Substitution was used to obtain the estimate.
The estimation requires extrapolation and cannot be considered reliable. The presence of the outlier may indicate variation
in flexibility rather than a strong linear correlation between the data. Estimate is based on a small set of data. More data
should be collected in order to determine the suitability of least squares regression.
Answers will vary; teacher to check.

TOPIC 14
Statistics in the media
14.1 Overview
this topic.

Statistics, when used properly, can be an invalu-
able aid to good decision making. However,
deliberate distortion of the data or meaningless
pictures can be used to support almost any claim
or point of view. Whenever you read an adver-
tisement, hear a news report or are given some
data by a friend, you need to have a healthy
degree of scepticism about the reliability of the
source and nature of the data presented.

1. THINK List what you know about how the media reports data. Use a thinking tool such as a concept
knowledge of how the media reports data.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
14.1 Overview
14.2 Populations and samples
14.3 Primary and secondary data
14.4 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports
14.5 Statistical investigations
14.6 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Behind the advertising (eles-1854)
TOPIC 14 Statistics in the media 591

14.2 Populations and samples
14.2.1 Populations
•• The term population refers to a complete set of individuals, objects or events belonging to some c ategory.
•• When data are collected from a whole population, the process is known as a census.
– It is often not possible, nor cost-effective, to conduct a census.
– For this reason, samples have to be selected carefully from the population. A sample is a subset of
its population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
List some of the problems you might encounter in trying to collect

data on the following populations.
a The life of a mobile phone battery
b The number of possums in a local area
c The number of males in Australia
d The average cost of a loaf of white bread
THINK WRITE
For each of these scenarios, consider how
the data might be collected, and the prob-
lems in obtaining these data.
a The life of a mobile phone battery a The life of a mobile phone battery cannot be measured
until it is dead. The battery life also depends on how
the phone is used, and how many times it has been
recharged.
b The number of possums in a local area b It would be almost impossible to find all the possums
in a local area in order to count them. The possums
also may stray into other areas.
c The number of males in Australia c The number of males in Australia is constantly
changing. There are births and deaths every second.
d The average cost of a loaf of white d The price of one particular loaf of white bread varies
bread widely from one location to another. Sometimes the
bread is on ‘Special’ and this would affect the
calculations.
14.2.2 Samples
•• Surveys are conducted using samples. Ideally the sample should reveal generalisations about the
population.
•• A random sample is generally accepted as being an ideal representation of the population from which
it was drawn. However, it must be remembered that different random samples from the same p opulation
can produce different results. This means that we must be cautious about making predictions about a
population, as results of surveys conducted using random samples may vary.
•• A sample size must be sufficiently large. As a general rule, the sample size should be about √N, where
N is the size of the population. It is a misconception that a larger sample will produce a more reliable
prediction of the characteristics of its population.

A die was rolled 50 times and the following results were obtained.
6 5 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 3 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 5 4 3 1 2 1 6 4 5 2
3 6 1 5 3 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 2 6 3 4 6 2 1 2 4 2.
a Determine the mean of the population (to 1 decimal place).
b A suitable sample size for this population would be 7 (√50 ≈ 7.1).
i Select a random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these scores.
ii Select a second random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these.
iii Select a third random sample of 20 scores, and determine the mean of these.
c Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the mean by first finding the sum a Population mean
of all the scores, then dividing by the Σx
=
number of scores (50). n
169
=
50
= 3.4
b i Use a calculator to randomly generate b i The 7 scores randomly selected are numbers 17,
7 scores from 1 to 50. 50, 11, 40, 48, 12, 19 in the set of 50 scores.
Relate these numbers back to the These correspond to the scores 4, 2, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5.
scores, then calculate the mean. 23
The mean of these scores = = 3.3.
7
ii Repeat bi to obtain a second set of 7 ii Ignore the second and third attempts to select 7
randomly selected scores. random numbers because of repeated numbers.
This second set of random numbers The second set of 7 scores randomly selected is
produced the number 1 twice. Try numbers 16, 49, 2, 42, 31, 11, 50 of the
again. Another attempt produced the set of 50. These correspond to the scores 6, 4,
number 14 twice. Try again. 5, 6, 1, 3, 2.
A third attempt produced 7 different 27
The mean of these scores = = 3.9.
numbers. This set of 7 random numbers 7
will then be used to, again, calculate the
mean of the scores.
iii Repeat for a randomly selected iii The set of 20 randomly selected numbers
20 scores. produced a total of 68.
68
Mean of 20 random scores = = 3.4
20
c Comment on the results. c The population mean is 3.4.
The means of the two samples of 7 are 3.3 and
3.9. This shows that, even though the samples are
randomly selected, their calculated means may be
different.
The mean of the sample of 20 scores is 3.4. This
indicates that by using a bigger sample the result is
more accurate than those obtained with the smaller
samples.

14.2.3 To sample or to conduct a census?
•• The particular circumstances determine whether data are collected from a population, or from a sample of
the population. For example, suppose you collected data on the height of every Year 10 student in your
class. If your class was the only Year 10 class in the school, your class would be the population. If, however,
there were several Year 10 classes in your school, your class would be a sample of the Year 10 population.
•• Worked example 2 showed that different random samples can produce different results. For this rea-
son, it is important to acknowledge that there could be some uncertainty when using sample results to
make predictions about the population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
For each of the following situations, state whether the information was obtained by census or
survey. Justify why that particular method was used.
a A roll call is conducted each morning at school to determine which students are absent.
b TV ratings are collected from a selection of viewers to discover the popular TV shows.
c Every hundredth light bulb off an assembly production line is tested to determine the life of
that type of light bulb.
d A teacher records the examination results of her class.
THINK WRITE
a Every student is recorded as being present a This is a census. If the roll call only applied to
or absent at the roll call. a sample of the students, there would not be
an accurate record of attendance at school.
A census is essential in this case.
b Only a selection of the TV audience b This is a survey. To collect data from the whole
contributed to these data. viewer population would be time-consuming and
expensive. For this reason, it is appropriate to
select a sample to conduct the survey.
c Only 1 bulb in every 100 is tested. c This is a survey. Light bulbs are tested to destruc-
tion (burn-out) to determine their life. If every
bulb was tested in this way, there would be none
left to sell! A survey on a sample is essential.
d Every student’s result is recorded. d This is a census. It is essential to record the
result of every student.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Determining suitability of questions for a survey (doc-5337)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding proportions (doc-5338)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Distinguishing between types of data (doc-5339)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Reading bar graphs (doc-5340)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Determining independent and dependent variables (doc-5341)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Populations and samples (doc-14603)

Exercise 14.2 Populations and samples
Individual pathways

1–3, 5, 7, 10 1–4, 6, 8, 11, 12 1–3, 5, 7, 9–13
Fluency
1. WE1 List some of the problems you might encounter in trying to collect
data from the following populations.
a. The life of a laptop computer battery
b. The number of dogs in your neighbourhood
c. The number of fish for sale at the fish markets
d. The average number of pieces of popcorn in a bag of popcorn
2. WE2 The data below show the results of the rolled die from Worked example 2.
6 5 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 3 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 5 4 3 1 2 1 6 4 5
2 3 6 1 5 3 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 2 6 3 4 6 2 1 2 4 2
The mean of the population is 3.4. Select your own samples for the following questions.
a. Select a random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these scores.
b. Select a second random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these.
c. Select a third random sample of 20 scores, and determine the mean of these.
d. Comment on your answers to parts a, b and c.
3. WE3 In each of the following scenarios, state whether the information was obtained by census or
survey. Justify why that particular method was used.
a. Seating for all passengers is recorded for each aeroplane flight.
b. Movie ratings are collected from a selection of viewers to discover the best movies for the week.
c. Every hundredth soft drink bottle off an assembly production line is measured to determine the
volume of its contents.
d. A car driving instructor records the number of hours each learner driver has spent driving.
4. For each of the following, state whether a census or a survey has been used.
a. Two hundred people in a shopping centre are asked to nominate the supermarket where they do most
of their grocery shopping.
b. To find the most popular new car on the road, 500 new car buyers are asked what make and model
they purchased.
c. To find the most popular new car on the road, data are obtained from the transport department.
d. Your Year 10 Maths class completed a series of questions on the amount of maths homework for Year
10 students.
Understanding
5. To conduct a statistical investigation, Gloria needs to obtain information from 630 students.
a. What size sample would be appropriate?
b. Describe a method of generating a set of random numbers for this sample.
6. A local council wants the opinions of its residents regarding its endeavours to establish a new sporting
facility for the community. It has specifically requested all residents over 10 years of age to respond to
a set of on-line questions.

a. Is this a census or a survey?
b. What problems could you encounter collecting data this way?
7. A poll was conducted at a school a few days before the election for Head Boy and Head Girl. After the elec-
tion, it was discovered that the polls were completely misleading. Explain how this could have happened.
8. A sampling error is said to occur when results of a sample are different from those of the population
from which the sample was drawn. Discuss some factors which could introduce sampling errors.
Reasoning
9. Since 1961, a census has been conducted in Australia every 5 years. Some people object to the census
on the basis that their privacy is being invaded. Others say that the expense involved could be directed
to a better cause. Others say that a sample could obtain statistics which are just as accurate. What are
your views on this? Justify your statements.
10. Australia has a very small population compared with other countries like China and India. These are
the world’s most populous nations, so the problems we encounter in conducting a census in Australia
would be insignificant compared with those encountered in those countries. What different problems
would authorities come across when conducting a census there?
11. The game of Lotto involves picking the same 6 numbers in the range 1 to 45 as have been randomly
selected by a machine containing 45 numbered balls. The balls are mixed thoroughly, then 8 balls are
selected representing the 6 main numbers, plus 2 extra numbers, called supplementary numbers.
Here is a list of the number of times each number had been drawn over a period of time, and also the
number of weeks since each particular number has been drawn.
NUMBER OF WEEKS SINCE NUMBER OF TIMES EACH NUMBER

EACH NUMBER DRAWN DRAWN SINCE DRAW 413
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 5 2 1 1 7 - 4 246 238 244 227 249 241 253 266

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
3 3 1 5 5 7 - 4 228 213 250 233 224 221 240 223

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
9 - 9 2 2 12 10 8 217 233 240 226 238 240 253 228

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
5 11 17 2 3 3 - 22 252 239 198 229 227 204 230 226

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 3 - 1 12 - 6 - 246 233 232 251 222 221 219 259

41 42 43 44 45 41 42 43 44 45
6 1 7 - 31 245 242 237 221 224

If these numbers are randomly chosen, explain the differences shown in the tables.

Problem solving
12. A sample of 30 people was selected at random from
those attending a local swimming pool. Their ages (in
years) were recorded as follows:
19, 7, 58, 41, 17, 23, 62, 55, 40, 37, 32, 29, 21, 18, 16,
10, 40, 36, 33, 59, 65, 68, 15, 9, 20, 29, 38, 24, 10, 30.
a. Find the mean and the median age of the people in this
sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of 10 (0–9 etc.) and
complete the frequency distribution table.
c. Use the frequency distribution table to estimate the
mean age.
d. Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence, plot the ogive.
e. Estimate the median age from the ogive.
f. Compare the mean and median of the original data in part a with the estimates of the mean and the
median obtained for the grouped data in parts c and e.
g. Were the estimates good enough? Explain your answer.
13. The typing speed (words per minute) was recorded for a group of Year 8 and Year 10 students. The
results are displayed in this back-to-back stem plot.
Key: 2 | 6 = 26 wpm
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Year 8 Year 10
99 0
9865420 1 79
988642100 2 23689
9776410 3 02455788
86520 4 1258899
5 03578
6 003
Write a report comparing the typing speeds of the two groups.
Reflection
A well-known saying about statistics is: Statistics means never having to say you’re certain. What
does this saying mean?
14.3 Primary and secondary data

14.3.1 Primary data
•• Primary data collection involves collecting data yourself.
•• This means that you have ownership of the data, and no one else has access to the data until it is
released or published.
•• A variety of methods for collecting primary data are used. These include observation, measurement,
survey, experiment or simulation.

14.3.2 Observation
•• Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of
people, objects and events in a systematic manner.
•• The data are collected as a disguised observation (respondents
are unaware they are being observed) or undisguised observation
(the respondent is aware). Video surveillance cameras are an
example of people knowing that their movements are being
recorded, but are not always aware of where the recording takes
place.
•• Observations can be in a natural environment (for example, in a
food hall), or a contrived environment (a food‐tasting session
for a food company).
•• Mechanical devices (video cameras, closed circuit television,
counting devices across a road) can also be used.
14.3.3 Measurement
•• Measurement involves using some measuring device
to collect data.
•• This generally involves conducting an experiment of
some type.
– The height of everyone in your class can be measured.
– The mass of all new‐born babies can be collected.
–A pedometer measures the number of steps the
wearer takes.
14.3.4 Surveys
•• Surveys involve designing a questionnaire to interview people. Often the questionnaire requires many
rewrites to obtain one which is clear and unbiased.
•• The interview can be in person — face to face or by telephone. The advantage of this method is that you are
able to gauge the reactions of those you are interviewing, and explain particular questions, if necessary.
•• Most frequently these days, email is used to survey participants; however, there are advantages and
disadvantages to using this type of survey.
•• Advantages:
– Can cover a large number of people or organisations
– A wide geographic coverage is possible.
– It avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
– There is no interviewer bias.
– The respondent has time to consider responses.
– It’s relatively cheap.
•• Disadvantages:
– The questions have to be relatively simple.
– The response rate is often quite low (inducements often
given as an incentive to return).
– The reliability of the answers is questionable.
– No control over who actually completes the questionnaire
– Problems with incomplete questionnaires

14.3.5 Experiment
•• Generally, when conducting an experiment the data c ollected
are quantitative.
•• Particular care should be taken to ensure that the experiment is con-
ducted in a manner which would produce similar results if repeated.
•• Care must be taken with the recording of results.
•• The results must be in a form which can readily be analysed.
•• All results need to be recorded, including the weird or unex-
pected outcomes.
14.3.6 Simulation
•• Experiments such as rolling a die, tossing a coin or drawing a card from a
deck may be conducted to model some real‐life situation.
•• Simulations occur in areas such as business, engineering, medical and
scientific research.
•• They are often used to imitate real‐life situations which may be dangerous,
impractical or too expensive to explore by other means.
•• Before collecting any primary data, it must be clear what data are to be
collected.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
It is widely believed that there is equal chance of having a boy or girl

with each birth. Genetics and the history of births in a family sometimes
have a great influence on the sex of the child as well. Ignore those factors
in this question.
a Design an experiment to simulate the chance of giving birth
to a boy or a girl.
b Describe how your experiment could be conducted to determine the number of children a
couple should have, on average, to ensure they have offspring of both sexes.
THINK WRITE
a Use a device that can simulate two a A fair coin will be tossed with a Head representing a boy
outcomes which are equally likely. (B), and a Tail representing a girl (G).
This could be a random number
generator to generate two integers,
say a 0 (representing a boy) and 1
(representing a girl). A fair coin
could be tossed, such that, a Head
represents a boy, and a Tail repre-
sents a girl.
b 1 Describe how the experiment will b The experiment will be conducted 50 times, and a record
be conducted. kept of each experiment. For each experiment, the coin
will be tossed until both sexes result. This may mean that
there could be for example 7 trials in an experiment
(GGGGGGB) before both sexes are represented.

2 Display the table of results. The table below shows the results of the 50 experiments.
Exp. No. of Exp. No. of
no. Results trials no. Results trials
1 BG 2 26 GGGB 4
2 GGB 3 27 GGGGB 5
3 BG 2 28 GGGB 4
4 GGGGB 5 29 BG 2
5 BBBBBBG 7 30 BBBG 4
6 GGGB 4 31 BG 2
7 BBG 3 32 GB 2
8 BBG 3 33 GGGB 4
9 BBBBG 5 34 BG 2
10 GB 2 35 GGGGGGB 7
11 BG 2 36 BBBBBBG 7
12 GGGB 4 37 GB 2
13 BBG 3 38 BG 2
14 BBG 3 39 GGB 3
15 GB 2 40 GGGGB 5
16 BG 2 41 BBG 3
17 GGB 3 42 BBBBBG 6
18 GB 2 43 GGB 3
19 GGB 3 44 GGB 3
20 BBBG 4 45 BBBG 4
21 BG 2 46 BBG 3
22 GB 2 47 GGGGGGB 7
23 GGGGB 5 48 BG 2
24 BG 2 49 BBG 3
25 GGGGB 5 50 GGGGGB 6
Total 175
This table shows that 175 trials were undertaken in 50
experiments where each experiment resulted in both sexes.
3 Determine the average number of 175
Average number of children = = 3.5
children required to produce 50
offspring of both sexes.
4 Write a conclusion. The average number of children a couple should have to
reach the goal of having both sexes is 4.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
You have been asked to obtain primary data to determine the methods of transport used to
travel to school by the students at your school. The data collected are to provide support for the
Student Council’s proposal for a school bus.
a What data should be collected?
b Outline possible methods which could be used to collect the data.
c Decide which method you consider to be the best option, and discuss its advantages and
disadvantages.
THINK WRITE
a Outline the various forms of a The modes of transport available to students at the
transport available to the students. school are: car, bus, train, bicycle and walking
b Consider all the alternatives for b Several methods could be used to collect the data.
collecting the data. • Could stand at the school gate one morning and ask
students as they arrive.
• A questionnaire could be designed.
• Students could be asked to write their mode of transport
on a piece of paper and place in a collection tin.
c 1 Decide on the best option. c The first option of standing at the school gate is very time‐
consuming, and students could arrive at the back gate.
The third option does not seem reliable, as some students
may not comply, and other students may place multiple
pieces of paper in the collection tin.
The second option seems the best of the three.
2 Discuss advantages and disad- The advantages of a questionnaire include:
vantages. • There is a permanent record on paper.
• It is not time‐consuming to distribute or collect.
• Students can complete it at their leisure.
Disadvantages include:
• Students may not return it.
• Expense involved in producing copies.
•• A decision must be made as to the method of collection.

•• The advantages and disadvantages of the collection method must be acknowledged.
•• The reason for the data collection should be clear from the outset.
Note: This example does not represent the views of all those collecting such data. It merely serves to chal-
lenge students to explore and discuss available options.
14.3.7 Secondary data

•• Secondary data are data that have already been collected by someone else.
•• The data can come from a variety of sources:
– Paper — books, journals, magazines, company reports
– Electronic — online databases, internet, broadcasts, DVDs
– Government sources — ABS provides a wealth of statistical data.
– General business sources — academic institutions, stockbroking firms, sporting clubs
– Media — newspapers, TV reports.
•• Secondary data sources often provide data that would not be possible for an individual to collect.
•• The data can be qualitative or quantitative.

•• The accuracy and reliability of the data sometimes needs to be questioned, depending on its source.
•• The age of the data should always be considered.
•• Often the data that surrounds us passes by unnoticed.
•• It is important to learn the skills to be able to critically analyse secondary data.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Bigbite advertises the energy and fat content of

some of their rollaways on their placemats.
a What information can you gain from these data?
b Bigbite advertise that they have a range of Bigbite fresh as rollaways Energy (kJ) Fat (g) Sat. fat (g)
Roasted vegetable
rollaways with less than 6 grams of fat. Comment HAM
900
1100
3.0
6.0
1.0
1.4
on this claim. TURKEY 1140 4.8 1.7
BBQ BEEF 1150 5.0 1.5
c This could be the starting point of a statistical Bigbite ribbon 1130 4.8 1.3
investigation. How could you proceed from here? TURKEY AND HAM
BBQ CHICKEN
1250
1460
4.5
4.7
1.5
1.2
d Investigations are not conducted simply for the CHICKEN Tandoori 1110 4.0 1.0
sake of investigating. Suggest some aims for Fresh as Dessert

Fruit Slices 200 <1 <1
investigating further. Bigbite rollaways
Regular rollaways include white and/or wholemeal bread,
salads and meat.
Nutritional value is changed by adding cheese or sauces.
THINK WRITE
a Look at the data on the a The placemat reveals the following information:
placemat to gain as much • A higher energy content of a rollaway does not necessarily mean
information as possible. that its fat content is higher.
• As the fat content of a rollaway increases, generally the saturated
fat content also increases.
• The addition of some types of protein (ham, turkey, beef, chicken)
increases the energy content of the rollaway.
• These data are only for those rollaways on white or wholemeal
bread with salads and meat.
• The addition of condiments (sauces) or cheese will alter these
figures.
• A fruit slice has much less energy and fat than a rollaway.
b Examine the data to b All the rollaways displayed have less than 6 grams of fat, so Big-
discover if there is bite’s claim is true.
evidence to support the It must be remembered that the addition of cheese and sauce to
claim. Make further these rollaways would increase their fat content. Also, if the rolla-
comment. way was on any bread other than white or wholemeal, the fat
content could go beyond 6 grams.
c What would be the next c The placemat displays a toll‐free phone number for further information.
step in the investigation? Their website also contains additional detailed information.
d What are some interest- d Suggested aims for investigating further could be:
ing facts which could be • How much extra fat is added to a rollaway by the addition of
revealed through a deeper cheese and/or sauce?
investigation? • What difference does a different type of bread make to the fat
content of the rollaway?
• Which rollaway contains the highest fat content?
• What is the sugar content of the rollaways?

Exercise 14.3 Primary and secondary data
Individual pathways

1–8, 11, 14 1–9, 11, 14 1, 3, 6, 7, 10–14
Fluency
1. WE4 Devise an experiment to simulate each of the following situations and specify the device used to
represent the outcomes.
a. A true/false test in which answers are randomly distributed.
b. A casino game with outcomes grouped in colours of either red or black.
c. Breakfast cereal boxes containing 4 different types of plastic toys.
d. In a group of six people, one person is to be chosen as the leader.
e. A choice of three main meals on a restaurant’s menu, all of which are equally popular.
f. Five possible holiday destinations offered by a travel agent; such that all destinations are equally
available and equally priced.
g. Five types of takeaway fast foods available in one area, where one pizza is twice as popular as each
of the other types of takeaway food (the other 4 are equally popular).
2. WE5 You have been asked to obtain primary data from students at your school to determine internet
access students have at home. The data collected are to provide support for opening the computer
room for student use at night.
a. What data should be collected?
b. Outline possible methods which could be used to collect these data.
c. Decide which method you consider to be the best option, and discuss its advantages and disadvan-
tages.
3. WE6 This label shows the nutrition information of Brand X rolled oats.
Nutrition information
Servings per package: 25 Serving size 30 g
Per serving 30 g %Dl* per serving Per 100 g
Energy 486 kJ 6% 1620 kJ
Protein 4.3 g 9% 14.3 g
Fat - Total 2.8 g 4% 9.3 g
- Saturated 0.5 g 2% 1.7 g
- Trans Less than 0.1 g - Less than 0.1 g
- Polyunsaturated 1.0 g - 3.2 g
- Monounsaturated 1.3 g - 4.4 g
Carbohydrate 16.8 g 5% 56 g
- Sugars 0.9 g 1% 3.0 g
Dietary fibre 3.1 g 10% 10.4 g
Sodium 0.7 mg 0.1% 2 mg
* % DI = Percentage daily intake
a. What information can you gain from the data?

b. This could be the starting point of a statistical investigation. How could you proceed from here?
c. Suggest some aims for investigating further.

4. a. Provide a list of methods you could use to collect primary data.
b. Describe which method you would use to collect the following primary data.
i. Heights of trees along the footpaths of a tree‐lined street
ii. Number of buses that transport students to your school in the morning
iii. Sunrise times during summer
iv. Student opinion regarding length of lessons
Understanding
For questions 5 and 6, design an experiment to simulate the situation, carry out the experiment and give the
results of the experiment.
5. A mouse in a maze can make left or
right turns at each junction. Assuming
each turn is equally likely, how many
junctions on average must the mouse go
through before each type of turn will
have been made?
6. A restaurant menu features 4 desserts
which are assumed to be equally
popular. How many dessert orders must
be filled (on average) before the owner
can be sure all types will have been
ordered?
7. This label shows the nutrition information of Brand Y rolled oats.
Nutrition information
Servings per package: 30
Serving size: 30 g
Avg. quantity Avg. quantity
per serving 30 g per 100 g
Energy 480 kJ (115 Cal) 1600 kJ (383 Cal)
Protein 3.2 g 10.5 g
Fat, total 2.4 g 8.0 g
- saturated LESS THAN 1 g 1.5 g
Carbohydrate 18.3 g 61.0 g
- sugars 0.0 g 0.0 g
Dietary Fibre, total 3.3 g 10.0 g
Sodium LESS THAN 5 mg LESS THAN 5 mg
Ingredients
Oats (100%)
Attention
THIS PRODUCT CONTAINS

GLUTEN.
Storage
Store in a cool, dry place.
Compare the nutrition information with that on the Brand X label in question 3.

8. Comment on this claim.
We did a survey on 100 people regarding eating chocolate.

60 of these people said they regularly ate chocolate.
We then measured the heights of all 100 people.
**** The result ****
Eating chocolate makes you taller!!
9. Russel operates a computer software sales outlet. He keeps a log of all complaints from customers.
Suggest how he could organise his log.
10. The following claim has been made regarding secondary data.
There’s a lot more secondary data than primary data, it’s a lot cheaper and it’s easier to acquire.
Comment on this statement.
Reasoning
11. The local Bed Barn was having a sale on selected beds by Sealy and Sleepmaker. Four of the beds on
sale were:
Sealy Posturepremier on sale for $1499 a saving of $1000
Sealy Posturepedic on sale for $2299 a saving of $1600
Sleepmaker Casablanca on sale for $1199 a saving of $800
Sleepmaker Umbria on sale for $2499 a saving of $1800
The store claimed that all these beds had been discounted by 40%. Comment on whether this state-
ment is true, supporting your comments with sound mathematical reasoning.
12. The following data give the boxplots
Under 20
for three different age groups in a
triathlon for under thirties.
a. What was the slowest time for the 20 – 24
Age
20–24 year olds?

b. Estimate the difference in time 25 – 29
between the fastest triathlete in:
i. the under 20s and the 20–24 group
7000 8000 9000 10 000
ii. the under 20s and the 25–29 group Time in seconds
iii. the 20–24 group and the 25–29
group.
c. What conclusion could you draw about the overall performance between the three groups?
Problem solving
13. This taste test on corn chips appeared in a newspaper.
TASTE TEST: CORN CHIPS

Byron Bay Chilli Co. Corn chips IGA Black and Gold Plain Corn chips
230 g $3.40 ($1.48 per 100 g) 230 g $1.99 (87 cents per 100 g)
• Made in Australia • Made in Australia
• Fat 24.9 g/100 g • Fat 24.9 g/100 g
• Saturated fat 11.8 g/100 g • Saturated fat 11.8 g/100 g
• Sodium 44 mg/100 g • Sodium 415 mg/100 g
Verdict: Crisp, thick chips with fresh corn flavour Verdict: Cheap in comparison and quite nice.
and low sodium content. No preservatives, no GM A good budget option as they are as good as
corn. Put Byron Bay in the title and things cost more! the popular branded ones.

CCs Corn Chips Doritos Corn Chips
200 g $2.69 ($1.34 per 100 g) 200 g $2.99 ($1.50 per 100 g)
• Made in Australia • Made in Australia
• Fat 24.4 g/100 g • Fat 23.2 g/100 g
• Saturated fat 10.6 g/100 g • Saturated Fat 11.2 g/100 g
• Sodium 550 mg/100 g • Sodium 435 mg/100 g
Verdict: Chips are quite thin and very salty to taste. Verdict: Very crisp and fresh, but really no better
Very high sodium content. than the home brand which is $1 cheaper.
Source: The Sunday Mail, 4 Apr. 2010, p. 26.
Comment on the information displayed.

14. These parallel boxplots show the number of weekly house sales by two real estate agencies over a
3-month period.
HJ Looker
Hane & Roarne
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of
weekly sales
Prepare a report to compare the performance of the two agencies.

Reflection
When using secondary data from other countries, what different unit classifications could you
encounter?
CHALLENGE 14.1
A fisheries and wildlife officer released 200 tagged trout into a lake. A
week later, the officer took a sample of 50 trout and found that 8 of them
were tagged. The officer can use this information to estimate the
population of trout in the lake. How many trout are now in the lake?
14.4 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical

reports
•• Statistical investigations involve collecting data, recording the data, analysing the data then reporting
the results.
14.4.1 Data collection methods

•• Collection methods involve gathering primary data, or using secondary data from stored records.
•• Primary data can be collected by observation, measurement, survey, experiment or simulation as
discussed earlier.

•• Secondary data can be collected electronically or via a hard copy.
•• It is important to be able to justify the particular method chosen for each of these processes.
•• Sometimes alternative methods are just as appropriate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
You have been given an assignment to

investigate which year level uses the school
library, after school, the most.
a Explain whether it is more appropriate
to use primary or secondary data in this case.
Justify your choice.
b Describe how the data could be collected.
Discuss any problems which might be encountered.
c Explain whether an alternative method would
be just as appropriate.
THINK WRITE
a No records have been kept on library a Since records are not kept on the library use, secondary
use. data is not an option.
Primary data collection could be either sampling or
We did a survey on 100 people regarding eating chocolate.
census. A sufficiently large sample size could be chosen;
60 of these people said they regularly ate chocolate.
this would take less time than conducting a census,
We then measured the heights of all people.
although it would not
100be as accurate. Sampling would be
**** The result ****
considered appropriate in this case.
Eating chocolate makes you taller!!
b The data can be collected via a b A questionnaire could be designed and distributed to a
questionnaire or in person. randomly‐chosen sample. The problem here would be
the non‐return of the forms.
Observation could be used to personally interview
students as they entered the library. This would take more
time, but random interview times could be selected.
c A census is the other option. c A census could be conducted, either by questionnaire or
observation. This should yield a more accurate outcome.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Which method would be the most appropriate to collect the following data? Suggest an
alternative method in each case.
a The number of cars parked in the staff car park each day
b The mass of books students carry to school each day
c The length a spring stretches when weights are added to it
d The cost of mobile phone plans with various network providers
THINK WRITE
a Observation a The best way would probably be observation by visiting the staff car
park to count the number of cars there.
An alternative method would be to conduct a census of all workers to
ask if they parked in the staff car park. This is probably not as good.

b Measurement b The mass of the books could be measured by weighing each
student’s pack on scales.
A random sample would probably yield a reasonably accurate result.
c Experiment c Conduct an experiment and measure the extension of the spring with
various weights.
There is probably no alternative to this method.
d Internet search d An internet search would enable data to be collected.
Alternatively, a visit to mobile phone outlets would yield similar results.
14.4.2 Analysing the data

•• Once the data have been collected and collated, a decision must be made with regard to the best meth-
ods for analysing the data.
– a measure of central tendency — mean, median or mode
– a measure of spread — range, interquartile range or standard deviation
– an appropriate graph.
Statistical graphs
•• Data can be graphed in a variety of ways — line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, stem plots, box plots,
etc. These have all been discussed in detail previously.
•• In media reports it is common to see line and bar graphs.
•• Because graphs give a quick visual impression, the temptation is to not look at them in great detail.
Often graphs can be quite misleading.
•• It is easy to manipulate a graph to give an impression which is supported by the creator of the graph.
This is achieved by careful choice of scale on the horizontal and vertical axes.
– Shortening the horizontal axis tends to highlight the increasing/decreasing nature of the trend of the
graph. Lengthening the vertical axis tends to have the same effect.
– Lengthening the horizontal and shortening the vertical axes tends to level out the trends.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
This report shows the annual change in

HOUSES
median house prices in the local government Suburb/locality Median house price Annual
areas (LGA) of Queensland from 2008–09 2009–10 2008–09 change
to 2009–10. Brisbane (LGA) $530,000 $475,000 11.6%
a Draw a bar graph which would give the Ipswich City (LGA) $323,000 $310,000 4.2%
Redland City (LGA) $467,500 $435,000 7.5%
impression that the percentage annual Logan City (LGA) $360,000 $340,000 5.9%
change was much the same throughout Moreton Bay (LGA) $399,000 $372,000 7.3%
the whole state. Gold Coast City (LGA) $505,000 $465,000 8.6%
Toowoomba (LGA) $289,500 $269,000 7.6%
b Construct a bar graph to give the Sunshine Coast (LGA) $470,000 $445,000 5.6%
impression that the percentage annual Fraser Coast (LGA) $307,400 $297,750 3.2%
change in Brisbane was far greater than Bundaberg (LGA) $282,000 $275,000 2.5%
Gladstone (LGA) $370,000 $370,000 0.0%
that in the other local government areas. Rockhampton (LGA) $315,250 $300,000 5.1%
Mackay (LGA) $398,000 $383,000 3.9%
Townsville City (LGA) $375,000 $359,000 4.5%
Cairns (LGA) $365,000 $355,000 2.8%

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a To flatten out trends, a % house price changes in QLD 2008–9 to 2009–10
Annual % change
lengthen the horizontal axis 10
and shorten the vertical axis.
5
Logan
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area
b To accentuate trends, b % house price changes in QLD

12
shorten the horizontal axis 11 2008–9 to 2009–10
and lengthen the vertical 10
Annual % change
axis. 9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
Logan
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Consider the data displayed in the table of Worked example 9. Use the data collected for the
median house prices in 2009–10.
a Explain whether these data would be classed as primary or secondary data.
b Why do the data show median house prices rather than the mean or modal house price?
c Calculate a measure of central tendency for the data. Explain the reason for this choice.
d Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a reason for the particular choice.
e Display the data in a graphical form, explaining why this particular form was chosen.
THINK WRITE
a These are data which have been a These are secondary data because they have been collected
collected by someone else. by someone else.
b Median is the middle price, mean b The median price is the middle one. It is not affected by
is the average price, and mode is outliers as the mean is. The modal house price may only
the most frequently‐occurring occur for two house sales with the same value. On the other
price. hand, there may not be any mode.
The median price is the most appropriate in this case.

c Which measure of central c The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and
tendency is the most appropriate mode. The mean is affected by high values (i.e. $530 000)
one? and low values (i.e. $282 000). These are not typical values,
so the mean would not be appropriate.
There is no modal value, as all the house prices are different.
The median house price is the most suitable measure of
central tendency to represent the house prices in the Queens-
land local government areas. The median value is $370 000.
d Consider the range and the d The five‐number summary values are:
interquartile range as measures Lowest score = $282 000
of spread. Lowest quartile = $315 250
Median = $370 000
Upper quartile = $467 500
Highest score = $530 000
Range = $530 000 − $282 000
= $248 000
Interquartile range = $467 500 − $315 250
= $152 250
The interquartile range is a better measure for the range as
the house prices form a cluster in this region.
e Consider the graphing options. e Of all the graphing options, the boxplot seems the most
appropriate as it shows the spread of the prices as well as
how they are grouped around the median price.
280 000 340 000 400 000 460 000 520 000
Median house price 2009 – 10 ($)
The Australian women’s national basketball team, the Opals, competed at the 2008 Olympic
Games in Beijing, winning a silver medal. These are the heights (in metres) of the 12 team
members:
1.73, 1.65, 1.8, 1.83, 1.96, 1.88, 1.63, 1.88, 1.83, 1.88, 1.8, 1.96
Provide calculations and explanations as evidence to verify or refute the following statements.
a The mean height of the team is greater than their median height.
b The range of the heights of the 12 players is almost 3 times their interquartile range.
c Only 5 players are on the court at any one time. A team of 5 players can be chosen such that
their mean, median and modal heights are all the same.
THINK WRITE
∑x 21.83
a 1 Calculate the mean height a Mean = = = 1.82 m
n 12
of the 12 players.

2 Order the heights to The heights of the players, in order, are:
determine the median. 1.63, 1.65, 1.73, 1.8, 1.8, 1.83, 1.83, 1.88, 1.88, 1.88, 1.96, 1.96
There are 12 scores, so the median is the average of the
6th and 7th scores.
1.83 + 1.83
Median = = 1.83 m
2
3 Comment on the statement. The mean is 1.82 m, while the median is 1.83 m. This means
that the mean is less than the median, so the statement is not
true.
b 1 Determine the range and the b Range = 1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33 m
interquartile range of the Lower quartile is the average of 3rd and 4th scores.
12 heights. 1.73 + 1.8
Lower quartile = = 1.765 m
2
Upper quartile is average of 3rd and 4th scores from the end.
1.88 + 1.88
Upper quartile = = 1.88 m
2
Interquartile range = 1.88 − 1.765 = 0.115 m
2 Compare the two values. Range = 0.33 m
Interquartile range = 0.115 m
Range 0.33
= = 2.9
Interquartile range 0.115
3 Comment on the statement. Range = 2.9 × interquartile range
This is almost 3 times, so the statement is true.
c 1 Choose 5 players whose c Three players have a height of 1.88 m. If a player shorter and
mean, median and modal one taller are chosen, both the same measurement from 1.88 m,
heights are all equal. Trial this would make the mean, median and mode all the same.
and error is appropriate Choose players with heights:
here. There may be more 1.8, 1.88, 1.88, 1.88, 1.96
than one answer. 9.4
Mean = = 1.88 m
5
Median = 3rd score = 1.88 m
Mode = Most frequent score = 1.88 m
2 Comment on the statement. The 5 players with heights 1.8 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m,
1.96 m have a mean, median and modal height of 1.88 m.
It is true that a team of 5 such players can be chosen.
14.4.3 Statistical reports

•• Reported data must not be simply taken at face value; all reports should be examined with a
critical eye.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
This is an excerpt from an article that appeared in a newspaper on Father’s Day. It was reported to be
a national survey findings of a Gallup Poll of data from 1255 fathers of children aged 17 and under.
THE GREAT AUSSIE DADS SURVEY

Thinking about all aspects of your life, how Which of these aspects of your children’s
happy would you say you are? future do you have concerns about?
%
%
I am very happy.......................................................... 26 Their safety................................................................. 70
I am fairly happy......................................................... 49 Being exposed to drugs............................................. 67
Totally happy.............................................................. 75 Their health................................................................. 54
Some days I’m happy and some days Bullying or cyber-bullying........................................... 50
I’m not........................................................................ 21 Teenage violence........................................................ 50
I am fairly unhappy....................................................... 3 Their ability to afford a home...................................... 50
I am very unhappy........................................................ 1 Alcohol consumption and binge drinking................... 47
Totally unhappy............................................................. 4 Achieving academic success..................................... 47
How often, if ever, do you regret having children? Feeling pressured into sex......................................... 41
Every day...................................................................... 1 Being able to afford the lifestyle
they expect to have.................................................... 38
Most days..................................................................... 2
Climate change.......................................................... 23
Some days................................................................. 18
Having them living with you in their mid 20s............. 14
Never.......................................................................... 79
None of the above........................................................ 3
Which one of these best describes the impact
of having children on your relationship with your What is the best thing about being a dad?
partner? The simple pleasures of family life............................. 61
We’re closer than ever................................................ 29 Enjoying the successes of your kids.......................... 24
We don’t spend as much time The unpredictability it brings........................................ 9
together as we should................................................ 40 The comfort of knowing that you will be looked after
We’re more like friends now than lovers.................... 21 in later life..................................................................... 3
We have drifted apart................................................... 6 None of the above........................................................ 3
None of the above........................................................ 4 Key findings
Which one of these best describes the allocation 75% of Aussie dads are totally happy
of cooking and cleaning duties in your household?
79% have never regretted having children
My partner does nothing/I do everything..................... 1
67% are worried about their children being exposed
I do most of it............................................................. 11
to drugs
We share the cooking and cleaning........................... 42
My partner does most of it......................................... 41 57% would like more intimacy with their partner
I do nothing/my partner does everything..................... 4 “Work–life balance is definitely an issue for dads
None of the above........................................................ 1 in 2010.”
David Briggs
Galaxy principal
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, pp. 14–15.

a Comment on the sample chosen.
b Discuss the percentages displayed.
c Comment on the claim that 57% of dads would like more intimacy with their partner.
THINK WRITE
a How is the sample chosen? Is it a The results of a national survey such as this should reveal
truly representative of the popula- the outlook of the whole nation’s dads. There is no indica-
tion of Australian dads? tion of how the sample was chosen, so without further
knowledge we tend to accept that it is representative of the
population. A sample of 1255 is probably large enough.
b Look at the percentages in each of b For the first question regarding happiness, the percentages
the categories. total more than 100%. It seems logical that, in a question
such as this, the respondents would tick only one box, but
obviously this has not been the case.
In the question regarding aspects of concern of ‘your
children’s future’, these percentages also total more than
100%. It seems appropriate here that dads would have
more than one concerning area, so it is possible for the
percentages to total more than 100%.
In each of the other three questions, the percentages total
100%, which is appropriate.
c Look at the tables to try to find the c Examining the reported percentages in the question
source of this figure. regarding ‘relationship with your partner’, there is no
indication how a figure of 57% was determined.
Note: Frequently media reports make claims where the reader has no hope of confirming their truth.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
This article appeared in a newspaper. Read the article, then answer the following questions.
SPONGES ARE TOXIC

Washing dishes can pose a serious health risk, with more than half of all kitchen sponges containing high levels of
dangerous bacteria, research shows.
A new survey dishing the dirt on washing up shows more than 50 per cent of kitchen sponges have high levels of
E.coli, which can cause severe cramps and diarrhoea, and staphylococcus aureus, which releases toxins that can
lead to food poisoning or toxic shock syndrome.
Microbiologist Craig Andrew‐Kabilafkas of Australian Food Microbiology said the Westinghouse study of more
than 1000 households revealed germs can spread easily to freshly washed dishes.
The only way to safeguard homes from sickness was to wash utensils at very high temperatures in a dishwasher.
a Comment on the sample used in this survey.

b Comment on the claims of the survey.
c Is the heading of the article appropriate?
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, p. 36.

THINK WRITE
a Look at sample size and selection of a The report claims that the sample size was more than
sample. 1000. There is no indication how the sample was selected.
The point to keep in mind is whether this sample is
truly representative of the population consisting of all
households. We have no way of knowing.
b What are the results of the survey? b The survey claims that 50% of kitchen sponges have high
levels of E. coli which can cause severe medical problems.
The study was conducted by Westinghouse, so it is not
surprising they recommend using a dishwasher.
c Examine the heading in the light of c The heading is sensational, designed to catch the
the contents of the article. attention of readers.
Try out this interactivity: Compare statistical reports (int-2790)
Exercise 14.4 Evaluating inquiry methods and

statistical reports
Individual pathways

1–4, 6, 8–10, 12 1–4, 7–10, 12 1–13
Fluency
1. WE7, 8 You have been given an assignment to investigate which Year level has the greatest number of
students who are driven to school each day by car.
a. Explain whether it is more appropriate to use primary or secondary data in this case. Justify your
choice.
b. Describe how the data could be collected. Discuss any problems which might be encountered.
c. Explain whether an alternative method would be just as appropriate.
2. WE9 You run a small company that is listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). During the past
year you have given substantial rises in salary to all your staff. However, profits have not been as
spectacular as in the year before. This table gives the figures for the salary and profits for each quarter.
1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter

Profits ($’000 000) 6 5.9 6 6.5
Salaries ($’000 000) 4 5 6 7

Draw two graphs, one showing profits, the other showing salaries, which will show you in the best
possible light to your shareholders.
3. WE10 The data below were collected from a real estate agent and show the sale prices of ten blocks of
land in a new estate.
$150 000, $190 000, $175 000, $150 000, $650 000, $150 000, $165 000, $180 000,
$160 000, $180 000
a. Calculate a measure of central tendency for the
data. Explain the reason for this choice.
b. Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a
reason for the particular choice.
c. Display the data in a graphical form, explain-
ing why this particular form was chosen.
d. The real estate agent advertises the new
estate land as:
Own one of these amazing blocks of land for
only $150 000 (average)!
Comment on the agent’s claims.
4. WE11 Use the data for the heights of the Opal players in Worked example 11 (page 611) to answer the
following question.
a. The mean height of the team is closer to the lower quartile than it is to the median.
b. Half the players have a height within the interquartile range.
c. Which 5 players could be chosen to have the minimum range in heights?
5. The table below shows the number of shoes of each size that were sold over a week at a shoe store.
Size Number sold

4 5
5 7
6 19
7 24
8 16
9 8
10 7

a. Calculate the mean shoe size sold.
b. Determine the median shoe size sold.
c. Determine the modal shoe size sold.
d. Explain which measure of central tendency has the most meaning to the store proprietor.
6. The resting pulse of 20 female athletes was measured and is shown below.
50 62 48 52 71 61 30 45 42 48 43 47 51 52 34 61 44 54 38 40
a. Represent the data in a distribution table using appropriate groupings.
b. Find the mean, median and mode of the data.
c. Comment on the similarities and differences between the three values.

Understanding
7. The batting scores for two cricket players over six innings were recorded as follows.
Player A 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41
Player B 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
Player B was hailed as a hero for his score of 250.
Comment on the performance of the two players.
8. A small manufacturing plant employs 80 workers. The table below shows the structure of the plant.
Position Salary ($) Number of employees

Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief Executive Officer 80 000 1
a. Workers are arguing for a pay rise, but the management of the factory claims that workers are well
paid because the mean salary of the factory is $22 100. Explain whether this is a sound argument.
b. Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short submission in
support of the pay rise. How could you explain the management’s claim? Provide some other
statistics to support your case.
9. WE12, 13 This report from Woolworths appeared in a newspaper.
IT’S A RECORD
• Woolworths posted 10.1% gain in annual profit to • Wants to increase its share of the fresh
$2.02b food market
• 11th consecutive year of double‐digit • Announced $700m off‐market share
growth buyback
• Flags 8% to 11% growth in the current financial year • Final fully franked dividend 62% a share
• Sales rose 4.8% to $51.2b
SHARES REBOUND NET PROFIT

$
28.40
28.10 2.4% $b +$2.02b
27.70 Yesterday +10.1%
2 +12.8%
27.40 +25.7%
27.10 1.5 +27.5%
20.80
+24.3%
26.50 1
26.20
0.5
25.90
25.60
Aug 26 0
May 26 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: IRESS
Source: The Courier Mail, 27 Aug. 2010, pp. 40–1.
Comment on the report.

Reasoning
10. The graph at right shows the fluctuation in the Australian dollar AUSSIE
in terms of the US dollar during the period 13 July to 13 Sep- US¢ US 93.29¢
92.8
tember 2010. The higher the Australian dollar, the cheaper it is
for Australian companies to import goods from overseas, and the 90.9
cheaper they should be able to sell their goods to the Australian 88.8
public. 86.8
The manager of Company XYZ produced a graph to support 84.8

his claim that, because there hasn’t been much change in the 82.8
Aussie dollar over that period, there hasn’t been any change in 80.8
Jul 13 Sep 13
the price he sells his imported goods to the Australian public. Source: IRESS
Draw a graph that would support his claim. Explain how you Source: The Courier Mail,
were able to achieve this effect. 14 Sept. 2010, p. 25.
11. Two brands of light globes were tested by a consumer organisation. They obtained the following results.
Brand A (Hours lasted) Brand B (Hours lasted)
385 390 425 426 570 500 555 560 630 720
640 645 730 735 760 735 742 770 820 860
a. Complete a back-to-back stem plot for the data.
b. Which brand had the shortest lifetime?
c. Which brand had the longest lifetime?
d. If you wanted to be certain that a globe you bought would last at least 500 hours, which brand would
you buy?
Problem solving
12. Look at the following bar charts and discuss why the one on the left is misleading and what character-
istics the one on the right possesses that makes it acceptable.
Massive increase in house
prices this year
82 000
Average house price
100 000
Average house price
90 000
in pounds
81 000 80 000
70 000
in pounds
60 000
50 000
80 000 40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
1998 1999 1998 1999
13. a. What is wrong with this pie graph? 2012 presidential run
b. Why is the following information misleading?
Did scientists falsify research to support their own theories on global
warming? Candidate A
70%
59% somewhat likely
35% very likely Candidate B
26% not very likely 63%
c. Discuss the implications of this falsification by statistics.
Candidate C
60%
Reflection
What is the point of drawing a misleading graph in a report?

14.5 Statistical investigations
14.5.1 Using primary data
•• This section deals with the steps involved in carrying out a statistical investigation with primary data
collection.
•• For this exercise we will assume you have been given
this task.
Which pizza on the market is the best

value for money?
•• This is a very broad investigation, and each stage of the

investigation must be carefully planned.
–– Collecting the data
–– Organising the data
–– Performing calculations
–– Analysing the data
–– Reporting the results
Collecting the data
•• At this initial stage, questions should be posed with regard to the data.
• What data should be collected?
–– Best value for money involves the price and size of the pizza. Data on both of these need to be
collected.
–– Stores have different prices for different sizes.
–– Would size best be measured as area or mass?
–– Not all pizzas are round; some are rectangular.
–– What about the variety of toppings? A standard one should be chosen.
–– Should frozen pizzas be included?
• How should the data be collected?
–– It is not possible to buy every pizza on the market, so what alternatives are there?
–– A store is probably not willing to allow their pizzas to be weighed, so mass is most likely out of
the question.
–– Will the store allow their pizzas to be measured?
• What problems are likely to be encountered?
–– How many different companies market pizza?
Organising the data
•• The data should be organised into some sort Price Measurements Area Value for money
of table format.
–– What format is appropriate for this
investigation?
–– A table with column headings Price and
Measurements will organise the data.

•• Take time to design the table so figures required for calculation are readily visible.
–– What calculations are required at this stage?
–– Measurements are required to calculate the area of each pizza.
•• Think forward and add extra columns for future calculations.
–– What further calculations are needed?
–– Area and Value for money need to be calculated. Provide two extra columns for these.
Performing calculations
•• What calculations need to be performed?
•• The Area and Value for money are required in this case. How should these be calculated? Dividing
price by area gives ($/cm2), while dividing area by price gives (cm2/$).
Analysing the data
•• Are there any anomalies, or obvious calculation errors?
•• Do the calculated results ‘make sense’?
•• In this case, if Value for money is calculated in units of $/cm2, the pizza with the smallest of these
values is the best value for money. Using units of cm2/$, the pizza with the highest of these values
gives the best value for money.
•• Would the inclusion of graphs be appropriate?
Reporting the results
•• The results should be reported in a clear, concise manner.
•• Justify any conclusions.
•• Are there any anomalies or exceptions to mention?
14.5.2 Using secondary data

•• The procedure for undertaking a statistical investigation using secondary data is similar to that for
primary data, the difference being that you sometimes have to search for data in several areas before
you find the appropriate source.
Suppose you were given this assignment.
There have been __________ prime ministers of Australia since 1901 until this day.
There have been __________ elections.
__________ prime ministers have been defeated at a general election.
There have been __________ changes of prime ministers without an election.
The average length these prime ministers served in office is __________.
Undertake a statistical investigation to complete the details.
Collecting the data

•• What data should be collected?
•• Where can the data be found? The internet is probably a good starting point, but not all sites are reliable.
•• If there are multiple sources for the data, are they all in agreement?
•• How many of these statements require calculations?
Organising the data
•• Design a table to record all the data.
•• Consider how many columns are necessary.
•• Leave columns for calculations.

Performing calculations
•• There is at least one calculation here — to determine the average length of time served in office. Are
there any more?
Analysing the data
•• Do all the calculated values make sense?
•• Would a graph be appropriate?
Reporting the results
•• Complete the details.
•• Acknowledge the source of the secondary data.
Investigating media reports
•• Frequently reports in the media provide a good starting point for an interesting investigation. Here are
a few suggestions.
Media report 1
Here is an article on an analysis of the speech habits of two high-profile parliamentarians — Julia Gillard
(who was Prime Minister when the article was written) and Tony Abbott (who was then the Leader of the
Opposition). It was written by Roly Sussex, a professor of English.
WORD LIMIT
Roly Sussex
sussex@uq.edu.au
We all have individual features in the way we speak. Our tone of voice, an intonation, a rhythm, a favourite word
or phrase — the things that make us quickly recognised even on bad telephone c onnections. But if you are a
public figure, and especially a political leader, your speech habits will be picked up, criticised, satirised and
caricatured. As I discussed in previous weeks, our current political leaders show a wide variety of habits and
idiosyncrasies.
Our new PM, Julia Gillard is a very consecutive speaker. Like Kevin Rudd before her, she speaks in long
complete sentences. But unlike Rudd, her sentences contain a fair number of pre‐programmed mantras and
phrases: “happy to be judged”, “enhanced the capacity”, “regional neighbours”. Her pronunciation is also
distinctive. She grew up in South Australia, and so says W instead of L at the end of a syllable. Her “milk” is
MIWK, and her “football” is FOOTBAW. And she is our first Prime Minister to have high rising tone, the rising
intonation at the end of a clause (rising pitch).
Her favourite word is “obviously” and she has also quickly assumed the leader’s “I”. The closer you get to the
top job, the more the ego asserts itself in grammar. Especially in answer to a probing question: “I’m not going to
be …”. Former PM John Howard perfected this technique, and it is piously observed by our current leaders.
Treasurer Wayne Swan is acquiring it. Aha.
Compared to the PM, Opposition Leader Tony Abbott is a less fluent speaker. He is an “um”, “look” and “ah”
man. His sentences contain pauses, sometimes for reflection, sometimes for emphasis, sometimes both. He is
somewhat less given to mantra, and greetings‐wise he is more a man of the people: he says “G’day”. But
Gillard and Abbott share three features which are now so ingrained under the fingernails of our pollies that they
won’t scrub off.
One feature is repetition. “As I said in my speech …” says the PM, “… as I said in my speech”. Well, yes, we
know that. We heard the speech. Abbott, on the other hand, repeats repeated negatives about the Government:
“Spin … contradiction … incompetent …. disarray …”. It’s like swearing — the more you use these words, the
less meaning they convey. The second shared feature is the pre‐programmed response. A trigger in the
question presses a specific answer‐button. “Asylum seekers”, “deficit”, “mining super‐tax”, “health” and similar
key issues prompt the automatic rehearsed rejoinder. You know it’s pre‐programmed because you’ll always hear
the same words, whenever the trigger is pressed.

The third thing they share is that they won’t say “yes” or “no”. Both respond to a “can you tell us, yes or no?”
with streams of verbal flimflam. Interviewers should give up trying to prise a clear yea/nay out of either of them.
But the public does have a right to know, yes or no, where they stand on issues, and we aren’t getting what we
crave.
Source: The Courier Mail, 14–15 Aug. 2010, p. 25.
There is no doubt that these comments are true. How could you find evidence of this?
Media report 2
SINGLE WOMEN EARN MORE

WASHINGTON: The income of one group of US women is catching up to and even overtaking men, a
study shows.
They are single women in their 20s without children, who live in large cities and work full-time, according to a
study of census data by Reach Advisors, a New York–based strategy and research firm focused on emerging
shifts in the consumer landscape.
These young women earn on average 8 per cent more than men in their age group, but in some cities, such
as Atlanta in Georgia and Memphis, Tennessee, women earn about one-fifth more than men. On average,
American women who work full-time earn about 80 per cent of what men earn.
The report says that one reason for the finding is that girls are “going to college in droves”.
Nearly three-quarters of girls who complete high school go on to university, compared with t wo-thirds
of boys.
Women are 1 12 times more likely than men to graduate from university and to obtain a masters degree
or higher.
Census data released in April showed that 58 per cent of all US masters degrees or PhDs were awarded to
women. As women go further in their education, they are also delaying getting married and starting a family.
Source: The Weekend Australian, 4–5 Sept. 2010, p. 20.
Is this report really true? Is it perhaps only true in America? (The heading seems to suggest that it is
universally true.) What is the status of women in other parts of the world? Further investigation could
reveal interesting comparisons.
Media report 3
EGG SHORTAGE IS NO YOLK

Producers lay plan to meet need
Peddy Hintz
Blame MasterChef or the Heart Foundation, but it’s getting harder to find the right kind of eggs at the
supermarket — and it’s likely to stay that way until Christmas.
Queensland egg producers are struggling to keep up with demand but the boom in sales has also been
matched by the recent interest in keeping backyard chickens.
The winter shortage of eggs on Australian supermarket shelves will mean that instead of sitting in a coolroom
for a week, eggs are being transferred to shelves almost straight from the supplier.
“It’s currently taking only about 48 hours from being laid to getting onto the shelves so the eggs that people
do buy will be a really good, fresh product,” chief executive of Sunny Queen, one of the country’s biggest
suppliers, John O’Hara said.
The Australian Egg Corporation has put the increased demand for eggs down to revised Heart Foundation
guidelines raising the number of eggs recommended for a healthy diet from two a week to six.
But, Mr O’Hara said, cooking shows such as MasterChef had also led to a rise in demand.
Current estimates have Australians eating 203–205 eggs per person a year, compared with 195 last year, 156
the year before and a low of 132 10 years ago.

UNSCRAMBLING EGGS
Annual egg consumption (per person)
Australia: 205
Japan: 320
US: 230
UK: 230
NZ: 214
Egg sales
65% caged
24–25% free range
10% cage free
Fresh is best
The most effective way to test if an egg is fresh is to put it in water. The more it sinks, the fresher the egg. If it
floats, it’s nearly off.
Source: The Courier Mail, 28–9 Aug. 2010, p. 13.
Note the catchy heading on this article. Does the advice from the Heart Foundation or cooking shows like
MasterChef really have that much effect on egg sales? How does egg consumption in Australia compare
with that in the other countries mentioned? This is worthy of further investigation.
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Statistics in the media (doc-14604)
Exercise 14.5 Statistical investigations

Individual pathways

1–7, 9 1–9 1–10
Understanding
1. a.
Write a plan detailing how you would collect primary data to undertake an investigation to
determine which pizza on the market is the best value for money.
b. Undertake your investigation.
c. Report on the results of your findings.

2. Undertake the investigation on the history of prime ministers in Australia. Report your findings.
3. Find evidence from speeches of Julia Gillard and Tony Abbott to support Roly Sussex’s report on the
speech habits of these two politicians.
4. Do single women really earn more? Investigate.
5. What’s the story on egg consumption in Australia?
6. Search for a media article you would like to investigate. Provide a full report on your findings.
Reasoning
7. Below are a few statistics on Facebook
users. These figures are those reported in the
Year 2010.
• There are more than 400 million active users.
• 70% of Facebook users are outside the US.
• 50% of active users log on to Facebook in
any given day.
• More than 60 million updates are posted
each day.
• More than 3 billion photos are uploaded to
the site each month.
• The average user has 130 friends on the site.
• The average user spends more than
55 minutes per day on Facebook.
The top 10 countries on Facebook represent just a little over half of the Facebook users. China
(population 1.3 billion) and India (1.2 billion) do not appear in the top 10 list. Write a report
summarising the usage of Facebook throughout the world.
These are the top 10 countries on Facebook.
% of world
Country Population (millions) population Users (millions)
1 USA 310.3 4.5 111.2
2 UK 62 0.9 23.5
3 Indonesia 237.6 3.5 19.5
4 Turkey 72.6 1.1 18.7
5 France 65.4 1.0 15.9
6 Italy 60.4 0.9 14.9
7 Canada 34.3 0.5 13.4
8 Philippines 94 1.4 10.6
9 Spain 46.1 0.7 8.9
10 Mexico 108.4 1.6 8.2
8. An investigation is to be conducted to find the two most popular television programs in Australia. For
each of the following samples, explain why they would be biased.
a. A sample of 100 students from a city secondary school.
b. A sample of 100 people passing a certain point in a busy city street at lunchtime.
c. How would you go about selecting a sample of people?

Problem solving
9. There has been a rise in supermarket-own brands in Australia. These are commonly available in
supermarkets like Woolworths, Coles and Aldi. It has been said that these brands account for almost
one-quarter of all grocery sales. It has also been claimed that the quality of supermarket-own brands is
comparable with the equivalent market-leading brand, at a much reduced cost.
Assume you are planning to undertake a study of a particular grocery line (e.g., baked beans or
breakfast cereal). Write a plan of how you would undertake this study.
10. You wish to assess the opinion of a local population on the possible closure of their hospital.
a. What target population would you use?
b. What resources would you use?
c. What are the possible biases in conducting such an experiment?
Reflection
What would you consider to be the most important factor in reporting the results of a statistical
investigation?
CHALLENGE 14.2
List five positive even integers that have a mean of 8 and a median of 10. How many possible solutions are there?
14.6 Review
Fluency
1. List some problems you might encounter in trying to collect data from the following populations.
a. The average number of mL in a can of soft drink.
b. The number of fish in a dam.
c. The number of workers who catch public transport to work each weekday morning.
2. a. Calculate the mean of the integers 1 to 100.
b. i. Randomly select 10 numbers in the range 1 to 100.
ii. Calculate the mean of these numbers.
c. i. Randomly select 20 numbers in the range 1 to 100.
ii. Calculate the mean of these numbers.
d. Comment on the similarities/differences between your means calculated in parts a, b and c.

3. For each of the following investigations, state whether a census or a survey has been used.
a. The average price of petrol in Canberra was estimated by averaging the price at 30 petrol stations in
the area.
b. The performance of a cricketer is measured by looking at his performance in every match he has played.
c. Public opinion on an issue is sought by a telephone poll of 2000 homes.
4. Traffic lights (red, amber, green) are set so that each colour shows for a set amount of time. Describe
how you could use a spinner to simulate the situation so that you could determine (on average) how
many sets of lights you must encounter in order to get two green lights in succession.
5. John and Bill play squash each week. In any given game they are evenly matched. A device that could
not be used to represent the outcomes of the situation is:
A. a die
B. a coin
C. a circular spinner divided into 2 equal sectors
D. a circular spinner divided into 5 equal sectors
E. a circular spinner divided into 4 equal sectors
6. The table below shows the number of students in each year level from Years 7 to 12.
Year Number of students

7 230
8 200
9 189
10 175
11 133
12 124
Draw two separate graphs to illustrate the following.
a. The principal of the school claims a high retention rate in Years 11 and 12 (that is, most of the
students from Year 10 continue on to complete Years 11 and 12).
b. The parents claim that the retention rate of students in Years 11 and 12 is low (that is, a large number
of students leave at the end of Year 10).
7. Records from a school were examined to determine the number of absent days of both boys and girls
over the two years of Year 9 and Year 10. The result is shown in this stem-and-leaf plot.
Key: 2 | 1 = 21 days
Leaf Boys Stem Leaf Girls
0 17
7410 1 24799
9976653110 2 133466
87752 3 4448
2 4 36
5 4
a. Calculate the median number of days absent for both boys and girls.
b. Calculate the range for both boys and girls.
c. Comment on the distribution of days absent for each group.

8. 15 boys and 15 girls were randomly chosen from a group of 900 students. Their heights (in metres)
were measured as shown below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59, 1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
a. Comment on the size of the sample.
b. Display the data as a back-to-back stem plot.
c. Compare the heights of the boys and girls.
9. The stem plot below is used to display the number of vehicles sold by the Ford and Holden
dealerships in a Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
Key: 1 | 5 = 15 vehicles
Leaf Ford Stem Leaf Holden
74 0 39
952210 1 111668
8544 2 2279
0 3 5
a. State the median of both distributions.
b. Calculate the range of both distributions.
c. Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions.
d. Show both distributions on a parallel box plot.
10. The box plots drawn below display statistical data for two AFL teams over a season.
Sydney Swans
Brisbane Lions
50 60 70 80 90 100110120 130140150 Points

a. Which team had the higher median score?
b. What was the range of scores for each team?
c. For each team calculate the interquartile range.
11. Tanya measures the heights (in m) of a group of Year 10 boys and girls and produces the following
five-point summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.45, 1.56, 1.62, 1.70, 1.81
Girls: 1.50, 1.55, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a. Draw a box plot for both sets of data and display them on the same scale.
b. What is the median of each distribution?
c. What is the range of each distribution?
d. What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e. Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys and the girls.
12. The box plots below show the average daily sales of cold drinks at the school canteen in summer and
winter.
Summer
Winter
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Daily sales
of cold
drinks
a. Calculate the range of sales in both summer and winter.
b. Calculate the interquartile range of the sales in both summer and winter.
c. Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms of measures of location and
measures of spread.

13. A movie theatre has taken a survey of the ages of people at a showing of two of their movies. The
results are shown in these box plots.
Movie A
Movie B
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn based on the preceding information?
a. Movie A attracts an older audience than Movie B.
b. Movie B attracts an older audience than Movie A.
c. Movie A appeals to a wider age group than Movie B.
d. Movie B appeals to a wider age group than Movie A.
e. More people went to Movie A.
Problem solving
14. The following data show the ages of a group of 30 males and 30 females as they enter hospital for the
first time.
Male Female
98 0 5
998886321 1 77899
87764320 2 0012455679
86310 3 013358
752 4 2368
53 5 134
6 2
8 7
a. Construct a pair of parallel boxplots to represent the two sets of data, showing working out for the
median and 1st and 3rd quartiles.
b. Calculate the mean, range and IQR for both sets of data.
c. Determine any outliers if they exist.
d. Write a short paragraph comparing the data.
1 5. The times, in seconds, of the duration of 20 TV advertisements shown in the 6–8 pm time slot are
recorded below.
16 60 35 23 45 15 25 55 33 20 22 30 28 38 40 18 29 19 35 75
a. From the data, determine the:
i. mode
ii. median
iii. mean, write your answer correct to 2 decimal places
iv. range
v. lower quartile
vi. upper quartile
vii. interquartile range.

b. Using your results from part a, construct a boxplot for the time, in seconds, for the 20 TV
advertisements in the 6–8 pm time slot.
c. From your boxplot, determine:
i. the percentage of advertisements that are more than 39 seconds in length
ii. the percentage of advertisements that last between 21 and 39 seconds
iii. the percentage of advertisements that are more than 21 seconds in length
The types of TV advertisements during the 6–8 pm time slot were categorised as Fast Food,
Supermarkets, Program information, Retail (clothing, sporting goods, furniture). A frequency table for
the frequency of these advertisements being shown during this time slot is shown below.
Type Frequency
Fast food 7
Supermarkets 5
Program information 3
Retail 5
d. What type of data has been collected in the table?

e. What percentage of advertisements are advertisements for fast food outlets?
f. What would be good options for a graphical representation of this type of data?
16. The test scores, out of a total score of 50, for two classes A and B are shown in the stem plot below.
Class A Class B
5 0 124
9753 1 145
97754 2 005
886551 3 155
320 4 157789
0 5 00
a. Ms Vinculum teaches both classes and made the statement that ‘Class A’s performance on the test
showed that the students’ ability was more closely matched than the students’ ability in Class B’. By
finding the measure of centre, first and third quartiles, and the measure of spread for the test scores
for each class, explain if Ms Vinculum’s statement was correct.
b. Would it be correct to say that Class A performed better on the test than Class B? Justify your answer
by comparing the quartiles and median for each class.
1 7. The speeds, in km/h, of 55 cars travelling along a major road are recorded below.
Speed Frequency Speed Frequency

60–64 1 95–99 3
65–69 1 100–104 2
70–74 10 105–109 1
75–79 13 110–114 1
80–84 9 Total 55
85–89 8
90–94 6

a. By finding the midpoint for each class interval, determine the mean speed, in km/h, of the cars
travelling along the road. Write your answer correct to two decimal places.
b. The speed limit along the road is 75 km/h. A speed camera is set to photograph the license plates of
cars travelling 7% more than the speed limit. A speeding fine is automatically sent to the owners of
the cars photographed. Based on the 55 cars recorded, how many speeding fines were issued?
c. Drivers of cars travelling 5 km/h up to 15 km/h over the speed limit are fined $135. Drivers of cars
travelling more than 15 km/h and up to 25 km/h over the speed limit are fined $165 and drivers of
cars recorded travelling more than 25 km/h and up to 35 km/h are fined $250. Drivers travelling more
than 35 km/h pay a $250 fine in addition to having their driver’s license suspended. If it is assumed
that this data is representative of the speeding habits of drivers along a major road and there are
30 000 cars travelling along this road on any given month. Determine:
i. The amount, in dollars, collected in fines throughout the month. Write your answer correct to the
nearest cent.
ii. How many drivers would expect to have their licenses suspended throughout the month?
Language
It is important to learn and be able to use correct mathematical language in order to communicate effectively.
Create a summary of the topic using the key terms below. You can present your summary in writing or
using a concept map, a poster or technology.
biased population statistical data
census primary data statistical investigations
data collection methods sample statistical reports
experiment secondary data surveys
observation simulation trendsT

www.assesson.com.au

Populations and samples
The following table gives information about literacy rates for the entire
population in 100 countries (percentage for each country) and for males and
females in each country. In this task we will see how closely a sample
resembles the population.
Use a digital technology to work with a large set of data.
This task will only use the first column of literacy rates for the country.
Other conclusions may be drawn from the male and female literacy rates
and possibly compared to the overall literacy rates in this investigation.
1. Find the five-figure summary for the 100 countries’ literacy rates and draw
a boxplot.
2. Find the mean and standard deviation.
3. Take a sample of 20 from the set of 100 countries using the random number
generator and make a list of the country and the literacy rates.
4. Find the five-number summary for the sample.
5. Find the mean and standard deviation for the sample.
6. Draw a boxplot that compares your sample with the whole
population.
7. Describe the sample data obtained in terms of the population as
a whole; in particular, concentrate on the middle 50 per cent of
the data.
8. Now take a further two random samples of 20 countries and
draw boxplots of all three on the same scale. Comment on these
three samples.
9. Find the mean and standard deviation for the three samples.
How do they compare?
10. From the results you have obtained, how would you describe the
reliability of a sample compared with using the whole population?
Male Female Male Female

Literacy literacy literacy Literacy literacy literacy
Country (%) (%) (%) Country (%) (%) (%)
1 Afghanistan 29 44 14 8 Barbados 99 99 99
2 Argentina 98 99 98 9 Belarus 99 100 100
3 Armenia 98 100 100 10 Bolivia 78 85 71
4 Australia 100 100 100 11 Botswana 72 32 16
5 Azerbaijan 98 100 100 12 Brazil 81 82 80
6 Bahrain 77 55 55 13 Bulgaria 98 99 98
7 Bangladesh 35 47 22 14 Burkina Faso 24 34 14

Country (%) (%) (%) Country (%) (%) (%)
15 Burundi 50 61 40 46 Iran 54 64 43
16 Cambodia 35 48 22 47 Iraq 60 70 49
17 Cameroon 54 66 45 48 Ireland 98 99 97
18 Canada 97 97 97 49 Israel 92 95 89
19 Cent. Afri. R 27 33 15 50 Italy 97 98 96
20 Chile 93 94 93 51 Japan 99 99 99
21 China 78 87 68 52 Jordan 80 89 70
22 Colombia 87 88 86 53 Kenya 69 80 58
23 Costa Rica 93 93 93 54 Kuwait 73 77 67
24 Croatia 98 99 97 55 Latvia 99 100 100
25 Cuba 94 95 93 56 Lebanon 80 88 73
26 Dominican R. 83 85 82 57 Liberia 40 50 29
27 Ecuador 88 90 86 58 Libya 64 75 50
28 Egypt 48 63 34 59 Lithuania 99 99 98
29 El Salvador 73 76 70 60 Malaysia 78 86 70
30 Estonia 99 100 100 61 Mexico 87 90 85
31 Ethiopia 24 32 16 62 Morocco 50 61 38
32 Finland 100 100 100 63 N. Korea 99 99 99
33 France 99 99 98 64 Netherlands 100 100 100
34 Gabon 61 74 48 65 New Zealand 99 99 99
35 Gambia 27 39 16 66 Nicaragua 57 57 57
36 Georgia 99 100 100 67 Nigeria 51 62 40
37 Germany 99 99 98 68 Norway 99 99 99
38 Greece 93 98 89 69 Oman 71 80 62
39 Guatemala 55 63 47 70 Pakistan 35 47 21
40 Haiti 53 59 47 71 Panama 88 88 88
41 Honduras 73 76 71 72 Paraguay 90 92 88
42 Hungary 99 99 98 73 Peru 85 92 79
43 Iceland 100 100 100 74 Philippines 90 90 90
44 India 52 64 39 75 Poland 99 99 98
45 Indonesia 77 84 68 76 Portugal 85 89 82

Country (%) (%) (%) Country (%) (%) (%)
77 Russia 99 100 100 89 Thailand 93 96 90
78 Rwanda 50 64 37 90 Turkey 81 90 71
79 S. Korea 96 99 99 91 U. Arab Em. 68 70 63
80 Saudi Arabia 62 73 48 92 UK 99 99 99
81 Senegal 38 52 25 93 USA 97 97 97
82 Singapore 88 93 84 94 Uganda 48 62 35
83 Somalia 24 36 14 95 Ukraine 97 100 100
84 South Africa 85 86 86 96 Uruguay 96 97 96
85 Spain 95 97 93 97 Uzbekistan 97 100 100
86 Sweden 99 99 99 98 Venezuela 88 90 87
87 Switzerland 99 99 99 99 Vietnam 88 93 83
88 Syria 64 78 51 100 Zambia 73 81 65
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Animals that originated in Australia include... (doc-15943)

Answers
TOPIC 14 Statistics in the media
Exercise 14.2 Populations and samples
1. a. When was it first put into the machine? How old was the battery before being purchased? How frequently has the computer
been used on battery?
b. Can’t always see if a residence has a dog; a census is very time-consuming; perhaps could approach council for dog registrations.
c. This number is never constant with ongoing purchases, and continuously replenishing stock.
d. Would have to sample in this case as a census would involve opening every packet.
2. These answers will vary with the samples chosen.
3. a. Census. The airline must have a record of every passenger on every flight.
b. Survey. It would be impossible to interview everyone.
c. Survey. A census would involve opening every bottle.
d. Census. The instructor must have an accurate record of each learner driver’s progress.
4. a. Survey b. Survey c. Census d. Survey
5. a. About 25
b. Drawing numbers from a hat, using a calculator, …..
6. a. The council is probably hoping it is a census, but it will probably be a survey because not all those over 10 will respond.
b. Residents may not all have internet access. Only those who are highly motivated are likely to respond.
7. The sample could have been biased. The questionnaire may have been unclear.
8. Sample size, randomness of sample
10. Populations growing very rapidly, large number of expatriate workers in China have a different background and forms need to
be modified for them, people from Hong Kong working on mainland China, large migrant population in New Delhi, often
migrants don’t have residency permits (so the truth of their answers is questionable), many people live in inaccessible areas,
some families in China have more than 1 child and do not disclose this.
11. There is quite a variation in the frequency of particular numbers drawn. For example, the number 45 has not been drawn for
31 weeks, while most have been drawn within the last 10 weeks. In the long term, one should find the frequency of drawing
each number is roughly the same. It may take a long time for this to happen, as only 8 numbers are drawn each week.
12. a. Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5
b.
0–9 2
10–19 7
20–29 6
30–39 6
40–49 3
50–59 3
60–69 3
Total 30
c. Mean = 31.83
d.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age
e. Median = 30
f. Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate.
g. Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of the raw data.

13. Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39, IQR = 19 Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5, range = 46, IQR = 20
The typing speed of Year 10 students is about 13 to 14 wpm faster than that of Year 8 students. The spread of data in Year 8 is
slightly less than the spread in Year 10.
Exercise 14.3 Primary and secondary data

1. These are simply examples of simulations which could be conducted.
a. Coin could be flipped (Heads represents ‘True’, while Tails represents ‘False’)
b. Coin could be flipped (Heads represents ‘red’, while Tails represents ‘black’)
c. Spinner with 4 equal sectors (each sector representing a different toy)
d. Roll a die (each face represents a particular person)
e. Spinner with 3 equal sectors (each one representing a particular meal)
f. Spinner with 5 equal sectors (each one representing a particular destination)
g. Spinner with 5 sectors, one which will have an angle size of 120°, while the other 4 each have an angle size of 60° (each
one representing a particular fast food)
2. Answers will vary, however some possible suggestions include:
Which students have internet access at home?
Do the students need access at night?
What hours would be suitable?
How many would make use of this facility?
4. Answers will vary, however some possible suggestions include:
a. Census, survey, questionnaire, interview, observation, experiment, on-line response, …
b. i.
Measurement ii. Observation
iii. Newspaper recordings iv. Survey
5–7 Student’s own response
8. The claim is false. It is not a logical deduction.
9. Student’s own response
10. Student’s own response
11. Sealy Posturepremier 40% off (2499 × 100) ,
1000
Sealy Posturepedic 41% off (1600

3899
× 100) ,
Sleepmaker Casablanca 40% off (1999
800
× 100) ,
Sleepmaker Umbria 42% off (1800
4299
× 100) .
There is at least 40% off these beds.
12. a. 7750 seconds
b. i. Under 20 − (20–24): 1000 seconds difference
ii. Under 20 − (25–29): 500 seconds difference
iii. (20–24) − (25–29): 500 seconds
c. Median time for 20–24 year olds same as for 25–29 year olds, which was about 250 seconds greater than the under 20s.
The 20–24 year olds had and the under 20s both had a range of 2500 seconds, which was slightly higher than the range for
the older group.
13. They are all made in Australia and have comparable fat and saturated fat contents. The Byron Bay Chilli corn chips have a
much lower salt content than the other three varieties. The verdict comments require a mention.
14. Hane and Roarne had a higher median and a lower spread, so they appear to have performed better.
Challenge 14.1
1250 trout
Exercise 14.4 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports

1. a. Primary. There is probably no secondary data available.
b, c Answers will vary. Check with your teacher.

2. Company profits
Mean salaries
3. a. Mean = $21 5000, median = $170 000, mode = $150 000. The median best represents these land prices. The mean is
inflated by one large score, and the mode is the lowest price.
b. Range = $500 000, interquartile range = $30 000. The interquartile range is the better measure of spread.
c.
150 000 300 000 450 000 600 000
Price
This dot plot shows how 9 of the scores are grouped close together, while the score of $650 000 is an outlier.
d. The agent is quoting the modal price, which is the lowest price. This is not a true reflection of the average price of these
blocks of land.
4. a. False. Mean = 1.82 m, lower quartile = 1.765 m, median = 1.83 m
b. True. This is the definition of interquartile range.
c. Players with heights 1.83 m, 1.83 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m
5. a. 7.1 b. 7 c. 7
d. The mode has the most meaning as this size sells the most.
6. Check with your teacher. Answers depend on groupings used.
7. Player B appears to be the better player if the mean result is used. However, Player A is the more consistent player.
8. a. The statement is true, but misleading as most of the employees earn $18 000.
b. The median and modal salary is $18 000 and only 15 out of 80 (less than 20%) earn more than the mean.
9. Points which could be mentioned include:
• 10.1% is only just ‘double digit’ growth.
• 2006–08 showed mid to low 20% growth. Growth has been declining since 2008.
• The share price has rebounded, but not to its previous high.
• The share price scale is not consistent. Most increments are 30c, except for $27.70 to $28.10 (40c increment). Note also the figure
of 20.80 — probably a typo instead of 26.80.
10. Shorten the y-axis and expand the x-axis.
Aussie dollar
US c
90 c
80 c
0 13 July 13 September
Time

11. a. Key: 3 | 85 = 385 hours
Brand B Stem Brand A
3 85 90
4 25 26
60 55 00 5 70
30 6 40 45
70 42 35 20 7 30 35
60 20 8 60
Brand A: mean = 570.6, median = 605
Brand B: mean = 689.2, median = 727.5
b. Brand A had the shortest mean lifetime.
c. Brand B had the longest mean lifetime.
d. Brand B
12. Left bar chart suggests prices have tripled in one year due to fact vertical axis does not start at zero. Bar chart on right is truly
indicative of situation.
13. a and b Percentages do not add to 100%.
c Such representation allows multiple choices to have closer percentages than really exist.
Exercise 14.5 Statistical investigations
The questions in this exercise relate to student investigations, so there will be a variety of answers.
2. There have been 27 prime ministers of Australia since 1901 until this day.
There have been 42 elections.
10 prime ministers have been defeated at a general election.
There have been 21 changes of prime minister without an election.
3–7 Discuss with your teacher.
8. a. Sample would be biased since respondents would all be from the same area, same age group and not representative of the
total population.
b. Sample would be biased since it is from only one city, so for example the respondents might not be representative of
different socio-economic groups and ethnic backgrounds. The survey should include people from the country as well as the
city.
9. Student’s plan for an investigation — check with teacher.
10. Answers will vary but might include:
a. All households in the area serviced by the hospital
b. Contacts obtained from the local electoral rolls
c. Bias could be introduced in the wording of the questions, only people who feel passionately about the issue might respond.
Challenge 14.2
2, 4, 10, 10, 14; 6 solutions
14.6 Review
1. a. You would need to open every can to determine this.
b. Fish are continuously dying, being born, being caught.
c. Approaching work places and public transport offices
2. a. 50.5 b. Answers will vary. c. Answers will vary. d. Answers will vary.
3. a. Survey b. Census c. Survey
4. Use a spinner of 3 equal sectors, each sector having an angle size of 120° and representing a particular colour. Twirl the
spinner until a green-green combination has been obtained. This is defined as one experiment. Count the number of trials
required for this experiment. Repeat this procedure a number of times and determine an average.
5. D
b. This graph should look relatively flat, with little decline in the Years 11 and 12 region.
c. This graph should show a sharp decline in the Years 11 and 12 region.

7. a. Boys: median = 26; girls: median = 23.5
b. Boys: range = 32; girls: range = 53
c. Both sets have similar medians, but the girls have a greater range of absenteeism than the boys.
8. a. The sample is an appropriate size as √900 = 30.
b. Key: 16 | 1 = 1.61
Leaf Boys Stem Leaf Girls
997 15 1256788
98665540 16 4467899
4421 17 0
c. The boys are generally taller than the girls, with the mean of the boys being 1.66 m and that of the girls being 1.62 m. The
five-number summaries are:
Boys: 1.57 m, 1.60 m, 1.66 m, 1.71 m, 1.74 m
Girls: 1.51 m, 1.56 m, 1.64 m, 1.68 m, 1.70 m
9. a. Ford: median = 15; Holden: median = 16
b. Ford: range = 26; Holden: range = 32
c. Ford: IQR = 14; Holden: IQR = 13.5
d. Ford
Holden
0 5 10152025303540
Number of vehicles sold
10. a. Brisbane Lions
b. Brisbane Lions: range = 65;
Sydney Swans: range = 55
c. Brisbane Lions: IQR = 40;
Sydney Swans: IQR = 35
11. a. Girls
Boys
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Height (m)
b. Boys: median = 1.62 m; girls: median = 1.62 m
c. Boys: range = 0.36 m; girls: range = 0.23 m
d. Boys: IQR = 0.14 m; girls: IQR = 0.11 m
e. Although the boys and girls have the same median height, the spread of heights is greater among boys as shown by the
greater range and interquartile range.
12. a. Summer: range = 23; winter: range = 31
b. Summer: IQR = 13; winter: IQR = 12
c. There are generally more cold drinks sold in summer as shown by the higher median. The spread of data is similar as
shown by the IQR although the range in winter is greater.
13. A
14. a. Males
Females
x
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Age
b.
Males Females
Mean 28.2 31.1
Range 70 57
IQR 18 22
c. There is one outlier — a male aged 78.
d. Typically males seem to enter hospital for the first time at a younger age than females.

15. a. i. 35 s ii. 29.5 s iii. 33.05 s iv. 60 s v. 21 s vi. 39 s vii. 18 s
b. 21 29.5 39
t
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
c. i.
25% ii. 50% iii. 75%
d. Categorical e. 35% f. Pictogram, pie chart or bar chart
16. a. Class A: Q1 – 21.5, Median – 30, Q3 – 38, IQR – 16.5
Class B: Q1 – 14.5, Median – 33, Q3 – 47, IQR – 32.5
Based on the comparison between Class A’s IQR (16.5) and Class B’s IQR (32.5), Ms Vinculum was correct in her
statement.
b. No, Class B has a higher median and upper quartile score than Class A, while Class A has a higher lower quartile. You
can’t confidently say that either class did better in the test than the other.
17. a. 82.73 km/h
b. 30 cars
c. i. $2 607 272.73 ii. About 545
1. Data for the whole population
Min 24
Q1 61.75
Median 87
Q3 98 0 20 40 60 80 100
Max 100
2. Mean = 77.85; standard deviation = 23
3–10. Answers will vary.

Project: Climate change
Scenario
Climate change is upon us and has become one of the great chal-
lenges facing humanity. Our fossil fuel–driven economies are pro-
ducing large volumes of greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane and ozone) that are warming the planet. As our
planet heats up, the ice sheets at the poles slowly melt, causing sea
levels to rise. Islands in the Pacific Ocean are already being overcome
by water, leading the inhabitants of islands, such as Tuvalu Island in
the Pacific Ocean, to announce that they are abandoning their home-
land due to rising sea levels. In Sydney, many well known suburbs could be threatened by rising sea levels in
the future, including Caringbah, Kurnell, Cromer, Manly Vale, Newcastle, the central coast, Homebush Bay,
Newington Silverwater, Arncliffe, Marrickville and Sydney Airport. Climate change could cause the extinc-
tion of many species as ecosystems are damaged by rising temperatures.
In order to address these apocalyptic issues, we need to understand the role of human activity in climate
change. It will be your job to investigate and understand the relationships that underpin global warming. You
can then make recommendations to our political leaders and take action yourself to help save our planet.
Task
You will need to analyse real data sets to develop a mathematical
understanding of climate change issues. The analysis will involve the
use of scatterplots, box-and-whisker plots and five number summaries.
Scatterplots will be used to investigate and comment on relationships
between two climate change variables. Data sets will be compared
using box-and-whisker plots, dot plots and histograms. Environmental
data will be graphed, such that the independent variable is time. At the
end of your project, your improved mathematical understanding of cli-
mate change will allow you to make key recommendations on how we
can meet the environmental challenges of the future.
Process
You will use Microsoft Excel, Google Fusion Tables and Google Public Data Explorer to investigate
global environmental data.
•• You must have a gmail account and internet access to use the Google data tools.
•• You will need Microsoft Excel and GeoGebra installed on your computer. Go to projectsPLUS in
your learnON title, set up a group and then open the Media Centre to locate everything you need.
•• Open the Word documents titled Lesson 1, Lesson 2 etc. Follow the instructions in each document to
complete your project.
•• At various stages of your project, you will need to access data sets in Microsoft Excel files.
SUGGESTED SOFTWARE
• Microsoft Excel
• GeoGebra
• Internet connection
• Internet browser with Adobe Flash player installed.
• Use the World Bank weblink in your Resources section to locate banks of data in Excel form.
Project: Climate change 639

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 15
Financial mathematics
15.1 Overview
learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.

Everyone requires food, housing, clothing
and transport, and a fulfilling social life.
Money allows us to purchase the things
we need and desire. The ability to manage
money is key to a financially secure future
and a reasonable retirement with some fun along the way. Each individual is responsible for managing
his or her own finances; therefore, it is imperative that everyone is financially literate.

1. THINK List what you know about financial maths. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
knowledge of financial maths.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
15.1 Overview
15.2 Purchasing goods
15.3 Buying on terms
15.4 Successive discounts
15.5 Compound interest
15.6 Depreciation
15.7 Loan repayments
15.8 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Money, money, money! (eles-1855)

15.2 Purchasing goods
15.2.1 Purchasing goods
•• There are many different payment options when purchasing major goods, such as flat screen televisions
and computers. Payment options include:
– cash – credit card – lay-by
– deferred payment – buying on terms – loan.
•• The cost of purchasing an item can vary depending on the method of payment used.
•• Some methods of payment involve borrowing money and, as such, mean that interest is charged on the
money borrowed.
•• The simple interest formula can be used to calculate the interest charged on borrowed money,
P×r×T
I=
100
where: I is the simple interest ($)
P is the principal or amount borrowed or invested ($)
r is the rate of interest per time period
T is the time for which the money is invested or borrowed.
If T is in years, then r is the rate of interest per annum (% p.a.).
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the simple interest on $4000 invested at 4.75% p.a. for 4 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula and the known values of the P×r×T
I = , where
variables. 100
P = $4000, r = 4.75%, T = 4
$4000 × 4.75 × 4
2 Substitute known values to find I. I =
100
3 Calculate the value of I. = $760
•• What are the ways of purchasing the item shown in the advertisement below?
120 cm HD TV
5 year
ty
warran
■
■ HDMI ports
■ 16 : 9 aspect ratio
■ 1080i
$800
TOPIC 15 Financial mathematics 641

15.2.2 Payment options
Cash
•• With cash, the marked price is paid on the day of purchase with nothing more to pay.
•• A cash-paying customer can often negotiate, with the retailer, to obtain a lower price for the item.
Lay-by
•• With lay-by, the item is held by the retailer while the customer makes regular payments towards
paying off the marked price.
•• In some cases a small administration fee may be charged.
Credit cards
•• With a credit card, the retailer is paid by the credit card provider, generally a financial lender.
•• The customer takes immediate possession of the goods.
•• The financial lender later bills the customer — collating all purchases over a monthly period and billing the
customer accordingly. The entire balance shown on the bill can often be paid with no extra charge, but if the
balance is not paid in full, interest is charged on the outstanding amount, generally at a very high rate.
The ticketed price of a mobile phone is $600. Andrew decides to purchase the phone using his
credit card. At the end of 1 month the credit card company charges interest at a rate of 15% p.a.
Calculate the amount of interest that Andrew must pay on his credit card after 1 month.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula and the known values of the P×r×t
I =
100
variables. Remember that 1 month =
1
12
year. P = $600, r = 15%, T = 1
12
600 × 15 × 1
2 Substitute known values to find I. I=
100 × 12
3 Calculate the value of I. = $7.50
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Converting a percentage to a decimal (doc-5345)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding simple interest (doc-5346)
Exercise 15.2 Purchasing goods

Individual pathways

1–3, 5, 7, 10 1–4, 6, 8, 10, 11 1–3, 5, 7, 9–12

Fluency
1. WE1 Find the simple interest payable on a loan of $8000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years.
2. Find the simple interest on each of the following loans.
a. $5000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years b. $4000 at 7.5% p.a. for 3 years
c. $12 000 at 6.4% p.a. for 2 12 years d. $6000 at 8% p.a. for 1 12 years
3. Find the simple interest on each of the following investments.
a. $50 000 at 6% p.a. for 6 months b. $12 500 at 12% p.a. for 1 month
c. $7500 at 15% p.a. for 3 months d. $4000 at 18% p.a. for 18 months
4. Calculate the monthly interest charged on each of the following outstanding credit card balances.
a. $1500 at 15% p.a. b. $4000 at 16.5% p.a.
c. $2750 at 18% p.a. d. $8594 at 17.5% p.a.
e. $5690 at 21% p.a.
Understanding
5. WE2 The ticketed price of a mobile phone is $800. Elena decides to purchase the phone using her
credit card. After 1 month the credit card company charges interest at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the
amount of interest that Elena must pay on her credit card after 1 month.
6. Arup decides to purchase a new sound system using her credit card. The ticketed price of the sound
system is $900. When Arup’s credit card statement arrives, it shows that she will pay no interest if she
pays the full amount by the due date.
a. If Arup pays $200 by the due date, what is the balance owing?
b. If the interest rate on the credit card is 18% p.a., how much interest will Arup be charged in the
month?
c. What will be the balance that Arup owes at the end of the month?
d. At this time Arup pays another $500 off her credit card. How much interest is Arup then charged for
the next month?
e. Arup then pays off the entire remaining balance of her card. What was the true cost of the sound
system including all the interest payments?
7. Carly has an outstanding balance of $3000 on her credit card for June and is charged interest at a rate
of 21% p.a.
a. Calculate the amount of interest that Carly is charged for June.
b. Carly makes the minimum repayment of $150 and makes no other purchases using the credit card in
the next month. Calculate the amount of interest that Carly will be charged for July.

c. If Carly had made a repayment of $1000 at the end of June, calculate the amount of interest that
Carly would then have been charged for July.
d. How much would Carly save in July had she made the higher repayment at the end of June?
8. Shane buys a new home theatre system using his credit card. The ticketed price of the bundle is $7500.
The interest rate that Shane is charged on his credit card is 18% p.a. Shane pays off the credit card at a
rate of $1000 each month.
a. Complete the table below.
Month Balance owing Interest Payment Closing balance
January $7500.00 $112.50 $1000.00 $6612.50
February $6612.50 $99.19 $1000.00
March $1000.00
April $1000.00
May $1000.00
June $1000.00
July $1000.00
August $1015.86 $0
b. What is the total amount of interest that Shane pays?
c. What is the total cost of purchasing the home theatre system using his credit card?
Reasoning
9. Design a table that compares the features of each method of payment: cash, lay-by and credit card.
10. Choose the most appropriate method of payment for each of the described scenarios below. Explain
your choice.
Scenario 1: Andy has no savings and will not be paid for another two weeks. Andy would like
to purchase an HD television and watch tomorrow’s football final.
Scenario 2: In September Lena spots on special a home theatre system which she would like
to purchase for her family for Christmas.
Problem solving
11. Merchant banks offer simple interest on all investments. Merchant bank A had an investor invest $10 000
for 5 years. Merchant bank B had a different investor invest $15 000 for 3 years. Investor B obtained
$2500 more in interest than investor A because the rate of interest per annum she received was 6%
greater than the interest obtained by investor A. Find the simple interest and rate of interest for each
investor.
12. Compare the following two investments where simple interest is paid.
Rate Principal Time Interest

Investment A: rA $8000 4 years SIA
Investment B: rB $7000 5 years SIB
It is known that rA : rB = 2 : 3 and that investment B earned $2000 more interest than investment A.
Find the values of rA, rB, SIA and SIB.
Reflection
What can you do to remember the simple interest formula?

15.3 Buying on terms
15.3.1 Buying on terms
• When buying an item on terms:
– a deposit is paid
– the balance is paid off over an agreed period of time with set payments
– the set payments may be calculated as a stated arbitrary amount or interest rate
– total monies paid will exceed the initial cash price.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The cash price of a computer is $2400. It can also be purchased on the following terms: 25%
deposit and payments of $16.73 per week for 3 years. Calculate the total cost of the computer
purchased on terms as described.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the deposit. Deposit = 25% of $2400
= 0.25 × $2400
= $600
2 Calculate the total of the weekly repayments. Total repayment = $16.73 × 52 × 3
= $2609.88
3 Add these two amounts together to find the total Total cost = $600 + $2609.88
cost. = $3209.88
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A diamond engagement ring has a purchase

price of $2500. Michael buys the ring on the
following terms: 10% deposit with the balance
plus simple interest paid monthly at 12% p.a.
over 3 years.
a Calculate the amount of the deposit.
b What is the balance owing after the initial
deposit?
c Calculate the interest payable.
d What is the total amount to be repaid?
e Find the amount of each monthly repayment.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the deposit by finding 10% of $2500. a Deposit = 10% of $2500
= 0.1 × $2500
= $250
b Find the balance owing by subtracting the deposit b Balance = $2500 − $250
from the purchase price. = $2250

c Find the simple interest on $2250 at 12% p.a. c P×r×T
I = ,
for 3 years. 100
where P = $2250, r = 12%, T = 3
I = $2250 × 0.12 × 3
= $810
d Find the total repayment by adding the balance d Total repayment = $2250 + $810
owing with the interest payable. = $3060
e Find the monthly repayment by dividing the total e Monthly repayment = $3060 ÷ 36
repayment by the number of months over which the = $85
ring is to be repaid.
15.3.2 Loans
•• Money can be borrowed from a bank or other financial institution.
•• Interest is charged on the amount of money borrowed.
•• Both the money borrowed and the interest charged must be paid back.
•• The interest rate on a loan is generally lower than the interest rate offered on a credit card or when
buying on terms.
•• The calculation of loan payments is done in the same way as for buying on terms; that is, calculate the
interest and add it to the principal before dividing into equal monthly repayments.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding a percentage of a quantity (money) (doc-5347)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Buying on terms (doc-14607)
Exercise 15.3 Buying on terms

Individual pathways

1–4, 8, 10, 13–15 1–4, 6, 8, 10, 12–15 1–5, 8–16
Fluency
1. Calculate the total cost of a $3000 purchase given the terms described below.
a. i. 12% deposit and monthly payments of $60 over 5 years
ii. 20% deposit and weekly payments of $20 over 3 years
iii. 15% deposit and annual payments of $700 over 5 years
b. Which of these options is the best deal for a purchaser?

2. Calculate the amount of each repayment for a $5000 purchase given the terms described below.
a. 10% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid monthly at 15% p.a. over 5 years
b. 10% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid fortnightly at 12% over 5 years
c. 20% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid monthly at 10% over 3 years
3. Calculate the total repayment and the amount of each monthly repayment for each of the following
loans.
a. $10 000 at 9% p.a. repaid over 4 years
b. $25 000 at 12% p.a. repaid over 5 years
c. $4500 at 7.5% p.a. repaid over 18 months
d. $50 000 at 6% p.a. repaid over 10 years
e. $200 000 at 7.2% p.a. repaid over 20 years
Understanding
4. WE3 The cash price of a bedroom suite is $4200.
The bedroom suite can be purchased on the
following terms: 20% deposit and weekly repay-
ments of $43.94 for 2 years. Calculate the total
cost of the bedroom suite if you bought it on
terms.
5. Guy purchases a computer that has a cash price of
$3750 on the following terms: $500 deposit with
the balance plus interest paid over 2 years at
$167.92 per month. What is the total amount that
Guy pays for the computer?
6. Dmitry wants to buy a used car with a cash price
of $12 600. The dealer offers terms of 10% deposit
and monthly repayments of $812.70 for 2 years.
a. Calculate the amount of the deposit.
b. Calculate the total amount to be paid in monthly
repayments.
c. What is the total amount Dmitry pays for the
car?
d. How much more than the cash price of the car
does Dmitry pay? (This is the interest charged
by the dealer.)
7. Alja wants to purchase an entertainment system that has a cash price of $5800. She purchases the
entertainment system on terms of no deposit and monthly repayments of $233.61 for 3 years.
a. Calculate the total amount that Alja pays for the entertainment system.
b. Calculate the amount that Alja pays in interest.
c. Calculate the amount of interest that Alja pays each year.
d. Calculate this amount as a percentage of the cash price of the entertainment system.
8. WE4 A used car has a purchase price of $9500. Dayna buys the car on the following terms: 25%
deposit with balance plus interest paid at 12% p.a. interest over 3 years.
b. What is the balance owing?
c. Calculate the interest payable.
d. What is the total amount to be repaid?
e. Find the amount of each monthly repayment.

9. A department store offers the following terms: one-third deposit with the balance plus interest paid in
equal, monthly instalments over 18 months. The interest rate charged is 9% p.a. Ming buys a lounge
suite with a ticketed price of $6000.
b. What is the balance owing?
c. Calculate the interest payable.
d. What is the total amount to be repaid?
e. Find the amount of each monthly repayment.
10. Calculate the monthly payment on each of the following items bought on terms.
(Hint: Use the steps shown in question 8.)
a. Dining suite: cash price $2700, deposit 10%, interest rate 12% p.a., term 1 year
b. Video camera: cash price $990, deposit 20%, interest rate 15% p.a., term 6 months
c. Car: cash price $16 500, deposit 25%, interest rate 15% p.a., term 5 years
d. Mountain bike: cash price $3200, one-third deposit, interest rate 9% p.a., term 2 12 years
e. Watch: cash price $675, no deposit, interest rate 18% p.a., term 9 months
11. Samin wants to purchase his first car. He has saved $1000 as a deposit but the cost of the car is $5000.
Samin takes out a loan from the bank to cover the balance of the car plus $600 worth of on-road costs.
a. How much will Samin need to borrow from the bank?
b. Samin takes the loan out over 4 years at 9% p.a. interest. How much interest will Samin need to pay?
c. What will be the amount of each monthly payment that Samin makes?
d. What is the total cost of the car after paying off the loan, including the on-road costs? Give your
answer to the nearest $.
12. MC Kelly wants to borrow $12 000 for some home improvements. Which of the following loans will
lead to Kelly making the lowest total repayment?
a. Interest rate 6% p.a. over 4 years
b. Interest rate 7% p.a. over 3 years
1
c. Interest rate 5.5% p.a. over 3 years
2
d. Interest rate 6.5% p.a. over 5 years
e. Interest rate 7.5% p.a. over 3 years

Reasoning
13. MC Without completing any calculations explain which of the following loans will be the best value
for the borrower.
a. Interest rate 8.2% p.a. over 5 years
b. Interest rate 8.2% over 4 years
C. Interest rate 8% over 6 years
d. Interest rate 8% over 5 years
E. Interest rate 8% over 4 years
14. Explain how, when purchasing an item, making a deposit using existing savings and taking out a loan
for the balance can be an advantage.
Problem solving
15. Gavin borrows $18 000 over 5 years from the bank. The loan is charged at 8.4% p.a. flat-rate interest.
The loan is to be repaid in equal monthly instalments. Calculate the amount of each monthly
repayment.
16. Andrew purchased a new car valued at $32 000. He paid a 10% deposit and was told he could have
4 years to pay off the balance of the car price plus interest. An alternate scheme was also offered to
him. It involved paying off the balance of the car price plus interest in 8 years. If he chose the latter
scheme, he would end up paying $19 584 more. The interest rate for the 8-year scheme was 1% more
than for the 4-year scheme.
a. How much deposit did he pay?
b. What was the balance to be paid on the car?
c. Find the interest rate for each of the two schemes.
d. Find the total amount paid for the car for each of the schemes.
e. What were the monthly repayments for each of the schemes?
Reflection
When buying on terms, what arrangements are the most beneficial to the buyer?
CHALLENGE 15.1
Ingrid offered to pay her brother $2 for doing her share
of the housework each day, but fined him $5 if they
forgot to do it. After 4 weeks, Ingrid discovered that
she did not owe her brother any money. For how many
days did Ingrid’s brother do her share of the housework?

15.4 Successive discounts
15.4.1 Successive discounts
•• Consider the case of Ziggy, who is a mechanic. Ziggy
purchases his hardware from Tradeways hardware store,
which is having a 10%-off sale. Tradeways also offers a
5% discount to tradespeople. Ziggy purchases hardware that
has a total value of $800. What price does Ziggy pay for
these supplies?
After the 10% discount, the price of the supplies is
90% of $800 = 0.90 × $800

= $720
The 5% trades discount is then applied.
95% of $720 = 0.95 × $720

= $684
So the price Ziggy pays is $684.
Now let us consider what single discount Ziggy has actually received.
Amount of discount = $800 − $684
= $116
$116
Percentage discount = × 100%
$800
= 14.50%
So we can conclude that the successive discounts of 10%
followed by a further 5% is equivalent to receiving a
single discount of 14.50%.
•• When two discounts are applied one after the other, the
total discount is not the same as a single discount found by
adding the two percentages together.
•• The order of calculating successive discounts does not
affect the final answer.
A furniture store offers a discount of 15% during a sale. A further 5% discount is then offered to
customers who pay cash.
a Find the price paid by Lily, who pays cash for a bedroom suite originally priced at $2500.
b What single percentage discount does Lily receive on the price of the bedroom suite?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Subtract 15% from 100% to find the a 100% − 15% = 85%

percentage paid.

2 Calculate 85% of the price. 85% of $2500 = 0.85 × $2500
= $2125
3 Subtract 5% from 100% to find the next 100% − 5% = 95%
percentage paid.
4 Calculate 95% of $2125. 95% of $2125 = 0.95 × $2125
= $2018.75
b 1 Calculate the amount of discount received. b Discount = $2500 − $2018.75
= $481.25
2 Express the discount as a percentage $481.25
Percentage discount = × 100%
of the original marked price. $2500
= 19.25%
•• The single discount that is equivalent to successive discounts can also be worked out by working out
a percentage of a percentage, as shown in Worked example 6.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Find the single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of

15% and 5%.
THINK WRITE
1 Subtract 15% from 100% to find the percentage 100% − 15% = 85%
paid after the first discount.
2 Subtract 5% from 100% to find the percentage 100% − 5% = 95%
paid after the second discount.
3 Find 95% of 85%. This is actually the 95% of 85% = 0.95 × 0.85
percentage of the marked price that the = 0.8075
customer pays. = 80.75%
4 Subtract the percentage from 100% to find Discount = 100% − 80.75%
the single percentage discount. This answer = 19.25%
should be less than 15% + 5%.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding percentage discount (doc-5348)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Decreasing a quantity by a percentage (doc-5349)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another (doc-5351)

Exercise 15.4 Successive discounts
Individual pathways

1–4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 2–7, 9–11, 13 2–6, 8–14
Fluency
1. In each of the following, an item is reduced in price. Calculate the
percentage discount, correct to 1 decimal place.
a. A jumper, usually $29.95, is reduced to $24.95.
b. A video game, usually $60, is reduced to $53.90.
c. A child’s bike, usually $158, is reduced to $89.
d. A new car, usually $29 500, is reduced to $24 950.
e. A plot of land, priced at $192 000, is reduced to $177 500 for a quick sale.
2. WE6 Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 15% and 10%.
3. MC The single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 10% and 20% is:
a. 10% b. 18% c. 28% d. 30% e. 35%
4. Find the single percentage discount that is equivalent to each of the following successive discounts.
a. 15% and 20% b. 12% and 8% c. 10% and 7.5% d. 50% and 15%
5. Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to two successive 10% discounts.
Understanding
6. WE5 A supplier of electrical parts offers
tradespeople a 20%
trade discount. If accounts are settled
within 7 days, a further
5% discount is given.
a. Calculate the price paid by an electrician
for parts to the value of $4000 if the
account is settled within 7 days.
b. What single percentage discount does
the electrician receive on the price of the
electrical parts?
7. At a confectionary wholesaler, customers
have their accounts reduced by 10% if they
are paid within 7 days.
a. Jacinta pays her $100 account within 7
days. How much does she actually pay?
b. If customers pay cash, they receive a
further 5% discount. How much would
Jacinta pay if she pays cash?
c. By how much in total has her account been reduced?
d. What is the single percentage discount equivalent to these successive discounts?

8. A fabric supplier offers discounts to fashion stores and a further discount if
the store’s account is paid with 14 days. ‘David’s Fashion Stores’ have
ordered fabric to the value of $2000 from the fabric supplier.
a. If fashion stores receive a reduction of 8%, how much does ‘David’s
Fashion Stores’ owe on its account?
b. This amount is reduced by a further 5% for payment within 14 days.
How much needs to be paid now?
c. What has been the total reduction in the cost?
d. What do the successive discounts of 8% and 5% equal as a single
percentage discount?
9. Tony is a mechanic who wants to buy equipment worth $250 at a hardware
store. Tony receives 15% off the marked price of all items and then a
further 5% trade discount.
a. Calculate the amount that is due after Tony is given the first 15% discount.
b. From this amount, apply the trade discount of 5% to find the amount due.
c. How much is the cash discount that Tony receives?
d. Calculate the amount that would have been due had Tony received a single discount of 20%. Is this
the same answer?
e. Calculate the amount of cash discount that Tony receives as a percentage of the original bill.
f. Would the discount have been the same had the 5% discount been applied before
the 15% discount?
g. Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts
of 10% and 20%.
10. A car has a marked price of $25 000.
a. Find the price paid for the car after successive discounts of 15%, 10% and 5%.
b. What single percentage discount is equivalent to successive discounts of 15%, 10% and 5%?
Reasoning
11. Is a 12.5% discount followed by a 2.5% discount the same single discount as a 2.5% discount followed
by a 12.5% discount? Investigate and explain your answer giving mathematical evidence.
12. Derive a mathematical formula to calculate the single discount (expressed as a decimal) generated by
two successive discounts, a and b (expressed as decimals).
Problem solving
13. The Fruitz fruit and vegetable shop is selling grapes at a price which is 10% cheaper than the Happy
Fruiterer fruit and vegetable shop. A customer bought n kilograms of grapes from the Fruitz shop
for $50.
a. How much would this $50 worth of grapes cost had he bought
the grapes from the Happy Fruiterer?
b. The Happy Fruiterer wants to be competitive so for the coming
week he discounts the grapes by 5% and the following week
discounts them a further 5%. How much would the grapes
originally bought for $50 from Fruitz cost during this second
week of discounting at the Happy Fruiterer?
c. Which shop is the cheapest during this second week of d iscounting?
14. The Big Rabbit Easter eggs were reduced from $3.00 to $2.35 each just before Easter so they would
clear. There were still eggs remaining after Easter so they were further reduced to $1.95 each. Under
similar circumstances the Hoppity Hop Easter eggs were reduced from $4.75 to $3.85 and then to
$3.25 each.

a. What was the total percentage discount for each egg?
b. What was the difference in the total percentage discounts and which egg was discounted by the
larger amount?
Reflection
In what situations might a successive discount be applied?
15.5 Compound interest

15.5.1 Compound interest
•• Interest on the principal in a savings account, or short or long term deposit, is generally calculated
using compound interest rather than simple interest.
•• When interest is added to the principal at regular intervals, increasing the balance of the account,
and each successive interest payment is calculated on the new balance, it is called compound
interest.
•• Compound interest can be calculated by calculating simple interest one period at a time.
•• The amount to which the initial investment grows is called the compounded value or future value.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Kyna invests $8000 at 8% p.a. for 3 years with interest paid at the end of each year. Find the
compounded value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the initial (first year) principal. Initial principal = $8000
2 Calculate the interest for the first year. Interest for year 1 = 8% of $8000
= $640
3 Calculate the principal for the second Principal for year 2 = $8000 + $640
year by adding the first year’s interest to = $8640
the initial principal.
4 Calculate the interest for the second year. Interest for year 2 = 8% of $8640
= $691.20
5 Calculate the principal for the third year Principal for year 3 = $8640 + $691.20
by adding the second year’s interest to the = $9331.20
second year’s principal.
6 Calculate the interest for the third year. Interest for year 3 = 8% of $9331.20
= $746.50
7 Calculate the future value of the invest- Compounded value after 3 years = $9331.20 + $746.50
ment by adding the third year’s interest to = $10 077.70
the third year’s principal.
•• To calculate the actual amount of interest received, we subtract the initial principal from the future value.
• In the example above, compound interest = $10077.70 − $8000
= $2077.70
We can compare this with the simple interest earned at the same rate.
p× r× T
I=
100
8000 × 8 × 3
=
100
= $1920

•• The table below shows a comparison between the total interest earned on an investment of $8000
earning 8% p.a. at both simple interest (I) and compound interest (CI) over an eight year period.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Total (I) $640.00 $1280.00 $1920.00 $2560.00 $3200.00 $3840.00 $4480.00 $5120.00
Total (CI) $640.00 $1331.20 $2077.70 $2883.91 $3754.62 $4694.99 $5710.59 $6807.44
• We can develop a formula for the future value of an investment rather than do each example by
repeated use of simple interest. Consider Worked example 7. Let the compounded value after each
year, n, be An.
After 1 year, A1 = 8000 × 1.08 (increasing $8000 by 8%)
After 2 years, A2 = A1 × (1.08)
= 8000 × 1.08 × 1.08 (substituting the value of A1)
= 8000 × 1.082
After 3 years, A3 = A2 × 1.08
= 8000 × 1.082 × 1.08 (substituting the value of A2)
= 8000 × 1.083
The pattern then continues such that the value of the investment after n years equals:
$8000 × 1.08n.
This can be generalised for any investment:
A = P(1 + R) n
where A = amount (or future value) of the investment
P = principal (or present value)
R = interest rate per compounding period expressed as a decimal
number of compounding periods.
•• To calculate the amount of compound interest (CI) we then use the formula
CI = A − P
15.5.2 Using technology

•• Digital technologies such as spreadsheets can be used to draw graphs in order to compare interest
accrued through simple interest and compound interest.
Comparison of $8000 invested at 8% p.a. simple and compound
interest
16 000.00
14 000.00
12 000.00
10 000.00
Amount ($)
Amount after simple

interest ($)
8000.00
Amount after compound
6000.00 interest ($)
4000.00
2000.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Year

William has $14 000 to invest. He invests the money at 9% p.a. for 5 years with interest
compounded annually.
a Use the formula A = P(1 + R)n to calculate the amount to which this investment will grow.
b Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the compound interest formula. a A = P(1 + R) n
2 Write down the values of P, R and n. P = $14 000, R = 0.09, n = 5
3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $14 000 × 1.095
4 Calculate. = $21 540.74
The investment will grow to $21 540.74.
b Calculate the compound interest earned. b CI = A − P
= $21 540.74 − $14 000
= $7540.74
The compound interest earned is $7540.74.
15.5.3 Comparison of fixed principal at various interest rates

over a period of time
•• It is often helpful to compare the future value ($A) of the principal at different compounding interest
rates over a fixed period of time.
•• Spreadsheets are very useful tools for making comparisons. The graph below, generated from a spread-
sheet, shows the comparisons for $14 000 invested for 5 years at 7%, 8%, 9% and 10% compounding
annually.
•• There is a significant difference in the future value depending on which interest rate is applied.
$14 000 invested at 7%, 8%, 9% and 10% p.a. over five years
23 000
22 000
21 000
20 000 Amount after CI @ 7% p.a. ($)
Amount ($)

16 000
15 000
14 000
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
15.5.4 Compounding period

•• In Worked example 8, interest is paid annually.
•• Interest can be paid more regularly — it may be paid six-monthly (twice a year), quarterly (4 times a
year), monthly or even daily. This is called the compounding period.
•• The time and interest rate on an investment must reflect the compounding period. For example, an
investment over 5 years at 6% p.a. compounding quarterly will have:
n = 20 (5 × 4) and R = 0.015 (6% ÷ 4).

•• To find n:
n = number of years × compounding periods per year
•• To find R:
R = interest rate per annum ÷ compounding periods per year
Calculate the future value of an investment of $4000 at 6% p.a. for 2 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the compound interest formula. A = P(1 + R) n
2 Write the values of P, R and n. P = $4000, R = 0.015, n = 8
3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $4000 × 1.0158
4 Calculate. = $4505.97
The future value of the investment is $4505.97.
15.5.5 Guess and refine

•• Sometimes it is useful to know approximately how long it will take to reach a particular future
value once an investment has been made. Mathematical formulas can be applied to determine
when a particular future value will be reached. In this section, a ‘guess and refine’ method will
be shown.
•• For example, to determine the number of years required for an investment of $1800 at 9% compounded
quarterly to reach a future value of $2500, the following method can be used.
•• Let n = the number of compounding periods (quarters) and A = the future value in $.
R n
A = P(1 +
4)
n Comment
1 $1840.50 It is useful to know how the principal is growing after 1 quarter, but the
amount is quite far from $2500.
3 $1924.25 The amount is closer to $2500 but still a long way off, so jump to a
higher value for n.
10 $2248.57 The amount is much closer to $2500.
12 $2350.89 The amount is much closer to $2500.
14 $2457.87 The amount is just below $2500.
15 $2513.17 The amount is just over $2500.
Therefore, it will take approximately 15 quarters, or 3 years and 9 months, to reach the desired amount.
Try out this interactivity: Compound interest (int-2791)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Compound interest (doc-14608)

Exercise 15.5 Compound interest
Individual pathways

1–3, 5, 6, 11, 13, 15, 18 1–6, 7, 9, 10, 12–16, 18 1–8, 11, 12, 14–19
Fluency
1. Use the formula A = P(1 + R) n to calculate the amount to which each of the following investments
will grow with interest compounded annually.
a. $3000 at 4% p.a. for 2 years b. $9000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years
c. $16 000 at 9% p.a. for 5 years d. $12 500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years
e. $9750 at 7.25% p.a. for 6 years f. $100 000 at 3.75% p.a. for 7 years
2. Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
a. $870 for 2 years at 3.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
b. $9500 for 2 12 years at 4.6% p.a. with interest c ompounded quarterly
c. $148 000 for 3 12 years at 9.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
d. $16 000 for 6 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
e. $130 000 for 25 years at 12.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
Understanding
3. WE7 Danielle invests $6000 at 10% p.a. for 4 years with
interest paid at the end of each year. Find the compounded
value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on
each year separately.
4. Ben is to invest $13 000 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest
paid annually. Find the amount of interest earned by calculat-
ing the simple interest for each year separately.
5. WE8 Simon has $2000 to invest. He invests the money at
6% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded annually.
a. Use the formula A = P(1 + R) n to calculate the amount to
which this investment will grow.
b. Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
6. WE9 Calculate the future value of an investment of $14 000 at 7% p.a. for 3 years with interest com-
pounded quarterly.
7. A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.3% p.a. Jill has $600 in such an account. Calculate the
amount in Jill’s account after 3 years, if interest is compounded quarterly.
8. Damien is to invest $35 000 at 7.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded six-monthly. Calculate
the compound interest earned on the investment.
9. Sam invests $40 000 in a one-year fixed deposit at an interest rate of 7% p.a. with interest
compounding monthly.
a. Convert the interest rate of 7% p.a. to a rate per month.
b. Calculate the value of the investment upon maturity.
10. MC A sum of $7000 is invested for 3 years at the rate of 5.75% p.a., compounded quarterly. The
interest paid on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is:
a. $1208 b. $1308 c. $8208 d. $8308 e. $8508

11. MC After selling their house and paying off their mortgage,
Mr and Mrs Fong have $73 600. They plan to invest it at 7%
p.a. with interest compounded annually. The value of their
investment will first exceed $110 000 after:
a. 5 years
b. 6 years
c. 8 years
d. 10 years
e. 15 years
12. MC Maureen wishes to invest $15 000 for a period of 7 years. The following investment alternatives
are suggested to her. The best investment would be:
a. simple interest at 8% p.a.
b. compound interest at 6.7% p.a. with interest compounded annually
c. compound interest at 6.6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
d. compound interest at 6.5% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
e. compound interest at 6.4% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
13. MC An amount is to be invested for 5 years and compounded semi-annually at 7% p.a. Which of the
following investments will have a future value closest to $10 000?
a. $700 b. $6500 c. $7400 d. $9000 e. $9900
14. Jake invests $120 000 at 9% p.a. for a 1-year term. For such large investments interest is compounded
daily.
a. Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places. Use 1 year = 365 days.
b. Hence, calculate the compounded value of Jake’s investment on maturity.
c. Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment.
d. Calculate the extra amount of interest earned compared with the case where the interest is calculated
only at the end of the year.
Reasoning
15. Daniel has $15 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 7% p.a.
a. Calculate the compounded value of Daniel’s investment if the compounding period is:
i. 1 year ii. 6 months iii. 3 months iv. monthly.
b. Explain why it is advantageous to have interest compounded on a more frequent basis.
16. Jasmine invests $6000 for 4 years at 8% p.a. simple interest. David also invests $6000 for 4 years, but
his interest rate is 7.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
a. Calculate the value of Jasmine’s investment on maturity.
b. Show that the compounded value of David’s investment is greater than Jasmine’s investment.
c. Explain why David’s investment is worth more than Jasmine’s investment despite receiving a lower
rate of interest.
17. Quan has $20 000 to invest over the next 3 years. He has the choice of investing his money
at 6.25% p.a. simple interest or 6% p.a. compound interest.
a. Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if he selects the simple interest option.
b. Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if the interest is compounded:
i. annually ii. six monthly iii. quarterly.
c. Clearly Quan’s decision will depend on the compounding period. Under what conditions should
Quan accept the lower interest rate on the compound interest investment?
d. Consider an investment of $10 000 at 8% p.a. simple interest over 5 years. Use a trial-and-error
method to find an equivalent rate of compound interest over the same period.
e. Will this equivalent rate be the same if we change:
i. the amount of the investment
ii. the period of the investment?

Problem solving
18. A building society advertises investment accounts at the following rates:
a. 3.875% p.a. compounding daily
b. 3.895% p.a. compounding monthly
c. 3.9% p.a. compounding quarterly.
Peter thinks the first account is the best one because the interest is calculated more frequently. Paul
thinks the last account is the best one because it has the highest interest rate. Explain whether either is
correct.
19. Two banks offer the following investment packages.
Bankwest: 7.5% p. a. compounded annually fixed for 7 years.
Bankeast: 5.8% p. a. compounded annually fixed for 9 years.
a. Which bank’s package will yield the greatest interest?
b. If a customer invests $20 000 with Bankwest, how much would she have to invest with Bankeast to
produce the same amount as Bankwest at the end of the investment period?
Reflection
How is compound interest calculated differently to simple interest?
CHALLENGE 15.2
How long will it take for a sum of money to double if it is invested at
a rate of 15% p.a. compounded monthly?
15.6 Depreciation
15.6.1 Depreciation
• Depreciation is the reduction in the value of an item as it ages over a period of time. For example, a
car that is purchased new for $45 000 will be worth less than that amount 1 year later and less again
each year.
• Depreciation is usually calculated as a percentage of the yearly value of the item.
• To calculate the depreciated value of an item use the formula
A = P(1 − R) n
where A is the depreciated value of the item, P is the initial value of the item, R is the percentage that
the item depreciates each year expressed as a decimal and n is the number of years that the item has
been depreciating for.
• This formula is almost the same as the compound interest formula except that it subtracts a percentage
of the value each year instead of adding.
• In many cases, depreciation can be a tax deduction.
• When the value of an item falls below a certain value it is said to be written off. That is to say that, for
tax purposes, the item is considered to be worthless.
• Trial-and-error methods can be used to calculate the length of time that the item will take to reduce to
this value.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
A farmer purchases a tractor for $115 000. The value of the tractor depreciates by 12% p.a. Find
the value of the tractor after 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the depreciation formula. A = P(1 − R) n
2 Write the values of P, R and n. P = $115 000, R = 0.12, n = 5
3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $115 000 × (0.88) 5
4 Calculate. = $60 689.17
The value of the tractor after
5 years is $60 689.17.
A truck driver buys a new prime mover for $500 000. The prime mover depreciates at the rate of
15% p.a. and is written off when its value falls below $100 000. How long will it take for the prime
mover to be written off?
THINK WRITE
1 Make an estimate of, say, n = 5. Use the depreciation formula to find the Consider n = 5.
value of the prime mover after 5 years. A = P(1 − R)n
= $500 000 × (0.85)5
= $221 852.66
2 Because the value will still be greater than $100 000, try a larger estimate, Consider n = 10.
say, n = 10. A = P(1 − R)n
= $500 000 × (0.85)10
= $98 437.20
3 As the value is below $100 000, check n = 9. Consider n = 9.
A = P(1 − R)n
= $500 000 × (0.85)9
= $115 808.47
4 Because n = 10 is the first time that the value falls below $100 000, The prime mover will be
conclude that it takes 10 years to be written off. written off in 10 years.
Watch this eLesson: What is depreciation? (eles-0182)
Try out this interactivity: Different rates of depreciation (int-1155)
Exercise 15.6 Depreciation

Individual Pathways
V PRACTISE V CONSOLIDATE V MASTER

1, 2, 7, 9, 12, 14, 16 1–3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16 1–8, 11, 12, 14–17
V V V Individual pathway interactivity: int-4637 ONLINE ONLY

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every q uestion,
Fluency
1. Calculate the depreciated value of an item for the initial value, depreciation rate and time, in years,
given below.
a. Initial value of $30 000 depreciating at 16% p.a. over 4 years
b. Initial value of $5000 depreciating at 10.5% p.a. over 3 years
c. Initial value of $12 500 depreciating at 12% p.a. over 5 years
Understanding
2. WE10 A laundromat installs washing machines and clothes dryers to the value of $54 000. If the value
of the equipment depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a., find the value of the equipment after 5 years.
3. A drycleaner purchases a new machine for $38 400. The machine depreciates at 16% p.a.
a. Calculate the value of the machine after 4 years.
b. Find the amount by which the machine has depreciated over this period of time.
4. A tradesman values his new tools at $10 200. For tax purposes, their value depreciates at a rate of
15% p.a.
a. Calculate the value of the tools after 6 years.
b. Find the amount by which the value of the tools has depreciated over these 6 years.
c. Calculate the percentage of the initial value that the tools are worth after 6 years.
5. A taxi is purchased for $52 500 with its value depreciating at 18% p.a.
a. Find the value of the taxi after 10 years.
b. Calculate the accumulated depreciation over this period.
6. A printer depreciates the value of its printing presses by
25% p.a. Printing presses are purchased new for $2.4 million.
What is the value of the printing presses after:
a. 1 year b. 5 years c. 10 years?
7. MC A new computer workstation costs $5490.
With 26% p.a. reducing-value depreciation, the worksta-
tion’s value at the end of the third year will be close to:
a. $1684 b. $2225 c. $2811
d. $3082 e. $3213
8. MC The value of a new photocopier is $8894. Its value
depreciates by 26% in the first year, 21% in the second year and 16% reducing balance in the remain-
ing 7 years. The value of the photocopier after this time, to the nearest dollar, is:
a. $1534 b. $1851 c. $2624 d. $3000 e. $3504
9. MC A company was purchased 8 years ago for $2.6 million. With a depreciation rate of 12% p.a., the
total amount by which the company has depreciated is closest to:
a. $0.6 million b. $1.0 million c. $1.7 million
d. $2.0 million e. $2.3 million
10. MC Equipment is purchased by a company and is depreciated at the rate of 14% p.a. The number of
years that it will take for the equipment to reduce to half of its initial value is:
a. 4 years b. 5 years c. 6 years d. 7 years e. 8 years
11. MC An asset, bought for $12 300, has a value of $6920 after 5 years. The depreciation rate is close to:
a. 10.87% b. 16.76% c. 18.67% d. 21.33% e. 27.34%

12. WE11 A farmer buys a light aeroplane for crop-dusting.
The aeroplane costs $900 000. The aeroplane depreciates at
the rate of 18% p.a. and is written off when its value falls
below $150 000. How long will it take for the aeroplane to
be written off?
13. A commercial airline buys a jumbo jet for $750 million.
The value of this aircraft depreciates at a rate of 12.5% p.a.
a. Find the value of the plane after 5 years, correct to the
nearest million dollars.
b. How many years will it take for the value of the jumbo jet to fall below $100 million?
Reasoning
14. A machine purchased for $48 000 will have a value of $3000 in 9 years.
a. Use a trial-and-error method to find the rate at which the machine is depreciating per annum.
b. Consider the equation x = an, a = √x. Verify your answer to part a using this relationship.
n
15. Camera equipment purchased for $150 000 will have a value of $9000 in 5 years.
a. Find the rate of annual depreciation using trial and error first and then algebraically with the
relationship ‘if x = an then a = √x’.
n
b. Compare and contrast each method.

Problem solving
16. The value of a new tractor is $175 000. The value of the tractor
depreciates by 22.5% p.a.
a. Find the value of the tractor after 8 years.
b. What percentage of its initial value is the tractor worth after
8 years?
17. Anthony has a home theatre valued at $P. The value of the home
theatre depreciates by r% annually over a period of 5 years. At the
end of the 5 years, the value of the home theatre has been reduced
P
by $ . Find the value of r correct to 3 decimal places.
12
Reflection
How and why is the formula for depreciation different to compound interest?
15.7 Loan repayments

15.7.1 Loan repayments
•• The simple interest formula is used to calculate the interest on a flat-rate loan.
Calculate the interest payable on a loan of $5000 to be repaid at 12% p.a. flat interest over 4 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the simple interest formula. P×r×T
I=
100
2 List the known values. P = $5000, r = 12%, T = 4
5000 × 12 × 4
3 Substitute the values into the formula. I=
100
4 Calculate the interest. = $2400
The interest payable is $2400.

•• The total amount that would have to be repaid under the loan in Worked example 12 is $7400, and this
could be made in 4 equal payments of $1850. With a flat-rate loan, the interest is calculated on the
initial amount borrowed regardless of the amount of any repayments made.
•• In contrast, taking a reducible-interest-rate loan means that each annual amount of interest is based
on the amount owing at the time.
•• Consider the same loan of $5000, this time at 12% p.a. reducible interest and an agreed annual repay-
ment of $1850. At the end of each year, the outstanding balance is found by adding the amount of
interest payable and then subtracting the amount of each repayment.
Interest for year 1 = 12 of $5000
= 0.12 × $5000
= $600
Balance for year 2 = $5000 + $600 − $1850
= $3750
Interest for year 2 = 12 × $3750
= 0.12 × $3750
= $450
Balance for year 3 = $3750 + $450 − $1850
= $2350
= 0.12 × $2350
= $282
Balance for year 4 = $2350 + $282 − $1850
= $782
= 0.12 × $782
= $93.84
In the fourth year, a payment of only $875.84 is required to fully repay the loan. The total amount of
interest charged on this loan is $1425.84, which is $974.16 less than the same loan calculated using
flat-rate interest.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan of $10 000 that is charged at 9% p.a. reducible
interest over 3 years. The loan is repaid in two annual instalments of $4200 and the balance at
the end of the third year.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the interest for the first year. Interest for year 1 = 9% of $10 000
= 0.09 × $10 000
= $900
2 Calculate the balance at the start of Balance for year 2 = $10 000 + $900 − $4200
the second year. = $6700
3 Calculate the interest for the second year. Interest for year 2 = 9% of $6700
= 0.09 × $6700
= $603
4 Calculate the balance at the start of Balance for year 3 = $6700 + $603 − $4200
the third year. = $3103
5 Calculate the interest for the third year. Interest for year 3 = 9% of $3103
= 0.09 × $3103
= $279.27

6 Calculate the amount of the final repayment Balance remaining at end of year 3 = $3103 + $279.27
and ensure that the loan is fully repaid. = $3382.27
7 Find the total amount of interest paid by Interest charged = $900 + $603 + $279.27
adding each year’s amount. = $1782.27
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Loan repayments (doc-14609)
Exercise 15.7 Loan repayments

Individual pathways

1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 12 1–4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12 1, 2c–e, 3–5, 8–13
Fluency
1. WE12 Calculate the interest payable on a loan of $10 000 to be repaid at 15% p.a. flat-rate interest over
3 years.
2. Calculate the interest payable on each of the following loans.
a. $20 000 at 8% p.a. flat-rate interest over 5 years
b. $15 000 at 11% p.a. flat-rate interest over 3 years
c. $7500 at 12.5% p.a. flat-rate interest over 2 years
d. $6000 at 9.6% p.a. flat-rate interest over 18 months
e. $4000 at 21% p.a. flat-rate interest over 6 months
Understanding
3. Larry borrows $12 000 to be repaid at 12% p.a. flat rate of interest over 4 years.
a. Calculate the interest that Larry must pay.
b. What is the total amount that Larry must repay?
c. If Larry repays the loan in equal annual instalments, calculate the amount of each repayment.
4. WE13 Calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan of $12 000 that is charged at 10% p.a. reducible
interest over 3 years. The loan is repaid in two annual instalments of $5000 and the balance at the end
of the third year.
5. Calculate the total amount that is to be repaid on a loan of $7500 at 12% p.a. reducible interest over
3 years with two annual repayments of $3400 and the balance repaid at the end of the third year.
6. Brian needs to borrow $20 000. He finds a loan that charges 15% p.a.
flat-rate interest over 4 years.
a. Calculate the amount of interest that Brian must pay on this loan.
b. Calculate the total amount that Brian must repay on this loan.
c. Brian repays the loan in 4 equal annual instalments. Calculate the
amount of each instalment.
d. Brian can borrow the $20 000 at 15% p.a. reducible interest instead of
flat-rate interest. If Brian makes the same annual repayment at the end of the first three years and the
balance in the fourth, calculate the amount of money that Brian will save.

7. Farrah borrows $12 000 at 10% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years. Farrah repays the loan in two
equal annual payments of $4900 and the balance at the end of the third year.
a. Calculate the amount of interest that Farrah must pay on this loan.
b. Farrah finds that she can afford to repay $5200 each year. How much does Farrah save by making
this higher repayment?
8. Aamir borrows $25 000 at 12% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years with two annual repayments of
$11 000 and the balance repaid at the end of the third year.
a. Find the total amount of interest that Aamir pays on this loan.
b. What is the average amount of interest charged on this loan per year?
c. By writing your answer to part b as a percentage of the initial amount borrowed, find the equivalent
flat rate of interest on the loan.
9. Felicity borrows $8000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years, repaying the loan in two annual
payments of $3200 and the balance repaid at the end of the third year.
a. Using the method described in question 8, find the equivalent flat rate of interest.
b. Find the equivalent flat rate of interest charged if Felicity increases the amount of each annual
repayment to $4000.
Reasoning
10. Natalie has the choice of two loans of $15 000. Each loan is to be taken over a three-year term with
annual repayments of $6350. Loan A is charged at 9% flat-rate interest; Loan B is charged at 10%
reducible interest. As Natalie’s financial planner, construct a detailed report to advise Natalie which
loan would be better for her to take.
11. Barack borrows $13 500 at 10% p.a. reducible interest over 2 years, making an annual repayment of
$7800 and the balance repaid at the end of the second year. Show that if interest is added every six
months, at which time a repayment of $3900 is made, a saving of approximately $350 is made.
Problem solving
12. Erin borrows $12 000 for a new car at 9% p.a. over 4 years.
a. Calculate the total amount to be repaid if the interest is compounded monthly.
b. How much will be paid in interest for this loan?
c. How much would each repayment be in order to repay the loan in equal monthly instalments?
13. A loan of $15 000 is charged at 12% p. a. interest, which is reduced over 3 years. The loan is repaid
with 2 annual instalments of $x and the balance of $12 763.52 is paid at the end of the 3 years.
Determine the value of x to the nearest dollar.
Reflection
How does a loan at reducible interest compare with the same loan at flat-rate interest?
15.8 Review
Fluency
1. Calculate the simple interest that is earned on $5000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years.
2. Jim invests a sum of money at 9% p.a. Which one of the following statements is true?
a. Simple interest will earn Jim more money than if compound interest is paid annually.
b. Jim will earn more money if interest is compounded annually rather than monthly.
c. Jim will earn more money if interest is compounded quarterly rather than six-monthly.
d. Jim will earn more money if interest is compounded annually rather than six-monthly.
e. It does not matter whether simple interest or compound interest is used to calculate the growth
of Jim’s investment.

3. Find the single discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 12.5% and 5%.
4. Which one of the following statements is correct?
a. Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are less than a single discount of 25%.
b. Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are equal to a single discount of 25%.
c. Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are greater than a single discount of 25%.
d. Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are equal to successive discounts of 12% and 13%.
e. Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are equal to successive discounts of 13% and 12%.
5. Benito has a credit card with an outstanding balance of $3600. The interest rate charged on the loan is 18%
p.a. Calculate the amount of interest that Benito will be charged on the credit card for the next month.
6. An LCD television has a cash price of $5750. It can be purchased on terms of 20% deposit plus weekly
repayments of $42.75 for 3 years. Calculate the total cost of the television if it is purchased on terms.
7. Erin purchases a new entertainment unit that has a cash price of $6400. Erin buys the unit on the
following terms: 10% deposit with the balance plus interest to be repaid in equal monthly repayments
over 4 years. The simple interest rate charged is 12% p.a.
b. Calculate the balance owing after the deposit has been paid.
c. Calculate the interest that will be charged.
d. What is the total amount that Erin has to repay?
e. Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
8. A new car has a marked price of $40 000. The car can be purchased on terms of 10% deposit and
monthly repayments of $1050 for 5 years.
a. Find the total cost of the car if it is purchased on terms.
b. Calculate the amount of interest paid.
c. Calculate the amount of interest paid per year.
d. Calculate the interest rate charged.
9. The single discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 15% and 20% is:
a. 10% b. 18% c. 28% d. 30% e. 32%
10. A car dealership offers a 10% discount on the price of service of a car purchased at the dealership.
a. Calculate the price Callum would expect to pay for a service valued at $290.00 if he purchased his
car at the dealership.
b. During November, the dealership offers an extra 15% discount on all services and mechanical
repairs. Calculate the price Callum, who purchased his car at the dealership, pays for a service in
November.
c. What is the total discount given on this service?
d. Determine the single percentage discount that would be equivalent to the successive discounts of
10% and 15% that Callum receives.
11. Ryan invests $12 500 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest paid annually. By calculating the amount of
simple interest earned each year separately, determine the amount to which the investment will grow.
12. Calculate the compound interest earned on $45 000 at 12% p.a. over 4 years if interest is compounded:
a. annually b. six-monthly c. quarterly d. monthly.
13. A new computer server costs $7290. With 22% p.a. reducing-value depreciation, the server’s value at
the end of the third year will be close to:
a. $1486 b. $2257 c. $2721 d. $3023 e. $3460
14. An asset, bought for $34 100, has a value of $13 430 after 5 years. The depreciation rate is close to:
a. 11% b. 17% c. 18% d. 21% e. 22%
15. The value of a new car depreciates by 15% p.a. Find the value of the car after 5 years if it was pur-
chased for $55 000.

Problem solving
16. Asuka sells musical instruments at discount prices. She had a drum kit on sale for 15% off the retail
price of $5000. After two months the drum kit did not sell, and Asuka decided to apply an extra 10%
discount to the existing sale price.
a. What is the total amount saved by the customer?
b. What is the final price of the drum kit?
c. Explain how a 25% discount on the retail price would compare with the successive discounts.
17. Virgin Blue buys a new plane so that extra flights can be arranged between Sydney, Australia and
Wellington, New Zealand. The plane costs $1 200 000. It depreciates at a rate of 16.5% p.a. and is
written off when its value falls below $150 000. How long can Virgin Blue use this plane before it is
written off?
18. An electronics store is having trouble selling the latest mp3 player. The original price was $99 but on
October 1 it was reduced 10%. On October 8 it was reduced a further 10%. On October 12 the
regional manager decided to increase all prices by 5%. On October 15 the local manager decided to
reduce the price by another 10% anyway.
a. Calculate the prices on all 4 dates after the discounts/increases have been applied.
b. What is the final percentage discount after October 15?
19. Thomas went to an electronics store to buy a flat screen HD TV together with some accessories.
The store offered him two different loans to buy the television and equipment.
The following agreement was struck with the store.
•• Thomas will not be penalised for paying off the loans early.
•• Thomas does not have to pay the principal and interest until the end of the loan period.
Loan 1 $7000 for 3 years at 10.5% p.a. compounding yearly
Loan 2 $7000 for 5 years at 8% p.a. compounding yearly
a. Explain which loan Thomas should choose if he decides to pay off the loan at the end of the first,
second or third year.
b. Explain which loan Thomas should choose for these two options.
Paying off Loan 1 at term
Paying off Loan 2 at the end of four years
c. Thomas considers the option to pay off the loans at the end of their terms. Explain how you can
determine the better option without further calculations.
d. Why would Thomas decide to choose Loan 2 instead of Loan 1 (paying over its full term), even if
it cost him more money?
20. Jan bought a computer for her business at a cost of $2500. She elected to use the diminishing value
method (compound depreciation), instead of the straight-line method of depreciation. Her accountant
told her that she was entitled to depreciate the cost of the computer over 5 years at 40% per year.
a. How much was the computer worth at the end of the first year?
b. By how much could Jan reduce her taxable income at the end of the first year? (The amount Jan can
reduce her taxable income is equal to how much value the asset lost from one year to the next.)
c. Explain whether the amount she can deduct from her taxable income will increase or decrease at the
end of the second year.

Language
compound interest future value principal
compounding period interest repayments
deposit interest rate simple interest
depreciation investment successive discounts
discount lay-by terms
flat rate loan time period

www.assesson.com.au

Consumer price index
The Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures price movements in
Australia. Let’s investigate this further to gain an understanding of
how this index is calculated.
A collection of goods and services is selected as representative of
a high proportion of household expenditure. The prices of these
goods are recorded each quarter. The collection on which the CPI is
based is divided into eight groups, which are further divided into
subgroups. The groups are: food, clothing, tobacco/alcohol, housing,
health/personal care, household equipment, transportation and
recreation/education. Weights are attached to each of these subgroups
to reflect the importance of each in relation to the total household expenditure. The table below
shows the weights of the eight groups.
The weights indicate that a typical Australian household spends 19% of its income on food
purchases, 7% on clothing and so on. The CPI is regarded as an indication of the cost of living as it
records changes in the level of retail prices from one period to another.
CPI group Weight (% of total)
Food 19
Clothing 7
Tobacco/alcohol 8.2
Housing 14.1
Health/personal care 5.6
Household equipment 18.3
Transportation 17
Recreation/education 10.8

Consider a simplified example showing how this CPI is calculated and how we are able to
compare prices between one period and another. Take three items with prices as follows: a pair
of jeans costing $75, a hamburger costing $3.90 and a CD costing $25. Let us say that during
the next period of time, the jeans sell for $76, the hamburger for $4.20 and the CD for $29.
This can be summarised in the following table.
Period 1 Period 2
Item Weight (W) Price (P) W×P Price (P) W×P
Jeans 7 $75 525
Hamburger 19 $3.90 74.1
CD 10.8 $25 270
Total 869.1
In order to calculate the CPI for Period 2, we regard the first period as the base and allocate it
an index number of 100 (it is classed as 100%). We compare the second period with the first by
expressing it as a percentage of the first period.
weighted expenditure for Period 2
CPI = × 100%
weighted expenditure for Period 2
1. Complete the table to determine the total weighted price for Period 2.
2. a. Calculate the CPI for the above example, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. This figure is over 100%. The amount over 100% is known as the inflation factor. What is the
inflation factor in this case?
3. Now apply this procedure to a more varied basket of goods. Complete the following table then
calculate the CPI and inflation factor for the second period.
Period 1 Period 2
Bus fare $4.80 $4.95
Rent $220 $240
Movie ticket $10.50 $10.80
Air conditioner $1200 $1240
Haircut $18.50 $21.40
Bread $2.95 $3.20
Shirt $32.40 $35
Bottle of scotch $19.95 $21
Total
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: The longest and shortest gestation periods in mammals (doc-15945)

Answers
TOPIC 15 Financial mathematics
Exercise 15.2 Purchasing goods
1. $2400
2. a. $1800 b. $900 c. $1920 d. $720
3. a. $1500 b. $125 c. $281.25 d. $1080
4. a. $18.75 b. $55.00 c. $41.25 d. $125.33 e. $99.58
5. $10
6. a. $700 b. $10.50 c. $710.50 d. $3.16 e. $913.66
7. a. $52.50 b. $50.79 c. $35.92 d. $14.87
8. a. Month Balance owing Interest Payment Closing balance
January $7500.00 $112.50 $1000.00 $6612.50
February $6612.50 $99.19 $1000.00 $5711.69
March $5711.69 $85.68 $1000.00 $4797.37
April $4797.37 $71.96 $1000.00 $3869.33
May $3869.33 $58.04 $1000.00 $2927.37
June $2927.37 $43.91 $1000.00 $1971.28
July $1971.28 $29.57 $1000.00 $1000.85
August $1000.85 $15.01 $1015.86 $0
b. $515.86 c. $8015.86
9. Immediate Immediate Possible price
Payment option Possible extra cost
payment possession negotiation
Cash ✓ ✓ ✓
Lay-by Possible deposit ✓
Credit card ✓ ✓
Payment option Payment Possession Extra cost Price
Cash Immediate Immediate Nil Negotiable
Lay-by Intervals Delayed Limited –
Credit card Delayed Immediate Possible –
10. S1: Credit card — payment is delayed, but possession is immediate

S2: Lay-by, or cash if she has savings, would like to negotiate a lower price and has somewhere to store it.
11. rA = 4%, rB = 10%, SIA = $2000 and SIB = $4500
12. rA = 9.76%, rB = 14.63%, SIA = $3121.95 and SIB = $5121.95
Exercise 15.3 Buying on terms

1. a. i. $3960 ii. $3720 iii. $3950
b. The best deal is the one with the lowest cost — 20% deposit and weekly payments of $20 over 3 years.
2. a. $131.25 b. $55.38 c. $144.44
3. a. $13 600, $283.33 b. $40 000, $666.67 c. $5006.25, $278.13
d. $80 000, $666.67 e. $488 000, $2033.33
4. $5409.76
5. $4530.08
6. a. $1260 b. $19 504.80 c. $20 764.80 d. $8164.80
7. a. $8409.96 b. $2609.96 c. $869.99 d. 15%
8. a. $2375 b. $7125 c. $2565 d. $9690 e. $269.17
9. a. $2000 b. $4000 c. $540 d. $4540 e. $252.22
10. a. $226.80 b. $141.90 c. $360.94 d. $87.11 e. $85.13
11. a. $4600 b. $1656 c. $130.33 d. $7256
12. C

13. E. This option has the lowest interest rate and time frame when compared to all others.
14. The larger the deposit the smaller the loan and hence the interest charged. Loans generally offer a lower rate than buying on
terms.
15. $426
16. a. $3200 b. $28 800 c. r4 = 15%, r8 = 16%
d. 4 years — $49 280, 8 years — $68 864
e. 4 years — $960, 8 years — $684
Challenge 15.1
20 days
Exercise 15.4 Successive discounts

1. a. 16.7% b. 10.2% c. 43.7% d. 15.4% e. 7.6%
2. 23.5%
3. C
4. a. 32% b. 19.04% c. 16.75% d. 57.5%
5. 19%
6. a. $3040 b. 24%
7. a. $90 b. $85.50 c. $14.50 d. 14.5%
8. a. $1840 b. $1748 c. $252 d. 12.6%
9. a. $212.50 b. $201.88 c. $48.12 d. $200, no
e. 19.25% f. Yes g. 28%
10. a. $18 168.75 b. 27.325%
11. Yes. Both lead to a single discount of 14.69%.
12. Single discount = 1 − (1 − a) × (1 − b), where a and b are successive discounts (as decimals).
13. a. $55.56 b. $50.14 c. Fruitz by 14 cents
14. a. Big Rabbit 38.69%, Hoppity Hop 34.53%
b. Hoppity Hop by 4.16%
Exercise 15.5 Compound interest

1. a. $3244.80 b. $10 939.56 c. $24 617.98
d. $14 678.02 e. $14 838.45 f. $129 394.77
2. a. $932.52 b. $10 650.81 c. $202 760.57 d. $25 816.04 e. $3 145 511.41
3. $8784.60
4. $3376.26
5. a. $2837.04 b. $837.04
6. $17 240.15
7. $605.42
8. $18 503.86
9. a. 0.5833% b. $42 891.60
10. B 11. B 12. C 13. C
14. a. 0.0247% b. ≈ $131 319.80 c. ≈ $11 319.80 d. ≈ $519.80
15. a. i. $17 745.95 ii. $17 786.61 iii. $17 807.67 iv. $17 821.99
b. The interest added to the principal also earns interest.
16. a. $7920
b. David’s investment = $8108.46
c. Because David’s interest is compounded, the interest is added to the principal each quarter and earns interest itself.
17. a. $3750 interest
b. i. $3820.32 interest ii. $3881.05 iii. $3912.36
c. Compound quarterly gives the best return.
d. If we assume that interest is compounded annually, an equivalent return of R = 7% would be achieved.
e. i. Yes ii. No

18. Neither is correct. The best option is to choose 3.895% p.a. compounding monthly.
19. a. Bankeast b. $19 976.45
Challenge 15.2
4 years, 8 months
Exercise 15.6 Depreciation

1. a. $14 936.14 b. $3584.59 c. $6596.65
2. $17 694.72
3. a. $19 118.26 b. $19 281.74
4. a. $3846.93 b. $6353.07 c. 38%
5. a. $7216.02 b. $45 283.98
6. a. $1.8 million b. $569 531.25 c. $135 152.44
7. B 8. A 9. C 10. B 11. A
12. 10 years
13. a. $385 million b. 16 years
14. a. 27%
b. A = P
n
(1−R)
A (1−R)n
=
P
√P = (1 − R)
n A
R=1−√
n A
P
15. a. Approx. 43%
b. Trial and error: can be time consuming, answer is often an estimate; algebraic solution: correct answer calculated immedi-
ately from equation
16. a. $22 774.65 b. 13%
17. 1.725%
Exercise 15.7 Loan repayments
1. $4500
2. a. $8000 b. $4950 c. $1875 d. $864 e. $420
3. a. $5760 b. $17 760 c. $4440
4. $2422
5. $9264
6. a. $12 000 b. $32 000 c. $8000 d. $4966.87
7. a. $2453 b. $93
8. a. $6004.80 b. $2001.60 c. 8%
9. a. 5.4% b. 4.6%
10. Loan B better (total savings $1053.50)
11. Actual savings $355.15
12. a. $17 176.86 b. $5176.86 c. $357.85
13. $3500
15.8 Review
1. $1000 2. C 3. 16.875% 4. A 5. $54 6. $7819
7. a. $640 b. $5760 c. $2764.80 d. $8524.80 e. $177.60
8. a. $67 000 b. $27 000 c. $5400 d. 13.5% p.a.
9. E
10. a. $261 b. $221.85 c. $68.15 d. $23.5%
11. $15 746.40
12. a. $25 808.37 b. $26 723.16 c. $27 211.79 d. $27 550.17
13. E

14. B
15. $24 403.79
16. a. $1175 b. $3825
c. 25% discount gives a final price of $3750. The customer would be $75 better off.
17. 12 years
18. a. October 1: $89.10, October 8: $80.19, October 12: $84.20, October 15: $75.78
b. 23.5%
19. a. Since the interest rate is lower for Loan 2 than for Loan 1, Thomas should choose Loan 2 if he decides to pay the loan off
at the end of the first, second or third year.
b. Loan 1 at term amounts to $9444.63. Loan 2 at the end of 4 years amounts to $9523.42. Thomas should choose Loan 1.
c. Thomas should choose Loan 1. At the end of its term (3 years), it amounts to less than Loan 2 at 4 years, 1 year before its
term is finished.
d. Thomas may not have the money to pay off Loan 1 in 3 years. He may need the extra 2 years to accumulate his funds.
20. a. $1500 b. $1000
c. Since the depreciation of 40% is on a lower value each year, the amount Jan can deduct from her taxable income decreases
every year.
1. Period 1 Period 2
Jeans 7 $75 525 $76 532
Hamburger 19 $3.90 74.1 $4.20 79.8
CD 10.8 $25 270 $29 313.2
Total 36.8 $103.90 869.1 $109.20 925
2. a. 106.4% b. 6.4%
3. 104%;4%
Period 1 Period 2
Bus fare 17 $4.80 81.6 $4.95 84.15
Rent 14.1 $220 3102 $240 3384
Movie ticket 10.8 $10.50 113.4 $10.80 116.64
Air conditioner 18.3 $1200 21 960 $1240 22 692
Haircut 5.6 $18.50 103.6 $21.40 119.84
Bread 19 $2.95 56.05 $3.20 60.8
Shirt 7 $32.40 226.8 $35 245
Bottle of Scotch 8.2 $19.95 163.59 $21 172.2
Total 100 $1509.10 25 807.04 $1576.35 26 874.63

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 16
Real numbers
16.1 Overview
this topic.

A knowledge of number is crucial if we are to understand the
world around us. Over time, you have been building your knowl-
edge of the concept of number, starting with the counting numbers,
also known as natural numbers. Moving on, you needed to include
zero. You then had to learn about integers and fractions, which are
also called rational numbers. But even the rational numbers do not
include all of the numbers on the number line, as they do not
include numbers that cannot be written as fractions. That brings us
to the concept of real numbers, the set of numbers that includes
both rational and irrational numbers.

1. THINK List what you know about real numbers. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
knowledge of real numbers.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
16.1 Overview
16.2 Number classification review
16.3 Surds
16.4 Operations with surds
16.7 Logarithms
16.8 Logarithm laws
16.9 Solving equations
16.10 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Real numbers (eles-2019)
TOPIC 16 Real numbers 675

16.2 Number classification review
16.2.1 The number system
•• The number systems used today evolved from a basic and practical need of primitive people to count
and measure magnitudes and quantities such as livestock, people, possessions, time and so on.
•• As societies grew and architecture and engineering developed, number systems became more sophis-
ticated. Number use developed from solely whole numbers to fractions, decimals and irrational
numbers.
•• The real number system contains the set of rational and irrational numbers. It is denoted by the sym-
bol R. The set of real numbers contains a number of subsets which can be classified as shown in the
chart below.
Real numbers R
Irrational numbers I Rational numbers Q

(surds, non-terminating
and non-recurring
decimals, π, e) Integers Non-integer rationals
Z (terminating and
recurring decimals)
Negative Zero Positive

Z– (neither positive Z+
nor negative) (Natural
numbers N)
16.2.2 Rational numbers (Q)

•• A rational number (ratio-nal) is a number that can be expressed as a ratio of two whole numbers in
the form , where b ≠ 0.
a
b
– Rational numbers are given the symbol Q. Examples are:
.
1 2 3 9
, , ,
5 7 10 4
, 7, − 6, 0.35, 1, 4

16.2.3 Integers (Z)
•• Rational numbers may be expressed as integers. Examples are:
5
1
= 5, −41 = −4, 27
1
= 27, −15
1
= −15
•• The set of integers consists of positive and negative whole numbers and 0 (which is neither positive
nor negative). They are denoted by the letter Z and can be further divided into subsets. That is:
Z = { …, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3,… }
Z + = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,… }
Z − = { …, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1 }
•• Positive integers are also known as natural numbers (or counting numbers) and are denoted by the
letter N. That is:
N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,… }
•• Integers may be represented on the number line as illustrated below.
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 N Z– –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
The set of integers The orsetnatural
of positive integers The set of negative integers
numbers
Note: Integers on the number line are marked with a solid dot to indicate that they are the only points
in which we are interested.
16.2.4 Non-integer rational numbers

•• Rational numbers may be expressed as terminating decimals. Examples are:
7
10
= 0.7, 14 = 0.25, 58 = 0.625, 95 = 1.8
These decimal numbers terminate after a specific number of digits.
•• Rational numbers may be expressed as recurring decimals (non-terminating or periodic decimals).
For example:
.
1
= 0.333 333 … or 0.3
..
3
9
= 0.818 181 … or 0.81 (or 0.81)
.
11
5
= 0.833 333 … or 0.83
. .
6
3
13
= 0.230 769 230 769 … or 0.230 769 (or 0.230 769)
•• These decimal numbers do not terminate, and the specific digit (or
–3.743 3
number of digits) is repeated in a pattern. Recurring decimals are –2 –4
1–
2 1.63 3.6
represented by placing a dot or line above the repeating digit or
pattern. – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4Q
•• Rational numbers are defined in set notation as:
Q = rational numbers
{b }
Q= , a, b ∈ Z, b ≠ 0 where ∈ means ‘an element of’.
a
16.2.5 Irrational numbers (I)

•• An irrational number (ir-ratio-nal) is a number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two whole
numbers in the form , where b ≠ 0.
a
b
•• Irrational numbers are given the symbol I. Examples are:
√7
√7, √13, 5√21, , π, e
9

•• Irrational numbers may be expressed as decimals. For example:
√5 = 2.236 067 977 5 … √0.03 = 0.173 205 080 757 …
√18 = 4.242 640 687 12 … 2√7 = 5.291 502 622 13 …
π = 3.141 592 653 59 … e = 2.718 281 828 46 …
•• These decimal numbers do not terminate, and the digits do not repeat themselves in any particular pat-
tern or order (that is, they are non-terminating and non-recurring).
16.2.6 Real numbers

•• Rational and irrational numbers belong to the set of real numbers – 1–2 –π
– 12 – 5 4 2 π
(denoted by the symbol R). They can be positive, negative or 0. The
real numbers may be represented on a number line as shown at right
(irrational numbers above the line; rational numbers below it). – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 R
•• To classify a number as either rational or irrational:
1. Determine whether it can be expressed as a whole number, a fraction or a terminating or
recurring decimal.
2. If the answer is yes, the number is rational; if the answer is no, the number is irrational.
16.2.7 π (pi)
•• The symbol π (pi) is used for a particular number; that is, the circumference of a circle whose diameter
length is 1 unit.
•• It can be approximated as a decimal that is non-terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, π is classi-
fied as an irrational number. (It is also called a transcendental number and cannot be expressed as a
surd.)
•• In decimal form, π = 3.141 592 653 589 793 23 … It has been calculated to 29 000 000 (29 million)
decimal places with the aid of a computer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Specify whether the following numbers are rational or irrational.

1
a 5
b √25 c √13
d 3π e 0.54 f √3 64
g √3 32 √
3 1
h 27
THINK WRITE
1 1
a 5
is already a rational number. a 5
is rational.
b 1 Evaluate √25. b √25 = 5
2 The answer is an integer, so classify √25. √25 is rational.
c 1 Evaluate √13. c √13 = 3.605 551 275 46 …

2 The answer is a non-terminating and non-recurring √13 is irrational.
decimal; classify √13.
d 1 Use your calculator to find the value of 3π. d 3π = 9.424 777 960 77 …
2 The answer is a non-terminating and non-recurring 3π is irrational.
decimal; classify 3π.

e 0.54 is a terminating decimal; classify it accordingly. e 0.54 is rational.
f 1 Evaluate √3 64. f √64 = 4

3
2 The answer is a whole number, so classify √3 64. √3 64 is rational.
g √32 = 3.174 802 103 94 …

3 3
g 1 Evaluate √32.
2 The result is a non-terminating and non-recurring √3 32 is irrational.
3
decimal; classify √32.
= 13.
√ √
3 1 3 1
h 1 Evaluate . h 27
27
√
3 1
2 The result is a number in a rational form. is rational.
27
Try out this interactivity: Classifying numbers (int-2792)
Exercise 16.2 Number classification review

Individual pathways

1–6, 8, 10 1–8, 10, 12 1–13
Fluency
1. WE1 Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q) or irrational (I).
a. √4 b. 45 c. 79 d. √2
e. √7 f. √0.04 g. 2 12 h. √5
i. 94 j. 0.15 k. −2.4 l. √100
√
25
m. √14.4 n. √1.44 o. π p. 9
q. 7.32 r. −√21 s. √1000 t. 7.216 349 157 …
√
3 1
u. −√81 v. 3π w. √62 x. 16
y. √3 0.0001
2. Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q), irrational (I) or neither.
a. 18 b. √625 c. 11
4
d. 08 e. −6 17
h. √
1.44
f. √3 81 g. −√11 i. √π j. 80
4
π
k. √3 21 √
3 1
l. m. √3 (−5) 2 n. −11 o.
7 100
√6
p. 64 √ s. √3 27
2 1
q. 25 r. t. √4
16 2
22π
u. v. √3 −1.728 w. 6√4 x. 4√6 y. (√2)4
7

3. MC Which of the following best represents a rational number?
√ √
4 9
a. π b. c.
9 12
3
d. √3 e. √5
4. MC Which of the following best represents an irrational number?
a. −√81
6 3
b. c. √343
5
d. √22 e. √144
π
5. MC Which of the following statements regarding the numbers −0.69, √7, , √49 is correct?
3
π
a. is the only rational number.
3
b. √7 and √49 are both irrational numbers.
c. −0.69 and √49 are the only rational numbers.
d. −0.69 is the only rational number.
e. √7 is the only rational number.
6. MC Which of the following statements regarding the numbers 2 12, −11
3
, √624, √3 99 is correct?
a. − and √624 are both irrational numbers.
11
3
3
b. √624 is an irrational number and √99 is a rational number.
3
c. √624 and √99 are both irrational numbers.
d. 2 is a rational number and −
1 11
2 3
is an irrational number.
3
e. √99 is the only rational number.
Understanding
7. Simplify √ .
a2
b2
8. MC If p < 0, then √p is:
a. positive b. negative c. rational d. none of the above
9. MC If p < 0, then √p2 must be:
a. positive b. negative c. rational d. any of the above
Reasoning
10. Simplify (√p − √q) × (√p + √q).
11. Prove that if c2 = a2 + b2, it does not follow that a = b + c.
Problem solving
36
12. Find the value of m and n if is written as:
11
a. 3 + b. 3 + c. 3 + d. 3 +
1 1 1 1
.
3+
m m
3+ 3+
1 1
n n
1+
m m
n n
1 3−1 − 4−1
13. If x−1 means , what is the value of ?
x 3−1 + 4−1
Reflection
Why is it important to understand the real number system?

16.3 Surds
16.3.1 Surds
•• A surd is an irrational number that is represented by a root sign or a radical sign, for example:
√ , √3 , √4 .
3 4
Examples of surds include: √7, √5, √11, √15.
Examples that are not surds include:
√9, √16, √3 125, √4 81.
•• Numbers that are not surds can be simplified to rational numbers, that is:
√9 = 3, √16 = 4, √3 125 = 5, √4 81 = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Which of the following numbers are surds?
√
1
a √16 b √13 c 16
d √3 17 e √4 63 f √3 1728
THINK WRITE
a 1 Evaluate √16. a √16 = 4

2 The answer is rational (since it is a whole number), so state √16 is not a surd.
your conclusion.
b 1 Evaluate √13. b √13 = 3.605 551 275 46 …
2 The answer is irrational (since it is a non-recurring and √13 is a surd.
non-terminating decimal), so state your conclusion.
= 14
√ √
1 1
c 1 Evaluate 16
. c 16
√
1
2 The answer is rational (a fraction); state your conclusion. 16
is not a surd.
d 1 Evaluate √3 17. d √17 = 2.571 281 590 66 …

3
2 The answer is irrational (a non-terminating and non- √3 17 is a surd.

recurring decimal), so state your conclusion.
e 1 Evaluate √4 63. e √63 = 2.817 313 247 26 …
4
√4 63 is a surd.
4
2 The answer is irrational, so classify √63 accordingly.
f 1 Evaluate √3 1728. f √1728 = 12
3
2 The answer is rational; state your conclusion. √3 1728 is not a surd. So b, d and
e are surds.
16.3.2 Proof that a number is irrational

•• In Mathematics you are required to study a variety of types of proofs. One such method is called proof
by contradiction.
•• This proof is so named because the logical argument of the proof is based on an assumption that leads
to contradiction within the proof. Therefore the original assumption must be false.
a
•• An irrational number is one that cannot be expressed in the form (where a and b are integers). The
b
next worked example sets out to prove that √2 is irrational.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Prove that √2 is irrational.

THINK WRITE
Let √2 = , where b ≠ 0.
a
1 Assume that √2 is rational; that is, it can be
a b
written as in simplest form. We need to show
b
that a and b have no common factors.
a2
2 Square both sides of the equation. 2=
b2
3 Rearrange the equation to make a2 the subject of a2 = 2b2 [1]
the formula.
4 2b2 is an even number and 2b2 = a2. ∴ a2 is an even number and a must also be
even; that is, a has a factor of 2.
5 Since a is even it can be written as a = 2r. ∴ a = 2r
6 Square both sides. a2 = 4r2
But a2 = 2b2 from [1] [2]
7 Equate [1] and [2]. ∴ 2b2 = 4r2
4r2
b2 =
2
= 2r2
∴ b2 is an even number and b must also be even;
that is, b has a factor of 2.
8 Repeat the steps for b as previously done for a. Both a and b have a common factor of 2. This
contradicts the original assumption that √2 = ,
a
b
where a and b have no common factor.
∴ √2 is not rational.
∴ It must be irrational.
•• Note: An irrational number written in surd form gives an exact value of the number; whereas the same
number written in decimal form (for example, to 4 decimal places) gives an approximate value.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Identifying surds (doc-5354)
Exercise 16.3 Surds

Individual pathways

1–8, 10 1–10 1–11

Fluency
1. WE2 Which of the numbers below are surds?
a. √81 b. √48 c. √16 d. √1.6
√ √
3 3 3
e. √0.16 f. √11 g. 4
h. 27
i. √1000 j. √1.44 k. 4√100 l. 2 + √10
m. √3 32 n. √361 o. √3 100 p. √3 125
q. √6 + √6 √
7
r. 2π s. √3 169 t. 8
u. √4 16 v. (√7) 2 w. √3 33 x. √0.0001
5
y. √32 z. √80
2. MC The correct statement regarding the set of numbers
{ √ , √20, √54, √27, √9} is:

6 3
9
3
a. √27 and √9 are the only rational numbers of the set.
√
6
b.
9
is the only surd of the set.
√
6
c.
9
and √20 are the only surds of the set.
d. √20 and √54 are the only surds of the set.
e. √9 and √20 are the only surds of the set.
{
√ , √ , √ , √21, √8} are surds?
1 3 1 1 3
3. MC Which of the numbers of the set 4 27 8
√ only √ and √8
1 1 3
a. √21 only b. c.
8 8
√ and √21 only √ and √21 only

1 1
d. e.
8 4
{ }
4. MC Which statement regarding the set of numbers π, √ , √12, √16, √3, +1 is not true?
1
49
a. √12 is a surd. b. √12 and √16 are surds.

c. π is irrational but not a surd. d. √12 and √3 + 1 are not rational.
e. π is not a surd.
5. MC Which statement regarding the set of numbers
{ √ }
144
6√7, 16
, 7√6, 9√2, √18, √25 is not true?
√ √
144 144
a.
16
when simplified is an integer. b.
16
and √25 are not surds.
c. 7√6 is smaller than 9√2. d. 9√2 is smaller than 6√7.
e. √18 is a surd.
Understanding
6. Complete the following statement by selecting appropriate words, suggested in brackets:
√6 a is definitely not a surd, if a is… (any multiple of 4; a perfect square and cube).
7. Find the smallest value of m, where m is a positive integer, so that √3 16m is not a surd.
Reasoning
8. WE3 Prove that the following numbers are irrational, using a proof by contradiction:
a. √3 b. √5 c. √7.
9. π is an irrational number and so is √3. Therefore, determine whether
(π − √3)(π + √3)
is an irrational number.

Problem solving
10. Many composite numbers have a variety of factor pairs. For example, factor pairs of 24 are 1 and 24,
2 and 12, 3 and 8, 4 and 6.
a. Use each pair of possible factors to simplify the following surds.
i. √48 ii. √72
b. Does the factor pair chosen when simplifying a surd affect the way the surd is written in simplified
form?
c. Does the factor pair chosen when simplifying a surd affect the value of the surd when it is written in
simplified form? Explain.
11. Solve √3x − √12 = √3 and indicate whether the result is rational or irrational and integral or not
integral.
Reflection
How can you be certain that √a is a surd?
16.4 Operations with surds

16.4.1 Simplifying surds
•• To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical sign (√ ) as small as
possible.
•• To simplify a surd (if it is possible), it should be rewritten as a product of two factors, one of which is
a perfect square, that is, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 and so on.
•• We must always aim to obtain the largest perfect square when simplifying surds so that there are fewer
steps involved in obtaining the answer. For example √32 could be written as √4 × 8 = 2√8;
however, √8 can be further simplified to 2√2, so √32 = 2 × 2√2; that is √32 = 4√2. If, however, the
largest perfect square had been selected and √32 had been written as √16 × 2 = √16 × √2 = 4√2,
the same answer would be obtained in fewer steps.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Simplify the following surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
a √384 b 3√405 c −18√175 d 5√180x3y5
THINK WRITE
a 1 Express 384 as a product of two factors a √384 = √64 × 6

where one factor is the largest possible
perfect square.
2 Express √64 × 6 as the product of two = √64 × √6

surds.
3 Simplify the square root from the perfect = 8√6
square (that is, √64 = 8).
b 1 Express 405 as a product of two factors, b 3√405 = 3√81 × 5
one of which is the largest possible perfect
square.
2 Express √81 × 5 as a product of two = 3√81 × √5

surds.

3 Simplify √81. = 3 × 9√5
4 Multiply together the whole numbers = 27√5
outside the square root sign (3 and 9).
c −8√175 = −8√25 × 7
1 1
c 1 Express 175 as a product of two factors in
which one factor is the largest possible
perfect square.
2 Express √25 × 7 as a product of 2 surds. = −18 × √25 × √7
3 Simplify √25. = −18 × 5√7

4 Multiply together the numbers outside the = −58√7
square root sign.
d 1 Express each of 180, x3 and y5 as a d 5√180x3y5 = 5√36 × 5 × x2 × x × y4 × y
product of two factors where one factor is
the largest possible perfect square.
2 Separate all perfect squares into one surd = 5 × √36x2y4 × √5xy
and all other factors into the other surd.
3 Simplify √36x2y4. = 5 × 6 × x × y2 × √5xy

4 Multiply together the numbers and the = 30xy2√5xy
pronumerals outside the square root sign.
16.4.2 Addition and subtraction of surds

•• Surds may be added or subtracted only if they are alike.
Examples of like surds include √7, 3√7 and −5√7. Examples of unlike surds include √11, √5, 2√13
and −2√3.
•• In some cases surds will need to be simplified before you decide whether they are like or unlike, and
then addition and subtraction can take place. The concept of adding and subtracting surds is similar to
adding and subtracting like terms in algebra.
Simplify each of the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive real
numbers.
a 3√6 + 17√6 − 2√6
b 5√3 + 2√12 − 5√2 + 3√8
c 12√100a3b2 + ab√36a − 5√4a2b
THINK WRITE
a All 3 terms are alike because they a 3√6 + 17√6 − 2√6 = (3 + 17 − 2)√6
contain the same surd (√6). = 18√6
Simplify.

b 1 Simplify surds where possible. b 5√3 + 2√12 − 5√2 + 3√8
= 5√3 + 2√4 × 3 − 5√2 + 3√4 × 2
= 5√3 + 2 × 2√3 − 5√2 + 3 × 2√2
= 5√3 + 4√3 − 5√2 + 6√2
2 Add like terms to obtain the = 9√3 + √2
simplified answer.
c 1 Simplify surds where possible. c 12√100a3b2 + ab√36a − 5√4a2b
= 12 × 10√a2 × a × b2 + ab × 6√a − 5 × 2 × a√b
= 12 × 10 × a × b√a + ab × 6√a − 5 × 2 × a√b
= 5ab√a + 6ab√a − 10a√b
= 11ab√a − 10a√b
2 Add like terms to obtain the

simplified answer.
16.4.3 Multiplication and division of surds

Multiplying surds
•• To multiply surds, multiply together the expressions under the radical signs. For example, √a × √b = √ab,
where a and b are positive real numbers.
•• When multiplying surds it is best to first simplify them (if possible). Once this has been done and a
mixed surd has been obtained, the coefficients are multiplied with each other and then the surds are
multiplied together. For example,
m√a × n√b = mn√ab.
Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are
positive real numbers.
a √11 × √7 b 5√3 × 8√5 c 6√12 × 2√6 d √15x5y2 × √12x2y
THINK WRITE
a Multiply the surds together, using a √11 × √7 = √11 × 7

√a × √b = √ab (that is, multiply expressions = √77
under the square root sign). Note: This
expression cannot be simplified any further.
b Multiply the coefficients together and then b 5√3 × 8√5 = 5 × 8 × √3 × √5
multiply the surds together. = 40 × √3 × 5
= 40√15
c 1 Simplify √12. c 6√12 × 2√6 = 6√4 × 3 × 2√6

= 6 × 2√3 × 2√6
= 12√3 × 2√6
2 Multiply the coefficients together and = 24√18
multiply the surds together.

3 Simplify the surd. = 24√9 × 2
= 24 × 3√2
= 72√2
d 1 Simplify each of the surds. d √15x5y2 × √12x2y

= √15 × x4 × x × y2 × √4 × 3 × x2 × y
= x2 × y × √15 × x × 2 × x × √3 × y
= x2y√15x × 2x√3y
2 Multiply the coefficients together and the = x2y × 2x√15x × 3y
surds together. = 2x3y√45xy
= 2x3y√9 × 5xy
3 Simplify the surd. = 2x3y × 3√5xy
= 6x3y√5xy
•• When working with surds, it is sometimes necessary to multiply surds by themselves; that is, square
them. Consider the following examples:
(√2) 2 = √2 × √2 = √4 = 2
(√5) 2 = √5 × √5 = √25 = 5
•• Observe that squaring a surd produces the number under the radical sign. This is not surprising,
because squaring and taking the square root are inverse operations and, when applied together, leave
the original unchanged.
•• When a surd is squared, the result is the number (or expression) under the radical sign; that is,
(√a) 2 = a, where a is a positive real number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7

a (√6) 2 b (3√5) 2
THINK WRITE
a Use (√a) 2 = a, where a = 6. a (√6) 2 = 6
b 1 Square 3 and apply (√a) 2 = a to square √5. b (3√5) 2 = 32 × (√5) 2

=9×5
2 Simplify. = 45
16.4.4 Dividing surds

= √ , where a and b are
√a a
•• To divide surds, divide the expressions under the radical signs; that is,
√b b
whole numbers.
•• When dividing surds it is best to simplify them (if possible) first. Once this has been done, the
coefficients are divided next and then the surds are divided.

Divide the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are
positive real numbers.
√55 √48 9√88 √36xy
a b c d
√5 √3 6√99 √25x99y11
THINK WRITE
=√
√55 55
a 1 Rewrite the fraction, a
√5 5
=√ .
√a a
using
√b b
2 Divide the numerator by the denominator = √11
(that is, 55 by 5).
3 Check if the surd can be simplified any further.
=√ . =√
√a a √48 48
b 1 Rewrite the fraction, using b
√b b √3 3
2 Divide 48 by 3. = √16
3 Evaluate √16. =4
=√ . c 9√88 = 9√ 88
√a a
c 1 Rewrite surds, using
√b b 6√99 6 99
= √
9 8
2 Simplify the fraction under the radical by 6 9
dividing both numerator and denominator by 11.
9 × 2√2
3 Simplify surds. =
6×3
18√2
4 Multiply the whole numbers in the =
18
numerator together and those in the denominator
together.
5 Cancel the common factor of 18. = √2
√36xy 6√xy
d 1 Simplify each surd. d =
√25x9y11 5√x8 × x × y10 × y
6√xy
=
5x4y5√xy
6
2 Cancel any common factors — in this case √xy. =
5x4y5

16.4.5 Rationalising denominators
•• If the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it can be changed into a rational number through
multiplication. In other words, it can be rationalised.
•• As discussed earlier in this chapter, squaring a simple surd (that is, multiplying it by itself) results in
a rational number. This fact can be used to rationalise denominators as follows.
√a √b √ab √b
× = , where =1
√b √b b √b
•• If both numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied by the surd contained in the denominator,
the denominator becomes a rational number. The fraction takes on a different appearance, but its
numerical value is unchanged, because multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same num-
ber is equivalent to multiplying by 1.
Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.

√6 2√12 √17 − 3√14
a b c
√13 3√54 √7
THINK WRITE
√6
a 1 Write the fraction. a
√13
√6 √13
2 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the = ×
surd contained in the denominator (in this case √13). √13 √13
√78
This has the same effect as multiplying the fraction =
√13 13
by 1, because = 1.
√13
2√12
b 1 Write the fraction. b
3√54
2√12 2√4 × 3
2 Simplify the surds. (This avoids dealing with large =
numbers.) 3√54 3√9 × 6
2 × 2√3
=
3 × 3√6
4√3
=
9√6
4√3 √6
3 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by √6. = ×
9√6 √6
(This has the same effect as multiplying the fraction
4√18
√6
= 1.) =
by 1, because 9×6
√6
Note: We need to multiply only by the surd part of the
denominator (that is, by √6 rather than by 9√6.)

4√9 × 2
4 Simplify √18. =
9×6
4 × 3√2
=
54
12√2
=
54
2√2
5 Divide both the numerator and denominator by 6 =
9
(cancel down).
√17 − 3√14
c 1 Write the fraction. c
√7
(√17 − 3√14) √7
2 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by √7. = ×
Use grouping symbols (brackets) to make it clear that √7 √7
the whole numerator must be multiplied by √7.
√17 × √7 − 3√14 × √7
3 Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator. =
a(b + c) = ab + ac √7 × √7
√119 − 3√98
=
7
√119 − 3√49 × 2
4 Simplify √98. =
7
√119 − 3 × 7√2
=
7
√119 − 21√2
=
7
16.4.6 Rationalising denominators using conjugate surds

•• The product of pairs of conjugate surds results in a rational number. (Examples of pairs of conjugate
surds include √6 + 11 and √6 − 11, √a + b and √a − b, 2√5 − √7 and 2√5 + √7.)
This fact is used to rationalise denominators containing a sum or a difference of surds.
•• To rationalise the denominator that contains a sum or a difference of surds, multiply both numerator
and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Two examples are given below:
1 √a − √b
1. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction . multiply it by .
√a + √b √a − √b
1 √a + √b
2. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction , multiply it by .
√a − √b √a + √b
A quick way to simplify the denominator is to use the difference of two squares identity:
(√a − √b)(√a + √b) = (√a)2 − (√b)2
=a−b

Rationalise the denominator and simplify the following.
a 1 b √6 + 3√2
4 − √3 3 + √3
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write the fraction. a
4 − √3
(4 + √3)
= ×
2 Multiply the numerator and 1
denominator by the conjugate (4 − √3) (4 + √3)
of the denominator.
(4 + √3)
(Note that (4 + √3) = 1.)
4 + √3
3 Apply the Distributive Law =
in the numerator and the (4) 2 − (√3) 2
difference of two squares
identity in the denominator.
4 + √3
4 Simplify. =
16 − 3
4 + √3
=
13
b 1 Write the fraction. b √6 + 3√2

3 + √3
(√6 + 3√2) (3 − √3)
2 Multiply the numerator and = ×
denominator by the conjugate (3 + √3) (3 − √3)
of the denominator.
(3 − √3)
(Note that (3 − √3) = 1.)
√6 × 3 + √6 × −√3 + 3√2 × 3 + 3√2 × −√3
3 Multiply the expressions in =
grouping symbols in the (3) 2 − (√3) 2
numerator, and apply the
difference of two squares
identity in the denominator.
3√6 − √18 + 9√2 − 3√6
4 Simplify. =
9−3
−√18 + 9√2
=
6
−√9 × 2 + 9√2
=
6
−3√2 + 9√2
=
6
6√2
=
6
= √2

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Adding and subtracting surds (doc-5356)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Multiplying and dividing surds (doc-5357)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Rationalising denominators (doc-5360)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Conjugate pairs (doc-5361)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Applying the difference of two squares rule to surds (doc-5362)
Complete this digital doc: WORKSHEET: Real numbers I (doc-14612)
Exercise 16.4 Operations with surds

Individual pathways

1a–h, 2a–h, 3a–h, 4a–d, 5a–h, 6a–h, 1e–j, 2e–j, 3e–k, 4c–f, 5c–i, 6e–j, 1g–l, 2g–l, 3g–l, 4e–h, 5g–l, 6g–l,
7a–h, 8a–d, 9a–d, 10a–h, 11a–f, 7g–l, 8d–f, 9g–k, 10f–j, 11e–h, 7j–r, 8e–h, 9i–n, 10k–o, 11i–l, 12g–i,
12a–c, 13, 15 12d–f, 13–15 13–16
Fluency
1. WE4a Simplify the following surds.
a. √12 b. √24 c. √27 d. √125
e. √54 f. √112 g. √68 h. √180
i. √88 j. √162 k. √245 l. √448
2. WE4b, c Simplify the following surds.
a. 2√8 b. 8√90 c. 9√80
d. 7√54 e. −6√75 f. −7√80
g. 16√48 h. 17√392 i. 19√162
j. 14√192 k. 19√135 3
l. 10 √175
3. WE4d Simplify the following surds. Assume that a, b, c, d, e, f, x and y are positive real numbers.
a. √16a2 b. √72a2 c. √90a2b d. √338a4
3
e. √338a b 3 3
f. √68a b 5 g. √125x y 6 4 h. 5√80x3y2
1
i. 6√162c7d 5 j. 2√405c7d 9 k. 2√88ef l. 12√392e11f 11
4. WE5a Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that x and y are positive real
numbers.
a. 3√5 + 4√5 b. 2√3 + 5√3 + √3
c. 8√5 + 3√3 + 7√5 + 2√3 d. 6√11 − 2√11
e. 7√2 + 9√2 − 3√2 f. 9√6 + 12√6 − 17√6 − 7√6
g. 12√3 − 8√7 + 5√3 − 10√7 h. 2√x + 5√y + 6√x − 2√y

5. WE5b Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive real
numbers.
a. √200 − √300 b. √125 − √150 + √600
c. √27 − √3 + √75 d. 2√20 − 3√5 + √45
e. 6√12 + 3√27 − 7√3 + √18 f. √150 + √24 − √96 + √108
g. 3√90 − 5√60 + 3√40 + √100 h. 5√11 + 7√44 − 9√99 + 2√121
i. 2√30 + 5√120 + √60 − 6√135 j. 6√ab − √12ab + 2√9ab + 3√27ab
k. 2√98 + 3√48 + 3√12 l. 18√32 − √18 + 3√72
1 1 1 7
6
6. WE5c Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive real
numbers.
a. 7√a − √8a + 8√9a − √32a b. 10√a − 15√27a + 8√12a + 14√9a
c. √150ab + √96ab − √54ab d. 16√4a2 − √24a + 4√8a2 + √96a
e. √8a3 + √72a3 − √98a3 f. 12√36a + 14√128a − 16√144a
g. √9a3 + √3a5 h. 6√a5b + √a3b − 5√a5b
i. ab√ab + 3ab√a2b + √9a3b3 j. √a3b + 5√ab − 2√ab + 5√a3b
k. √32a3b2 − 5ab√8a + √48a5b6 l. √4a2b + 5√a2b − 3√9a2b
7. WE6 Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that a, b, x and y
are positive real numbers.
a. √2 × √7 b. √6 × √7 c. √8 × √6
d. √10 × √10 e. √21 × √3 f. √27 × 3√3
g. 5√3 × 2√11 h. 10√15 × 6√3 i. 4√20 × 3√5
j. 10√6 × 3√8 k. 4√48 × 2√2
1
l. 19√48 × 2√3
m. 101
√60 × 15√40 n. √xy × √x3y2 o. √3a4b2 × √6a5b3
p. √12a7b × √6a3b4 q. √15x3y2 × √6x2y3 r. 12√15a3b3 × 3√3a2b6
a. (√2) 2 b. (√5) 2 c. (√12) 2 d. (√15) 2
e. (3√2) 2 f. (4√5) 2 g. (2√7) 2 h. (5√8) 2
9. WE8 Simplify the following surds, expressing answers in the
simplest form. Assume that a, b, x and y are positive real numbers.
√15 √8 √60
a. b. c.
√3 √2 √10
√128 √18 √65
d. e. f.
√8 4√6 2√13
√96 7√44 9√63
g. h. i.
√8 14√11 15√7
√2040 √x4y3 √16xy
j. k. l.
√30 √x2y5 √8x7y9
√xy √12x8y12 2√2a2b4 √10a9b3
m. × n. ×
√x5y7 √x2y3 √5a3b6 3√a7b
10. WE9a, b Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
5 7 4 8 √12
a. b. c. d. e.
√2 √3 √11 √6 √7

√15 2√3 3√7 5√2 4√3
f. g. h. i. j.
√6 √5 √5 2√3 3√5
5√14 16√3 8√3 8√60 2√35
k. l. m. n. o.
7√8 6√5 7√7 √28 3√14
Understanding
11. WE9c Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
√6 + √12 √15 − √22 6√2 − √15
a. b. c.
√3 √6 √10
2√18 + 3√2 3√5 + 6√7 4√2 + 3√8
d. e. f.
√5 √8 2√3
3√11 − 4√5 2√7 − 2√5 7√12 − 5√6
g. h. i.
√18 √12 6√3
6√2 − √5 6√3 − 5√5 3√5 + 7√3
j. k. l.
4√8 7√20 5√24
12. WE10 Rationalise the denominator and simplify.
1 1 4
a. b. c.
√5 + 2 √8 − √5 2√11 − √13
5√3 √8 − 3 √12 − √7
d. e. f.
3√5 + 4√2 √8 + 3 √12 + √7
√3 − 1 3√6 − √15 √5 − √3
g. h. i.
√5 + 1 √6 + 2√3 4√2 − √3
Reasoning
1 1
13. Express the average of 2√x and 3 − 2√x, writing your answer with a rational denominator.
14. a. Show that (√a + √b)2 = a + b + 2√ab.
b. Use this result to find:
i. √8 + 2√15
ii. √8 − 2√15
iii. √7 + 4√3.
Problem solving
√5 + √3 √5 − √3
15. Simplify √3 + √3 + √5 − √3 + √3 − √5 .
16. Solve for x.
5
a. √9 + x − √x = √9 + x
9√x − 7 3√x + 1
b. 3√x = √x + 5
Reflection
Under what circumstance might you need to rationalise the denominator of a fraction?

16.5.1 Fractional indices
1
•• Consider the expression a2. Now consider what happens if we square that expression.
1
(a2) 2 = a (using the Fourth Index Law, (am) n = am × n)
•• Now, from our work on surds we know that (√a) 2 = a.
1 1
•• From this we can conclude that (a2) 2 = (√a) 2 and further conclude that a2 = √a.
1
•• We can similarly show that a3 = √3 a. 1
•• This pattern can be continued and generalised to produce an = √a.
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 1
a 92 b 643
THINK WRITE
1 1
92
a 1 Write as √9. a 92 = √9
2 Evaluate. =3
1 1
b 1 Write 643 as √3 64. b 643 = √3 64
2 Evaluate. =4
Use a calculator to find the value of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
1 1
a 104 b 2005
THINK WRITE
1
a Use a calculator to produce the answer. a 104 = 1.778 279 41
≈ 1.8
1
b Use a calculator to produce the answer. b 2005 = 2.885 399 812
≈ 2.9
1 1
•• Consider the expression (am) n. From earlier, we know that (am) n = √am.
n
1 m
We also know (am) n = a n using the index laws.
m
We can therefore conclude that a n = √am.
n
•• Such expressions can be evaluated on a calculator either by using the index function, which is usually
either ^ or xy and entering the fractional index, or by separating the two functions for power and root.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
2
Evaluate 37, correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
2 2
Use a calculator to evaluate 37 . 37 ≈ 1.4

1
•• The index law a2 = √a can be applied to convert between expressions that involve fractional
indices and surds.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Write each of the following expressions in simplest surd form.

1 3
a 102 b 52
THINK WRITE
1
a Since an index of 12 is equivalent to taking the square a 102 = √10
root, this term can be written as the square root of 10.
3
b 1 A power of 32 means the square root of the number b 52 = √53
cubed.
2 Evaluate 53. = √125
3 Simplify √125. = 5√5
WORKED EXAMPLE 15

1
( y34 )
2 2
1 2 1
x3
a m5 × m5 b (a2b3) 6 c
THINK WRITE
1 2
a 1 Write the expression. a m5 × m5
3
2 Multiply numbers with the same base by adding the indices. = m5
1
b 1 Write the expression. b (a2b3) 6
2 3
2 Multiply each index inside the grouping symbols (brackets) = a6b6
by the index on the outside.
1 1
3 Simplify the fractions. = a3b2
1
( y34 )
2 2
c 1 Write the expression. c x3
1
x3
2 Multiply the index in both the numerator and denominator by the index = 3
outside the grouping symbols. y8
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Real numbers II (doc-14613)

Individual pathways

1–5, 6a–f, 7a–c, 8a–f, 9a–d, 10a–d, 1–5, 6d–g, 7b–d, 8d–f, 9b–d, 10c–f, 1–5, 6g–i, 7d–f, 8f–i, 9c–f, 10e–i,
11a–d, 12–14, 16 11c–f, 12–16 11e–i, 12–17
Fluency
1 1 1 1 1 1
a. 162 b. 252 c. 812 d. 83 e. 273 f. 1253
2. WE12 Use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
1 1 1 1 1 1
a. 814 b. 164 c. 33 d. 52 e. 75 f. 89
3. WE13 Use a calculator to find the value of each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
3 5 2 4 2
e. (34 )4 f. (45 )3
3
a. 128 b. 1009 c. 503 d. (0.6) 5
4. WE14 Write each of the following expressions in simplest surd form.
1 1 1 5 3 5
a. 72 b. 122 c. 722 d. 22 e. 32 f. 102
5. Write each of the following expressions with a fractional index.
a. √5 b. √10 c. √x d. √m3 e. 2√t f. √3 6
6. WE15a Simplify each of the following. Leave your answer in index form.
3 1 1 3 1 1
a. 45 × 45 b. 28 × 28 c. a2 × a3
3 2 1 1 3 2
d. x4 × x5 e. 5m3 × 2m5 f. 12b7 × 4b7
2 3 3 1
g. −4y2 × y9 h. 25a8 × 0.05a4 i. 5x3 × x2
2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 4
a. a3b4 × a3b4 b. x5y9 × x5y3 c. 2ab3 × 3a5b5

3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3
d. 6m7 × m4n5 e. x3y2z3 × x6y3z2 f. 2a5b8c4 × 4b4c4
1
3
1 1 2 1 3
a. 32 ÷ 33 b. 53 ÷ 54 c. 122 ÷ 122
4
6 3 3 1
m5
d. a7 ÷ a7 e. x2 ÷ x4 f.
5
m9
3 3
2x4 7n2 25b5
g. h. i.
3 4 1
4x5 21n3 20b4
4 3 5 2 2 2 3 4 3
a. x3y2 ÷ x3y5 b. a9b3 ÷ a5b5 c. m8n7 ÷ 3n8
3 3 7 1
4 2 1
5a4b5 p8 q4
d. 10x5y ÷ 5x3y4 e. f.
1 1 2 1
20a5b4 7p3q6

3 1
3 5 2 4 1 6
a. ( ) 24 b. ( ) 53 c. (75 )
3 1
1 4 8 1 3
d. (a3) 10 e. ( m9) f. ( )
2b2
15 n b
3 14 m p a c
g. 4( ) p7 h. (x )n
i. ( 3mb)
Understanding
11. WE15b, c Simplify each of the following.
1
1 1 2 3 3 7 2
a. ( 2
ab 3
) b. (a4b) 4 c. (x5y8 )
1 1 3 2
(b)
1 3 3 3 1 2 2 2
d. ( ) e. ( )
3
3 5
3a b c4 2
xyz3 5 a4
f.
2 2 1
( n78 ) ( c49 ) ( 2y34 )

4 3 3 2
m5 b5 4x7
g. h. i.

m
3 n
If ( ) is equal to a4, then m and n could not be:
1
a4
a. 1 and 3 b. 2 and 6 c. 3 and 8 d. 4 and 9
3 4 3
a. √a8 b. √b9 c. √m16 d. √16x4 e. √8y9
4 3 5 3
f. √16x8y12 g. √27m9n15 h. √32p5q10 i. √216a6b18
Reasoning
14. Manning’s formula is used to calculate the flow of water in a
2 1
R3S2
river during a flood situation. Manning’s formula is v = ,
n
where R is the hydraulic radius, S is the slope of the river and
n is the roughness coefficient. This formula is used by meteor-
ologists and civil engineers to analyse potential flood situations.
a. Find the flow of water in metres per second in the river if
R = 8, S = 0.0025 and n = 0.625.
b. To find the volume of water flowing through the river, we
multiply the flow rate by the average cross‐sectional area of the river. If the average cross‐sectional
area is 52 m2, find the volume of water (in L) flowing through the river each second. (Remember
1 m3 = 1000 L.)
c. If water continues to flow at this rate, what will be the total amount of water to flow through in one
hour? Justify your answer.
d. Use the internet to find the meaning of the terms ‘hydraulic radius’ and ‘roughness coefficient’.
15. Find x if mx =
√m10 .
( )
2
4
√m

Problem solving
16. Simplify:
1 1
x + 2x 2 y 2 + y − z
a.
( )
1 1 1
x2 + y2 + z2
b. √
2
5 t
.
√t3
17. Expand (m4 + m2n2 + m4n + n2 )(m4 − n2 ) .

3 1 1 1 3 1 1
Reflection
How will you remember the rule for fractional indices?

16.6.1 Negative indices
23
•• Consider the following division = 2−1 (using the Second Index Law).
4
2
23 8
= = .
1
Alternatively,
2 4 16 2
We can conclude that 2−1 = .
1
2
•• In general form:
a−1 = a−n =
1 1
and .
a an
Evaluate each of the following using a calculator.

a 4−1 b 2−4
THINK WRITE
a Use a calculator to evaluate 4−1. a 4−1 = 0.25

b Use a calculator to evaluate 2−4. b 2−4 = 0.0625
•• Consider the index law a−1 = . Now consider the case in which a is fractional.
1
a
a −1
(b)
Consider the expression .
a −1
(b)
=
1
a
b
= 1×
b
a
=
b
a
We can therefore consider an index of −1 to be a reciprocal function.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Write down the value of each of the following without the use of a calculator.
−1 −1 −1
a (23 ) b (15 ) c (1 41 )
THINK WRITE
−1 −1
a To evaluate (2 ) take the reciprocal of 23. a (23 ) = 3
3 2
−1 −1
b 1 To evaluate (15 ) b (5 ) =
1 5
take the reciprocal of 15. 1
=5
5
2 Write 1 as a whole number.
−1 −1
c (1 4 ) = (54 )
1 1
c 1 Write 1 4 as an improper fraction.
2 Take the reciprocal of 54. = 4

5
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Real numbers III (doc-14614)

Individual pathways

1a–e, 2a–e, 3a–e, 4a–e, 5a–e, 6a–d, 1d–f, 2d–f, 3d–f, 4d–f, 5e–h, 6c–f, 1e–h, 2e–h, 3e–h, 4e–h, 5g–l, 6e–h,
7a–d, 8–12 7c–f, 8–12 7e–h, 8–13
Fluency
1. WE16 Evaluate each of the following using a calculator.
a. 5−1 b. 3−1 c. 8−1 d. 10−1
−3 −2
e. 2 f. 3 g. 5−2 h. 10−4
2. Find the value of each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
a. 6−1 b. 7−1 c. 6−2 d. 9−3
e. 6−3 f. 15−2 g. 16−2 h. 5−4
a. (2.5)−1 b. (0.4)−1 c. (1.5)−2 d. (0.5)−2
−3 −4
e. (2.1) f. (10.6) g. (0.45)−3 h. (0.125)−4
a. (−3)−1 b. (−5)−1 c. (−2)−2 d. (−4)−2
e. (−1.5)−1 f. (−2.2)−1 g. (−0.6)−1 h. (−0.85)−2

5. WE17 Write down the value of each of the following without the use of a calculator.
−1 −1 −1 −1
a. (45 ) b. (10
3
) c. (78 ) d. (13
20 )
−1 −1 −1 −1
e. (12 ) f. (14 ) g. (18 ) h. (10
1
)
−1 −1 −1 −1
i. (112 ) j. (214 ) k. (110
1
) l. (512 )
6. Find the value of each of the following, leaving your answer in fraction form if necessary.
−2 −2 −3
a. (12 ) b. (25 ) c. (23 )
−2 −2 −2
d. (14 ) e. (112 ) f. (214 )
−3 −3
g. (113 ) h. (215 )
7. Find the value of each of the following.

−1 −1 −1
a. (−23 ) b. (−35 ) c. (−14 )
−1 −2 −2
d. (−10
1
) e. (−23 ) f. (−15 )
−1 −2
g. (−112 ) h. (−234 )
Understanding
2−1 −1
( 3 )
8. Without using a calculator, evaluate .
(5−1)
4
−1
( b2 )
9. Simplify √
a2
.
Reasoning
6 6
10. Consider the equation y = . Clearly x ≠ 0, as would be undefined.
x x
What happens to the value of y as x gets closer to zero coming from:
a. the positive direction
b. the negative direction?
11. Consider the expression 2−n. Explain what happens to the value of this expression as n increases.
Problem solving
12. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations.
5y
3y+1 = and = 125
1

9 125x
xn+2 + xn−2
13. Simplify .
xn−4 + xn
Reflection
How can division be used to explain negative indices?

16.7 Logarithms
16.7.1 Logarithms
•• The index, power or exponent in the statement y = ax is also known as a logarithm (or log for short).
Logarithm or index or power or exponent
y = ax
Base
•• This statement y = ax can be written in an alternative form as loga y = x, which is read as ‘the loga-
rithm of y to the base a is equal to x’. These two statements are equivalent.
ax = y ⇔ log a y = x
Index form Logarithmic form
•• For example, 3 = 9 can be written as log3 9 = 2. The log form would be read as ‘the logarithm of 9,
2
to the base of 3, is 2’. In both forms, the base is 3 and the logarithm is 2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Write the following in logarithmic form.

a 104 = 10 000 b 6x = 216
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the given statement. a 104 = 10 000
2 Identify the base (10) and the logarithm (4) and write the log10 10 000 = 4
equivalent statement in logarithmic form. (Use
ax = y ⇔ loga y = x, where the base is a and the log is x.)
b 1 Write the given statement. b 6x = 216
2 Identify the base (6) and the logarithm (x) and write the log6 216 = x
equivalent statement in logarithmic form.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Write the following in index form.

1
a log2 8 = 3 b log25 5 = 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the statement. a log2 8 = 3
2 Identify the base (2) and the log (3), and write the equivalent state- 23 = 8
ment in index form. Remember that the log is the same as the index.
b log25 5 =
1
b 1 Write the statement. 2
2 Identify the base (25) and the log (12) , and write the equivalent state-
1
252 = 5
ment in index form.
•• In the previous examples, we found that:

log28 = 3 ⇔ 23 = 8 and log1010 000 = 4 ⇔ 104 = 10 000.
We could also write log28 = 3 as log223 = 3 and log1010 000 = 4 as log10104 = 4.
•• Can this pattern be used to work out the value of log381? We need to find the power when the base of
3 is raised to that power to give 81.

Evaluate log3 81.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the log expression. log3 81
2 Express 81 in index form with a base of 3. = log3 34
3 Write the value of the logarithm. =4
16.7.2 Using logarithmic scales in measurement

•• Logarithms can also be used to display data sets that cover a range of values which vary greatly in
size. For example, when measuring the amplitude of earthquake waves, some earthquakes will have
amplitudes of 10 000, whereas other earthquakes may have amplitudes of 10 000 000 (1000 times
greater). Rather than trying to display this data on a linear scale, we can take the logarithm of the
amplitude, which gives us the magnitude of each earthquake. The Richter scale uses the magnitudes of
earthquakes to display the difference in their power.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Convert the following amplitudes of earthquakes into values on the Richter scale, correct to
1 decimal place.
a 1989 Newcastle earthquake: amplitude 398 000
b 2010 Canterbury earthquake: amplitude 12 600 000
c 2010 Chile earthquake: amplitude 631 000 000
THINK WRITE
a Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic a log 398 000 = 5.599. . .
value of the amplitude. Round the answer to = 5.6
1 decimal place. The 1989 Newcastle earthquake rated 5.6 on the
Write the answer in words. Richter scale.
b Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic b log 12 600 000 = 7.100. . .
1 decimal place. The 2010 Canterbury earthquake rated 7.1 on the
c Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic c log 631 000 000 = 8.800. . .
1 decimal place. The 2010 Chile earthquake rated 8.8 on the
Displaying logarithmic data in histograms

•• If we are given a data set in which the data vary greatly in size, we can use logarithms to transform the
data into more manageable figures, and then group the data into intervals to provide an indication of
the spread of the data.

WORKED EXAMPLE 22
The following table displays the population of 10 different towns and cities in Victoria
(using data from the 2011 census).
Town or city Population

Benalla 9 328
Bendigo 76 051
Castlemaine 9 124
Echuca 12 613
Geelong 143 921
Kilmore 6 142
Melbourne 3 707 530
Stawell 5 734
Wangaratta 17 377
Warrnambool 29 284
a Convert the populations into logarithmic form, correct to 2 decimal places.
b Group the data into a frequency table.
c Draw a histogram to represent the data.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Use a calculator to calculate the a Town or city Log (population)

logarithmic values of all of the
populations. Round the answers to Benalla 3.97
2 decimal places. Bendigo 4.88
Castlemaine 3.96
Echuca 4.10
Geelong 5.16
Kilmore 3.79
Melbourne 6.57
Stawell 3.76
Wangaratta 4.24
Warrnambool 4.67
b Group the logarithmic values into b Log (population) Frequency

class intervals and create a
frequency table. 3−<4 4
4−<5 4
5−<6 1
6−<7 1

c Construct a histogram of the data c
set.
5
Frequency
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Log (population)
Exercise 16.7 Logarithms

Individual pathways

1a–e, 2, 3a–e, 4, 5a–e, 6–8, 10 1e–k, 2, 3d–i, 4, 5e–h, 6–10 1i–p, 2, 3g–l, 4, 5g–l, 6–11
Fluency
1. WE18 Write the following in logarithmic form.
a. 42 = 16 b. 25 = 32 c. 34 = 81 d. 62 = 36
e. 1000 = 10 3
f. 25 = 52 g. 43 = x h. 5x = 125
1
i. 7x = 49 j. p4 = 16 k. 92 = 3 l. 0.1 = 10−1
1 3
m. 2 = 8 3
n. 2−1 = 12 o. a0 = 1 p. 42 = 8
2. MC The statement w = ht is equivalent to:
a. w = logt h
b. h = logt w
c. t = logw h
d. t = logh w
3. WE19 Write the following in index form.
a. log216 = 4 b. log327 = 3 c. log101 000 000 = 6
d. log5125 = 3 e. log164 = 12 f. log464 = x
g. 12 = log497 h. log3 x = 5 i. log819 = 12
j. log100.01 = −2 k. log88 = 1 l. log644 = 1
3
4. MC The statement q = logr p is equivalent to:
a. q = r p b. p = r q c. r = pq d. r = q p
5. WE20 Evaluate the following logarithms.
a. log216 b. log416 c. log11121
d. log10100 000 e. log3243 f. log2128
g. log51 h. log93 i. log3 (13 )
j. log66 k. log10 (100
1
) l. log1255
6. Write the value of each of the following.
a. log101 b. log1010 c. log10100
d. log101000 e. log1010 000 f. log10100 000

Understanding
7. Use your results to question 6 to answer the following.
a. Between which two whole numbers would log10 7 lie?
b. Between which two whole numbers would log10 4600 lie?
c. Between which two whole numbers would log10 85 lie?
d. Between which two whole numbers would log10 12 750 lie?
e. Between which two whole numbers would log10 110 lie?
f. Between which two whole numbers would log10 81 000 lie?
8. WE21 Convert the following amplitudes of earthquakes into values on the Richter scale, correct to
1 decimal place.
a. 2016 Northern Territory earthquake: amplitude 1 260 000
b. 2011 Christchurch earthquake: amplitude 2 000 000
c. 1979 Tumaco earthquake: amplitude 158 000 000
Reasoning
9. a. If log10 g = k, find the value of log10 g2. Justify your answer.
b. If logx y = 2, find the value of logy x. Justify your answer.
c. By referring to the equivalent index statement, explain why x must be a positive number given
log4 x = y, for all values of y.
10. Calculate each of the following logarithms.
b. log3 ( )
1
a. log2 (64) c. log10 (0.000 01)
81
Problem solving
11. Find the value of x.
a. logx ( ) = −5 b. logx (343) = 3 c. log64 (x) = −
1 1
243 2
12. Simplify 10 log10 (x).
Reflection
How are indices and logarithms related?
16.8 Logarithm laws

16.8.1 Logarithm laws
•• The index laws are:
am
1. am × an = am+n 2. = am−n 3. (am) n = amn
an
4. a0 = 1 5. a1 = a 6. a−1 =
1
a
•• The index laws can be used to produce equivalent logarithm laws.
16.8.2 Law 1
•• If x = am and y = an, then loga x = m and loga y = n (equivalent log form).
Now xy = am × an
or xy = am+n (First Index law)
So loga (xy) = m+n (equivalent log form)
or loga (xy) = loga x + loga y (substituting for m and n)
loga x + loga y = loga (xy)

•• This means that the sum of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of the product
of the numbers.

Evaluate log10 20 + log10 5.
THINK WRITE
1 Since the same base of 10 is used in each log term, use log1020 + log105 = log10 (20 × 5)
loga x + loga y = loga (xy) and simplify. = log10 100
2 Evaluate. (Remember that 100 = 102.) =2
16.8.3 Law 2
•• If x = am and y = an, then loga x = m and loga y = n (equivalent log form).
x am
Now =
y an
= am−n
x
or (Second Index Law).
y
loga ( ) = m − n
x
So (equivalent log form)
y
loga ( ) = loga x − loga y
x
or (substituting for m and n).
y
loga x − loga y = loga( )

x
y
•• This means that the difference of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of the
quotient of the numbers.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Evaluate log4 20 − log4 5.

THINK WRITE
log4 20 − log4 5 = log4 ( )
20
1 Since the same base of 4 is used in each log term, use
loga x − loga y = loga ( ) and simplify.
x 5
y = log4 4
2 Evaluate. (Remember that 4 = 41.) = 1
Evaluate log5 35 + log5 15 − log5 21.

THINK WRITE
1 Since the first two log terms are being added, use log5 35 + log5 15 − log5 21
loga x + loga y = loga (xy) and simplify. = log5 (35 × 15) − log5 21
= log5 525 − log5 21
= log5 (
21 )
525
2 To find the difference between the two remaining log terms, use
loga x − loga y = loga ( ) and simplify.
x
y = log5 25
3 Evaluate. (Remember that 25 = 52.) = 2

•• Once you have gained confidence in using the first two laws, you can reduce the number of steps of
working by combining the application of the laws. In Worked example 25, we could write:
35 × 15
( 21 )
log5 35 + log5 15 − log5 21 = log5
= log5 25
=2
16.8.4 Law 3
•• If x = am, then loga x = m (equivalent log form).
Now xn = (am) n
or xn = amn (Third Index Law).
So loga xn = mn (equivalent log form)
or loga xn = (loga x) × n (substituting for m)
or loga xn = n loga x
loga xn = n loga x
•• This means that the logarithm of a number raised to a power is equal to the product of the power and
the logarithm of the number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Evaluate 2 log6 3 + log6 4.
THINK WRITE
1 The first log term is not in the required form to use the log 2 log6 3 + log6 4 = log6 32 + log6 4
law relating to sums. Use loga xn = n loga x to rewrite the = log6 9 + log6 4
first term in preparation for applying the first log law.
2 Use loga x + loga y = loga (xy) to simplify the two log = log6 (9 × 4)

terms to one. = log6 36
3 Evaluate. (Remember that 36 = 62.) =2
16.8.5 Law 4
• As a0 = 1 (Fourth Index Law),
loga 1 = 0 (equivalent log form).
loga 1 = 0
•• This means that the logarithm of 1 with any base is equal to 0.
16.8.6 Law 5
• As a1 = a (Fifth Index Law),
loga a = 1 (equivalent log form).
loga a = 1
•• This means that the logarithm of any number a with base a is equal to 1.

16.8.7 Law 6
loga ( ) = loga x−1
• Now 1
(Sixth Index Law)
x
loga ( ) = −1 × loga x
or 1
(using the fourth log law)
x
loga ( ) = −loga x.
1
or
x
loga ( ) = −loga x
1
x
16.8.8 Law 7
• Now loga ax = x loga a (using the third log law)
or loga ax = x × 1 (using the fifth log law)
or loga ax = x.
loga ax = x
Exercise 16.8 Logarithm laws

Individual pathways

1–7, 8a–f, 9a–f, 10, 11a–g, 12, 13, 1–7, 8d–i, 9e–j, 10, 11e–i, 12–15 1–7, 8g–l, 9g–l, 10, 11g–l, 12–16
15
Fluency
1. Use a calculator to evaluate the following, correct to 5 decimal places.
a. log10 50 b. log10 25 c. log10 5 d. log10 2
2. Use your answers to question 1 to show that each of the following statements is true.
a. log10 25 + log10 2 = log10 50
b. log10 50 − log10 2 = log10 25
c. log10 25 = 2 log10 5
d. log10 50 − log10 25 − log10 2 = log10 1
3. WE23 Evaluate the following.
a. log6 3 + log6 2 b. log4 8 + log4 8
c. log10 25 + log10 4 d. log8 32 + log8 16
e. log6 108 + log6 12 f. log14 2 + log14 7
a. log2 20 − log2 5 b. log3 54 − log3 2
c. log4 24 − log4 6 d. log10 30 000 − log10 3
e. log6 648 − log6 3 f. log2 224 − log2 7
a. log3 27 + log3 2 − log3 6 b. log4 24 − log4 2 − log4 6
c. log6 78 − log6 13 + log6 1 d. log2 120 − log2 3 − log2 5
6. Evaluate 2 log4 8.

a. 2 log10 5 + log10 4 b. log3 648 − 3 log3 2
c. 4 log5 10 − log5 80 d. log2 50 + 12 log2 16 − 2 log2 5
8. Evaluate the following.
a. log8 8 b. log5 1 c. log2 (12 ) d. log4 45
e. log6 6−2 f. log20 20 g. log2 1 h. log3 (19 )
i. log4 (12 ) j. log5 √5 k. log3 (√3
1
) l. log2 8√2
Understanding
9. Use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the following.
a. loga 5 + loga 8 b. loga 12 + loga 3 − loga 2
c. 4 logx 2 + logx 3 d. logx 100 − 2 logx 5
e. 3 loga x − loga x2 f. 5 loga a − loga a4
g. logx 6 − logx 6x h. loga a7 + loga 1
i. logp √p j. logk k√k
(√a)
k. 6 loga ( )
1 1
l. loga
a 3

a. The equation y = 10x is equivalent to:
a. x = 10y
b. x = log10 y
c. x = logx 10
d. x = logy 10
b. The equation y = 104x is equivalent to:
a. x = log10 √4y
b. x = log10 √y
4
1
c. x = 104
y
d. x = log10 y
1
4
c. The equation y = 103x is equivalent to: 1
a. x = log10 y b. x = log10 y3
1
3
c. x = log10 y − 3 d. x = 10y–3
d. The equation y = manx is equivalent to:
a. x = amy
b. x = loga ( )
1 n
m
n
y
loga ( )
y
c. x = ( loga y − loga m) d. x =
1 1
n n m
11. Simplify, and evaluate where possible, each of the following without a calculator.
a. log2 8 + log2 10 b. log3 7 + log3 15
c. log10 20 + log10 5 d. log6 8 + log6 7
e. log2 20 − log2 5 f. log3 36 − log3 12
g. log5 100 − log5 8 h. log2 13 + log2 9
i. log4 25 + log4 15 j. log10 5 − log10 20
k. log3 5 − log3 5
4 1
l. log2 9 + log2 4 − log2 12
m. log3 8 − log3 2 + log3 5 n. log4 24 − log4 2 − log4 6

12. MC a. The expression log10 xy is equal to:
a. log10 x × log10 y b. log10 x − log10 y c. log10 x + log10 y d. y log10 x
y
b. The expression log10 x is equal to:
a. x log10 y b. y log10 x c. 10 logx y d. log10 x + log10 y
c. The expression 3 log2 64 + log2 10 is equal to:
1
64
a. log2 40 b. log2 80 c. log2 d. 1
10
Reasoning
13. For each of the following, write the possible strategy you intend to use.
a. Evaluate (log3 81)(log3 27).
loga 81
b. Evaluate .
loga 3
c. Evaluate 5log57.
In each case, explain how you obtained your final answer.
14. Simplify log2 (125
8
) − 3 log2 (5 ) − 4 log2 (2 ).
3 1
Problem solving
15. Simplify loga (a5 + a3) − loga (a4 + a2).
16. If 2 loga (x) = 1 + loga (8x − 15a), find x in terms of a where a is a positive constant and x is positive.
Reflection
What technique will you use to remember the log laws?
CHALLENGE 16.1
log2 8 × log216
Evaluate .
4 log48
16.9 Solving equations

16.9.1 Solving equations with logarithms
•• The equation loga y = x is an example of a general logarithmic equation. Laws of logarithms and
indices are used to solve these equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Solve for x in the following equations.

a log2 x = 3 b log6 x = −2 c log3 x4 = −16 d log5 (x − 1) = 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a log2 x = 3
2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 23 = x
3 Rearrange and simplify. x=8

b 1 Write the equation. b log6 x = −2
2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 6−2 = x
x=
3 Rearrange and simplify. 1
62
= 1
36
c 1 Write the equation. c log3 x4 = −16

2 Rewrite using loga xn = n loga x. 4log3 x = −16
3 Divide both sides by 4. log3 x = −4
4 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 3−4 = x
x=
1
5 Rearrange and simplify.
34
= 1
81
d 1 Write the equation. d log5 (x − 1) = 2
2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 52 = x − 1
3 Solve for x. x − 1 = 25
x = 26
Solve for x in logx 25 = 2, given that x > 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. logx 25 = 2
2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. x2 = 25
3 Solve for x. x = 5 (because x > 0)
Note: x = −5 is rejected as a solution because x > 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Solve for x in the following.

b log3 ( ) = x
1
a log2 16 = x c log9 3 = x
3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a log2 16 = x

2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 2x = 16
3 Write 16 with base 2. = 24
4 Equate the indices. x=4
b log3 (3 ) = x
1
b 1 Write the equation.

2 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 3x = 1
3
=
1
31
3 Write 13 with base 3. 3 = 3−1
x
4 Equate the indices. x = −1

c 1 Write the equation. c log9 3 = x
2 Rewrite using a = y ⇔ loga y = x.
x
9x = 3
3 Write 9 with base 3. (32) x = 3
4 Remove the grouping symbols. 32x = 31
5 Equate the indices. 2x = 1
6 Solve for x. x= 1
2
Solve for x in the equation log2 4 + log2 x − log2 8 = 3.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. log2 4 + log2 x − log2 8 = 3
4×x
( 8 )
2 Simplify the left-hand side. Use loga x + loga y = loga (xy) log2 =3
(y)
and loga x − loga y = loga
x
.
(2)
=3
x
3 Simplify. log2
4 Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga y = x. 23 =

x
2
5 Solve for x. x = 2 × 23
=2×8
= 16
•• When solving an equation like log2 8 = x, it could be rewritten in index form as 2x = 8. This can be
written with the same base of 2 to produce 2x = 23. Equating the indices gives us a solution of x = 3.
•• Can we do this to solve the equation 2x = 7? Consider the method shown in the next worked example.
It involves the use of logarithms and the log10 function on a calculator.
Solve for x, correct to 3 decimal places, if:

a 2x = 7 b 3 −x = 0.4
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 2x = 7
2 Take log10 of both sides. log10 2x = log10 7
3 Use the logarithm-of-a-power law to bring the power, x, x log10 2 = log10 7
to the front of the logarithmic equation.

log10 7
4 Divide both sides by log10 2 to get x by itself. Therefore, x =
log10 2
5 Use a calculator to evaluate the logarithms and write the = 2.807
b 1 Write the equation. b 3−x = 0.4
2 Take log10 of both sides. log10 3−x = log10 0.4
3 Use the logarithm of a power law to bring the power, x, −x log10 3 = log10 0.4
to the front of the logarithmic equation.
log10 0.4
4 Divide both sides by log103 to get the −x by itself. −x =
log10 3
5 Use a calculator to evaluate the logarithms and write the −x = −0.834
6 Divide both sides by −1 to get x by itself. x = 0.834
•• Therefore, we can state the following rule:

log10 b
If ax = b, then x = .
log10 a
This rule applies to any base, but since your calculator has base 10, this is the most commonly used
for this solution technique.
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Real numbers IV (doc-14615)
Exercise 16.9 Solving equations

Individual pathways

1a–h, 2a–e, 3a–f, 4a–h, 5, 6a–h, 1d–k, 2d–f, 3c–f, 4e–j, 5, 6e–l, 7d–i, 1g–l, 2d–h, 3e–j, 4i–n, 5, 6i–o, 7g–l,
7a–f, 8, 9, 11 8–11 8–12
Fluency
1. WE27 Solve for x in the following.
a. log5 x = 2 b. log3 x = 4 c. log2 x = −3
d. log4 x = −2 e. log10 x2 = 4 f. log2 x3 = 12
g. log3 (x + 1) = 3 h. log5 (x − 2) = 3 i. log4 (2x − 3) = 0
j. log10 (2x + 1) = 0 k. log2 (−x) = −5 l. log3 (−x) = −2
m. log5 (1 − x) = 4 n. log10 (5 − 2x) = 1
2. WE28 Solve for x in the following, given that x > 0.
a. logx 9 = 2 b. logx 16 = 4 c. logx 25 =
2
3
(8 )
d. logx 125 = 3
4
e. logx 1
= −3 f. logx (64 ) = −2
1
g. logx 62 = 2 h. logx 43 = 3

a. log2 8 = x b. log3 9 = x c. log5 (15 ) = x d. log4 (16
1
)=x
e. log4 2 = x f. log8 2 = x g. log6 1 = x h. log8 1 = x
i. log 1 2 = x j. log 1 9 = x
2 3
a. log2 x + log2 4 = log2 20 b. log5 3 + log5 x = log5 18
c. log3 x − log3 2 = log3 5 d. log10 x − log10 4 = log10 2
e. log4 8 − log4 x = log4 2 f. log3 10 − log3 x = log3 5
g. log6 4 + log6 x = 2 h. log2 x + log2 5 = 1
i. 3 − log10 x = log10 2 j. 5 − log4 8 = log4 x
k. log2 x + log2 6 − log2 3 = log210 l. log2 x + log2 5 − log2 10 = log2 3
m. log3 5 − log3 x + log3 2 = log310 n. log5 4 − log5 x + log5 3 = log5 6
5. MC a. The solution to the equation log7 343 = x is:
a. x = 2 b. x = 3 c. x = 1 d. x = 0
b. If log8 x = 4, then x is equal to:
a. 4096 b. 512 c. 64 d. 2
c. Given that logx 3 = x must be equal to:
1
2
,
a. 3 b. 6 c. 81 d. 9
d. If loga x = 0.7, then loga x is equal to:
2
a. 0.49 b. 1.4 c. 0.35 d. 0.837

6. Solve for x in the following equations.
a. 2x = 128 b. 3x = 9 c. 7x = 1
49
d. 9x = 1 e. 5x = 625 f. 64x = 8
g. 6x = √6 h. 2x = 2√2 i. 3x =
1
√3
j. 4x = 8 k. 9x = 3√3 l. 2 =
x 1
4√2
m. 3x+1 = 27√3 n. 2x−1 = o. 4x+1 =
1 1
32√2 8√2
Understanding
7. WE31 Solve the following equations, correct to 3 decimal places.
a. 2x = 11 b. 2x = 0.6 c. 3x = 20 d. 3x = 1.7
e. 5 = 8
x
f. 0.7 = 3
x
g. 0.4 = 5
x
h. 3x+2 = 12
i. 7−x = 0.2 j. 8−x = 0.3 k. 10−2x = 7 l. 82−x = 0.75
8. The decibel (dB) scale for measuring loudness, d, is given by the formula d = 10 log10 (I × 1012),
where I is the intensity of sound in watts per square metre.
a. Find the number of decibels of sound
if the intensity is 1.
b. Find the number of decibels of sound
produced by a jet engine at a distance
of 50 metres if the intensity is
10 watts per square metre.
c. Find the intensity of sound if the
sound level of a pneumatic drill
10 metres away is 90 decibels.

d. Find how the value of d changes if the intensity is doubled. Give your answer to the nearest decibel.
e. Find how the value of d changes if the intensity is 10 times as great.
f. By what factor does the intensity of sound have to be multiplied in order to add 20 decibels to the
sound level?
Reasoning
9. The Richter scale is used to describe the energy of earthquakes. A formula for the Richter scale is:
R = 23 log10 K − 0.9, where R is the Richter scale value for an earthquake that releases K kilojoules
(kJ) of energy.
a. Find the Richter scale value for an earthquake that releases the following amounts of energy:
i. 1000 kJ ii. 2000 kJ iii. 3000 kJ
iv. 10 000 kJ v. 100 000 kJ vi. 1 000 000 kJ
b. Does doubling the energy released double the Richter scale value? Justify your answer.
c. Find the energy released by an earthquake of:
i. magnitude 4 on the Richter scale
ii. magnitude 5 on the Richter scale
iii. magnitude 6 on the Richter scale.
d. What is the effect (on the amount of energy released) of
increasing the Richter scale value by 1?
e. Why is an earthquake measuring 8 on the Richter scale
so much more devastating than one that measures 5?
10. Solve for x.
a. 3x+1 = 7
b. 3x+1 = 7x
Problem solving
11. Solve for x.
(27 × 3x) 3 = 81x × 32
12. Solve { x: (3x) 2 = 30 × 3x − 81}.
Reflection
Tables of logarithms were used in classrooms before calculators were used there. Would using loga-
rithms have any effect on the accuracy of calculations?
CHALLENGE 16.2
This challenge explores an interesting association between logarithms and quadratics.
Consider solving the logarithmic equation log10 (x + 1) + log10 x − log10 6 = 0.
x(x +1)
[ ]
This first step in the solution could be: log10 = 0.
6
Continue the solution by converting the logarithmic equation into a quadratic equation, then solving for x.
16.10 Review
Fluency
1. Which of the given numbers are rational?
√ 12, √0.81, 5, −3.26, 0.5, 5 , √ 12

6 π 3

a. √0.81, 5, −3.26, 0.5 and √
3
12
b. √
6 π
and
12 5
c. √ , √0.81 and √
6 3
12 12
d. 5, −3.26 and √
6
12
2. For each of the following, state whether the number is rational or irrational and give the reason for
your answer:
2 .
a. √12 b. √121 c. d. 0.6 e. √3 0.08
9
3. Which of the numbers of the given set are surds?
{ 3√2, 5√7, 9√4, 6√10, 7√12, 12√64 }
a. 9√4, 12√64 b. 3√2 and 7√12 only
c. 3√2, 5√7 and 6√10 only d. 3√2, 5√7, 6√10 and 7√12
4. Which of √2m, √25m, √16 m
, √20
m
, √3 m, √3 8m are surds:
a. if m = 4? b. if m = 8?
a. √50 b. √180 c. 2√32 d. 5√80
6. The expression √392x y may be simplified to:
8 7
a. 196x4y3√2y b. 2x4y3√14y c. 14x4y3√2y d. 14x4y3√2

7. Simplify the following surds. Give the answers in the simplest form.
b. − √ x5y11
2 25
a. 4√648x7y9
5 64
8. Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.
3
a. 7√12 + 8√147 − 15√27 b. √64a3b3 − ab√16ab +
1 1
√100a5b5
2 4 5ab
a. √3 × √5 b. 2√6 × 3√7 c. 3√10 × 5√6 d. (√5)2
10. Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.
a. √675 × √27 b. 10√24 × 6√12
1
5
11. Simplify the following. 2
√30 6√45 3√20 ( )

√7
a. b. c. d.
√10 3√5 12√6 14
12. Rationalise the denominator of each of the following.
2 √3 2 √3 − 1
a. b. c. d.
√6 2√6 √5 − 2 √3 + 1
13. Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place if necessary.
1 1 1 1
a. 643 b. 202 c. 103 d. 504
14. Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
2 3 3 2
d. ( )3
2
a. 203 b. 24 c. (0.7) 5
3
15. Write each of the following in simplest surd form.
1 1 3 4
a. 22 b. 182 c. 52 d. 83

16. Evaluate each of the following, without using a calculator. Show all working.
3 1
164 × 814 2 2 1
a. b. (1253 − 273 )2
1
6 × 162
17. Evaluate each of the following, giving your answer as a fraction.
a. 4−1 b. 9−1 c. 4−2 d. 10−3
a. 12−1 b. 7−2 c. (1.25) −1 d. (0.2)−4
19. Write down the value of each of the following.
2 −1 7 −1 1 −1 1 −1
a. ( ) b. ( ) c. ( ) d. (3 )
3 10 5 4
20. a. The expression √250 may be simplified to:
a. 25√10 b. 5√10 c. 10√5 d. 5√50
b. When expressed in its simplest form, 2√98 − 3√72 is equal to:
a. −4√2 b. −4 c. −2√4 d. 4√2
c. When expressed in its simplest form, √

3
8x
is equal to:
32
a.
x√x
b.
√x3 c.
√x3 d.
x√x
2 4 2 4
21. Find the value of the following, giving your answer in fraction form.
2 −1 2 −2
a. ( ) b. ( )
5 3
22. Find the value of each of the following, leaving your answer in fraction form.
1 −1
a. 2−1 b. 3−1 c. 4−3 d. ( )
2
23. Evaluate the following.
a. log12 18 + log12 8 b. log4 60 − log4 15 c. log9 98 d. 2log3 6 − log3 4
24. Use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the following.
a. loga 16 + loga 3 − loga 2 c. 4loga x − loga x2 d. 5logx ( )
1
b. logx x√x
x
25. Solve for x in the following, given that x > 0.
a. log2 x = 9 b. log5 x = −2 c. logx 25 = 2
d. logx 2 = 6
6
e. log3 729 = x f. log7 1 = x
26. Solve for x in the following.
a. log5 4 + log5 x = log5 24 b. log3 x − log3 5 = log3 7
27. Solve for x in the following equations.
a. 6x = b. 7x = c. 2x+1 = 8√2
1 1
36 √7
28. Solve for x in the following equations, correct to 3 decimal places.
a. 2x = 25 b. 0.6x = 7 c. 9−x = 0.84
Problem solving
29. Answer the following. Explain how you reached your answer.
3
a. What is the hundred’s digit in 33 ?
b. What is the one’s digit in 6704?
c. What is the thousand’s digit in 91000?
Plot a graph of y = 4x by first producing a table of values. Label the y-intercept and the equation of
30. a.
any asymptotes.
b. Draw the line y = x on the same set of axes.
c. Use the property of inverse graphs to draw the graph of y = log4 x. Label any intercepts and the
equation of any asymptotes.
d. Use a graphics calculator or graphing software to check your graphs.

6 −1 1
31. Solve for x: ( ) + = x−1
x 6
2 −1 −1 −1
(( b 1 ) )
(a )
32. Simplify .
2

Language
base integer pi
conjugate irrational power
contradiction laws of logarithms rational
exponent logarithm rational denominator
fractional power logarithmic equation real
index negative index surd
indices number base transcendental number

www.assesson.com.au

Other number systems
Throughout history, different systems have been used to aid with counting. Ancient tribes are known
to have used stones, bones and knots in rope to help keep count. The counting system that is used
around the world today is called the Hindu-Arabic system. This system had its origin in India around
300–200 BC. The Arabs brought this method of counting to Europe in the Middle Ages.
The Hindu–Arabic method is known as the decimal or base 10 system, as it is based on

counting in lots of ten. This system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Notice that the
largest digit is one less than the base number, that is, the largest digit in base 10 is 9. To make
larger numbers, digits are grouped together. The position of the digit tells us about its value.
We call this place value. For example, in the number 325, the 3 has a value of ‘three lots of a
hundred’, the 2 has a value of ‘two lots of ten’ and the 5 has a value of ‘five lots of units’.
Another way to write this is:
3 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 or 3 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 100
In a decimal system, every place value is based on the number 10 raised to a power. The
smallest place value (units) is described by 100, the tens place value by 101, the hundreds place
value by 102, the thousands by 103 and so on.
Computers do not use a decimal system. The system for computer languages is based on the
number 2 and is known as the binary system. The only digits needed in the binary system are
the digits 0 and 1. Can you see why?
Decimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
number
Binary
0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101
number
Consider the decimal number 7. From the table above, you can see that its binary equivalent is
111. How can you be sure this is correct?
111 = 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
Notice that this time each place value is based on the number 2 raised to a power. You can use
this technique to change any binary number into a decimal number. (The same pattern applies
to other bases, for example, in base 6 the place values are based on the number 6 raised to a
power.)

Binary operations
When adding in the decimal system, each time the addition is greater than 9, we need to ‘carry
over’ into the next place value. In the example below, the units column adds to more than 9, so
we need to carry over into the next place value.
1
17
+ 13
30
The same is true when adding in binary, except we need to ‘carry over’ every time the addition
is greater than 1.
1
01
+ 01
10
1. Perform the following binary additions.
a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
+ 012 + 1102 + 1012
2. Perform the following binary subtractions. Remember that if you need to borrow a number from
a column on the left-hand side, you will actually be borrowing a 2 (not a 10).
a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
− 012 − 1102 − 1012
3. Try some multiplication. Rem||ember to carry over lots of 2.

a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
× 012 × 1102 × 1012
4. What if our number system had an 8 as its basis (that is, we counted in lots of 8)? The only
digits available for use would be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. (Remember the maximum digit is 1 less
than the base value.) Give examples to show how numbers would be added, subtracted and
multiplied using this base system. Remember that you would ‘carry over’ or ‘borrow’ lots of 8.
5. The hexadecimal system has 16 as its basis. Investigate this system. Explain how it would be
possible to have 15, for example, in a single place position. Give examples to show how the
system would add, subtract and multiply.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Who is Jørn Utzon? (doc-15947)

Answers
Topic 16 Real numbers
Exercise 16.2 Number classification review
1. a. Q b. Q c. Q d. I e. I
f. Q g. Q h. I i. Q j. Q
k. Q l. Q m. I n. Q o. I
p. Q q. Q r. I s. I t. I
u. Q v. I w. I x. Q y. I
2. a. Q b. Q c. Q d. Q e. Q
f. I g. I h. Q i. I j. Undefined
k. I l. I m. I n. Q o. Q
p. Q q. I r. I s. Q t. Q
u. I v. Q w. Q x. I y. Q
3. B
4. D
5. C
6. C
a
7.
b
8. D
9. A
10. p − q
12. a. m = 11, n = 3 b. m = 2, n = 3 c. m = 3, n = 2 d. m = 1, n = 2
1
13. or 7−1
7
Exercise 16.3 Surds
1. b d f g h i l m o q s t w z
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. Any perfect square
7. m = 4
9. Irrational
10. a. i. 4√3 ii. 6√2
b. Yes. If you don’t choose the largest perfect square, then you will need to simplify again.
c. No
11. Integral and rational
Exercise 16.4 Operations with surds

1. a. 2√3 b. 2√6 c. 3√3 d. 5√5 e. 3√6 f. 4√7
g. 2√17 h. 6√5 i. 2√22 j. 9√2 k. 7√5 l. 8√7
2. a. 4√2 b. 24√10 c. 36√5 d. 21√6 e. −30√3 f. −28√5
g. 64√3 h. 2√2 i. √2 j. 2√3 k. 13√15 l. 32√7
3. a. 4a b. 6a√2 c. 3a√10b d. 13a2√2 e. 13ab√2ab f. 2ab2√17ab
3 2 3 2 3 4
g. 5x y √5 h. 20xy√5x i. 54c d √2cd j. 18c d √5cd k. √22ef l. 7e5f5√2ef

4. a. 7√5 b. 8√3 c. 15√5 + 5√3 d. 4√11
e. 13√2 f. −3√6 g. 17√3 − 18√7 h. 8√x + 3√y
5. a. 10(√2 − √3) b. 5(√5 + √6) c. 7√3 d. 4√5
e. 14√3 + 3√2 f. 3√6 + 6√3 g. 15√10 − 10√15 + 10 h. −8√11 + 22
7
i. 12√30 − 16√15 j. 12√ab + 7√3ab k. √2 + 2√3 l. 15√2
2
6. a. 31√a − 6√2a b. 52√a − 29√3a c. 6√6ab d. 32a + 2√6a + 8a√2
e. a√2a f. √a + 2√2a g. 3a√a + a2√3a h. (a2 + a)√ab
i. 4ab√ab + 3a2b√b j. 3√ab(2a + 1) k. −6ab√2a + 4a2b3√3a l. −2a√b
7. a. √14 b. √42 c. 4√3 d. 10 e. 3√7 f. 27
g. 10√33 h. 180√5 i. 120 j. 120√3 k. 2√6 l. 2 23
9
m. 25√6 n. x2y√y o. 3a4b2√2ab p. 6a5b2√2b q. 3x2y2√10xy r. a2b4√5ab
2
8. a. 2 b. 5 c. 12 d. 15
e. 18 f. 80 g. 28 h. 200
√3
9. a. √5 b. 2 c. √6 d. 4 e.
4
√5 4
f. g. 2√3 h. 1 i. 1 j. 2√17
2 5
x √2 4√a
k. l. m. 2xy√3y n.
y x3y4 3
5√2 7√3 4√11 4√6 2√21

10. a. b. c. d. e.
2 3 11 3 7
√10 2√15 3√35 5√6 4√15
f. g. h. i. j.
2 5 5 6 15
5√7 8√15 8√21 8√105 √10
k. l. m. n. o.
14 15 49 7 3
3√10 − 2√33 12√5 − 5√6 9√10 3√10 + 6√14 5√6
11. a. √2 + 2 b. c. d. e. f.
6 10 5 4 3
3√22 − 4√10 √21 − √15 14 − 5√2 12 − √10 6√15 − 25 √30 + 7√2
g. h. i. j. k. l.
6 3 6 16 70 20
2√2 + √5 8√11 + 4√13
12. a. √5 − 2 b. c.
3 31
15√15 − 20√6 19 − 4√21
d. e. 12√2 − 17 f.
13 5
√15 − √3 − √5 + 1 −6 + 6√2 + √10 − 2√5 4√10 + √15 − 4√6 − 3
g. h. i.
4 2 29
9√x + 6x
13.
36x − 16x2
b. i. √5 + √3 ii. √5 − √3 iii. √3 + 2
2
15.
7
16. a. x = 16 b. x = 1

1. a. 4 b. 5 c. 9 d. 2 e. 3 f. 5
2. a. 3 b. 2 c. 1.4 d. 2.2 e. 1.5 f. 1.3
3. a. 2.5 b. 12.9 c. 13.6 d. 0.7 e. 0.8 f. 0.9
4. a. √7 b. 2√3 c. 6√2 d. 4√2 e. 3√3 f. 100√10
1 1 1 3 1 1
5. a. 52 b. 102 c. x2 d. m2 e. 2t2 f. 63

4 1 5 23 8
6. a. 45 b. 22 c. a6 d. x20 e. 10m15
5 20 9 7
f. 2b7 g. −4y 9 h. 0.02a8 i. 5x2
3 4 5 8 17 19 2 19 5 5 2 9
7. a. ab2 b. x5y9 c. 6a5b15 d. 2m28n5 e. x 6 y6z6 f. 8a5b8c
1 5 1 3 5
8. a. 36 b. 512 c. 122 d. a7 e. x4
11 3 2 7
f. m45 g. 12x20 h. 13n3 i. 54b20
5 7 7 4 3 11 2 3 11 7 5 1
9. a. x3y5 b. a45b15 c. 13m8n56 d. 2x15y4 e. 14a20b20 f. 17p24q12
9 1 6 3 1
10. a. 220 b. 56 c. 75 d. a10 e. m6
1 1 2 m b a
f. 23b6 g. 4p5 h. x p i. 3c mc
1
1 1 3 6 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a2
11. a. a4b6 b. a3b4 c. x5y4 d. 33a9b5c4 e. x4y3z5 f.
2
b3
8 2 1 7
m5 b5 22x 2
g. h. i.
7 8 3
n4 c27 y8
12. C, D
13. a. a4 b. b3 c. m4 d. 4x2 e. 2y3
f. 2x2y3 g. 3m3n5 h. 2pq2 i. 6a2b6
14. a. 0.32 m/s b. 16 640 L/s
c. 59 904 000 L/hr
That is 16 640 × 60 × 60.
d. The hydraulic radius is the measure of a channel flow efficiency. The roughness coefficient is the resistance of the bed of a
channel to the flow of water in it.
15. x = 1
1 1 1 1
16. a. x2 + y2 − z2 b. t10
17. m − n2

.
1. a. 15 = 0.2 b. 13 = 0.3 c. 18 = 0.125 1
d. 10 = 0.1
e. 18 = 0.125 f. 19 = 0.1 = 0.04 h. 10 1000 = 0.0001
. 1
g. 25
2. a. 0.167 b. 0.143 c. 0.0278 d. 0.001 37
e. 0.004 63 f. 0.004 44 g. 0.003 91 h. 0.001 60
3. a. 0.40 b. 2.5 c. 0.44 d. 4.0
e. 0.11 f. 0.000 079 g. 11 h. 4100
4. a. −0.33 b. −0.20 c. 0.25 d. 0.063
e. −0.67 f. −0.45 g. −1.7 h. 1.4
5. a. 54 or 114 b. 10
3
or 313 c. 87 or 117 d. 20
13
7
or 113 e. 2 f. 4
g. 8 h. 10 i. 23 j. 49 k. 10
11
2
l. 11
6. a. 4 b. 614 c. 338 d. 16 e. 49 f. 16
81
g. 27
64
125
h. 1331
7. a. −32 b. −53 c. −4 d. −10
e. 94 f. 25 g. −23 16
h. 121
3
8. 10
9. ba
10. a. y → ∞ b. y → −∞
11. As the value of n increases, the value of 2−n gets closer to 0.
12. x = −2, y = −3
13. x2

Exercise 16.7 Logarithms
1. a. log4 16 = 2 b. log2 32 = 5 c. log3 81 = 4 d. log6 36 = 2
e. log10 1000 = 3 f. log5 25 = 2 g. log4 x = 3 h. log5 125 = x
i. log7 49 = x j. logp 16 = 4 k. log9 3 = 12 l. log10 0.1 = −1
m. log8 2 = 1
3
n. log2 12 = −1 o. loga 1 = 0 p. log4 8 = 32
2. D 1
3. a. 24 = 16 b. 33 = 27 c. 106 = 1 000 000 d. 53 = 125 e. 162 = 4 f. 4x = 64
1 1 1
g. 492 =7 h. 35 = x i. 812 = 9 j. 10−2 = 0.01 k. 81 = 8 l. 643 = 4
4. B
5. a. 4 b. 2 c. 2 d. 5 e. 5 f. 7
1 1
g. 0 h. i. −1 j. 1 k. −2 l.
2 3
6. a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 e. 4 f. 5
7. a. 0 and 1 b. 3 and 4 c. 1 and 2 d. 4 and 5 e. 2 and 3 f. 4 and 5
8. a. 6.1 b. 6.3 c. 8.2
9. a. log10 g = k implies that g = 10k so g2 = (10k) 2. That is, g2 = 102k; therefore, log10 g2 = 2k.
1
b. logx y = 2 implies that y = x2, so x = y2 and therefore logy x = 12.
c. The equivalent exponential statement is x = 4y, and we know that 4y is greater than zero for all values of y. Therefore, x is
a positive number.
10. a. 6 b. −4 c. −5
1
11. a. 3 b. 7 c.
8
12. x
Exercise 16.8 Logarithm laws

1. a. 1.698 97 b. 1.397 94 c. 0.698 97 d. 0.301 03
2. Teacher to check.
3. a. 1 b. 3 c. 2 d. 3 e. 4 f. 1
4. a. 2 b. 3 c. 1 d. 4 e. 3 f. 5
5. a. 2 b. 12 c. 1 d. 3
6. 3
7. a. 2 b. 4 c. 3 d. 3
8. a. 1 b. 0 c. −1 d. 5 e. −2 f. 1
g. 0 h. −2 i. −12 j. 12 k. −12 l. 72
9. a. loga 40 b. loga 18 c. logx 48 d. logx 4 e. loga x f. 1
g. −1 h. 7 i. 12 j. 32 k. −6 l. −13
10. a. B b. B, D c. A, B d. C, D
11. a. log2 80 b. log3 105 c. log10 100 = 2 d. log6 56 e. log2 4 = 2
f. log3 3 = 1 g. log5 12.5 h. log2 3 i. log4 5 j. log10 14
k. log3 4 l. log2 3 m. log3 20 n. log4 2 = 1
2
12. a. C b. B c. A
13. a. 12 (Evaluate each logarithm separately and then find the product.)
b. 4 (First simplify the numerator by expressing 81 as a power of 3.)
c. 7 (Let y = 5 log 57 and write an equivalent statement in logarithmic form.)
14. 7 − 3 log2 (3) 15. 1 16. x = 3a, 5a
Challenge 16.1
3
2

Exercise 16.9 Solving equations
1. a. 25 b. 81 c. 18 1
d. 16 e. 100, −100
f. 16 g. 26 h. 127 i. 2 j. 0
1
k. −32 l. −19 m. −624 n. −2.5
2. a. 3 b. 2 c. 125 d. 625
e. 2 f. 8 g. 6 h. 4
3. a. 3 b. 2 c. −1 d. −2 e. 12
f. 25 g. 0 h. 0 i. −1 j. −2
4. a. 5 b. 6 c. 10 d. 8 e. 4
f. 2 g. 9 h. 25 i. 500 j. 128
k. 5 l. 6 m. 1 n. 2
5. a. B b. A c. D d. B
6. a. 7 b. 2 c. −2 d. 0 e. 4
f. 12 g. 12 h. 32 i. −12 j. 32
k. 34 l. −52 m. 52 n. −92 o. −11
4
7. a. 3.459 b. −0.737 c. 2.727 d. 0.483 e. 1.292 f. −3.080
g. −1.756 h. 0.262 i. 0.827 j. 0.579 k. −0.423 l. 2.138
8. a. 120 b. 130 c. 0.001
d. 3 dB are added.
e. 10 dB are added.
f. 100
9. a. i. 1.1 ii. 1.3 iii. 1.418 iv. 1.77 v. 2.43 vi. 3.1
b. No; see answers to 9a i and ii above.
c. i. 22 387 211 kJ ii. 707 945 784 kJ iii. 22 387 211 385 kJ.
d. The energy is increased by a factor of 31.62.
e. It releases 31.623 times more energy.
10. a. x = 0.7712 b. x = 1.2966
11. x = 7 12. x = 1, 3
Challenge 16.2
x(x + 1) 2
The remaining steps of the solution are , x + x − 6 = 0, x = −3 or 2.
6
16.10 Review
1. a
2. a. Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and non-terminating decimal
b. Rational, since can be expressed as a whole number
c. Rational, since given in a rational form
d. Rational, since it is a recurring decimal
e. Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and non-terminating decimal
3. d
4. a. √2m, √ , √m, √8m b. √25m, √ , √
20 3 3 m 20
m 16 m
5. a. 5√2 b. 6√5 c. 8√2 d. 20√5
6. c
7. a. 72x3y4√2xy b. −14x2y5√xy
8. a. 25√3 b. 3ab√ab
9. a. √15 b. 6√42 c. 30√15 d. 5

10. a. 27 b. 720√2
√10 √30 1
11. a. √3 b. 6 c. or d.
4√3 12 2
√2
12. a. √6
3
b. c. 2√5 + 4 d. 2 − √3
4
13. a. 4 b. 4.5 c. 2.2 d. 2.7
14. a. 7.4 b. 1.7 c. 0.8 d. 0.8
15. a. √2 b. 3√2 c. 5√5 d. 16
16. a. 1 b. 4
17. a. 14 b. 19 1
c. 16 1
d. 1000
18. a. 0.0833 b. 0.0204 c. 0.800 d. 625
19. a. 1 12 b. 137 c. 5 4
d. 13
20. a. B b. A c. A
21. a. 2 12 b. 2 14
1 1 2
22. a. 12 b. c. d.
9 64 1
23. a. 2 b. 1 c. 8 d. 2
3
24. a. loga 24 b.
2
loga x2 or 2 loga x d. −5
c.
1
25. a. 512 b. 25 c. 5 d. 2 e. 6 f. 0
26. a. 6 b. 35
27. a. −2 b. −12 c. 52
28. a. 4.644 b. −3.809 c. 0.079
29. a. 9 b. 6 c. 0
30. a, b, c
y y = 4x
3 y=x
2 y = log4x
y=0 1
–3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4x
–2 x = 0
31. x = 2, −3
1
32.
1
a2b2
1. a. 1002 b. 11012 c. 100002
2. a. 102 b. 1012 c. 1102
3. a. 112 b. 10012 c. 101012
4. Answers will vary; teacher to check.
5. Answers will vary; teacher to check. The numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 are allocated the letters A, B,C, D, E and F
respectively.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 17
Polynomials
17.1 Overview
just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will
help you to learn the content and concepts covered in
this topic.

Just as number is learned in stages, so too are graphs.
You have been building your knowledge of graphs and
functions over time. First you encountered linear func-
tions, then quadratic and hyperbolic functions. Polyno-
mials are higher-order functions represented by smooth
and continuous curves. They can be used to model sit-
uations in many fields, such as business, science,
architecture, design and engineering.

1. THINK List what you know about polynomials. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
knowledge of polynomials.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
17.1 Overview
17.2 Polynomials
17.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials
17.4 Long division of polynomials
17.5 Polynomial values
17.6 The remainder and factor theorems
17.7 Factorising polynomials
17.8 Solving polynomial equations
17.9 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Mary Somerville (eles-2020)

17.2 Polynomials
17.2.1 Polynomials
•• A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted P(x), is an expression containing only non‐negative integer
powers of x.
•• The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression. For example:
3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, or linear polynomial.
x2 + 4x − 7 is a polynomial of degree 2, or quadratic polynomial.
−5x3 +
x is a polynomial of degree 3, or cubic polynomial.
2
10 is a polynomial of degree 0 (think of 10 as 10x0).
•• Expressions containing a term similar to any of the following terms are not polynomials:
1
, x−2, √x, 2x, sin x, etc.
x
For example, the following are not polynomials.
3x2 − 4x + −5x4 + x3 − 2√x x2 + sin x + 1
2
x
•• In the expression 6x3 + 13x2 − x + 1
x is the variable.
6 is the coefficient of x3.
13 is the coefficient of x2.
−1 is the coefficient of x.
6x3, 13x2, −x and +1 are all terms.
The constant term is +1.
The degree of the polynomial is 3.
•• The leading term is 6x3 because it is the term that contains the highest power of x.
•• The leading coefficient is 6.
•• Any polynomial with a leading coefficient of 1 is called monic.
An example of where polynomials are useful is shown below.
The surface area, S, of a plant hothouse of length L and height x can

be approximated by the polynomial S(x) = πx2 + Lπx − 4.
TOPIC 17 Polynomials 729

Exercise 17.2 Polynomials
Individual pathways

1a, b, f, 2–5, 7, 8, 11 1c–e, g, i, 2–4, 6, 8, 10, 11 1a, c, f–i, 2–4, 6–12
Fluency
1. State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
a. x3 − 9x2 + 19x + 7 b. 65 + 2x7 c. 3x2 − 8 + 2x
u4
d. x6 − 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x + 1 e. y8 + 7y3 − 5 f. 12u5 − + 2u − 6
3
e5
g. 18 − h. 2g − 3 i. 1.5f 6 − 800f
6
2. State the variable for each polynomial in question 1.
3. Which polynomials in question 1 are:
a. linear
b. quadratic
c. cubic
d. monic?
4. State whether each of the following is a polynomial (P) or not (N).
5 x2
a. 7x + 6x2 + b. 33 − 4p c. +x
x 9
3x4 − 2x3 − 3√x − 4
d. k −2 + k − 3k3 + 7
e. 5r − r9 +
f. 1
3
4c6 − 3c3 + 1
g. h. 2x − 8x + 1 sin x + x2
i.
2
5. Consider the polynomial P(x) = −2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 5.
a. What is the degree of the polynomial?
b. What is the variable?
c. What is the coefficient of x2?
d. What is the value of the constant term?
e. Which term has a coefficient of 3?
f. Which is the leading term?
6. Consider the polynomial P(w) = 6w7 + 7w6 − 9.
c. What is the coefficient of w6?
d. What is the coefficient of w?
e. What is the value of the constant term?
f. Which term has a coefficient of 6?
7. Consider the polynomial f (x) = 4 − x2 + x4.
b. What is the coefficient of x4?
c. What is the leading term?
d. What is the leading coefficient?

Understanding
8. A sports scientist determines the following equation for the velocity of a breaststroke swimmer during
one complete stroke:
v(t) = 63.876t6 − 247.65t5 + 360.39t4 − 219.41t3 + 53.816t2 + 0.4746t.
c. How many terms are there?
d. Use a graphics calculator or graphing software to draw
the graph of this polynomial.
e. Match what happens during one complete stroke with
points on the graph.
Reasoning
9. The distance travelled by a body after t seconds is given by
d(t) = t3 + 2t2 − 4t + 5. Using a graphing calculator or suitable computer software, draw a graph of
the above motion for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3. Use the graph to help you answer the following:
a. What information does the constant term give?
b. What is the position of the body after 1 second?
c. Describe in words the motion in the first 2 seconds.
10. Write the following polynomials as simply as possible, arranging terms in descending powers of x.
a. 7x + 2x2 − 8x + 15 + 4x3 − 9x + 3
b. x2 − 8x3 + 3x4 − 2x2 + 7x + 5x3 − 7
c. x3 − 5x2 − 11x − 1 + 4x3 − 2x + x2 − 5
Problem solving
11. If x2 + 2x − 1 ≡ (x − 1) 2 + a(x + 1) + b, find the values of a and b.
12. If x3 + 9x2 + 12x + 7 ≡ x3 + (ax + b) 2 + 3, find the values of a and b.
Reflection
How can you tell what the degree of a polynomial is?
17.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials

17.3.1 Operations with polynomials
•• To add or subtract polynomials, we simply add or subtract any like terms in the expressions.

a (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) + (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
b (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) − (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) + (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
2 Remove any grouping symbols, watching any signs. = 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 + x4 + 5x2 − 4
3 Identify any like terms and change the order. = x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 + 5x2 − 2x − 1 − 4
4 Simplify by collecting like terms. = x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 − 2x − 5
b 1 Write the expression. b (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) − (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
2 Remove any grouping symbols, watching any signs. = 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 − x4 − 5x2 + 4
3 Identify any like terms and change the order. = −x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 5x2 − 2x − 1 + 4
4 Simplify by collecting like terms. = −x4 + 5x3 − 2x2 − 2x + 3

•• If we expand linear factors, for example (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 7), we may also get a polynomial as the
following worked example shows.
Expand and simplify:

a x(x + 2)(x − 3) b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x(x + 2)(x − 3)
2 Expand the last two linear factors. = x(x2 − 3x + 2x − 6)
= x(x2 − x − 6)
3 Multiply the expression in the grouping symbols by x. = x3 − x2 − 6x
b 1 Write the expression. b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
2 Expand the last two linear factors. = (x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 5x + 10)
3 Multiply the expression in the second pair of grouping = (x − 1)(x2 + 7x + 10)
symbols by x and then by −1. = x3 + 7x2 + 10x − x2 − 7x − 10
4 Collect like terms. = x3 + 6x2 + 3x − 10
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Expanding the product of two linear factors (doc-5366)
Exercise 17.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying

polynomials
Individual pathways

1a–c, 2a–c, 3a–c, 4, 5a–c, 6, 1b–d, 2b–d, 3b–d, 4, 5b, d, f, h, i, 1c–e, 2c–e, 3–5, 6b, d, f, 7–13
7, 9, 12 6, 8, 10, 12
Fluency
a. (x4 + x3 − x2 + 4) + (x3 − 14) b. (x6 + x4 − 3x3 + 6x2) + (x4 + 3x2 + 5)
c. (x3 + x2 + 2x − 4) + (4x3 − 6x2 + 5x − 9) d. (2x4 − 3x3 + 7x2 + 9) + (6x3 + 5x2 − 4x + 5)
e. (15x − 3x + 4x − 7) + (x − 2x + 3x − 4x − 3)
4 2 5 4 2

a. (x4 + x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 5) − (x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1)
b. (x6 + x3 + 1) − (x5 − x2 − 1)
c. (5x7 + 6x5 − 4x3 + 8x2 + 5x − 3) − (6x5 + 8x2 − 3)
d. (10x4 − 5x2 + 16x + 11) − (2x2 − 4x + 6)
e. (6x3 + 5x2 − 7x + 12) − (4x3 − x2 + 3x − 3)

3. WE2a Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. x(x + 6)(x + 1) b. x(x − 9)(x + 2)
c. x(x − 3)(x + 11) d. 2x(x + 2)(x + 3)
e. −3x(x − 4)(x + 4) f. 5x(x + 8)(x + 2)
g. x2 (x + 4) h. −2x2 (7 − x)
i. (5x)(−6x)(x + 9) j. −7x(x + 4) 2
4. WE2b Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. (x + 7)(x + 2)(x + 3) b. (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5)
c. (x − 1)(x − 4)(x + 8) d. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
e. (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 1) f. (x − 7)(x + 7)(x + 5)
g. (x + 11)(x + 5)(x − 12) h. (x + 5)(x − 1) 2
i. (x + 2)(x − 7) 2 j. (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
a. (x − 2)(x + 7)(x + 8) b. (x + 5)(3x − 1)(x + 4)
c. (4x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 1) d. (5x + 3)(2x − 3)(x − 4)
e. (1 − 6x)(x + 7)(x + 5) f. 3x(7x − 4)(x − 4)(x + 2)
g. −9x(1 − 2x)(3x + 8) h. (6x + 5)(2x − 7) 2
i. (3 − 4x)(2 − x)(5x + 9)(x − 1) j. 2(7 + 2x)(x + 3)(x + 4)
a. (x + 2) 3 b. (x + 5) 3 c. (x − 1) 3
d. (x − 3) 4 e. (2x − 6) 3 f. (3x + 4) 4
Understanding
7. Simplify 2(ax + b) − 5(c − bx).
8. Expand and simplify (x + a)(x − b)(x2 − 3bx + 2a).
Reasoning
9. If (x − 3)4 = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, find a, b, c, d and e.
10. Simplify (2x − 3) 3 − (4 − 3x) 2.
3(x − 1)
11. Find the difference in volume between a cube of side and a cuboid whose sides are x, (x + 1)
2
and (2x + 1).
Problem solving
12. Find the constants a, b and c if
5x − 7
≡ + +
a b c
.
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2) (x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 2)
3x − 5 ax + b
+
c
13. Write in the form and hence find the values of a, b and c.
(x + 1)(x − 1)
2
(x + 1) (x − 1)
2
Reflection
How do you add or subtract polynomials?
17.4 Long division of polynomials

17.4.1 Long division of polynomials
•• The reverse of expanding is factorising (expressing a polynomial as a product of its linear factors).
•• Before learning how to factorise, you must be familiar with long division of polynomials. You will
remember in earlier levels doing long division questions.
•• The same process can be used to divide polynomials by polynomial factors.

Consider (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) or x − 3 ⟌x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x into x3 goes x2 times (consider only the leading x2
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

terms). Write x2 at the top. 3
x2
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

x × (x − 3) = x − 3x
2 3 2 3
Write the x3 − 3x2. x3 − 3x2

x2
x − 3 ⟌x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10

Subtract. x3 − 3x2
(x3 − x3 = 0, 2x2 − −3x2 = 5x2) 5x2
Note: Subtracting a negative is the same as changing the sign and adding.
x2
Bring down the −13x. x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
x2 + 5x
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

3
x into 5x goes 5x. Write +5x at the top.
2
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
x2 + 5x
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

5x × (x − 3) = 5x − 15x
2 3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
Write the 5x − 15x. 5x2 − 15x
2

x2 + 5x
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

3
Subtract.
x3 − 3x2
2 2
Note: 5x − 5x = 0, −13x − −15x = +2x
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x

2x
x + 5x
2
Bring down the 10. x − 3 x + 2x3 − 13x + 10

3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
x into 2x goes 2. Write +2 at the top. x + 5x + 2
2
x − 3 ⟌x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10

x3 − 3x2

5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x

2x + 10
x + 5x + 2
2
x − 3 ⟌x + 2x2 − 13x + 10

3
x3 − 3x2

5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x

2x + 10
Write the 2x − 6. 2x − 6

x2 + 5x + 2 Quotient
Subtract to get 16. x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
2x − 6
Answer: x2 + 5x + 2 remainder 16 16 Remainder
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a (x3 + 3x2 + x + 9) ÷ (x + 2)
b (x3 − 4x2 − 7x − 5) ÷ (x − 1)
c (2x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 2) ÷ (x − 6)
THINK WRITE
x2 + x − 1 Q
a 1 Write the question in long division format. a x +2 + 3x2 + x + 9
x3
x + 2x2
3
2 Perform the long division process. x2 + x
x2 + 2x
−x + 9
−x − 2
11 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 + x − 1; remainder is 11.
x2 − 3x − 10 Q
b 1 Write the question in long division format. b x − 1 x3 − 4x2 − 7x − 5
x3 − x2
2 Perform the long division process.
−3x2 − 7x
−3x2 + 3x
−10x − 5
−10x + 10
−15 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 − 3x − 10; remainder is −15.
2x2 + 18x + 105 Q

c 1 Write the question in long division format. c x −6 2x3 +
6x2 − 3x + 2
2x3 − 12x2
2 Perform the long division process.
18x2 − 3x
18x2 − 108x
105x + 2
105x − 630
632 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is 2x2 + 18x + 105; remainder is 632.

State the quotient and remainder for (x3 − 7x + 1) ÷ (x + 5).

THINK WRITE
x2 − 5x + 18 Q
1 Write the question in long division format. Note that x+5 + 0x2 − 7x + 1
x3
there is no x2 term in this equation. Include 0x2 as a x + 5x2
3
‘placeholder’. − 5x2 − 7x
2 Perform the long division process. − 5x2 − 25x
18x + 1
18x + 90
–89 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 − 5x + 18; remainder
is −89.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Find the quotient and the remainder when x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 8 is divided by the linear
expression x + 2.
THINK WRITE
x + 2 ⟌x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8

1 Set out the long division with each polynomial in
descending powers of x. If one of the powers of x is
missing, include it with 0 as the coefficient.
x3
2 Divide x into x4 and write the result above. x + 2 ⟌x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x3
3 Multiply the result x3 by x + 2 and write the result x + 2 ⟌x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
underneath. x4 + 2x3
x3 − 5x2
4 Subtract and bring down the remaining terms x + 2 ⟌x − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
4
to complete the expression. −(x4 + 2x3)

−5x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x3 − 5x2
5 Divide x into −5x3 and write the result above. x + 2 ⟌x − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
4
−(x4 + 2x3)

−5x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
6 Continue this process to complete the long division. −(−5x3−10x2)
12x2 + 0x − 8
−(12x2 + 24x)
−24x − 8
−(−24x − 48)
40
7 The polynomial x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24, at the top, is the The quotient is x − 5x + 12x − 24.
3 2
quotient.
8 The result of the final subtraction, 40, is the remainder. The remainder is 40.

Try out this interactivity: Long division of polynomials (int-2793)
Exercise 17.4 Long division of polynomials

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3, 4a, b, 5, 6a–c, 7a–c, 1e–h, 2e–h, 3a, c, e, 4c, d, 5, 6d–f, 1g–j, 2e–h, 3b, d, f, 4e, f, 5, 6e–h,
8, 10 7d–f, 8, 10 7d–f, 8–11
Fluency
1. WE3a Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a. (x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 9) ÷ (x + 2) b. (x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 1)
c. (x + 6x + 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 3)
3 2
d. (x3 + 3x2 + x + 3) ÷ (x + 4)
e. (x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 4) ÷ (x + 2) f. (x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 2) ÷ (x + 2)
g. (x + x + x + 3) ÷ (x + 1)
3 2
h. (x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 4) ÷ (x + 8)
i. (x3 + x2 + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 2) j. (x3 + 9x2 + 3x + 2) ÷ (x + 5)
2. WE3b State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a. (x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 2) b. (x3 + x2 + x + 9) ÷ (x − 3)
c. (x + x − 9x − 5) ÷ (x − 2)
3 2
d. (x3 − 4x2 + 10x − 2) ÷ (x − 1)
e. (x3 − 5x2 + 3x − 8) ÷ (x − 3) f. (x3 − 7x2 + 9x − 7) ÷ (x − 1)
g. (x + 9x + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 5)
3 2
h. (x3 + 4x2 − 5x − 4) ÷ (x − 4)
3. WE3c Divide the first polynomial by the second and state the quotient and remainder.
a. 3x3 − x2 + 6x + 5, x + 2 b. 4x3 − 4x2 + 10x − 4, x + 1
c. 2x3 − 7x2 + 9x + 1, x − 2 d. 2x3 + 8x2 − 9x − 1, x + 4
e. 4x − 10x − 9x + 8, x − 3
3 2
f. 3x3 + 16x2 + 4x − 7, x + 5
4. Divide the first polynomial by the second and state the quotient and remainder.
a. 6x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 4, 2x − 1 b. 6x3 + 23x2 + 2x − 31, 3x + 4
c. 8x3 + 6x2 − 39x − 13, 2x + 5 d. 2x3 − 15x2 + 34x − 13, 2x − 7
e. 3x + 5x − 16x − 23, 3x + 2
3 2
f. 9x3 − 6x2 − 5x + 9, 3x − 4
Understanding
5. State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
−x3 − 6x2 − 7x − 16 −3x3 + 7x2 + 10x − 15
a. b.
x+1 x−3
−2x + 9x + 17x + 15
3 2
4x − 20x2 + 23x − 2
3
c. d.
2x + 1 −2x + 3
6. WE4 State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a. (x3 − 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 1) b. (x3 + 2x2 − 7) ÷ (x + 2)
c. (x − 5x + 2x) ÷ (x − 4)
3 2
d. (−x3 − 7x + 8) ÷ (x − 1)
e. (5x2 + 13x + 1) ÷ (x + 3) f. (2x3 + 8x2 − 4) ÷ (x + 5)
g. (−2x − x + 2) ÷ (x − 2)
3
h. (−4x3 + 6x2 + 2x) ÷ (2x + 1)

7. WE5 Find the quotient and the remainder when each polynomial is divided by the linear expression given.
a. x4 + x3 + 3x2 − 7x, x − 1 b. x4 − 13x2 + 36, x − 2
c. x5 − 3x3 + 4x + 3, x + 3 d. 2x6 − x4 + x3 + 6x2 − 5x, x + 2
e. 6x − x + 2x − 4x, x − 3
4 3 2
f. 3x4 − 6x3 + 12x, 3x + 1
Reasoning
8. Find the quotient and remainder when ax2 + bx + c is divided
by (x − d ).
9. A birthday cake in the shape of a cube had side length
(x + p) cm. The cake was divided between (x − p) guests.
The left-over cake was used for lunch the next day. There
were q3 guests for lunch the next day and each received
c3cm3 of cake, which was then all finished.
Find q in terms of p and c.
Problem solving
10. When x3 − 2x2 + 4x + a is divided by x − 1 the remainder is zero. Use long division to determine the
value of a.
11. When 2x2 + ax + b is divided by x − 1 the remainder is zero but when 2x2 + ax + b is divided by
x − 2 the remainder is 9. Use long division to determine the value of a and b.
Reflection
Can you think of an alternative way to divide polynomials?
17.5 Polynomial values

17.5.1 Polynomial values
•• Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 − 5x2 + x + 1.
•• The value of the polynomial when x = 3 is denoted by P(3) and is found by substituting x = 3 into
the equation in place of x. That is:
P(3) = (3) 3 − 5(3) 2 + (3) + 1
P(3) = 27 − 5(9) + 3 + 1
P(3) = 27 − 45 + 4
P(3) = −14
If P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4, find:

a P(1) b P(−2) c P(a) d P(2b) e P(x + 1).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(1) = 2(1) 3 + (1) 2 − 3(1) − 4
of x with 1.
3 Simplify. =2+1−3−4
= −4

b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(−2) = 2(−2) 3 + (−2) 2 − 3(−2) − 4
of x with − 2.
3 Simplify. = 2(−8) + (4) + 6 − 4
= −16 + 4 + 6 − 4
= −10
c 1 Write the expression. c P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4
of x with a.
3 No further simplification
is possible, so stop here.
d 1 Write the expression. d P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(2b) = 2(2b)3 + (2b)2 − 3(2b) − 4
of x with 2b.
3 Simplify. = 2(8b3) + 4b2 − 6b + 4

= 16b3 + 4b2 − 6b + 4
e 1 Write the expression. e P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(x + 1) = 2(x + 1) 3 + (x + 1) 2 − 3(x + 1) − 4
of x with (x + 1).
3 Expand the right-hand = 2(x + 1)(x + 1)(x + 1) + (x + 1)(x + 1) − 3(x + 1) − 4
side and collect like = 2(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 1) + x2 + 2x + 1 − 3x − 3 − 4
terms. = 2(x3 + 2x2 + x + x2 + 2x + 1) + x2 − x − 6
= 2(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + x2 − x − 6
= 2x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 2 + x2 − x − 6
= 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substitution into quadratic equations (doc-5367)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Polynomials I (doc-14618)
Exercise 17.5 Polynomial values

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2–8, 11 1a, e–h, 2–7, 9, 11 1a, i–l, 2–12

Fluency
1. WE6 If P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 10, find the following.
a. P(0) b. P(1) c. P(2) d. P(3)
e. P(−1) f. P(−2) g. P(−3) h. P(a)
i. P(2b) j. P(x + 2) k. P(x − 3) l. P(−4y)
2. Copy the following table.
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
P(x) P(1) P(2) P(−1) P(−2) Rem when Rem when Rem when Rem when
divided by divided by divided by divided by
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
a
b
c
d
Complete columns 2 to 5 of the table for each of the following polynomials.
a. P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 b. P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 2
c. P(x) = x3 − x2 + 4x − 1 d. P(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 3
Understanding
3. Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 1) and complete column 6
of the table.
4. Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 2) and complete column 7
of the table.
5. Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 1) and complete column 8
of the table.
6. Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 2) and complete column 9
of the table.
7. Copy and complete:
a. A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 8) is to calculate ___________.
b. A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 7) is to calculate ___________.
c. A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is to calculate ___________.
Reasoning
8. If P(x) = 2(x − 3) 5 + 1, find:
a. P(2) b. P(−2) c. P(a) d. P(−2a).
9. When x + bx + 2 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is b − 4b + 7. Find the possible values of b.
2 2
10. If P(x) = −2x3 − 3x2 + x + 3, find:

a. P(a) + 1 b. P(a + 1).
Problem solving
11. If P(x) = 3x3 − 2x2 − x + c and P(2) = 8P(1), find the value of c.
12. If P(x) = 5x2 + bx + c and P(−1) = 12 while P(2) = 21, find the values of b and c.
Reflection
Is there a quick way to find a remainder when dividing polynomials?

17.6 The remainder and factor theorems
17.6.1 The remainder theorem
•• In the previous exercise, you may have noticed that:
the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is equal to P(a).
That is, R = P(a).
This is called the remainder theorem.
•• If P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 is divided by (x − 2), the quotient is x2 + 3x + 7 and the remainder is P(2),
which equals 15. That is:
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) ÷ (x − 2) = x2 + 3x + 7 +
15
and
x−2
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) = (x2 + 3x + 7)(x − 2) + 15
•• In general, if P(x) is divided by (x − a), the quotient is Q(x) and the remainder is R, we can write:
P(x) ÷ (x − a) = Q(x) + where R = P(a)

R
(x − a)
⇒ P(x) = (x − a)Q(x) + R
17.6.2 The factor theorem

•• The remainder when 12 is divided by 4 is zero, since 4 is a factor of 12.
•• Similarly, if the remainder (R) when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is zero, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
•• Since R = P(a), find a value of a that makes P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor.
If P(a) = 0, then (x−a) is a factor of P(x).
This is called the factor theorem.
•• Imagine P(x) could be factorised as follows:
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x), where Q(x) is ‘the other’ factor of P(x).
•• If P(a) = 0, (x − a) is a factor.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4 is divided by:
a x − 3 b x + 6.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4.

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R= P(3)
(x − 3) is equal to P(3). = 33 − 7(3) 2 − 2(3) + 4
= 27 − 7(9) − 6 + 4
= 27 − 63 − 6 + 4
= −38
b The remainder when P(x) is divided by b R= P(−6)
(x + 6) is equal to P(−6). = (−6) 3 − 7(−6) 2 − 2(−6) + 4
= −216 − 7(36) + 12 + 4
= −216 − 252 + 12 + 4
= −452

(x − 2) is a factor of x3 + kx2 + x − 2. Find the value of k.
THINK WRITE
1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 + kx2 + x − 2.
2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 2) is equal 0 = P(2)

to P(2) = 0. = 23 + k(2)2 + 2 − 2
0 = 8 + 4k
3 Solve for k. 4k = −8
k = −2
Exercise 17.6 The remainder and factor theorems

Individual pathways

1, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4, 7a–d 1, 2e–h, 3e–h, 4–6, 7d–g, 8 1, 2g–j, 3f–h, 4–9
Fluency
1. WE7 Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 24 is divided by:
a. x − 1 b. x + 2 c. x − 3 d. x + 5
e. x − 0 f. x − k g. x + n h. x + 3c.
2. Find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second without performing long division.
a. x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4, x − 3 b. x3 − 4x2 + 2x − 1, x + 1
c. x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 1, x + 2 d. x3 − x2 − 4x − 5, x − 1
e. 2x + 3x + 6x + 3, x + 5
3 2
f. −3x3 − 2x2 + x + 6, x + 1
g. x3 + x2 + 8, x − 5 h. x3 − 3x2 − 2, x − 2
i. −x + 8, x + 3
3
j. x3 + 2x2, x − 7
Understanding
3. WE8 a. The remainder when x3 + kx + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is −19. Find the value of k.
b. The remainder when x3 + 2x2 + mx + 5 is divided by (x − 2) is 27. Find the value of m.
c. The remainder when x3 − 3x2 + 2x + n is divided by (x − 1) is 1. Find the value of n.
d. The remainder when ax3 + 4x2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x − 3) is −23. Find the value of a.
e. The remainder when x3 − bx2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x + 1) is 0. Find the value of b.
f. The remainder when −4x2 + 2x + 7 is divided by (x − c) is −5. Find a possible whole number value
of c.
g. The remainder when x2 − 3x + 1 is divided by (x + d) is 11. Find the possible values of d.
h. The remainder when x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by (x − 5) is −14. When the cubic polynomial is
divided by (x + 1), the remainder is −2. Find a and b.
a. When x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 5 is divided by (x + 2), the remainder is:
a. −5 b. −2 c. 2 d. 5

b. Which of the following is a factor of 2x3 + 15x2 + 22x − 15?
a. (x − 1) b. (x − 2) c. (x + 3) d. (x + 5)
c. When x3 − 13x2 + 48x − 36 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is:
a. −3 b. −2 c. −1 d. 0
d. Which of the following is a factor of x3 − 5x2 − 22x + 56?
a. (x − 2) b. (x + 2) c. (x − 7) d. (x + 4)
5. Find one factor of each of the following cubic polynomials.
a. x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 b. x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 12
c. x + x − 8x − 12
3 2
d. x3 + 3x2 − 34x − 120
Reasoning
6. Prove that each of the following is a linear factor of x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 by substituting values into
the cubic function: (x + 2), (x − 3), (x + 5).
7. Without actually dividing, show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second (that is, the
second polynomial is a factor of the first).
a. x3 + 5x2 + 2x − 8, x − 1 b. x3 − 7x2 − x + 7, x − 7
c. x − 7x + 4x + 12, x − 2
3 2
d. x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 18, x + 2
e. x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 27, x + 3 f. −x3 + x2 + 9x − 9, x − 1
g. −2x + 9x − x − 12, x − 4
3 2
h. 3x3 + 22x2 + 37x + 10, x + 5
Problem solving
8. When x4 + ax3 − 4x2 + b and x3 − ax2 − 7x + b are each divided by (x − 2), the remainders are 26
and 8 respectively. Find the values of a and b.
9. Both (x − 1) and (x − 2) are factors of P(x) = x4 + ax3 − 7x2 + bx − 30. Find the values of a and b
and the remaining two linear factors.
Reflection
How are the remainder and factor theorems related?
CHALLENGE 17.1
The remainder when 2x − 1 is divided into 6x3 − x2 + 3x + k is the same as when it is divided into
4x3 − 8x2 − 5x + 2. What is the value of k?
17.7 Factorising polynomials

17.7.1 Using long division
•• Once one factor of a polynomial has been found (using the factor theorem as in the previous section), long
division may be used to find other factors. In the case of a cubic polynomial, one — possibly two — other
factors may be found.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Use long division to factorise the following.

a x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 b x3 − 19x + 30 c −2x3 − 8x2 + 6x + 4
THINK WRITE
a 1 Name the polynomial. a P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24

2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. For
3
cubics containing a single x , try a factor of the
constant term (24 in this case).
Try P(1). P(1) = 13 − 5 × 12 − 2 × 1 + 24
= 1 − 5 − 2 + 24
= 18
≠ 0
P(1) ≠ 0, so (x − 1) is not a factor. P(2) = 23 − 5 × 22 − 2 × 2 + 24
Try P(2). = 8 − 20 − 4 + 24
≠ 0
P(2) ≠ 0, so (x − 2) is not a factor. P(−2) = (−2)3 − 5 × (−2)2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
= 0
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. (x + 2) is a factor.
x2 − 7x + 12
3 Divide (x + 2) into P(x) using long division to x+2 − 5x2 − 2x +
x3 24
find a quadratic factor. x3 + 2x2
−7x2 − 2x
−7x2 − 14x
12x + 24
12x + 24
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors found P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 − 7x + 12)
so far.
5 Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
b 1 Name the polynomial. b P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30
Note: There is no x2 term, so include 0x2. P(x) = x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
2 Look at the last term in P(x), which is 30. This P(−5) = (−5) 3 − 19 × (−5) + 30
suggests it is worth trying P(5) or P(−5). Try = −125 + 95 + 30
P(−5). P(−5) = 0 so (x + 5) is a factor. =0
So (x + 5) is a factor.
x2 − 5x + 6
3 Divide (x + 5) into P(x) using long division to x+5 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
x3
find a quadratic factor. x + 5x2
3
−5x2 − 19x
−5x2 − 25x
6x + 30
6x + 30
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors found P(x) = (x + 5)(x2 − 5x + 6)

so far.
5 Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 5)(x − 2)(x − 3)

c 1 Write the given polynomial. c Let P(x) = −2x3 − 8x2 + 6x + 4
2 Take out a common factor of −2. (We could take = −2(x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2)
out +2 as the common factor, but taking out −2
results in a positive leading term in the part still
to be factorised.)
3 Let Q(x) = (x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2). Let Q(x) = (x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2).
(We have already used P earlier.)
4 Evaluate Q(1). Q(1) = 1 + 4 − 3 − 2
Q(1) = 0, so (x − 1) is a factor. =0
So (x − 1) is a factor.
x2 + 5x + 2
5 Divide (x − 1) into Q(x) using long division to x − 1 x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2
find a quadratic factor. x3 − x2
5 x2 − 3x
5 x2 − 5x
2x − 2
2x − 2
0
6 Write the original polynomial P(x) as a product P(x) = −2(x − 1)(x2 + 5x + 2)
of the factors found so far.
7 In this case, it is not possible to further factorise
P(x).
•• Note: In these examples, P(x) may have been factorised without long division by finding all three values of
x that make P(x) = 0 (and hence three factors) and then checking that the three factors multiply to give P(x).
17.7.2 Using short division

•• The process of long division can be quite time (and space) consuming. An alternative is short division,
which may take a little longer to understand, but is quicker once mastered.
•• Consider P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10. Using the factor theorem, we can find that (x − 1) is a factor
of P(x). So, P(x) = (x − 1)( ? ).
Actually, we know more than this: as P(x) begins with x3 and ends with +10, we could write
P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + ? − 10)
The x2 in the second pair of grouping symbols produces the desired x3 (the leading term in P(x))
when the expressions are multiplied. The −10 in the second pair of grouping symbols produces +10
(the last term in P(x)) when the expressions are multiplied.
•• Imagine expanding this version of P(x). Multiplying x in the first pair of grouping symbols by x2 in
the second would produce x3, which is what we want, but multiplying −1 in the first pair of grouping
symbols by x2 in the second gives −1x2.
Since P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10, we really need +2x2, not −1x2. That is, we need +3x2 more. To
get this, the? must be 3x, because when x in the first pair of grouping symbols is multiplied by 3x in
the second pair, + 3x2 results. That is, we have deduced P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + 3x − 10).
Factorising the expression in the second pair of grouping symbols gives
P(x) = (x − 1)(x + 5)(x − 2).
•• This procedure, which we will call short division, can be confusing at first, but with persistence it can
be a quick and easy method for factorising polynomials.
•• The following worked example is a repeat of a previous one, but explains the use of short, rather than
long, division.

Use short division to factorise x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24.
THINK WRITE
1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24.
2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(−2) = (−2) 3 − 5 × (−2) 2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
=0
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. So (x + 2) is a factor.
3 Look again at the original P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 + ax + 12)
P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24.
The first term in the grouping symbols must be x2,
and the last term must be 12.
4 Imagine the expansion of the expression in step 3. P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 − 7x + 12)
We have x3 and 2x2, but require −5x2. We need an
extra −7x2. We get this by inserting a −7x term in
the second pair of grouping symbols.
5 Factorise the expression in the second pair of P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
grouping symbols if possible.

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising quadratic trinomials (doc-5368)
Exercise 17.7 Factorising polynomials

Individual pathways

1a–c, 2a–d, 3a–d, 4a–c, 5, 6 1d–f, 2e–h, 3e–h, 4d–g, 5, 6, 8 1d–f, 2i–n, 3g–j, 4h–k, 5–9
Fluency
1. WE9 Use long division to factorise each dividend.
a. x + 1⟌x3 + 10x2 + 27x + 18 b. x + 2⟌x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10
c. x + 9⟌x3 + 12x2 + 29x + 18 d. x + 1⟌x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12
e. x + 3⟌x3 + 14x2 + 61x + 84 f. x + 7⟌x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42
g. x + 2⟌x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 h. x + 3⟌x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
i. x + 5⟌x3 + 14x2 + 65x + 100 j. x⟌x3 + 13x2 + 40x
k. x⟌x3 + 7x2 + 12x l. x + 5⟌x3 + 10x2 + 25x
m. x + 1⟌x3 + 6x2 + 5x n. x + 6⟌x3 + 6x2

2. WE9, 10 Factorise the following as fully as possible.
a. x3 + x2 − x − 1 b. x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 c. x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 5
d. x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 e. x3 + 9x2 + 24x + 16 f. x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 20
g. x + 2x − x − 2
3 2
h. x3 − 7x − 6 i. x3 + 3x2 − 4
j. x3 + x2 + x + 6 k. x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 l. x3 + x2 − 9x − 9
m. x − x − 8x + 12
3 2
n. x3 + 9x2 − 12x − 160
Understanding
3. Factorise as fully as possible.
a. 2x3 + 5x2 − x − 6 b. 3x3 + 14x2 + 7x − 4
c. 3x3 + 2x2 − 12x − 8 d. 4x3 + 35x2 + 84x + 45
e. 5x3 + 9x2 + 3x − 1 f. x3 + x2 + x + 1
g. 4x3 + 16x2 + 21x + 9 h. 6x3 − 23x2 + 26x − 8
i. 10x3 + 19x2 − 94x − 40 j. 7x3 + 12x2 − 60x + 16
4. Factorise as fully as possible.
a. 3x3 − x2 − 10x b. 4x3 + 2x2 − 2x
c. 3x3 − 6x2 − 24x d. −2x3 − 12x2 − 18x
e. 6x3 − 6x2 f. −x3 − 7x2 − 12x
g. −x3 − 3x2 + x + 3 h. −2x3 + 10x2 − 12x
i. −6x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 4 j. −5x3 + 24x2 − 36x + 16
k. −x5 − x4 + 21x3 + 49x2 − 8x − 60
Reasoning
5. Factorise x4 − 9x2 − 4x + 12.
6. Factorise −x5 + 6x4 + 11x3 − 84x2 − 28x + 240.
7. Two of the factors of x3 + px2 + qx + r are (x + a) and (x + b). Find the third factor.
Problem solving
8. (x − 1) and (x − 2) are known to be factors of x5 + ax4 − 2x3 + bx2 + x − 2. Find the values of a
and b and hence fully factorise this fifth-degree polynomial.
9. Factorise x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 6x.
Reflection
Explain the steps in factorising polynomials.
CHALLENGE 17.2
The polynomial x4 − 6x3 + 13x2 − 12x − 32 has three factors, one of which is x2 − 3x + 8. What are the other
two factors?
17.8 Solving polynomial equations

17.8.1 Solving polynomial equations
•• A polynomial equation of the form P(x) = 0 may be solved by factorising P(x) and applying the Null
Factor Law. The solutions are also called zeros. They are the x‐intercepts on the graph of P(x). If P(x)
is of degree n, expect n zeros.
•• The Null Factor Law applies to polynomial equations just as it does for quadratics.
•• If P(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = 0, then the solutions can be found as follows.
Let each factor = 0:
x−a=0 x−b=0 x−c=0

Solving each of these equations produces the solutions (roots)
x=a x=b x = c.
•• If P(x) = k(lx − a)(mx − b)(nx − c) = 0, then the solutions can be found as follows. Let each factor = 0:
lx − a = 0 mx − b = 0 nx − c = 0
Solving each of these equations produces the solutions
x= x= x= .
a b c
l m n
Note: The coefficient k used in this example does not produce a solution because k ≠ 0.
Solve:
a x3 = 9x b −2x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0 c 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9 = 0.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a x3 = 9x
2 Rearrange so all terms are on the left. x3 − 9x = 0
3 Take out a common factor of x. x(x2 − 9) = 0
4 Factorise the expression in the grouping symbols using x(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
the difference of squares rule.
5 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x = 0, x + 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
x = 0, x = −3 or x = 3
b 1 Write the equation. b −2x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0
2 Take out a common factor of −2x. −2x(x − 2x − 35) = 0
2
3 Factorise the expression in the grouping symbols. −2x(x − 7)(x + 5) = 0

4 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. −2x = 0, x − 7 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 0, x = 7 or x = −5
c 1 Name the polynomial. c Let P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9.

2 Use the factor theorem to find a factor (search for a P(1) = 2 − 11 + 18 − 9
value a such that P(a) = 0). Consider factors of the =0
constant term (that is, factors of 9 such as 1, 3). The So (x − 1) is a factor.
simplest value to try is 1.
2 x2 − 9x + 9
3 Use long or short division to find another factor of P(x). x − 1 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9
2x3 − 2x2
−9 x2 + 18x
−9 x2 + 9x
9x − 9
9x − 9
0
P(x) = (x − 1)(2x2 + 9x − 9)
4 Factorise the quadratic factor. P(x) = (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3)
5 Consider the factorised equation to solve. For (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3) = 0
6 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x − 1 = 0, 2x − 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
x = 1, x = 32 or x = 3

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Factorising difference of two squares expressions (doc-5369)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Solving quadratic equations (doc-5370)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Polynomials II (doc-14619)
Exercise 17.8 Solving polynomial equations

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3, 4, 5a–d, 6a–c, 7, 10 1e–h, 2e–h, 3, 4, 5e–h, 6d–f, 8, 10 1i–n, 2i–n, 3, 4, 5e–h, 6d–f, 7–11
Fluency
1. WE11a, b Solve the following.
a. x3 − 4x = 0 b. x3 − 16x = 0 c. 2x3 − 50x = 0
d. −3x + 81 = 0
3
e. x + 5x = 0
3 2
f. x3 − 2x2 = 0
g. −4x3 + 8x = 0 h. 12x3 + 3x2 = 0 i. 4x2 − 20x3 = 0
j. x − 5x + 6x = 0
3 2
k. x − 8x + 16x = 0
3 2
l. x3 + 6x2 = 7x
m. 9x2 = 20x + x3 n. x3 + 6x = 4x2
2. WE11c Use the factor theorem to solve the following.
a. x3 − x2 − 16x + 16 = 0 b. x3 − 6x2 − x + 30 = 0
c. x − x − 25x + 25 = 0
3 2
d. x3 + 4x2 − 4x − 16 = 0
e. x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = 0 f. x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 10 = 0
g. x + 6x + 11x + 6 = 0
3 2
h. x3 − 6x2 − 15x + 100 = 0
i. x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 j. x3 + 2x2 − 29x + 42 = 0
k. 2x + 15x + 19x + 6 = 0
3 2
l. −4x3 + 16x2 − 9x − 9 = 0
m. −2x3 − 9x2 − 7x + 6 = 0 n. 2x3 + 4x2 − 2x − 4 = 0
Which of the following is a solution to x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 40 = 0?
a. 5 b. −4 c. −2 d. 1
4. MC A solution of x − 9x + 15x + 25 = 0 is x = 5. How many other (distinct) solutions are there?
3 2
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
Understanding
5. Solve P(x) = 0.
a. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 18 b. P(x) = 3x3 − 13x2 − 32x + 12
c. P(x) = −x3 + 12x − 16 d. P(x) = 8x3 − 4x2 − 32x − 20
e. P(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 13x2 − 14x + 24 f. P(x) = −72 − 42x + 19x2 + 7x3 − 2x4
g. P(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 7x2 − 8x + 12 h. P(x) = 4x4 + 12x3 − 24x2 − 32x

a. x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 b. x3 + x2 − 9x − 9 = 0
c. 3x3 + 3x2 − 18x = 0 d. 2x4 + 10x3 − 4x2 − 48x = 0
e. 2x4 + x3 − 14x2 − 4x + 24 = 0 f. x4 − 2x2 + 1 = 0
Reasoning
7. Solve for a if x = 2 is a solution of ax3 − 6x2 + 3x − 4 = 0.
p
8. Solve for p if x = is a solution of x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 8 = 0.
2
9. Show that it is possible for a cuboid of side lengths x cm, (x − 1) cm and (x + 2) cm to have a volume
that is 4 cm3 less than twice the volume of a cube of side length x cm. Comment on the shape of such
a cuboid.
Problem solving
10. Solve for x.
x3 + 8 = x(5x − 2)
11. Solve for z.
z(z − 1) 3 = −2(z3 − 5z2 + z + 3)
Reflection
Can you predict the number of solutions a polynomial might have?
17.9 Review
Fluency
1. Which of the following is not a polynomial?
a. x3 − x2
3
+ 7x − 1 b. a4 + 4a3 + 2a + 2 c. √x2 + 3x + 2 d. 5
2. Consider the polynomial f(x) = −17x4
+ x + 3.
5
a. What is the degree of f(x)? b. What is the coefficient of x4?

c. What is the constant term? d. What is the leading term?
3. The expansion of (x + 5)(x + 1)(x − 6) is:
a. x3 − 30 b. x3 + 12x2 − 31x + 30
c. x3 − 31x − 30 d. x3 + 5x2 − 36x − 30
4. x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 is the expansion of:
a. (x + 3)3 b. x(x + 3)(x − 3)
c. (x − 1)(x + 3)2 d. (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)
a. (x − 2)2(x + 10) b. (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 5)
c. (x − 7)3 d. (5 − 2x)(1 + x)(x + 2)
6. Consider the following long division.
x2 + x + 2
x − 4 x + 5x 2 + 6x − 1
3
x 3 + 4x 2
x 2 + 6x
x 2 + 4x
2x − 1
2x + 8
−9

a. The quotient is:
A. −9 B. 9 C. x + 4 D. x2 + x + 2
b. The remainder is:
A. −9 B. 2 C. 4 D. 2x − 1
7. Find the quotient and remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second in each case.
a. x3 + 2x2 − 16x − 3, x + 2 b. x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 7, x − 3 c. −x3 + x2 + 4x − 7, x + 1
8. If P(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 7x + 1, then P(−2) equals:
a. −34 b. −33 c. −9 d. 9
9. If P(x) = −3x + 2x + x − 4, find:
3 2
a. P(1) b. P(−4) c. P(2a)

10. Without dividing, find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 16x + 5 is divided by x − 1.
11. Show that x + 3 is a factor of x3 − 2x2 − 29x − 42.
12. Factorise x3 + 4x2 − 100x − 400.
13. Solve:
a. (2x + 1)(x − 3)2 = 0 b. x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 24 = 0
c. x − 4x − x + 16x − 12 = 0
4 3 2
Problem solving
14. Let P(x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + … + a1x + a0 be a polynomial where the coefficients are integers. Also
let P(w) = 0 where w is an integer. Show that w is a factor of a0.
15. Find the area of a square whose sides are (2x − 3) cm. Expand and simplify your answer. If the area is
16 cm2, find x.
16. A window is in the shape of a semicircle above a rectangle. The height of the window is (6x + 1) cm
and its width is (2x + 2) cm.
a. Find the total area of the window.
b. Expand and simplify your answer.
c. What is the perimeter of the window?
17. a. Find the volume of a cube of side (x + 4) cm.
b. Find the surface area of the cube.
c. Find the value of x for which the volume and surface are numerically equal.
d. Find x if the numerical value of the volume is 5 less than the numerical value of the surface area.
18. Find the quotient and remainder when mx2 + nx + q is divided by (x − p).
19. When P(x) is divided by (x − n), the quotient is x2 − 2x + n and the remainder is (n + 1). Find P(x).


Language
coefficient leading term quartic
cubic long division quotient
degree of a polynomial monic remainder
factor polynomial remainder theorem
factor theorem quadratic short division

www.assesson.com.au

Investigating polynomials
A polynomial is a function involving the sum of integer
powers of a variable (for example, y = −4x3 + 3x2 − 4). The
highest power of the variable determines the degree of the
polynomial. In the case of the given example, the degree is 3.
A polynomial of the first degree is a linear function (for
example, y = 3x − 8, and a second-degree function is a
quadratic (for example, y = 5x2 − 6x + 7). Let us investigate
how the degree of a polynomial affects the shape of its graph.
In order to simplify the graphing of these functions, the
polynomials will be expressed in factor form. A graphics
calculator or some other digital technology will make the
graphing process less tedious. It will be necessary to adjust the
window of the calculator from time to time in order to capture
the relevant features of the graph.
1. Consider the following polynomials.
a. y1 = (x + 1)
b. y2 = (x + 1)(x − 2)
c. y3 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
d. y4 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)
e. y5 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 5)
f. y6 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 5)(x − 6)
For each of the functions:
i. give the degree of the polynomial
ii. sketch the graph, marking in the x-intercepts
iii. describe how the degree of the polynomial affects the shape of the graph.
Complete question 1 on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Let us now look at the effect that the exponent of each factor has on the shape of the graph of
the polynomial. Consider the following functions.
a. y1 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) b. y2 = (x + 1)2(x − 2)(x + 3)
c. y3 = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
2 2
d. y4 = (x + 1)2(x − 2)(x + 3)3
e. y5 = (x + 1)3(x − 2)(x + 3)4 f. y6 = (x + 1)5(x − 2)3(x + 3)2
i. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a sketch of each of the polynomials, marking in the
x-intercepts.
ii. Explain how the power of the factor affects the behaviour of the graph at the x-intercept.
3. Create and draw a sketch of polynomials with the following given characteristics. Complete your
graphs on a separate sheet of paper.
a. A first-degree polynomial that:
i. crosses the x-axis ii. does not cross the x-axis.
b. A second-degree polynomial that:
i. crosses the x-axis twice
ii. touches the x-axis at one and only one point.
c. A third-degree polynomial that crosses the x-axis:
i. three times ii. twice iii. once.
d. A fourth-degree polynomial that crosses the x-axis:
i. four times ii. three times iii. twice iv. once.
4. Considering the powers of factors of polynomials, write a general statement outlining the
conditions under which the graph of a polynomial will pass through the x-axis or just touch the
x-axis.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Who were Australia’s first three Prime Ministers? (doc-15949)

Answers
Topic 17 Polynomials
Exercise 17.2 Polynomials
1. a. 3 b. 7 c. 2 d. 6 e. 8 f. 5 g. 5 h. 1 i. 6
2. a. x b. x c. x d. x e. y f. u g. e h. g i. f
3. a. Polynomial 1h b. Polynomial 1c
c. Polynomial 1a d. Polynomials 1a, 1d and 1e
4. a. N b. P c. P d. N e. N f. P g. P h. N i. N
5. a. 3 b. x c. 4 d. 5 e. 3x f. −2x3
6. a. 7 b. w c. 7 d. 0 e. −9 f. 6w7
4
7. a. 4 b. 1 c. x d. 1
8. a. 6 b. t c. 6
d, e. Check with your teacher.
9. a. 5 units to the right of the origin b. 4 units to the right of the origin
c. The body moves towards the origin, then away.
10. a. 4x3 + 2x2 − 10x + 18 b. 3x4 − 3x3 − x2 + 7x − 7 c. 5x3 − 4x2 − 13x − 6
11. a = 4, b = −6
12. a = ±3, b = ±2
Exercise 17.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials

1. a. x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 10 b. x6 + 2x4 − 3x3 + 9x2 + 5 c. 5x3 − 5x2 + 7x − 13
d. 2x + 3x + 12x − 4x + 14
4 3 2
e. x + 13x − 10
5 4
2. a. x + 2x + 2x + 4
4 2
b. x6 − x5 + x3 + x2 + 2 c. 5x7 − 4x3 + 5x
d. 10x − 7x + 20x + 5
4 2
e. 2x + 6x − 10x + 15
3 2
3. a. x + 7x + 6x
3 2
b. x − 7x − 18x
3 2
c. x3 + 8x2 − 33x d. 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x
e. 48x − 3x 3
f. 5x + 50x + 80x
3 2
g. x + 4x
3 2
h. 2x3 − 14x2
i. −30x3 − 270x2 j. −7x3 − 56x2 − 112x
4. a. x + 12x + 41x + 42
3 2
b. x3 − 3x2 − 18x + 40 c. x3 + 3x2 − 36x + 32 d. x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6
e. x3 + 6x2 − x − 6 f. x3 + 5x2 − 49x − 245 g. x3 + 4x2 − 137x − 660 h. x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 5
i. x − 12x + 21x + 98
3 2
j. x + x − x − 1
3 2
5. a. x + 13x + 26x − 112

3 2
b. 3x3 + 26x2 + 51x − 20 c. 4x4 + 3x3 − 37x2 − 27x + 9
d. 10x − 49x + 27x + 36
3 2
e. −6x − 71x − 198x + 35
3 2
f. 21x4 − 54x3 − 144x2 + 96x
g. 54x3 + 117x2 − 72x h. 24x3 − 148x2 + 154x + 245 i. 20x4 – 39x3 − 50x2 + 123x − 54
j. 4x + 42x + 146x + 168
3 2
6. a. x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 b. x3 + 15x2 + 75x + 125

c. x − 3x + 3x − 1
3 2
d. x4–12x3 + 54x2 − 108x + 81
e. 8x3 − 72x2 + 216x − 216 f. 81x4 + 432x3 + 864x2 + 768x + 256
7. (2a + 5b)x + (2b − 5c)
8. x4 + (a − 4b)x3 + (2a − 4ab + 3b2)x2 + (2a2 − 2ab + 3ab2)x − 2a2b
9. a = 1, b = −12, c = 54, d = −108, e = 81
10. 8x3 − 45x2 + 78x − 43
11. 18 (11x3 − 105x2 + 73x − 27)
12. a = 1, b = −2 and c = 1
13. a = 1, b = 4 and c = −1
Exercise 17.4 Long division of polynomials

1. a. x2 + 2x, 9 b. x2 + x + 3, −2 c. x2 + 3x − 6, 19 d. x2 − x + 5, −17
e. x + 2x − 1, 6
2
f. x + 4x − 6, 14
2
g. x + 1, 2
2
h. x2 + 5, −36
i. x2 − x + 6, −11 j. x2 + 4x − 17, 87

2. a. x2 + 4x + 3, −3 b. x2 + 4x + 13, 48 c. x2 + 3x − 3, −11 d. x2 − 3x + 7, 5
e. x2 − 2x − 3, −17 f. x2 − 6x + 3, −4 g. x2 + 14x + 72, 359 h. x2 + 8x + 27, 104
3. a. 3x − 7x + 20, −35
2
b. 4x − 8x + 18, −22
2
c. 2x − 3x + 3, 7
2
d. 2x2 − 9, 35
e. 4x2 + 2x − 3, −1 f. 3x2 + x − 1, −2
4. a. 3x − 2x + 1, 5
2
b. 2x2 + 5x − 6, −7 c. 4x2 − 7x − 2, −3 d. x2 − 4x + 3, 8
e. x2 + x − 6, −11 f. 3x2 + 2x + 1, 13
5. a. −x − 5x − 2, −14
2
b. −3x2 − 2x + 4, −3 c. −x2 + 5x + 6, 9 d. −2x2 + 7x − 1, 1
6. a. x2 − x − 2, 3 b. x2, −7 c. x2 − x − 2, −8 d. −x2 − x − 8, 0
e. 5x − 2, 7 f. 2x − 2x + 10, −54
2
g. −2x − 4x − 9, −16
2
h. −2x2 + 4x − 1, 1
7. a. x3 + 2x2 + 5x − 2, −2 b. x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 18, 0
c. x − 3x + 6x − 18x + 58, −171
4 3 2
d. 2x5 − 4x4 + 7x3 − 13x2 + 32x − 69, 138
e. 6x3 + 17x2 + 53x + 155, 465 f. x3 − 73x2 + 79x + 320
27
, –320
27
Quotient = ax + (b + ad)
8.
Remainder = Rc + d(b + ad)
2p
9. q =
c
10. a = −3
11. a = 3, b = −5
Exercise 17.5 Polynomial values

1. a. 10 b. 11 c. 18
d. 43 e. 3 f. −22
g. −77 h. 2a − 3a + 2a + 10
3 2
i. 16b3 − 12b2 + 4b + 10
j. 2x + 9x + 14x + 18
3 2
k. 2x − 21x + 74x − 77
3 2
l. –128y3 − 48y2 − 8y + 10
2. to 6.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column 8 Column 9
Rem when Rem when Rem when Rem when
divided by divided by divided by divided by
P(x ) P(1) P(2) P(−1) P(−2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
a 4 15 0 −5 4 15 0 −5
b 10 28 −2 −8 10 28 −2 −8
c 3 11 −7 −21 3 11 −7 −21
d −7 −19 5 −7 −7 −19 5 −7
7. a. P(−8) b. P(7) c. P(a)

8. a. −1 b. −6249 c. 2(a − 5) 5 + 1 d. −2(2a + 5) 5 + 1
9. b = 1, 4
10. a. −2a3 − 3a2 + a + 4 b. −2a3 − 9a2 − 11a − 1
11. c = 2
12. b = −2, c = 5
Exercise 17.6 The remainder and factor theorems

1. a. −30 b. 0 c. 0
d. −24 e. −24 f. k3 + 3k2 − 10k − 24
g. −n3 + 3n2 + 10n − 24 h. −27c3 + 27c2 + 30c − 24
2. a. 58 b. −8 c. 11 d. −9 e. −202 f. 6 g. 158 h. −6 i. 35 j. 441
3. a. 6 b. 3 c. 1 d. −2 e. 2 f. 2 g. −5, 2 h. a = −5, b = −3
4. a. D b. C, D c. D d. A, C, D
5. a. (x − 1) b. (x − 3) or (x − 2) c. (x − 3) or (x + 2)
d. (x − 6) or (x + 4) or (x + 5)
6. Show P(−2) = 0, P(3) = 0 and P(−5) = 0.

7. a. Show P(1) = 0 b. Show P(7) = 0 c. Show P(2) = 0 d. Show P(−2) = 0
e. Show P(−3) = 0 f. Show P(1) = 0 g. Show P(4) = 0 h. Show P(−5) = 0
8. a = 3, b = 2
9. a = −5, b = 41, (x + 3) and (x − 5)
Challenge 17.1
k = −4
Exercise 17.7 Factorising polynomials

1. a. (x + 1) (x + 3) (x + 6) b. (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 5) c. (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 9) d. (x + 1) (x + 3) (x + 4)
e. (x + 3) (x + 4) (x + 7) f. (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 7) g. (x + 1) (x + 2)
2
h. (x + 2) 2 (x + 3)
i. (x + 4) (x + 5) 2
j. x(x + 5) (x + 8) k. x(x + 3) (x + 4) l. x(x + 5) 2
m. x(x + 1) (x + 5) n. x2 (x + 6)
2. a. (x − 1) (x + 1) 2
b. (x − 2) (x − 1) (x + 1) c. (x + 1) 2 (x + 5) d. (x − 3) (x + 2) 2
e. (x + 1) (x + 4) 2 f. (x − 5) (x − 2) (x + 2) g. (x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 2) h. (x − 3) (x + 1) (x + 2)
i. (x − 1) (x + 2) 2 j. (x + 2) (x2 − x + 3) k. (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 5) l. (x − 3) (x + 1) (x + 3)
m. (x − 2) (x + 3)
2
n. (x − 4) (x + 5) (x + 8)
3. a. (2x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) b. (3x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 4) c. (3x + 2) (x − 2) (x + 2) d. (4x + 3) (x + 3) (x + 5)
e. (5x − 1) (x + 1) 2
f. (x + 1) (x + 1)
2
g. (x + 1) (2x + 3) 2
h. (x − 2) (2x − 1) (3x − 4)
i. (x + 4) (2x − 5) (5x + 2) j. (7x − 2) (x − 2) (x + 4)
4. a. x(x − 2) (3x + 5) b. 2x(x + 1) (2x − 1) c. 3x(x − 4) (x + 2) d. −2x(x + 3) 2
e. 6x (x − 1)
2
f. −x(x + 4) (x + 3) g. −(x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 3) h. −2x(x − 3) (x − 2)
i. −(x + 2) (2x − 1) (3x − 2) j. −(x − 2) (5x − 4)
2
k. −(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 5) (x + 2) 2
5. (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x − 3)
6. −(x − 2) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x − 4) (x − 5)
7. (x − p + (a + b))
8. a = −2, b = 4, (x − 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 (x − 2)
9. x(x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
Challenge 17.2
The other two factors are (x − 4) and (x + 1).
Exercise 17.8 Solving polynomial equations

1. a. −2, 0, 2 b. −4, 0, 4 c. −5, 0, 5 d. 3 e. −5, 0 f. 0, 2
g. −√2, 0, √2 h. −14, 0 i. 0, 15 j. 0, 2, 3 k. 0, 4 l. −7, 0, 1
m. 0, 4, 5 n. 0
2. a. −4, 1, 4 b. −2, 3, 5 c. −5, 1, 5 d. −4, −2, 2 e. −1, 2, 3 f. −2, 1, 5
g. −3, −2, −1 h. −4, 5 i. −2, 1, 4 j. −7, 2, 3 k. −6, − 1
2
, −1 l. −12, 32, 3
m. −3, − 2, 12 n. −2, −1, 1
3. A, C
4. B
5. a. −3, 2 b. −2, 13, 6 c. −4, 2 d. −1, 52 e. −4, −2, 1, 3 f. −2, − 32, 3, 4
g. −3, −2, 1, 2 h. −4, −1, 0, 2
6. a. −2, 1, 4 b. −3, −1, 3 c. −3, 0, 2 d. −4, −3, 0, 2 e. −2, 32, 2 f. −1, 1
7. 3.75
8. −2, 4, 8
9. Proof — check with your teacher.
10. x = −1, 4 and 2
11. z = −1, 1, −2 and 3
17.9 Review
1. C
2. a. 5 b. −17 c. 3 d. x5

3. C
4. C
5. a. x3 + 6x2 − 36x + 40 b. x3 + 10x2 + 19x − 30 c. x3 − 21x2 + 147x − 343 d. −2x3 − x2 + 11x + 10
6. a. D b. A
7. a. x − 16, 29
2
b. x2 + 6x + 5, 8 c. −x2 + 2x + 2, − 9
8. B
9. a. −4 b. 216 c. −24a3 + 8a2 + 2a − 4
10. −7
11. Show P(−3) = 0.
12. (x − 10)(x + 4)(x + 10)
13. a. −12, 3 b. 2, 3, 4 c. −2, 1, 2, 3
14. Teacher to check.
For example, given P(x) = x3 − x2 − 34x − 56 and P(7) = 0 ⇒ (x − 7) is a factor and 7 is a factor of 56.
15. 4x2 − 12x + 9; x = −12, 7
2
16. a, b Area = (12 π + 10) x + (π + 10) x + π2
2
c Perimeter = (12 + π)x + (2 + π)

17. a. (x + 4)3
b. 6(x + 4)2
c. x = 2
−3 + 3√5 −3 − 3√5
d. −3, ,
2 2
18. mx + (n + mp); q + p(n + mp)
19. x3 − (2 + n)x2 + 3nx − (n2 − n − 1)
1. a. i. 1 b. i. 2
ii. y ii. y
x x
–1 0 –1 0 2
iii. The graph is linear and crosses the x-axis once iii. The graph is quadratic and crosses the x-axis twice
(at x = −1). (at x = −1 and x = 2).
c. i. 3 d. i. 4
ii. y ii. y
x
–3 –1 0 2 –3 –1 0 2 4
x
iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 3 times iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 4 times
(at x = −1, x = 2 and x = −3). (at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3 and x = 4).
e. i. 5 f. i. 6
ii. y ii. y
x x
–5 –3 –10 2 4 –5 –3 –1 0 2 4 6
iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 5 times iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 6 times
(at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3, x = 4 and x = −5). (at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3, x = 4, x = −5 and x = 6).

2. a. i. y b. i. y
x
–3 –1 0 2
x –3 –1 0 2
ii. Each factor is raised to the power 1. The polynomial ii. The factor (x + 1) is raised to the power 2 while the
is of degree 3 and the graph crosses the x-axis in 3 other two factors are raised to the power 1. The power
places (−3, −1 and 2). 2 causes the curve not to cross the x-axis at x = −1
but to be curved back on itself.
c. i. y d. i. y
x
–3 –1 0 2
x
–3 –1 0 2
ii. The power 2 on the two factors (x + 1) and (x − 2) ii. The power 3 on the factor (x + 3) causes the curve to
causes the curve to be directed back on itself and not run along the axis at that point then to cross the axis
to cross the x-axis at those two points (x = −1 and (at x = −3).
x = 2).
e. i. y f. i. y
x x
–3 –1 0 2 –3 –1 0 2
ii. The power 3 on the factor (x + 1) causes the curve ii. The power 5 on the factor (x + 1) causes the curve to
to run along the axis at x = −1, then cross the axis. run along the axis at x = −1, then cross the axis.
The power 4 on the factor (x + 3) causes the curve to
be directed back on itself without crossing the axis at
x = −3.
3. Answers will vary. Teacher to check. Possible answers could be as follows.

a. i. y = 3x + 2 ii. y = 4
b. i. y = (x + 1) (x + 2) ii. y = (x + 1) 2
c. i. y = (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) ii. Not possible iii. y = (x + 1) 2 (x + 2)
d. i. y = (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) ii. Not possible
iii. y = (x + 1) 2 (x + 2) (x + 3), y = (x + 1) 3 (x + 2) iv. Not possible
4. If the power of the factor of a polynomial is an odd integer, the curve will pass through the x-axis. If the power is 1, the curve
passes straight through. If the power is 3, 5 . . ., the curve will run along the x-axis before passing through it. On the other
hand, an even power of a factor causes the curve to just touch the x-axis then move back on the same side of the x-axis.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 18
Functions and relations
18.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just
where you need them, at the point of learning, in your
learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to
learn the content and concepts covered in this topic.

A relation is a set of ordered pairs; functions are special types
of relations. It is important to understand relationships
between variables in order to be able to model the relation-
ships. Many different functions can be used to model events
in the world. You have already studied lines of best fit, where
straight lines are fitted to data in order to make predictions.
Exponential functions are used to model growth and decay.
There are many examples of functions used in engineering,
science, finance, architecture and medicine.

1. THINK List what you know about functions and relations. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map
to show your list.
knowledge of functions and relations.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
18.1 Overview
18.2 Functions and relations
18.3 Exponential functions
18.4 Cubic functions
18.5 Quartic functions
18.6 Transformations
18.7 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Amalie Noether (eles-2021)
TOPIC 18 Functions and relations 759

18.2 Functions and relations
18.2.1 Relations
•• A relation is a set of ordered pairs of values such as all the points on the circle x2 + y2 = 4 or all the
points on the exponential y = 2x. Relations can be grouped into the following four categories.
One-to-one relations y
•• A one-to-one relation exists if for any x-value there is only one corresponding
y-value and vice versa. For example:
0 x
One-to-many relations y
•• A one-to-many relation exists if for any x-value there is more than one y-value,
but for any y-value there is only one x-value. For example:
0 x
Many-to-one relations y
•• A many-to-one relation exists if there is more than one x-value for any y-value
but for any x-value there is only one y-value. For example:
0 x
Many-to-many relations y y
•• A many-to-many relation exists if there is more than one x-value
for any y-value and vice versa. For example:
0 x 0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
What type of relation does each graph represent?

a y b y c y
0 x
0 x 0 x
THINK WRITE
a 1 For some x-values there is more than one y-value. A line a One-to-many relation
through some x-values shows that 2 y-values are available.
y
x = –1
0 x

2 For any y-value there is only one x-value. A line through any
y-value shows that only one x-value is available.
y
y=1
0 x
b 1 For any x-value there is only one y-value. b One-to-one relation

2 For any y-value there is only one x-value.
c 1 For any x-value there is only one y-value. c Many-to-one relation
2 For some y-values there is more than one x-value.
18.2.2 Functions
•• Relations that are one-to-one or many-to-one are called functions. That is, a function is a relation
where for any x-value there is at most one y-value.
Vertical line test
•• To determine if a graph is a function, a vertical line is drawn anywhere on the graph. If it does not
intersect with the curve more than once, then the graph is a function.
For example, in each of the two graphs below, each vertical line intersects the graph only once.
1. y 2. y
0 x 0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
State whether or not each of the following relations are functions.

a y b y
0 x
0 x
THINK WRITE
a It is possible for a vertical line to intersect with the a Not a function
curve more than once.
b It is not possible for any vertical line to intersect b Function
with the curve more than once.

18.2.3 Function notation
•• Consider the relation y = 2x, which is a function.
The y-values are determined from the x-values, so we say ‘y is a function of x’, which is abbreviated
to y = f(x).
So, the rule y = 2x can also be written as f(x) = 2x.
If x = 1, then y = f(1)
=2×1

= 2.
If x = 2, then y = f(2)
= 2 × 2
= 4, and so on.
Domain and range
•• The domain of a function is the set of all allowable values of x. It is sometimes referred to as the
maximal domain.
•• The range of a function is the set of y-values produced by the function.
For example, the domain of the function f(x) = 2x + 3 is the set of all real numbers (x ∈ R), and the
range is the set of all real numbers (y ∈ R).
The domain of the function f(x) = is the set of all real numbers apart from 0 (x ∈ R\0), and the
1
x
range is the set of all real numbers apart from 0 (y ∈ R\0).
y
4
0
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 x
–2
–4
Evaluating functions
•• For a given function y = f(x), the value of y when x = 1 is written as f(1), the value of y when x = 5
is written as f(5), the value of y when x = a as f(a), etc.
If f(x) = x2 − 3, find:
a f(1) b f(a) c 3f(2a) d f(a) + f(b) e f(a + b).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the rule. a f(x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = 1 into the rule. f(1) = 12 − 3
3 Simplify. =1−3

= −2
b 1 Write the rule. b f(x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = a into the rule. f(a) = a2 − 3

c 1 Write the rule. c f(x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = 2a into the rule and simplify. f(2a) = (2a) 2 − 3
3 Multiply the answer by 3 and simplify. = 22a2 − 3
= 4a2 − 3
3f(2a) = 3(4a2 − 3)
= 12a2 − 9
d 1 Write the rule. d f(x) = x2 − 3

2 Evaluate f(a). f(a) = a2 − 3
3 Evaluate f(b). f(b) = b2 − 3
4 Evaluate f(a) + f(b). f(a) + f(b) = a2 − 3 + b2 − 3
= a2 + b2 − 6
e 1 Write the rule. e f(x) = x2 − 3
2 Evaluate f(a + b). f(a + b) = (a + b)2 − 3
= (a + b)(a + b) − 3
= a2 + 2ab + b2− 3
18.2.4 Identifying features of functions

•• We can identify features of certain functions by observing what happens to the function value
(y value) when x approaches a very small value such as 0 (x → 0) or a very large value such as
∞(x → ∞).
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Describe what happens to these functions as the value of x increases, that is, as x → ∞.
1
a f(x) = x2 b f(x) = 2−x c f(x) = + 1
x
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the function. a f(x) = x2
2 Substitute large x values into the function, f(10 000) = 100 000 000
such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f(1 000 000) = 1 × 1012
3 Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f(x) also increases; that is, f(x) → ∞.
b 1 Write the function. b f(x) = 2−x
2 Substitute large x values into the function, f(10 000) ≈ 0
such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f(1 000 000) ≈ 0
3 Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f(x) → 0.
c f(x) = +1
1
c 1 Write the function.
x
2 Substitute large x values into the function, f(10 000) = 1.0001
such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f(1 000 000) = 1.000 001
3 Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f(x) → 1.

Points of intersection
•• If two functions are drawn on the one set of axes, there may be a point or points where the curves
intersect. The function equations can be solved simultaneously to find the coordinates of these points
of intersection.
1
Find any points of intersection between f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = .
x
THINK WRITE
1 Write the two equations. f(x) = 2x + 1
g(x) =
1
x
2 Points of intersection are common values between the two curves. For points of intersection:
2x + 1 =
To solve the equations simultaneously, equate both functions. 1
x
3 Rearrange the resulting equation and solve for x. 2x2 + x = 1
2x2 +x−1 = 0
(2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0
x = 1
2
or −1
4 Substitute the x values into either function to find the y values. f(12) = 2 × 12 + 1 = 2
f(−1) = 2 × −1 + 1 = −1
5 Write the coordinates of the two points of intersection. The points of intersection are
(2, 2) and (−1, −1).
1
18.2.5 Inverse functions

•• An inverse graph is created when a graph is reflected in the line y = x, the 45° line. Algebraically the
resulting equation is created by interchanging x and y in the original equation.
•• For example, take the function f(x) = 2x.
Let y = 2x.
Interchange x and y: x = 2y
Make y the subject: y = 12x
Write the inverse function using function notation.
The inverse of the function f(x) = 2x is f −1(x) = 12x.
y f(x) = 2x
y =x
f ‒1(x) = 1−2 x
0 x

•• Not all functions have inverses that are functions. For example, the inverse of the function y = x2 is
x = y2 or y = ±√x.
y
y = x2
y=x
y=+ x
0 x
y=– x
–– Notice that y = ±√x is not a function, as it is a one-to-many relation.

–– For this inverse to be a function, a restriction must be placed on the domain of the original quadratic
function. Normally, either the part of the graph to the left of the turning point or the part to the right
is chosen. The original function is re-stated as two functions:
y = x2, x ≥ 0 and y = x2, x ≤ 0.
Thus the inverse functions are
y = +√x, x ≥ 0 and y = −√x, x ≥ 0.
y = x2, x ≥ 0 y = x2, x ≤ 0
y y
y=x y=x
y=+ x
x x
y=– x
(a) (b)
The horizontal line test

•• Not all functions have inverses that are functions. For a function to have an inverse function, it must
be a one-to-one function. It was shown above that f(x) = x2 does not have an inverse function unless
restrictions are placed.
•• A function has an inverse function when a horizontal line cannot be drawn that cuts through the graph
more than once.
•• The inverse of the function f(x) = x2 is not a function, as its graph does not satisfy the horizontal
line test.

y
y = x2
0 x
•• The inverse of the function f(x) =

1
is a function, as its graph satisfies the horizontal line test.
x
y
y = 1x
0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
a i Show that the function f(x) = x(x − 5) will have not have an inverse function.
ii Suggest a restriction that would result in an inverse function.
b i Show that the function f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0 will have an inverse function.
ii Determine the equation of the inverse function.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a i 1 Sketch the graph of a i y
f(x) = x(x − 5).
100 f(x) = x(x – 5)
80
60
40
20
0
–6 –4 –2 0 –2 –4 –6 –8 –10–12–14 x
2 Draw a dotted horizontal The graph does not satisfy the horizontal line test, so the
line(s) through the graph. function f(x) = x(x − 5) will not have an inverse function.

ii Apply a restriction to the ii An inverse function will exist if
function so that it will have f(x) = x(x − 5), x ≤ 2.5 or
an inverse. f(x) = x(x − 5), x ≥ 2.5.
b i 1 Sketch the graph of b i y
f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0. 100
f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0
80
60
40
20
0
0 x
–15 –10 –5 5 10 15
–20
2 Draw a dotted horizontal The graph satisfies the horizontal line test, so the function
line through the graph. f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0 has an inverse function.
ii 1 Determine the equation of ii Let y = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0.
the inverse function by Interchange x and y.
interchanging x and y and x = y2 + 4
simplifying. Make y the subject.
x = y2 + 4
x − 4 = y2
√x − 4 = y
y = √x − 4
2 Write the answer in correct The inverse of f(x) = x2 + 4 is f −1(x) = √x − 4, x ≥ −4.

form, noting the domain.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding the gradient and y-intercept (doc-5378)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Sketching straight lines (doc-5379)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Sketching parabolas (doc-5380)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Completing the square (doc-5381)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Identifying equations of straight lines and parabolas (doc-5382)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding points of intersection (doc-5383)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Substitution into index expressions (doc-5384)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Functions and relations (doc-14622)

Exercise 18.2 Functions and relations
Individual pathways

1–9, 11, 12 1–3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 1–13
Fluency
1. WE1 What type of relation does each graph represent?
a. y b. y c. y
0 x
0 x 0 x
d. y e. y f. y
0 x 0 x
0 x
g. y h. y i. y
0 x 0 x
0 x
j. y k. y l. y
0 x
0 x 0 x
2. WE2 a. Use the vertical line test to determine which of the relations in question 1 are functions.
b. Which of these functions have inverses that are also functions?
3. WE3 a. If f(x) = 3x + 1, find:
i. f(0) ii. f(2) iii. f(−2) iv. f(5).
b. If g (x) = √x + 4, find:
i. g(0) ii. g(−3) iii. g(5) iv. g(−4).
c. If g(x) = 4 − , find:
1
x
i. g(1) ii. g (12 ) iii. g (−12 ) iv. g (−15 ).

d. If f(x) = (x + 3) 2, find:
i. f(0) ii. f(−2) iii. f(1) iv. f(a).
e. If h(x) = , find:
24
x
i. h(2) ii. h(4) iii. h(−6) iv. h(12).
Understanding
Which of the following relations is a function?
a. y b. x2 + y2 = 9 c. y = 8x − 3 d. y
0 x 0 x
5. Which of the following relations are functions?

a. y = 2x + 1 b. y = x2 + 2 c. y = 2x
d. x2 + y2 = 25 e. x2 + 4x + y2 + 6y = 14 f. y = −4x
10
6. Given that f(x) = − x, find:
x
a. f(2) b. f(−5) c. f(2x)
2
d. f(x ) e. f(x + 3) f. f(x − 1).
7. Find the value (or values) of x for which each function has the value given.
a. f(x) = 3x − 4, f(x) = 5 b. g(x) = x2 − 2, g(x) = 7 c. f(x) = , f(x) = 3
1
x
d. h(x) = x − 5x + 6, h(x) = 0
2
e. g(x) = x + 3x, g(x) = 4
2
f. f(x) = √8 − x, f(x) = 3
Reasoning
8. WE4 Describe what happens to:
a. f(x) = x2 + 3 as x → ∞ b. f(x) = 2x as x → −∞ c. f(x) = as x → ∞
1
x
d. f(x) = x3 as x → −∞ e. f(x) = −5x as x → −∞.
9. WE5 Find any points of intersection between the following curves.
a. f(x) = 2x − 4 and g(x) = x2 − 4 b. f(x) = −3x + 1 and g(x) = −
2
x
c. f(x) = x − 4 and g(x) = 4 − x
2 2
d. f(x) = 4x − 6 4 and x + y = 25
3 1 2 2
10. Find the equation of the inverse function of each of the following, placing restrictions on the original
x values as required.
a. f(x) = 2x − 1 b. f(x) = x2 − 3 c. f(x) = (x − 2) 2 + 4
11. WE6 a. i. Show that the function f(x) = x(x + 2) will not have an inverse function.
ii. Suggest a restriction that would result in an inverse function.
b. i. Show that the function f(x) = −x2 + 4, x ≤ 0 will have an inverse function.
ii. Determine the equation of the inverse function.
Problem solving
12. Find the value(s) of x for which:
a. f(x) = x2 + 7 and f(x) = 16
b. g(x) = and g(x) = 3
1
x−2
c. h(x) = √8 + x and h(x) = 6.

13. Consider the function defined by the rule f : R → R, f(x) = (x − 1) 2 + 2.
a. State the range of the function.
b. Determine the type of mapping for the function.
c. Sketch the graph of the function stating where it cuts the y-axis and its turning point.
d. Select a domain where x is positive such that f is a one-to-one function.
e. Determine the inverse function. Give the domain and range of the inverse function.
f. Sketch the graph of the inverse function on the same set of axes used for part c.
g. Find where f and the function g(x) = x + 3 intersect each other.
Reflection
How do you determine the difference between functions and relations?
CHALLENGE 18.1
Famous inverses
Draw and compare the graphs of the inverse functions y = ax and y = logax, choosing various values for a.
Explain why these graphs are inverses.
18.3 Exponential functions

18.3.1 Exponential functions
•• Exponential functions can be used to model many real situations Exponential growth
involving natural growth and decay. y y = ax
10
•• Exponential growth is when a quantity grows by a constant percent- 8
age in each fixed period of time. Examples of exponential growth 6
include growth of investment at a certain rate of compound interest 4
2
and growth in the number of cells in a bacterial colony.
–4 –2 0 x
•• Exponential decay is when a quantity decreases by a constant 2 4
percentage in each fixed period of time. Examples of exponential
decay include yearly loss of value of an item (called depreciation) Exponential decay
and radioactive decay. y
•• Both exponential growth and decay can be modelled by exponential 10
y = a–x
functions of the type y = kax (y = k × ax). The difference is in the
8
or
1 6
value of the base a. When a > 1, there is exponential growth and y= x
a 4
when 0 < a < 1 there is exponential decay. 2
The value of k corresponds to the initial quantity that is growing or –4 –2 0 2 4 x
decaying.
The number of bacteria, N, in a Petri dish after x hours is

given by the equation N = 50 × 2x.
a Determine the initial number of bacteria in the Petri dish.
b Determine the number of bacteria in the Petri dish
after 3 hours.
c Draw the graph of the function of N against x.
d Use the graph to estimate the length of time it will take
for the initial number of bacteria to treble.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a N = 50 × 2x
2 Substitute x = 0 into the given formula and evaluate. When x = 0, N = 50 × 20
(Notice that this is the value of k for equations of the = 50 × 1
form y = k × ax.) = 50
3 Write the answer in a sentence. The initial number of bacteria in the
Petri dish is 50.
b 1 Substitute x = 3 into the formula and evaluate. b When x = 3, N = 50 × 23
= 50 × 8
= 400
2 Write the answer in a sentence. After 3 hours there are 400 bacteria in
the Petri dish.
c 1 Draw a set of axes, labelling the horizontal axis as c
x and the vertical axis as N.
2 Plot the points generated by the answers to parts a
and b.
3 Calculate the value of N when x = 1 and x = 2 and At x = 1, N = 50 × 21
plot the points generated. = 50 × 2
= 100
At x = 2, N = 50 × 22
= 50 × 4
= 200
4 Join the points plotted with a smooth curve. N
N = 50 × 2x
500
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 x
5 Label the graph.

d 1 Determine the number of bacteria required. d Number of bacteria = 3 × 50
= 150
2 Draw a horizontal line from N = 150 to the curve and N
N = 50 × 2x
from this point draw a vertical line to the x-axis. 500
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 x

3 The point on the x-axis will be the estimate of the
time taken for the number of bacteria to treble.
4 Write the answer in a sentence. The time taken will be approximately
1.6 hours.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A new computer costs $3000. It is estimated that each year it will be losing 12% of the previous
year’s value.
a Determine the value, $V, of the computer after the first year.
b Determine the value of the computer after the second year.
c Determine the equation that relates the value of the computer to the number of years, n, it has
been used.
d Use your equation to determine the value of the computer in 10 years’ time.
THINK WRITE
a 1 State the original value of the computer. a V0 = 3000
2 Since 12% of the value is being lost each year, the value of V1 = 88% of 3000
the computer will be 88% or (100 − 12)% of the previous = 0.88 × 3000
year’s value. Therefore, the value after the first year (V1) is = 2640
88% of the original cost.
3 Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after
1 year is $2640.
b 1 The value of the computer after the second year, V2, is 88% b V2 = 88% of 2640
of the value after the first year. = 0.88 × 2640
= 2323.2
the second year is $2323.20.
c 1 The original value is V0. c V0 = 3000
2 The value after the first year, V1, is obtained by multiplying V1 = 3000 × 0.88
the original value by 0.88.
3 The value after the second year, V2, is obtained by V2 = (3000 × 0.88) × 0.88
multiplying V1 by 0.88, or by multiplying the original value, = 3000 × (0.88) 2
V0, by (0.88) 2.
4 The value after the third year, V3, is obtained by multiplying V3 = (3000 × 0.88) 2 × 0.88
V2 by 0.88, or V0 by (0.88) 3. = 3000 × (0.88) 3
5 By observing the pattern we can generalise as follows: the Vn = 3000 × (0.88) n
value after the nth year, Vn, can be obtained by multiplying
the original value, V0, by 0.88 n times; that is, by (0.88) n.
d 1 Substitute n = 10 into the equation obtained in part c to find d When n = 10,
the value of the computer after 10 years. V10 = 3000 × (0.88) 10
= 835.50
10 years is $835.50.

•• Sometimes the relationship between the two variables closely resembles an exponential pattern, but
cannot be described exactly by an exponential function. In such cases, part of the data are used to
model the relationship with exponential growth or the decay function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The population of a certain city is shown in the table below.

Year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Population ( × 1000) 128 170 232 316 412 549
Assume that the relationship between the population, P, and the year, x, can be modelled by the
function P = kax, where x is the number of years after 1985. The value of P must be multiplied
by 1000 in order to find the actual population.
a State the value of k, which is the population, in thousands, at the start of the period.
b Use a middle point in the data set to find the value of a, correct to 2 decimal places. Hence,
write the formula, connecting the population, P, with the number of years, x, since 1985.
c For the years given, find the size of the population using the formula obtained in part b.
Compare it with the actual size of the population in those years.
d Predict the population of the city in the years 2015 and 2020.
THINK WRITE
a From the given table, state the value of k that a k = 128

corresponds to the population of the city in
the year 1985.
b 1 Write the given formula for the population b P = kax
of the city.
2 Replace the value of k with the value found P = 128 × ax
in a.
3 Using a middle point of the data, replace x Middle point is (1995, 232).
with the number of years since 1985 and When x =10, P = 232, so 232 = 128 × a10.
P with the corresponding value.
4 Solve the equation for a. 232
a10 =
128
a10 = 1.8125
a = 10
√1.8125
a = 1.0613...
5 Round the answer to 2 decimal places. a ≈ 1.06
6 Rewrite the formula with this value of a. So P = 128 × (1.06) x .
c 1 Draw a table of values and enter the given c
Year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
years, the number of years since 1985, x,
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
and the population for each year, P. Round
values of P to the nearest whole number. P 128 171 229 307 411 549
2 Comment on the closeness of the fit. The values for the population obtained using the
formula closely resemble the actual data.

d 1 Find the value of x, the number of years d For the year 2015, x = 30.
after 1985.
2 Substitute this value of x into the formula P = 128 × (1.06) 30
and evaluate. = 735.166 87...
3 Round to the nearest whole number. P ≈ 735
4 Answer the question in a sentence. The predicted population for 2015 is 735 000.
5 Repeat for the year 2020. For the year 2020, x = 35.
P = 128 × (1.06) 35
= 983.819...
P ≈ 984
The predicted population for 2020 is 984 000.
Watch this eLesson: Exponential growth (eles-0176)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Converting a percentage to a decimal (doc-5386)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Decreasing a quantity by a percentage (doc-5387)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Exponential growth and decay (doc-14623)
Exercise 18.3 Exponential functions

Individual pathways

1, 3, 5, 6, 8–10, 13, 15, 16 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14–16 1, 4–6, 9–17
Fluency
1. WE7 The number of micro-organisms, N, in a culture dish
after x hours is given by the equation N = 2000 × 3x.
a. Determine the initial number of micro-organisms in the dish.
b. Determine the number of micro-organisms in a dish after 5 hours.
c. Draw the graph of N against x.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of hours needed for
the initial number of micro-organisms to quadruple.
2. The value of an investment (in dollars) after n years is given by A = 5000 × (1.075) n.
a. Determine the size of the initial investment.
b. Determine the value of the investment (to the nearest dollar) after 6 years.
c. Draw the graph of A against n.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of years needed for the initial investment to double.

3. MC a. The function P = 300 × (0.89) n represents an:
a. exponential growth with the initial amount of 300
b. exponential growth with the initial amount of 0.89
c. exponential decay with the initial amount of 300
d. exponential decay with the initial amount of 0.89
e. exponential decay with the initial amount of 300 × 0.89
b. The relationship between two variables, A and t, is described by the function A = 45 × (1.095) t,
where t is the time, in months, and A is the amount, in dollars. This function indicates:
a. a monthly growth of $45
b. a monthly growth of 9.5 cents
c. a monthly growth of 1.095%
d. a monthly growth of 9.5%
e. a yearly growth of 9.5%
4. MC The graph of y = 2x+1 − 1 is best represented by:
a. y b. y c. y
1 1
0 x
1
0 x 0 x
–1 –1 1
d. y e. y
0 x
–1
–1 0 x
–1
5. MC The graph of y = 3x−2 + 2 has an asymptote and y-intercept respectively at:

a. y = 0, 2 b. y = 2, 2 c. y = 2, 2 d. y = 2, 1 e. y = 0, 2
1 1 8
9 9 9
Understanding
6. WE8 A new washing machine costs $950. It is estimated that each year
it will be losing 7% of the previous year’s value.
a. Calculate the value of the machine after the first year.
b. Calculate the value of the machine after the second year.
c. Determine the equation that relates the value of the machine, $V,
to the number of years, n, that it has been used.
d. Use your equation to find the value of the machine in 12 years’ time.

7. A certain radioactive element decays in such a way that every 50 years the amount present decreases
by 15%. In 1900, 120 mg of the element was present.
a. Calculate the amount present in 1950.
b. Calculate the amount present in the year 2000.
c. Determine the rule that connects the amount of the element present, A, with the number of 50-year
intervals, t, since 1900.
d. Calculate the amount present in the year 2010. Round your answer to 3 decimal places.
e. Graph the function of A against t.
f. Use the graph to estimate the half-life of this element (that is, the number of years needed for half the
initial amount to decay).
8. When a shirt made of a certain fabric is washed, it loses 2% of its colour.
a. Determine the percentage of colour that remains after:
i. two washes ii. five washes.
b. Write a function for the percentage of colour, C, remaining
after w washings.
c. Draw the graph of C against w.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of washes after which
there is only 85% of the original colour left.
9. WE9 The population of a certain country is shown in the table below.
Year Population (in millions)

1990 118
1995 130
2000 144
2005 160
2010 178
Assume that the relationship between the population, P, and the year, n, can be modelled by the
formula P = kan, where n is the number of years since 1990.
a. State the value of k.
b. Use the middle point of the data set to find the value of a rounded to 2 decimal places. Hence, write
the formula that connects the two variables, P and n.
c. For the years given in the table, find the size of the population, using your formula. Compare the
numbers obtained with the actual size of the population.
d. Predict the population of the country in the year 2035.
10. The temperature in a room (in degrees Celsius), recorded at 10-minute intervals after the air
conditioner was turned on, is shown in the table below.
Time (min) 0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (°C) 32 26 21 18 17
Assume that the relationship between the temperature, T, and the time, t, can be modelled by the
formula T = cat, where t is the time, in minutes, since the air conditioner was turned on.
a. State the value of c.
b. Use the middle point in the data set to find the value of a to 2 decimal places.
c. Write the rule connecting T and t.
d. Using the rule, find the temperature in the room 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes after the air conditioner
was turned on and compare your numbers with the recorded temperature. Comment on your findings.
(Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.)

11. The population of a species of dogs (D) increases exponentially
and is described by the equation D = 60(1 − 0.6t) + 3,
where t represents the time in years.
a. Calculate the initial number of dogs.
b. Calculate the number of dogs after 1 year.
c. Determine the time taken for the population to reach 50 dogs.
12. Carbon-14 decomposes in such a way that the amount present
can be calculated using the equation, Q = Q0 (1 − 0.038) t,
where Q is measured in milligrams and t in centuries.
a. If there is 40 mg present initially, how much is present in:
i. 10 years’ time ii. 2000 years’ time?
b. How many years will it take for there to be less than 10 mg?
Reasoning
13. Fiona is investing $20 000 in a fixed term deposit earning 6% p.a. interest. When Fiona has $30 000
she intends to put a deposit on a house.
a. Determine an exponential function that will model the growth of Fiona’s investment.
b. Graph this function.
c. Determine the length of time (correct to the nearest year) that it will take for Fiona’s investment to
grow to $30 000.
d. Suppose Fiona had been able to invest at 8% p.a. How much quicker would Fiona’s investment have
grown to the $30 000 she needs?
e. Alvin has $15 000 to invest. Find the interest rate at which Alvin must invest his money, if his
investment is to grow to $30 000 in less than 8 years.
14. A Petri dish containing a bacteria colony was exposed to an antiseptic. (‘000) B
The number of bacteria within the colony, B, over time, t, in hours is shown 120
100
in the graph at right. 80
(1, 84)
a. Using the graph, predict the number of bacteria in the Petri dish (2, 58.8)
60
(3, 41.16)
after 5 hours. 40
b. Using the points from the graph, show that if B can be modelled by the 20 (4, 28.81)
function B (in thousands) = ab , then a = 120 and b = 0.7.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
c. After 8 hours, another type of antiseptic was added to the Petri dish. Hours
Within three hours, the number of bacteria in the Petri dish had decreased
to 50. If the number of bacteria decreased at a constant rate, show that the total of number of bacteria
that had decreased within two hours was approximately 6700.
15. One hundred people were watching a fireworks display at a local park. As the fireworks were set off,
more people started to arrive to see the show. The number of people, P, at time, t minutes, after the
start of the fireworks display, can be modelled by the function, P = abt.

a. If after 5 minutes there were approximately 249 people, show that the number of people arriving at
the park to watch the fireworks increased by 20% each minute.
b. The fireworks display lasted for 40 minutes. After 40 minutes, people started to leave the park. The
number of people leaving the park could be modelled by an exponential function. 15 minutes after
the fireworks ceased there were only 700 people in the park.
Derive an exponential function that can determine the number of people, N, remaining in the
park after the fireworks had finished at any time, m, in minutes.
Problem solving
16. A hot plate used as a camping stove is cooling down. The formula that describes this cooling pattern
is T = 500 × 0.5t where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius and t is the time in hours.
a. What is the initial temperature of the stove?
b. What is the temperature of the stove after 2 hours?
c. Decide when the stove will be cool enough to touch and give reasons.
17. The temperature in a greenhouse is monitored when the door is left open. The following
measurements are taken.
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
Temperature (°C) 45 35 27 21 16
a. State the initial temperature of the greenhouse.

b. Determine an exponential equation to fit the collected data.
c. What will the temperature be after 30 minutes?
It is discovered that one of the temperature readings is incorrect.
d. Recalculate all the temperatures using the exponential rule found in part a.
e. If the original incorrect temperature was omitted from the data, does this change the rule?
f. Will the temperature ever reach 0 °C? Explain.
Reflection
What are the main differences between a graph modelling exponential growth compared with one
showing decay?

18.4 Cubic functions
18.4.1 Cubic functions
•• Cubic functions are polynomials where the highest power of x is 3. These include functions such as
y = x3 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3).
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Plot the graph of y = x3 − 1 by completing a table of values.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Prepare a table of values, taking x-values from x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
− 3 to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each
y −28 −9 −2 −1 0 7 26
x-value into the given equation to find the
corresponding y-value.
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from the table. y
Join them with a smooth curve. 25
20
15
10
5
–3 –2 –1 0
–1 1 2 3 x
–5
–10
y = x3 – 1
–15
–20
–25
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Plot the curve of y = x(x − 2)(x + 2) by completing a table of values.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Prepare a table of values, taking x-values from x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
− 3 to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each
y −15 0 3 0 −3 0 15
x-value into the given equation.
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from the y
table. Join them with a smooth curve. 15
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y = x (x – 2)(x + 2)
–15
•• A good sketch of a cubic function shows:

1. x‐ and y‐intercepts
2. the behaviour of the function at extreme values of x, that is, as x approaches infinity (x → +∞)
and as x approaches negative infinity (x → −∞)
3. the general location of turning points.

Note that for cubic functions, ‘humps’ are not symmetrical as they are for parabolas, but are
skewed to one side.
The graphs below show the two main types of cubic graph.
y y Point of inflection
Turning
points
0 x
0 x

Consider the general factorised cubic y = (x − a) (x − b) (x − c).
The x‐intercepts occur when y = 0, that is, when x = a or x = b or x = c.
The y‐intercept occurs when x = 0, that is, the y‐intercept is
y = (0 − a)(0 − b)(0 − c)
= −abc
y
c b 0 a x
–abc
Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.

a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5)
b y = (x − 6) 2 (4 − x)
c y = (x − 2) 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5)

2 The y‐intercept occurs where x = 0. y‐intercept: if x = 0,
Substitute x = 0 into the equation. y = (− 2)(− 3)(5)
= 30
Point: (0, 30)
3 Solve y = 0 to find the x‐intercepts. x‐intercepts: if y = 0,
x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 2, x = 3 or x = − 5
Points: (2, 0), (3, 0), (− 5, 0)

4 Combine the above steps to sketch. y
30
–5 0 2 3 x
b 1 Write the equation. b y = (x − 6) 2 (4 − x)

2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y‐intercept. y‐intercept: if x = 0,
y = (− 6) 2 (4)
= 144
Point: (0, 144)
3 Solve y = 0 to find the x‐intercepts. x‐intercepts: if y = 0,
x − 6 = 0 or 4 − x = 0
x = 6 or x = 4
Points: (6, 0), (4, 0)
4 Combine all information and sketch the y
graph.
Note: The curve just touches the x‐axis at 144
x = 6. This occurs with a double factor
such as (x − 6) 2.
0 4 6 x
c 1 Write the equation. c y = (x − 2) 3

2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y‐intercept. y‐intercept: if x = 0,
y = (− 2) 3
= −8
3 Solve y = 0 to find the x‐intercepts. x‐intercept: if y = 0,
x−2=0
x=2
4 Combine all information and sketch the y
graph.
Note: The point of inflection is at x = 2.
This occurs with a triple factor such as 0 2 x
(x − 2) 3.
–8

Exercise 18.4 Cubic functions
Individual pathways

1a–f, 2a–f, 3–8 1e–h, 2e–h, 3–8, 10 1i–l, 2i–l, 3–11
Fluency
1. WE10, 11 , 12 Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.
a. y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) b. y = (x − 3)(x − 5)(x + 2)
c. y = (x + 6)(x + 1)(x − 7) d. y = (x + 4)(x + 9)(x + 3)
e. y = (x + 8)(x − 11)(x + 1) f. y = (2x − 6)(x − 2)(x + 1)
g. y = (2x − 5)(x + 4)(x − 3) h. y = (3x + 7)(x − 5)(x + 6)
i. y = (4x − 3)(2x + 1)(x − 4) j. y = (2x + 1)(2x − 1)(x + 2)
k. y = (x − 3) 2 (x − 6) l. y = (x + 2)(x + 5) 2
2. Sketch the following (a mixture of positive and negative cubics).
a. y = (2 − x)(x + 5)(x + 3) b. y = (1 − x)(x + 7)(x − 2)
c. y = (x + 8)(x − 8)(2x + 3) d. y = (x − 2)(2 − x)(x + 6)
e. y = x(x + 1)(x − 2) f. y = −2(x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 2)
g. y = 3(x + 1)(x + 10)(x + 5) h. y = −3x(x − 4) 2
i. y = 4x (x + 8)
2
j. y = (5 − 3x)(x − 1)(2x + 9)
k. y = (6x − 1) (x + 7)
2
l. y = −2x2(7x + 3)
3. MC Which of the following is a reasonable sketch of y = (x + 2)(x − 3)(2x + 1)?
a. y b. y c. y d. y
0
–2 3 x 0 1– 2 3 x
– 1–2 2
0
–3 0 1– 2 x –2 – 1– 3 x
2 2
4. MC The graph shown could be that of: y

a. y = x2 (x + 2)
b. y = (x + 2) 3
c. y = (x − 2)(x + 2) 2 –2 0 2 x
d. y = (x − 2) 2 (x + 2)
–8
5. MC The graph at right has the equation: y

a. y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
b. y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
0
c. y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) –3 –1 2 x
d. y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
–6

6. MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph shown at right y
could be:
a. y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)
b. y = (x + a)(x − b)(x + c)
c. y = (x + a)(x + b)(x − c) –b 0 c a x
d. y = (x − a)(x + b)(x − c)
Understanding
7. Sketch the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x(x − 1) 2 b. y = −(x + 1) 2 (x − 1)
c. y = (2 − x)(x2 − 9) d. y = −x(1 − x2)
Reasoning
8. The function f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 4 has x‐intercepts at (1, 0) and (−4, 0). Find the values of a
and b.
9. The graphs of the functions f(x) = x3 + (a + b)x2 + 3x − 4 and g(x) = (x − 3) 3 + 1 touch. Express
a in terms of b.
Problem solving
10. A girl uses 140 cm of wire to make a frame of a cuboid with a square base as shown.
x
x
The base length of the cuboid is x cm and the height is h cm.

a. Explain why the volume cm3 is given by V = 35x2 − 2x3.
b. What possible values can x assume?
c. Find the volume of the cuboid when the base area is 81cm2 .
d. Sketch the graph of V versus x.
e. Use technology to determine the coordinates of the maximum turning point. Explain what these
coordinates mean.
11. Find the rule for the cubic function shown.
y
50
40
30
20
10
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–20
–30
–40
Reflection
Is it possible to get symmetrical ‘humps’ for the graphs of cubic functions?

18.5 Quartic functions
•• Quartic functions are polynomials where the highest power of x is 4. These include functions such as
y = x4 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 5).
•• It is necessary, when sketching the graphs of quartic functions, to find all the intercepts on both the
x‐ and y-axes.
18.5.1 Basic shapes of quartic graphs

•• The direction of a quartic graph is determined by the coefficient of the x4 term. This is similar to the
effect the coefficient of x2 has on the shape of a parabola. Consider the coefficient of x4 to be a.
When a is positive (a > 0)
1. y = ax4 2. y = ax4 + cx2, c ≥ 0
y y
0 x 0 x
3. y = ax2 (x − b) (x − c) 4. y = a(x − b) 2 (x − c) 2
y y
b 0 c x
b 0 c x
5. y = a(x − b)(x − c) 3 6. y = a(x − b)(x − c)(x − d )(x − e)

y y
b 0 c x
b c 0 d ex
When a is negative (a < 0) y

If a was negative in each of the previous graphs, they would be reflected in
the x‐axis. 0 x
y = –x 4
Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 12, showing all intercepts.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Find the y‐intercept. When x = 0, y = 12.
The y‐intercept is 12.
2 Let P(x) = y. Let P(x) = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 12.

3 Find two linear factors of the quartic P(1) = (1) 4 − 2(1) 3 − 7(1) 2 + 8(1) + 12
expressions, if possible, using the factor = 12
theorem. ≠0
P(−1) = (−1) 4 − 2(−1) 3 − 7(−1) 2 + 8(−1) + 12
=0
(x + 1) is a factor.
P(2) = (2) 4 − 2(2) 3 − 7(2) 2 + 8(2) + 12
= 0
(x − 2) is a factor.
4 Find the product of the two linear factors. (x + 1)(x − 2) = x2 − x − 2
5 Use long division to divide the quartic by x2 − x − 6
the quadratic factor x2 − x − 2. x2 − x − 2⟌x − 2x − 7x + 8x + 12
4 3 2
x4 − x3 − 2x2
− x3 − 5x2 + 8x
− x3 + x2 + 2x
− 6x2 + 6x + 12
− 6x2 + 6x + 12
0
6 Express the quartic in factorised form. y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x2 − x − 6)
= (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 2)
7 To find the x‐intercepts, solve y = 0. If 0 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 2)
x = −1, 2, 3, −2.
8 State the x‐intercepts. The x‐intercepts are −2, −1, 2, 3.
9 Sketch the graph of the quartic. y
12
–2 –1 0 2 3 x
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Cubic and quartic functions (doc-14624)
Exercise 18.5 Quartic functions

Individual pathways

1a–d, 2a–d, 3–6, 9 1c–f, 2c–f, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 1d–h, 2d–h, 3–10

Fluency
1. WE13 Sketch the graph of each of the following showing all intercepts. You may like to verify the
shape of the graph using a graphics calculator or another form of digital technology.
a. y = (x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 1) b. y = (x2 − 1)(x + 2)(x − 5)
c. y = 2x + 6x − 16x − 24x + 32
4 3 2
d. y = x4 + 4x3 − 11x2 − 30x
e. y = x4 + 4x3 − 12x − 9 f. y = x4 − 4x2 + 4
g. y = 30x − 37x + 15x − 2x
2 3 4
h. y = 6x4 + 11x3 − 37x2 − 36x + 36
2. Sketch each of the following.
a. y = x2(x − 1)2
b. y = − (x + 1) 2 (x − 4) 2
c. y = − x(x − 3) 3
d. y = (2 − x)(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 4)
e. y = (x − a)(b − x)(x + c)(x + d), a, b, c, d > 0
Understanding
3. MC A quartic touches the x‐axis at x = − 3 and x = 2. It crosses the y‐axis at y = − 9. A possible
equation is:
a. y = (x + 3) 2 (x − 2) 2 b. y = − (x + 3) 3 (x − 2)
1 1
4 6
c. y = − (x + 3)(x − 2) 3 d. y = − (x + 3) 2 (x − 2) 2
3 1
8 4
4. MC Consider the function f(x) = x4 − 8x2 − 16.

a. When factorised, f(x) is equal to:
a. (x + 2)(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 4) b. (x + 3)(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)
c. (x − 2) 3 (x + 2) d. (x − 2) 2 (x + 2) 2
b. The graph of f(x) is best represented by:
a. y b. y
x 16
–2 0 2
–16 –2 0 2 x
c. y d. y
16
4
–2 0 2 x 0 x
–2 2
Reasoning
5. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
a. y = x(x − 1) 3 b. y = (2 − x) (x2 − 4) (x + 3)
c. y = x4 − x2 d. y = 9x4 − 30x3 + 13x2 + 20x + 4
e. y = − (x − 2) (x + 1)
2 2
f. y = x4 − 6x2 − 27
g. y = (x + 2) 3 (x − 3) h. y = 4x2 − x4
Verify your answers using a graphics calculator.
6. The function f(x) = x4 + ax3 − 4x2 + bx + 6 has x‐intercepts (2, 0) and (− 3, 0). Find the values of
a and b.

7. The functions y = (a − 2b)x4 − 3x − 2 and y = x4 − x3 + (a + 5b)x2 − 5x + 7 both have an
x‐intercept of 1. Find the value of a and b.
8. Patterns emerge when we graph polynomials with repeated factors, that is, polynomials of the form
P(x) = (x − a) n, n > 1. Describe what happens if:
a. n is even
b. n is odd.
Problem solving
9. A carnival ride has a piece of the track modelled by the rule
h = −300
1
x(x − 12) 2 (x − 20) + 15, 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
where x metres is the horizontal displacement from the origin and h metres is the vertical displace-
ment of the track above the horizontal ground.
a. How high above the ground level is the track at the origin?
b. Use technology to sketch the function. Give the coordinates of any stationary points (that is, turning
points or points of inflection).
c. How high above ground level is the track when x = 3?
10. Find the rule for the quartic function shown.
y
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4x
y-intercept
(0, –8)
Reflection
What are the basic differences between cubic and quartic functions?
CHALLENGE 18.2
Two functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other if g(f(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x. The domain of f(g(x)) must be
the domain of g(x), and the domain of g(f(x)) must be the domain of f(x). Using this information, show that
f(x) = x2, x ≥ 0 and g(x) = √x, x ≥ 0 are inverses of each other.
18.6 Transformations
18.6.1 Transformations
•• Once the basic shape of the graph of a particular function or relation is known, it is not difficult to
predict the shape of a related function, which is a transformation of the basic function or relation.
Transformations of parabolas have been dealt with previously, but for the sake of comparison with
other functions, they are included in this chapter. Other functions and relations considered are circles,
hyperbolas, exponential functions, cubic and quartic functions. Below is a summary of transforma-
tions of functions discussed previously.

18.6.2 Quadratic functions
•• The basic quadratic function is y = x2. The shape of its graph is:
y
y = x2
0 (0, 0) x
Transformation Description Graph

Vertical Adding or subtracting a y
y = x2 + 2
translation constant to y = x2 y y = x2
moves the curve up or y = x2 y = x2 – 3
down the y‐axis.
0 x
(0, 2)
0 x
(0, –3)

Horizontal If the graph of y = x2 is y
y y = (x + 1)2
translation translated b units y = x2
y = x2
horizontally, the
equation becomes (0, 1)
(0, 4) y = (x – 2)2
y = (x − b) 2.
x (–1, 0) 0 x
0 (2, 0)

Dilation If the graph of y = x2 is y y = 2x2
y y = 1–4 x2
dilated by a factor of a, y = x2 y = x2
the graph becomes
narrower if a > 1 and
wider if 0 < a < 1. (0, 0) x (0, 0) x

Reflection If the x2 term is positive, y
y = x2
the graph is concave up,
while if there is a
negative sign in front of
the x2 term, the graph is (0, 0)
x
concave down.
y = –x2
18.6.3 Circles y
•• The equation of a circle (relation) with centre (0, 0) and radius r is x2 + y2 = r2. P(x, y)
r y
0 x x

Translation If the circle is translated h units to the right, y
y P(x, y)
parallel to the x‐axis, and k units upwards,
(y – k)
parallel to the y‐axis, the equation of the circle, k
centre (h, k) becomes (x – h)
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2.
0 h x x
18.6.4 Hyperbolas
•• The hyperbola is a function of the form xy = k or y = .
k y
x 1
2 y =—
•• The graph of y = has the shape
1 x
1
x –3 –2 –1
0 1 2 3 x
–1
–2

Dilation
Graphs of the form y = are the same basic
k y
x 4
shape as y = , with y‐values dilated by a
1 8 y =—
x
x 4
factor of k. –2 –1
0 1 2 x
–4
–8
Negative values of k Negative values of k cause the graph to be y

reflected across the y‐axis. 6
–3
3 y=—
x
1 2 3
–3 –2 –1 0 x
–3
–6
18.6.5 Exponential functions

•• These functions are of the form y = ax, where a ≠ 1. The basic shape has a y‐intercept of 1.
y
y = 2x
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x

Functions for the form Multiplying by a factor of k y
y = k × ax
24
causes the y‐intercept to move to 22
20 y = 3 × 2x
the point (0, k). 18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
y=0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
Functions with a negative This causes the graph to be y

exponent reflected in the y‐axis. y = 3–x
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 y=1 y=0
2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
18.6.6 Cubic functions

•• The basic form of a cubic function is y = x3. This can also be expressed in the form
y = a(x − b)3 + c, where a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0.
y y = x3
0 x

Translation If a ≠ 1, b ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0, the graph is y y = a(x – b)3 + c
translated +b units in the x direction, +c units
in the y direction, and dilated by a factor of a
in the y direction.
(b, c)
0 x

Reflection The cubic function can be expressed in factor y
form as y = a(x − b)(x − c)(x − d), where y = a(x – b)(x – c)(x – d)
where a > 0
b, c and d are the x‐intercepts. If the value of a
is negative, this causes the curve to be reflected
in the x‐axis.
b c d
0 x
y = –(x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)

y
–2 0 1 3 x
18.6.7 Quartic functions y
•• The basic form of the quartic function y = ax4, when a is positive,

has the following shape. y = ax4
where a > 0
0 x

Reflection Negative values of a cause the graph to y
be reflected in the x‐axis.
0 x
y = –x 4
18.6.8 Transformation in general polynomials

•• With knowledge of the transformations that occur in the functions just discussed, it is possible to
generate many other graphs without knowing the equation of the original function. Consider a basic
polynomial y = P(x) and what happens to the shape of the curve as the function is changed.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right to sketch: y

a y = P(x) + 1
b y = P(x) − 1
c y = −P(x) .
0 x
y = P(x)

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). a y
0 x
y = P(x)
2 Consider the x‐values. They remain unchanged — there

is no horizontal translation.
3 Consider the y‐values. They are increased by 1 — the
curve is shifted up 1 unit.
4 Sketch the graph of y = P(x) + 1 using a similar scale y
to the original.
1
0 x
y = P(x) + 1
b 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). b y
0 x
y = P(x)

3 Consider the y‐values. They are decreased by 1 — the
curve is shifted down 1 unit.
4 Sketch the graph of y = P(x) − 1 using a similar scale y
to the original.
0 x
–1
y = P(x) – 1

c 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). c y
0 x
y = P(x)

3 Consider the y‐values. They will all change sign — the
curve will be reflected in the x‐axis. That is, negative
becomes positive and positive becomes negative.
4 Sketch the graph of y = − P(x) using a similar scale to y
y = –P(x)
the original.
0 x
Try out this interactivity: Polynomial transformations (int-2794)
Exercise 18.6 Transformations

Individual pathways

1–3, 5, 7 1–4, 6, 7, 9 1–10
Fluency
1. WE14 Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right to sketch: y y = P(x)
a. y = P(x) + 1
b. y = P(x) − 2
c. y = − P(x) 0 x
d. y = 2P(x).

2. Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right. Sketch: y y = P(x)
a. y = P(x) + 1
b. y = − P(x)
c. y = P(x + 2).
0 1 x
Understanding
3. Draw any polynomial y = P(x). Discuss the similarities and differences between the graphs of
y = P(x) and y = − P(x).
y = P(x) and y = 2P(x).
y = P(x) and y = P(x) − 2.
6. Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown below.
y
0 x
–1
y = P(x)
Give a possible equation for each of the following in terms of P(x).

a. y b. y
1
0 x
0 x
–3
–4
c. y
0 x
–2
Reasoning
7. y = x(x − 2)(x − 3) and y = − 2x(x − 2)(x − 3) are graphed on the same set of axes. Describe the
relationship between the two graphs using the language of transformations.
8. If y = − hr− q(x+ p) − r, what translations take place from the original graph, y = rx?
Problem solving
9. The graph of y = is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis, translated
1
x
2 units to the left and up 1 unit. Find the equation of the resultant curve. Give the equations of any
asymptotes.

10. The graph of an exponential function is shown.
y
175
150 (5, 165)
125
100
75
50
y-intercept
25 (0, 10)
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
Its general rule is given by y = a(2x) + b.

a. Find the values of a and b.
b. Describe any transformations that had to be applied to the graph of y = 2x to achieve this graph.
Reflection
Why is it important to understand how transformations can affect the shape of a graph?
18.7 Review
Fluency
1. Which of the following are functions?
a. y b. y
0 x 0 x
2. Which of the following are functions? For each identified as functions, state the equation of the
inverse function, if it exists.
a. y = 2x − 7 b. x2 + y2 = √30 c. y =2x d. y = x +1 1
3. If f(x) = √4 − x2:
a. find:
i. f(0) ii. f(1) iii. f(2)
b. Does f −1(x) exist? If so, what is it equation?
4. Sketch each of the following curves, showing all intercepts.
a. y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) b. y = (2x + 1)(x + 5)2
5. Give an example of the equation of a cubic that would just touch the x-axis and cross it at another point.
6. Match each equation with its type of curve.
a. y = x2 + 2 A. circle
b. x2 + y2 = 9 B. cubic
c. f(x) = 2
x + 2
C. exponential

d. g(x) = 6− x D. parabola
e. h(x) = (x + 1)(x − 3)(x + 5) E. hyperbola
7. The equation for this graph could be: y
a. y = (x − 5)(x + 1)(x + 3)
b. y = (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 5)
c. y = (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)
d. y = (5 − x)(1 + x)(3 + x)
–3 –1 5 x
8. Which of the following shows the graph of y = − 2(x + 5)3 − 12?

a. y b. y c. y d. y
(5, 12)
x x
(–5, 12)
(–5, –12) x
(5, –12)
x
9. Sketch:
a. y = x(x − 2)(x + 11) b. y = x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 c. y = − 2x3 + x2
10. The rule for the graph shown could be:
a. f(x) = x(x + 2)3 y f(x)
b. f(x) = − x(x − 2) 2
c. f(x) = x2(x − 2)2

d. f(x) = x(x − 2)3 0 x
2
11. The graph of y = (x + 3)2(x − 1)(x − 3) is best represented by:

a. y b. y c. y d. y
0 x
–3 1 3 0 1 x 0 1 x
–3 3 –3 3
0 1
–3 3 x
12. Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 7x3 + 12x2 + 4x − 16, showing all intercepts.
13. Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right. Sketch y = − P(x). y
–1 0 1x
14. Draw any polynomial y = P(x). Discuss the similarities and differences between
the graphs of y = P(x) and y = P(x) + 3.
Problem solving
15. Describe what happens to f(x) = − 2x as x → ∞ and x → −∞.
16. Find any points of intersection between f(x) = x2 − 4 and g(x) = x3 + x2 − 12.
17. The concentration of alcohol (mg/L) in a bottle of champagne is modelled by C = C0 × 0.33kt where
t represents the time in days after the bottle is opened. If the initial concentration is 80 mg/L and the
concentration after 1 day is 70 mg/L, find the concentration remaining after:
a. 3 days b. 1 week c. 18 hours.

18. The number of hyenas, H, in the zoo is given by H = 20(100.1t ), where t is the number of years since
counting started. At the same time, the number of dingoes, D, is given by D = 25(100.05t ).
a. Calculate the number of:
i. hyenas ii. dingoes when counting began.
b. Calculate the numbers of each after:
i. 1 year ii. 18 months.
c. Which of the animals is the first to reach a population of 40 and by how long?
d. After how many months are the populations equal and what is this population?
19. a. Consider the equation f(x) = a(x − h)2 + k . By restricting the x-values, find the equation of the
inverse function.
b. Show that the function f(x) = ax + b and its inverse function intersect on the line y = x.
20. A shend is a type of tropical pumpkin grown by the people of Outer Thrashia. The diameter (D m) of
a shend increases over a number of months (m) according to the rule D = 0.25 × (10) 0.01m.
a. Determine the diameter of the shend after 4 months.
b. If the shend is not harvested it will explode when it reaches a critical diameter of 0.5 metres. Show
that it takes approximately 30 months for an unharvested shend to explode.
21. The surface area of a lake is evaporating at a rate of 5% per year due to climate change. To model this
situation, the surface area of the lake (S km2) over time is given by S = 20 000 × 0.95x, where x is the
time in years.
a. Explain whether this is an exponential relationship.
b. What is the surface area of the lake initially?
c. What will the surface area be in 10 years’ time?
d. Plot a graph for this relationship.
e. What will the surface area be in 100 years’ time?
f. Explain whether this is a realistic model.
Language
cubic functions hyperbola quadratic functions
dilation inflection point quartic functions
domain inverse reflection
exponential functions many-to-many relation
function many-to-one transformations
function notation one-to-many translations
horizontal line test one-to-one vertical line test

www.assesson.com.au

Shaping up!
Many beautiful patterns are created by starting with a single function or relation and transforming
and repeating it over and over.
In this task you will apply what you have learned about functions, relations and transformations
(dilations, reflections and translations) to explore mathematical patterns.
Exploring patterns using transformations

1. a. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of:
i. y = x2 − 4x + 1
ii. y = x2 − 3x + 1
iii. y = x2 − 2x + 1
iv. y = x2 + 2x + 1
v. y = x2 + 3x + 1
vi. y = x2 + 4x + 1
b. Describe the pattern formed by your graphs. Use mathematical terms such as intercepts, turning
point, shape and transformations.
What you have drawn is referred to as a family of curves — curves in which the shape of the curve
changes if the values of a, b and c in the general equation y = ax2 + bx + c change.
c. Explore the family of parabolas formed by changing the values of a and c. Comment on your
findings.
d. Explore exponential functions belonging to the family of curves with equation y = kax, families
of cubic functions with equations y = ax3 or y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, and families of quartic
functions with equations y = ax4 or y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e. Comment on your
findings.

e. Choose one of the designs shown below and recreate it (or a simplified version of it). Record
the mathematical equations used to complete the design.
Coming up with your design

2. Use what you know about transformations to functions and relations to create your own design
from a basic graph. You could begin with a circle, add some line segments and then repeat the
pattern with some change.
Record all the equations and restrictions you use.
It may be helpful to apply your knowledge of inverse functions too.
A digital technology will be very useful for this task.
Create a poster of your design to share with the class.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: 2 important events of 1973 (doc-15951)

Answers
Topic 18 Functions and relations
Exercise 18.2 Functions and relations
1. a. One‐to‐many b. Many‐to‐one c. Many‐to‐one d. One‐to‐one e. One‐to‐one
f. Many‐to‐one g. Many‐to‐many h. Many‐to‐one i. One‐to‐one j. Many‐to‐one
k. One‐to‐one l. Many‐to‐one
2. a. b, c, d, e, f, h, i, j, k, l b. d, e, i
3. a. i. 1 ii. 7 iii. –5 iv. 16
b. i. 2 ii. 1 iii. 3 iv. 0
c. i. 3 ii. 2 iii. 6 iv. 9
d. i. 9 ii. 1 iii. 16 iv. a2 + 6a + 9
e. i. 12 ii. 6 iii. −4 iv. 2
4. A, C, D
5. a, b, c, f
5 10 10 10
6. a. 3 b. 3 c. − 2x d. − x2 e. −x−3 f. −x+1
x x2 x+3 x−1
7. a. 3 b. −3 or 3 c. 13 d. 2 or 3 e. −4 or 1 f. −1
8. a. f(x) → ∞ b. f(x) → 0 c. f(x) → 0 d. f(x) → −∞ e. f(x) → 0
9. a. (0, −4), (2, 0) b. (1, −2), (−23, 3) c. (2, 0), (−2, 0) d. (3, −4)
x+1
10. a. f −1x =
2
b. f −1(x) = √x + 3 or f −1(x) = −√x + 3
c. f(x) −1 = √x − 4 + 2 or f(x) −1 = −√x − 4 + 2
11. a. i. The horizontal line test fails.
ii. An inverse function will exist for f(x) = x(x − 2), x ≤ 1 or f(x) = x(x − 2), x ≥ 1.
b. i. The horizontal line test is upheld.
ii. f −1(x) = −√4 − x, x ≤ 4.
12. a. x = ±3 b. x = 2 13 c. x = 28
13. a. Ran = [2, ∞) b. Many-to-one
c. and f. y
4 f(x) = (x – 1)2 + 2
3 Turning point
(1, 2)
2
1
f –1(x) = √ x – 2 + 1; x ≥ 1
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
d. Dom = [1, ∞)
e. f −1 (x) = √x − 2 + 1, Dom = [2, ∞), Ran = [1, ∞)
g. (0, 3) and (3, 6)
Challenge 18.1
These graphs are inverse because they are the mirror images of each other through the line y = x.

Exercise 18.3 Exponential functions
1. a. 2000 b. 486 000
c. y d. 1.26 h
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
50000
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. a. $5000 b. $7717
c. A d. 10 years
14 000
A = 5000 × (1.075)n
12 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
3. a. C b. D
4. A
5. B
6. a. $883.50 b. $821.66 c. V = 950 × (0.93) n d. $397.67
7. a. 102 mg b. 86.7 mg c. A = 120 × (0.85) t
d. 83.927 mg e. A f. Approximately 210 years
140
120
A = 120 × (0.85)t
100
80
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 t
8. a. i. 96.04% ii. 90.39%

b. C = 100(0.98) w
c. 100C C = 100 × (0.98)w d. 8 washings
80
60
40
20
0 5 10 15 20 w
9. a. 118 (million) b. a = 1.02; P = 118 × (1.02) n

c. Year 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Population 118 130 144 159 175
Calculated population is less accurate after 10 years.
d. 288 (million)
10. a. 32 b. 0.98 c. T = 32 × (0.98) t
d. 26.1, 21.4, 17.5, 14.3; values are close except for t = 40.
11. a. 3 dogs b. 27 dogs c. 3 years
12. a. i. 39.85 mg ii. 18.43 mg
b. More than 35.78 centuries

13. a. A = 20 000 × 1.06x b.
30000
c. 7 years
Investment ($)
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Years
d. 6 years — 1 year quicker e. 9.05% p.a.

14. a. Approximately 20 200 b, c. Teacher to check.
15. a. a = 100, b = 1.20, increase = 20%/min
b. N = 146 977 × 0.70m
16. a. 500 °C b. 125 °C
c. Between 5 and 6 hours once it has cooled to below 15 °C
17. a. 45 °C b. T = 45 × 0.95t c. 10 °C
d. Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
Temperature (°C) 45 35 27 21 16
e. No
f. No. The line T = 0 is an asymptote.
Exercise 18.4 Cubic functions
y y y y
1. a. b. c. d.
30
108
0 x ‒6 ‒1 0 7 x
1 2 3
‒42
‒6
‒2 0 3 5 x 0 x
‒9 ‒4 ‒3
e. y f. y g. y h. y
12
‒8 ‒1 11 –6
0 x 60 x
– 7– 0 5
‒88 3
5– –210
2
‒1 0 2 3 x ‒4 0 3 x
i. y j. y k. y l. y
12 3–
50
4 0 3 6 x
‒ 1– 0
2 4 x
‒2 ‒ 1– 0 1– x
2 2
‒2 ‒54 0 x
‒5 ‒2
2. a. y b. y c. y d. y
30 x
‒7 0 1 2 x ‒6 0 2
‒14
‒8 ‒ 3– 0 8 x ‒24
2
‒192
‒5 ‒3 0 2 x
e. y f. y g. y h. y
12
150 0 4 x
‒1 0 2 x
‒1
‒10 ‒5 0 x
‒3 ‒2 0 1 x

i. y j. y 5– k. y l. y
3
‒ 9– 0 1 x
2
‒45
0 x
7 ‒ 3–
7
‒8 0 x ‒7 0 1– x
6
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. D
7. a. 4
y b. 4
y
3 3
2 2
1 1
–2 –1 –10 1 2 3x –2 –1 –10 1 2 3x
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
c. 20
y d. 4
y
15 3
10 2
5 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 x –3 –2 –1 –10 1 2 3x
–5 1 2 3 4 5 6
–10
–2
–3
–15 –4
–20 –5
–25
–30
8. a = 2, b = −7
−(27 + 11b)
9. a =
11
b. 0 < x < 17.5 c. 1377 cm3
y Turning point
d.
(11.6662, 1587.963)
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
x = 17.518
0 x
5 10 15 20
e. (11.6662, 1587.963); this is the value of x which creates the maximum volume.
11. y = 2(x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 5)
Exercise 18.5 Quartic functions

1. a. y b. y c. y d. y
24
10 32
x
‒5 ‒2 0 3
x x x
‒3 ‒1 0 2 4 ‒2‒10 1 5 ‒4 ‒2 0 1 2

e. y f. y g. y h. y
4 36
‒ 3
x x
‒3 ‒1 0 3 0 2 5– 3
2 x
‒3 ‒ 3–2 0 2–
2
‒9 0 x 3
‒ 2 2
2. a. y b. y c. y
4 2
5
3 –2 –1 0 x
–2 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
2 –4
1 –6 3
–8
–10 2
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1 –12 1
–2 –14
–16
0 x
–4 –2 2 4 6
–1
d. y e. y
4 c
3
b
2
1 a
0 x
–3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 –d –c –b –a 0 a b c dx
–2 –a
–3 –b
–4
–5 –c
–d
–e
–f
–g
3. D
4. a. D b. B
5. a. y b. y c. y
0 x
‒3 ‒2 2
0 x
‒1 1
0 x ‒24
1 (3, ‒30)
y y y
d. (‒2, 400) e. f.
400
‒1 0 2 x
300
200 ‒3 0 3 x
100
(‒1, 36) (‒2, ‒16) ‒16 ‒27
0 1 x
‒2 ‒1 2 3
y y
g. h.
(‒3, 6) ‒2 0 2 x
0 x
‒2 3
‒24
(‒3, ‒45)
6. a = 4, b = −19
7. a = 3, b = −1
8. a. If n is even, the graph touches the x‐axis.
b. If n is odd, the graph cuts the x‐axis.

9. a. 15 m
b. y
Turning point
35
(3.4113, 28.9144)
30
25 Turning point
(17.5887, 19.4156)
20
15
10 Turning point – 1 x (x – 12)2 (x – 20) + 15:0 ≤ x ≤ 20

300
(12, 15)
5
x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
c. 28.77 m
10. y = (x + 1) (x − 2) 3
Challenge 18.2
Exercise 18.6 Transformations

1. y
y = 2P(x)
y = P(x)
y = P(x) + 1
y = P(x) ‒ 2
0 x
y = ‒P(x)
y
2. y = P(x) + 1
y = P(x + 2) y = P(x)
0 x
‒1 1
y = ‒P(x)
3. They have the same x‐intercepts, but y = −P(x) is a reflection of y = P(x) in the x‐axis.
4. They have the same x‐intercepts, but the y‐values in y = 2P(x) are all twice as large.
5. The entire graph is moved down 2 units. The shape is identical.
6. a. y = −P(x) b. y = P(x) − 3 c. y = 2P(x)
7. The original graph has been reflected in the x‐axis and dilated by a factor of 2 in the y direction. The location of the intercepts
remains unchanged.
1
8. Dilation by a factor of h from the x‐axis, reflection in the x‐axis, dilation by a factor of from the y‐axis, reflection in the
q
y‐axis, translation of p units left, translation of r units down.
2
9. y = − + 1, x = −2, y = 1
(x + 2)
10. a. y = 5(2x) + 5
b. Dilation by a factor of 5 parallel to the y-axis and translation of 5 units up. Graph asymptotes to y = 5.
18.7 Review
1. a
x + 7
2. a, c, d, 2
, log2x, 1
x
−1
3. a. i. 2 ii. √3 iii. 0
b. No.

4. a. y b. y
6 25
y = (2x + 1)(x + 5)2
–2 0 1 3 x –5 –1
2
0 x
y = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 3)
5. Check with your teacher. One possible answer is y = (x − 1)(x − 2)2.

6. a. D b. A c. E d. C e. B
7. D 8. A
9. a. y b. y c. y
8 1 x
2
–11 2 x –8 1 x
10. D 11. A
12. y 13. y
x
–1 0 2 4
–16 –1 0 1 x
14. The entire graph is moved up 3 units. The shape is identical.

15. As x → ∞, f(x) → −∞
As x → −∞, f(x) → 0
16. (2, 0)
17. a. 53.59 mg/L b. 31.42 mg/L c. 72.38 mg/L
18. a. i. 20 ii. 25
b. i. H = 25; D = 28 ii. H = 28; D = 30
c. Hyenas after 3 years; dingoes after 4 years
d. After about 23 months; 31 animals
x − k
19. a. f −1(x) = √ a
+ h, x ≥ ak b. Check with your teacher.
20. a. 0.27 m b. Teacher to check.
21. a. Yes, because the relationship involves a variable as an exponent.
b. 20 000 km2 c. 11 975 km2
d. y
20 000
Surface area (km2)
15 000
10 000
5000
0 20 40 60 80 100 x
Years
e. 118 km2
f. No this is not a realistic model as is it does not take into account changes to climate, rain, runoff from mountains,
glaciers etc.


TOPIC 19
Circle geometry
19.1 Overview
this topic.

For thousands of years humans have been
fascinated by circles. Since they first looked
upwards towards the sun and moon, which, from a
distance at least, looked circular, humans have
created circular monuments to nature. The most
famous circular invention, one that has been cred-
ited as the most important invention of all, is the
wheel. Scholars as early as Socrates and Plato
have been fascinated with the sheer beauty of the
properties of circles, and many scholars made a
life’s work out of studying them. Euclid was prob-
ably the most famous of these. It is in circle geom-
etry that the concepts of congruence and similarity,
studied earlier, have a powerful context.

1. THINK List what you know about circle geometry. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to
show your list.
knowledge of circle geometry.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
19.1 Overview
19.2 Angles in a circle
19.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents
19.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals
19.5 Tangents, secants and chords
19.6 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Piscopia (eles-2022)
TOPIC 19 Circle geometry 807

19.2 Angles in a circle
19.2.1 Circles
•• A circle is a set of points that lie a fixed distance (the radius) from a fixed point (the centre).
•• In circle geometry, there are many theorems that can be used to solve problems. It is important that we
are also able to prove these theorems.
•• To prove a theorem:
1. state the aim of the proof
2. use given information and previously established theorems to establish the result
3. give a reason for each step of the proof
4. state a clear conclusion.
19.2.2 Parts of a circle

Part (name) Description Diagram
Centre The middle point, equidistant from all points on
the circumference. It is usually shown by a dot O
and labelled O.
Circumference The outside length or the boundary forming the

circle. It is the circle’s perimeter. O
Radius A straight line from the centre to any point on the

circumference O
Diameter A straight line from one point on the circumfer-

ence to another, passing through the centre O
Chord A straight line from one point on the circumfer-

ence to another O
Segment The area of the circle between a chord and the

circumference. The smaller segment is called the O
minor segment and the larger segment is the
major segment.

Part (name) Description Diagram
Sector An area of a circle enclosed by 2 radii and the
circumference O
Arc A portion of the circumference

O
Tangent A straight line that touches the circumference at

one point only
O
Secant A chord extended beyond the circumference on

one side O
19.2.3 Angles in a circle C

•• In the diagram at right, chords AC and BC form the angle ACB. Arc AB has subtended
angle ACB.
•• Theorem 1 Code A B
•• The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the
circumference, standing on the same arc.
R
Proof:
Let ∠PRO = x and ∠QRO = y O
RO = PO = QO (radii of the same circle are equal) Q
∠RPO = x P
and ∠RQO = y
∠POM = 2x (exterior angle of triangle) R
and ∠QOM = 2y (exterior angle of triangle) xy
∠POQ = 2x + 2y
= 2(x + y) O Q
which is twice the size of ∠PRQ = x + y.

P M
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the circumference,
standing on the same arc.

•• Theorem 2 Code
All angles that have their vertex on the circumference and are R
subtended by the same arc are equal.
S
Proof: O
Join P and Q to O, the centre of the circle. P Q Q
P
Let∠PSQ = x
∠POQ = 2x (angle at the centre is twice)
the angle at the circumference)
∠PRQ = x (angle at the circumference is half the angle of the centre)
∠PSQ = ∠PRQ.
Angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal.
The application of the first two circle geometry theorems can be seen in the following worked
example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram at right, giving reasons x
46°
for your answers. O
y
THINK WRITE
1 Angles x and 46° are angles subtended by the same arc and x = 46°
both have their vertex on the circumference.
2 Angles y and 46° stand on the same arc. The 46° angle has its y = 2 × 46°

vertex on the circumference and y has its vertex at the centre. = 92°
The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
Angles subtended by the diameter, that is, angles in a semicircle, are right angles.
In the diagram at right, PQ is the diameter. Angles a, b and c are right angles. c b
This theorem is in fact a special case of Theorem 1. Q
Proof: P O
∠POQ = 180°(straight line) a
Let S refer to the angle at the circumference subtended by the diameter. In the
figure, S could be at the points where a, b and c are represented on the diagram.
∠PSQ = 90° (angle at the circumference is half the angle at the centre)
Angles subtended by a diameter are right angles.
19.2.4 Constructing a tangent

There are a number of ways to construct a tangent to a circle, as explained using the following steps.
1. Draw a circle of radius 5 cm and centre O.
2. Draw a radius.
3. Call the point of intersection of the radius and the circumference, P.
4. Extend this radius through P to the point Q, 5 cm outside the circle.
5. Using O and Q as centres, draw intersecting arcs above and below the line OQ.
6. Draw a straight line joining the points of intersection. This line is the tangent.
7. What do you notice about the angle between OQ and the tangent?
8. Investigate another technique for constructing a tangent to a circle.

9. Write a set of instructions for this method of constructing a tangent.
O P Q
If a radius is drawn to any point on the circumference and a tangent is
drawn at the same point, then the radius will be perpendicular to the
tangent. O P
In the diagram at right, the radius is drawn to a point, P, on the circumference.
The tangent to the circle is also drawn at P. The radius and the tangent meet at
right angles, that is, the angle at P equals 90°.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram at right, giving z

a reason for your answer. s
O
THINK WRITE
1 Angle z is subtended by the diameter. Use an appropriate z = 90°
theorem to state the value of z.
2 Angle s is formed by a tangent and a radius, drawn to the s = 90°
point of contact. Apply the corresponding theorem to find the
value of s.
The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a straight line
joining the centre of the circle to that external point.
Proof:
O S
Consider ΔSOR and ΔSOT.

OR = OT (radii of the same circle are equal)
OS is common.
∠ORS = ∠OTS = 90° (angle between a tangent and radii is 90°)
∴ ΔSOR ≅ ΔSOT (RHS)
So ∠ROS = ∠TOS and ∠OSR = ∠OST (corresponding angles in congruent triangles are equal).
The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a straight line joining
the centre of the circle to the external point.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Given that BA and BC are tangents to the circle, find the values A
of the pronumerals in the diagram at right. Give reasons for your r
answers. O 68° t B
q u
s
C
THINK WRITE
1 Angles r and s are angles formed by the s = r = 90°
tangent and the radius, drawn to the same
point on the circle. State their size.
2 In the triangle ABO, two angles are already ΔABO: t + 90° + 68° = 180°
known and so angle t can be found using our t + 158° = 180°
knowledge of the sum of the angles in a t = 22°
triangle.
3 ∠ABC is formed by the two tangents, so the ∠ABO = ∠CBO
line BO, joining the vertex B with the centre ∠ABO = t = 22°, ∠CBO = u
of the circle, bisects this angle. This means u = 22°
that angles t and u are equal.
4 ΔAOB and ΔCOB are similar triangles. In ΔAOB andΔCOB
r + t + 68° = 180°
s + u + q = 180°
r = s = 90° (proved previously)
t = u = 22° (proved previously
∴ q = 68°
Try out this interactivity: Angles in a circle (int-2795)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Using tests to prove congruent triangles (doc-5390)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles (doc-5391)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Using tests to prove similar triangles (doc-5392)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Angles in a triangle (doc-5393)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: More angle relations (doc-5394)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Circle geometry I (doc-14627)

Exercise 19.2 Angles in a circle
Individual pathways

1a–e, 2a–c, 3a–d, 4–7 1d–i, 2b–f, 3c–f, 4–10 1–11
Fluency
1. WE1 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons for your answers.
a. 30° b. P Q c. S
x 32°
x 25° y R x
A B
d. x e. f. A
30°
40° y •O 80° O x
x
•
A B B
g. h. i. B
O 50° O• 28°
42° x• x x
A A •
y O
B
2. WE2 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following figures, giving reasons for your
answers.
a. b. t
c. m n
u
•
s • • •
r
d. e. f.
38° O
• x • x
75° • O
x
y
Understanding
3. WE3 Given that AB and DB are tangents, find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following,
giving reasons for your answers.
a. A b. A c. A
x r
y y 20°
O • 70° w B B 40° t O O• z x B
•
z s
D D D

d. e. D A
f.
O
z
•
70° x D 15° x
As y B yO
•
20°
B
y z B
A x
rz
•
O
D
D
In the diagram at right, which angle is subtended by the same arc as ∠APB? P
a. ∠APC A
b. ∠BPC
C
c. ∠ABP B
d. ∠ADB

B C
Referring to the diagram at right, which of the statements is true?
a. 2∠AOD = ∠ABD F
b. ∠AOD = 2∠ACD O
c. ∠ABF = ∠ABD A D
d. ∠ABD = ∠ACD
Reasoning
6. Values are suggested for the pronumerals in the diagram at right. A
rs
AB is a tangent to a circle and O is the centre. In each case give B
25°
reasons to justify suggested values.
a. s = t = 45° b. r = 45° C
t
m O
c. u = 65° d. m = 25°
u
D n
e. n = 45° F
7. Set out below is the proof of this result: The angle at the centre of R
a circle is twice the angle at the circumference standing on the same arc. a
Copy and complete the following to show that ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ.
O
b
Construct a diameter through R. Let the opposite end of the diameter be S.
P Q
Let ∠ORP = x and ∠ORQ = y.
OR = OP (____________________________)
x R y
∠OPR = x (____________________________)
O
∠SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals ____________________________)
OR = OQ (____________________________) P Q
∠OQR = ____________________________ (____________________________) S
∠SOQ = ____________________________ (____________________________)

Now ∠PRQ = ___________ and ∠POQ = ___________.
Therefore ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ.
8. Prove that the segments formed by drawing tangents from an external point to a circle are equal in length.

9. Use the figure drawn below to prove that angles subtended by the same arc are equal.
R S
O
P Q
Problem solving
10. Use your knowledge of types of triangles, angles in triangles and the fact that the radius of a circle
meets the tangent to the circle at right angles to prove the following theorem:
The angle formed between two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a line from the
centre of the circle to the external point.
K
a
O a M
11. WX is the diameter of a circle with centre at O. Y is a point on the circle and WY is extended to Z so
that OY = YZ. Prove that angle ZOX is three times angle YOZ.
Z
W X
O
Reflection
What are the common steps in proving a theorem?
19.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

19.3.1 Intersecting chords
In the diagram below, chords PQ and RS intersect at X.
P
S
X
R
Q
•• Theorem 6 Code P
If the two chords intersect inside a circle, then the point of intersection divides a
each chord into two segments so that the product of the lengths of the segments d S
for both chords is the same. c X b
PX × QX = RX × SX or a × b = c × d R Q

Proof:
Join PR and SQ.
Consider ΔPRX and ΔSQX.
∠PXR = ∠SXQ (vertically opposite angles are equal)
∠RSQ = ∠RPQ (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
∠PRS = ∠PQS (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
ΔPRX ∼ ΔSQX (equiangular)
=
PX RX
(ratio of sides in similar triangles is equal)
SX QX
or PX × QX = RX × SX
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find the value of the pronumeral.

A
4 5 D
6 X
C m
THINK WRITE
1 Chords AB and CD intersect at X. Point X divides each AX × BX = CX × DX
chord into two parts so that the products of the lengths of
these parts are equal. Write this as a mathematical
statement.
2 Identify the lengths of the line segments. AX = 4, BX = m, CX = 6, DX = 5
3 Substitute the given lengths into the formula and 4m = 6 × 5
30
solve for m. m =
4
= 7.5
19.3.2 Intersecting secants

In the diagram below, chords CD and AB are extended to form secants CX and AX respectively. They
intersect at X.
C
D
X
B A
• Theorem 7 Code
If two secants intersect outside the circle as shown, then the following relationship is always true:
C
c
D
d
X b B A
a
AX × XB = XC × DX or a × b = c × d.

Proof: C
Join D and A to O, the centre of the circle.
D
Let ∠DCA = x.
O
∠DOA = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle

X A
B
at the circumference standing on the
same arc)
Reflex ∠DOA = 360° − 2x (angles in a revolution add
to 360°)
∠DBA = 180° − x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference
standing on the same arc)
∠DBX = x (angle sum of a straight line is 180°)
∠DCA = ∠DBX
Consider ΔBXD and ΔCXA.
∠BXD is common.
∠DCA = ∠DBX (shown previously)
∠XAC = ∠XDB (angle sum of a triangle is 180°)
∠AXC ∼ ΔDXB (equiangular)
XC
=
AX
DX XB
or AX × XB = XC × DX
WORKED EXAMPLE 5

C
y
D
A
6 5
B
7
X
THINK WRITE
1 Secants XC and AX intersect outside the circle at X. XC × DX = AX × XB
Write the rule connecting the lengths of XC, DX, AX and XB.
2 State the length of the required line segments. XC = y + 6 DX = 6
AX = 7 + 5 XB = 7
= 12
3 Substitute the length of the line segments and solve the (y + 6) × 6 = 12 × 7

equation for y. 6y + 36 = 84
6y = 48
y = 8
19.3.3 Intersecting tangents

•• In the following diagram, tangents AC and BC intersect at C and AC = BC.
•• Theorem 8 Code A
If two tangents meet outside a circle, then the lengths from the external
point to where they meet the circle are equal. C

Proof:
Join A and B to O, the centre of the circle.
Consider ΔOCA and ΔOCB. A
OC is common.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal) C O
∠OAC = ∠OBC (radius is perpendicular to tangent through
the point of contact) B
ΔOCA ≅ ΔOCB (RHS)
AC = BC (corresponding sides of congruent
triangles are equal).
If two tangents meet outside a circle, the lengths from the external point to the point of contact are equal.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6

B
3
C
m
A
THINK WRITE
1 BC and AC are tangents intersecting at C. State the AC = BC
rule that connects the lengths BC and AC.
2 State the lengths of BC and AC. AC = m, BC = 3
3 Substitute the required lengths into the equation to m=3
find the value of m.
19.3.4 Chords and radii

•• In the diagram below, the chord AB and the radius OC intersect at X at 90°; that is, ∠OXB = 90°. OC
bisects the chord AB; that is, AX = XB.
A B
X
C
•• If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord.
Proof:
Join OA and OB.
Consider ΔOAX and ΔOBX.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal) O
∠OXB = ∠OXA (given)
A B
OX is common. X
ΔOAX ≅ ΔOBX (RHS) C
AX = BX (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord.

•• The converse is also true:
If a radius bisects a chord, the radius and the chord meet at right angles. P
M
B
•• Theorem 10
C
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre. A
D O
This theorem states that if the chords MN and PR are of equal length, R
then OD = OC. N
Proof:
Construct OA ⟂ MN and OB ⟂ PR. M P
Then OA bisects MN and OB bisects PR (Theorem 9) B
Because MN = PR, MD = DN = PC = CR.

C
A
D O
Construct OM and OP, and consider ΔODM and ΔOCP. R
MD = PC (shown above) N
OM = OP (radii of the same circle are equal)
∠ODM = ∠OCP = 90° (by construction)
ΔODM ≅ ΔOCP(RHS)
So OD = OC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the values of the pronumerals, given that AB = CD.

G
A E
m 3 B
n
O
2.5
F D
C
H
THINK WRITE
1 Since the radius OG is perpendicular to the AE = EB

chord AB, the radius bisects the chord.
2 State the lengths of AE and EB. AE = m, EB = 3
3 Substitute the lengths into the equation to m=3
find the value of m.
4 AB and CD are chords of equal length and OE = OF
OE and OF are perpendicular to these chords. This implies
that OE and OF are equal in length.
5 State the lengths of OE and OF. OE = n, OF = 2.5
6 Substitute the lengths into the equation to find the n = 2.5
value of n.
19.3.5 The circumcentre of a triangle

•• In the diagram, a circle passes through the vertices of the triangle ABC.
C
A
B

•• The circle is called the circumcircle of triangle ABC, and the centre of the circle is called the
circumcentre.
•• The circumcentre is located as follows.
Draw any triangle ABC. Label the vertices.
C
A
B
Construct perpendicular bisectors of AB, AC and BC, and let the bisectors intersect at O. This means
that OA = OB = OC, so a circle can be drawn through A, B and C with a centre at O.
C
A
B
Exercise 19.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

Individual pathways

1–7, 10 1–8, 10 1–11
Fluency
1. WE4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.
a. A D b. C c. C
m 4 A 6
2 A m
6 X 9 X B 4 X
8 m 9
C D m
B
D B
a. 4
b. c. 8
d. 5
2
4 6
m 4.5
3 n 3
n
7
m
5 6

3. WE6 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following.
a. 5 b. c. x
7 3.1
x 2.5 y
m
a. b. x
3.3
2.8
O O
x
c. d.
m
5.6 2.5 2.5 x O
O
Understanding
In which of the following figures is it possible to find the value of m through solving a linear
equation?
a. b.
7 7
2 2
5 m m 3
c. d.
m
4 m
4 2
2
3 1
6. Find the length, ST, in the diagram below.

Q 5 cm
R 4 cm
S
9 cm T
P
Reasoning
7. Prove the result: If a radius bisects a chord, then the radius meets the chord at right angles.
Remember to provide reasons for your statements.
8. Prove the result: Chords that are an equal distance from the centre are equal in length. Provide reasons
for your statements.
9. Prove that the line joining the centres of two intersecting circles bisects their common chord at right
angles. Provide reasons for your statements.

Problem solving
10. Calculate the pronumeral for each of the following diagrams.
a. 3 b. c.
x
4 O
6 10 3x
8
x
4x 15 y
11. AOB is the diameter of the circle. CD is a chord perpendicular to AB and meeting AB at M.
C
O
b
A B
a M
a. Why is M the midpoint of CD?

b. If CM = c, AM = a and MB = b, prove that c2 = ab.
a+b
c. Explain why the radius of the circle is equal to .
2
Reflection
What techniques will you use to prove circle theorems?
CHALLENGE 19.1
An astroid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a small circle as it rolls around the inside
circumference of a circle that is four times larger than it. Draw the shape of an astroid.

19.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals
19.4.1 Quadrilaterals in circles
B
•• A cyclic quadrilateral has all four vertices on the circumference of a circle; that is, A
the quadrilateral is inscribed in the circle.
In the diagram at right, points A, B, C and D lie on the circumference; hence, C
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. D
It can also be said that points A, B, C and D are concyclic; that is, the circle
passes through all the points.
•• Theorem 11 Code B

A
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add to 180°).
Proof: O C
Join A and C to O, the centre of the circle.
Let ∠ABC = x.
D
Reflex ∠AOC = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference standing
on the same arc)
Reflex ∠AOC = 360° − 2x (angles in a revolution add to 360°)
∠ADC = 180° − x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference
standing on the same arc)
∠ABC + ∠ADC = 180°
Similarly, ∠DAB + ∠DCB = 180°.
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
•• The converse is also true:
If opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram below. Give reasons for your answers.
Q
P 75°
120°
y R
x
S
THINK WRITE
1 PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, so its opposite angles ∠PQR + ∠RSP = 180° (The opposite
are supplementary. First find the value of x by angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are
considering a pair of opposite angles ∠PQR and supplementary.)
∠RSP and forming an equation to solve. ∠PQR = 75°, ∠RSP = x
x + 75° = 180°
x = 105°
2 Find the value of y by considering the other pair of ∠ SPQ + ∠ QRS = 180°
opposite angles (∠SPQ and ∠QRS). ∠SPQ = 120°, ∠QRS = y
y + 120° = 180°
y = 60°

•• Theorem 12 Code Q
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite P
b
T a
angle. a R
Proof:
∠QPS + ∠QRS = 180° (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral) S
∠QPS + ∠SPT = 180° (adjacent angles on a straight line)

Therefore ∠SPT = ∠QRS.
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the value of the pronumerals in the diagram below.

A
50°
D y B
100°
C x
THINK WRITE
1 ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. The exterior angle, x, is equal x = ∠DAB, ∠DAB = 50°
to its interior opposite angle, ∠DAB. So x = 50°.
2 The exterior angle, 100°, is equal to its interior opposite angle, ∠ADC = 100°, ∠ADC = y
∠ADC. So y = 100°.
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Angles in a quadrilateral (doc-5396)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Circle geometry II (doc-14628)
Exercise 19.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals

Individual Pathways

1–6, 8 1–8 1–9
Fluency
1. WE8 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
a. b. c. n
65° m
92° 95°
y 155°
x

d. x e. f. y
135°
O
O
50° x y 85°
x
2. WE9 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
a. b. y c.
80° x 95°
x
y
85°
115° x
110°
d. e. x f. 120° 130°
x
150° 120°
y
n m

x
Which of the following correctly states the relationship between x, y and z in the
O
diagram shown? z
a. x = y and x = 2z b. x = 2y and y + z = 180°
y
c. z = 2x and y = 2z d. x + y = 180° and z = 2x
Understanding
4. The steps below show you how to set out the proof that the opposite angles of a cyclic A B
x
quadrilateral are equal.
a. Find the size of ∠DOB.
O
b. Find the size of the reflex angle DOB. C

c. Find the size of ∠BCD. D
d. Find ∠DAB + ∠BCD.

a. Which of the following statements is always true for the diagram shown? q r
a. r = t b. r = p
c. r = q d. r = s t p s
b. Which of the following statements is correct for the diagram shown?

a. r + p = 180° b. q + s = 180°
c. t + p = 180° d. t = r
Reasoning
6. Prove that the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.

7. Calculate the values of the pronumerals in each of these diagrams.
a. b.
x
y c.
16x2 – 10x
3x2 – 5x + 1
20x2 – 8x
87° 2x – 1 – 3x2
z
Problem solving
8. Calculate the value of each pronumeral in the diagram at right. y
z 2
x
110°
z+5
w
110°
9. ∠FAB = 70°, ∠BEF = a°, ∠BED = b° and ∠BCD = c°.

A
70°
B
C
c°
a° b° D
a. Find the values of a, b and c.

b. Prove that CD is parallel to AF.
Reflection
What is a cyclic quadrilateral?
19.5 Tangents, secants and chords

19.5.1 The alternate segment theorem
•• Consider the figure shown. Line BC is a tangent to the circle at the point A.
D
•• A line is drawn from A to anywhere on the circumference, point D. O
The angle ∠BAD defines a segment (the shaded area).
The unshaded part of the circle is called the alternate segment to ∠BAD.
B A C

Now consider angles subtended by the chord AD in the alternate segment, such E
as the angles marked in red and blue.
•• The alternate segment theorem states that these are equal to the angle that made D
O
the segment, namely: F
∠BAD = ∠AED and ∠BAD = ∠AFD
•• Theorem 13 Code B A C
The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle in the
alternate segment.
Proof: G
We are required to prove that ∠BAD = ∠AFD.
Construct the diameter from A through O, meeting the circle at G.
Join G to the points D and F. D O
∠BAG = ∠CAG = 90° (radii ⟂ tangent at point of contact) F
∠GFA = 90° (angle in a semicircle is 90°)
∠GDA = 90° (angle in a semicircle is 90°) B A C
Consider ΔGDA. We know that ∠GDA = 90°.
∠GDA + ∠DAG + ∠AGD = 180°
90° + ∠DAG + ∠AGD = 180°
∠DAG + ∠AGD = 90°
∠BAG is also a right angle.
∠BAG = ∠BAD + ∠DAG = 90°
Equate the two results.
∠DAG + ∠AGD = ∠BAD + ∠DAG
Cancel the equal angles on both sides.
∠AGD = ∠BAD
Now consider the fact that both triangles DAG and DAF are subtended from the same chord (DA).
∠AGD = ∠AFD (Angles in the same segment standing on the same arc are equal).
Equate the two equations.
∠AFD = ∠BAD
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the value of x and y, giving reasons.

A
x
B
D 62° y C
THINK WRITE
1 Use the alternate segment theorem to find x. x = 62° (angle between a tangent
and a chord is equal to the angle in
the alternate segment)
2 The value of y is the same as x because x and y are subtended y = 62° (angles in the same
by the same chord BT. segment standing on the same arc
are equal)

19.5.2 Tangents and secants A
a
•• Theorem 14 Code B
If a tangent and a secant intersect as shown, the following relationship is b
X c
always true: T
XA × XB = (XT) 2 or a × b = c2.
Proof:
Join BT and AT.
Consider ΔTXB and ΔAXT.
∠TXB is common.
∠XTB = ∠XAT (angle between a tangent and a chord is equal A
to the angle in the alternate segment)
∠XBT = ∠XTA (angle sum of a triangle is 180°) B
ΔTXB∼ΔAXT (equiangular) X
T
=
XB XT
So
XT XA
or XA × XB = (XT) 2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A m
B 5
X
8
T
THINK WRITE
1 Secant XA and tangent XT intersect at X. Write the rule XA × XB = (XT) 2
connecting the lengths of XA, XB and XT.
2 State the values of XA, XB and XT. XA = m + 5, XB = 5, XT = 8
3 Substitute the values of XA, XB and XT into the equation (m + 5) × 5 = 82
and solve for m. 5m + 25 = 64
5m = 39
m = 7.8
Exercise 19.5 Tangents, secants and chords

Individual pathways

1, 2, 4–6, 8, 10, 13–15, 17, 20, 22 1–3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 21, 22 1–23

Fluency
1. WE10 Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.
a. 59°
x
b. 47°
70°
x
y
2. WE11 Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.

a. b.
5
4 B y
12
p
q
4 x
A
O
3. Line AB is a tangent to the circle as shown in the figure on the right. Find the 21°
values of the angles labelled x and y.
Questions 4 to 6 refer to the figure on the right. The line MN is a tangent to D M
the circle, and EA is a straight line. The circles have the same radius.
E F G A
O C
B N
4. Find 6 different right angles.

5. MC If ∠DAC = 20°, then ∠CFD and ∠FDG are respectively:
a. 70° and 50° b. 70° and 40° c. 40° and 70° d. 70° and 70°
6. MC A triangle similar to FDA is:
a. FDG b. FGB c. EDA d. GDE
7. Find the values of the angles x and y in the figure at right. A

y
O
42°
x
62°
B
Understanding
8. Show that if the sum of the two given angles in question 7 is 90°, then the line AB must be a
diameter.
9. Find the value of x in the figure at right, given that the line underneath the x
circle is a tangent.
100°
O
20°
10. In the figure at right, express x in terms of a and b. This is the same drawing x
as in question 9.
a O

11. Two tangent lines to a circle meet at an angle y, as shown in the figure at 10°
right. Find the values of the angles x, y and z.
z
O
x y
12. Solve question 11 in the general case (see the figure at right) and show that a
y = 2a. This result is important for space navigation (imagine the circle to
be the Earth) in that an object at y can be seen by people at x and z at the z
same time. O
x y
13. In the figure at right, find the values of the angles x, y and z. z
y
75°
x
20°
14. MC Examine the figure at right. The angles x and y (in degrees) are 51
respectively: y
19
a. 51 and 99 b. 51 and 129 x O
c. 39 and 122 d. 51 and 122
Questions 15 to 17 refer to the figure at right. The line BA is a tangent to the C

circle at point B. Line AC is a chord that meets the tangent at A. x
y D
O
z 50° 45° A
B
15. Find the values of the angles x and y.

16. MC The triangle which is similar to triangle BAD is:
a. CAB b. BCD c. BDC d. AOB
17. MC The value of the angle z is:
a. 50° b. 85° c. 95° d. 100°
Reasoning
18. Find the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure at right. The line AB is
tangent to the circle at B. C
O
D 33°
y
A z x 92°
B

19. Find the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure at right. The line AB is
tangent to the circle at B. The line CD is a diameter. C
x
O
y D
25° z A
B
20. Solve question 19 in the general case; that is, express angles x, y and z in
terms of a (see the figure at right). C
x
O y D
a z A
B
21. Prove that, when two circles touch, their centres and the point of contact are collinear.
Problem solving
22. Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.
a. b.
x 4
k
6
4
c. d.
m 7
4 n
x
e. a
1 f.
b 2
6
5.5
8
x
11
w
3

23. Find the values of a, b and c in each case.
a. ∠BCE = 50° and ∠ACE = c b.
E E
B B
70° c a b C
50°
50°
c F D
a b C
A
D A
Reflection
Describe the alternate segment of a circle.
CHALLENGE 19.2
How can an annulus be cut into seven pieces with three straight lines?
19.6 Review
Fluency
1. Determine the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
a. b. c. x
50° x 48°
25° 28° y
O
x z
y
d. e. f.
x 70°
y
O
O x
O

g. h. x i.
x
O O 110° x
110° 250°
j. k. l.
x m 70°
50° O z
y 30°
100°
x
2. Find the value of the pronumeral in each case.
a. b. c. d.
x
O 70° x x x O
O O
110° 70°
3. Find the value of m in each of the following.
a. b.
6
8
m
m
10 5 4
6
c. 5
d. 10 8
4 7.5
m 3 m
4. Note: There may be more than one correct answer.

In which of the following figures is it possible to get a reasonable value for the pronumeral?
4
a. 6 b.
6
5 3
m 2 m
c. 2 d.
8
5
m m 7
4 3

5. Note: There may be more than one correct answer. A
Which of the following statements is true for the diagram shown?
a. AO = BO
b. AC = BC
O C
c. ∠OAC = ∠OBC
d. ∠AOC = 90° B
6. Find the values of the pronumerals in the following figures.
a. 85° b.
y 81°
100° x
c. d.
78° y 88°
x
92° x y
97°
7. Which of the following statements is not always true for the diagram
b
at right? a
a. ∠ a + ∠ c = 180°
b. ∠ b + ∠ d = 180° e
c. ∠ e + ∠ c = 180° c
d. ∠ a + ∠ e = 180° d
Problem solving
8. Find the values of the pronumerals in the following figures.
y
a. b. c.
56°
x
42° O
130°
9. Two chords, AB and CD, intersect at E as shown. If AE = CE, prove that EB = ED.
C
A E

10. Two circles intersect at X and Y. Two lines, AXB and CXD, intersect C
X B
one circle at A and C, and the other at B and D, as shown. D
Prove that ∠AYC = ∠BYD.
A
Y
11. Name at least five pairs of equal angles in the following diagram.
R
S
U
Language
It is important to learn and be able to use correct mathematical language in order to communicate effec-
tively. Create a summary of the topic using the key terms below. You can present your summary in writing
or using a concept map, a poster or technology.
alternate segment theorem circumference radius
angle concyclic secant
arc cyclic sector
chord cyclic quadrilateral segment
circle diameter subtend
circumcentre major segment tangent
circumcircle minor segment theorem

www.assesson.com.au

Variation of distance
The Earth approximates the shape of a sphere. Lines of longitude travel between the North and
South poles, while lines of latitude travel east–west, parallel to the equator. While the lines of
longitude are all approximately the same length, this is not the case with lines of latitude. The line
of latitude at the equator is the maximum length and these lines decrease in length on approaching
both the North and South poles.
This investigation looks at how the distance between points on two given lines of longitude and the
same line of latitude changes as we move from the equator to the pole.
Consider two lines of longitude, 0° and 100°E. Take two points, P1 and P2, lying on the equator on
lines of longitude 0° and 100°E respectively.
60°
45° N
N
30°
N
15°
N
E
75°
Eq
uat
or
E
90°
°E
105
15°
S
°E
120
°E
135
°E
30°
S
150
°E
165
°
180
°W
45°
165
S
60°
S
45° 60°
30° N N
N
15°
N
Eq
uat
or
15°
S
30° 45°
S N
45°
S
60°
S
E
Latitude
E
75°
90°
°E
°E
105
°E
120
°E
135
°E
150
165
165 0°
°W
18
30°
°E
N
135
Longitude
North Pole
0 100E
r 0
Equato
P1 P2
South Pole

The distance (in km) between two points on the same line of latitude is given by the formula:
Distance = angle sector between the two points × 111 × cos (degree of latitude).
1. The size of the angle sector between P1 and P2 is 100° and these two points lie on 0° latitude.
The distance between the points would be calculated as 100 × 111 × cos 0°. Determine this
distance.
2. Move the two points to the 10° line of latitude. Calculate the distance between P1 and P2 in this
position. Round your answer to the nearest kilometre.
3. Complete the following table showing the distance (rounded to the nearest kilometre) between
the points P1 and P2 as they move from the equator towards the pole.
Latitude Distance between P1 and P2 (km)

0°
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
4. Describe what happens to the distance between P1 and P2 as we

move from the equator to the pole. Is there a constant change?
Explain.
5. You would perhaps assume that, at a latitude of 45°, the distance
between P1 and P2 is half the distance between the points at the
equator. This is not the case. At what latitude does this occur?
6. On the grid lines provided, sketch a graph displaying the change in
distance between the points in moving from the equator to the pole.
7. Consider the points P1 and P2 on lines of longitude separated by 1°.
On what line of latitude (to the nearest degree) would the points be
100 km apart?
8. Keeping the points P1 and P2 on the same line of latitude, and varying their lines of longitude,
investigate the rate that the distance between them changes from the equator to the pole. Is it
more or less rapid in comparison to what you found earlier?
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: Where is 2 litres of hydrochloric acid produced each day? (doc-15953)

Answers
Topic 19 Circle geometry
Exercise 19.2 Angles in a circle
1. a. x = 30° (theorem 2)
b. x = 25°, y = 25° (theorem 2 for both angles)
c. x = 32° (theorem 2)
d. x = 40°, y = 40° (theorem 2 for both angles)
e. x = 60° (theorem 1)
f. x = 40° (theorem 1)
g. x = 84° (theorem 1)
h. x = 50° (theorem 2); y = 100° (theorem 1)
i. x = 56° (theorem 1)
2. a. s = 90°, r = 90° (theorem 3 for both angles)
b. u = 90° (theorem 4); t = 90° (theorem 3)
c. m = 90°, n = 90° (theorem 3 for both angles)
d. x = 52° (theorem 3 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
e. x = 90° (theorem 4)
f. x = 90°(theorem 4); y = 15° (angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
3. a. x = z = 90° (theorem 4); y = w = 20° (theorem 5 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
b. s = r = 90° (theorem 4); t = 140° (angle sum in a quadrilateral = 360°)
c. x = 20° (theorem 5); y = z = 70° (theorem 4 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
d. s = y = 90° (theorem 4); x = 70° (theorem 5); r = z = 20° (angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
e. x = 70° (theorem 4 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°); y = z = 20° (angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
f. x = y = 75° (theorem 4 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°); z = 75° (theorem 1)
4. D
5. B, D
6. a. Base angles of a right-angled isosceles triangle
b. r + s = 90°, s = 45° ⇒ r = 45°
c. u is the third angle in ΔABD, which is right-angled.
d. m is the third angle in ΔOCD, which is right-angled.
e. ∠AOC and ∠AFC stand on the same arc with ∠AOC at the centre and ∠AFC at the circumference.
7. OR = OP (radii of the circle)
∠OPR = x (equal angles lie opposite equal sides)
∠SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals the sum of the two interior opposite angles)
OR = OQ (radii of the circle)
∠OQR = y (equal angles lie opposite equal sides)
∠SOQ = 2y (exterior angle equals the sum of the two interior opposite angles)
Now ∠PRQ = x + y and ∠POQ = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y).
Therefore ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ.
8, 9. Check with your teacher.
Exercise 19.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

1. a. m = 3 b. m = 3 c. m = 6
2. a. n = 1 b. m = 7.6 c. n = 13 d. m = 4
3. a. x = 5 b. m = 7 c. x = 2.5, y = 3.1
4. a. x = 2.8 b. x = 3.3 c. x = 5.6 d. m = 90°
5. B, C, D
6. ST = 3 cm

7, 8, 9. Check with your teacher.
10. a. x = 3√2 b. x = 6 c. x = 3, y = 12
Challenge 19.1
Exercise 19.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals

1. a. x = 115°, y = 88° b. m = 85° c. n = 25°
d. x = 130° e. x = y = 90° f. x = 45°, y = 95°
2. a. x = 85°, y = 80° b. x = 110°, y = 115° c. x = 85°
d. x = 150° e. x = 90°, y = 120° f. m = 120°, n = 130°
3. D
4. a. 2x b. 360° − 2x
c. 180° − x d. 180°
5. a. A
b. A, B, C, D
7. a. x = 93°, y = 87°, z = 93°
b. x = −2° or 52°
c. x = 2°or 1°
3 2
8. w = 110°, x = 70°, y = 140°, z = 87.5°
9. a. a = 110°, b = 70°and c = 110°
Exercise 19.5 Tangents, secants and chords

1. a. x = 70°
b. x = 47°, y = 59°
2. a. p = 6
b. q = 8
3. x = 42°, y = 132°
4. MAC, NAC, FDA, FBA, EDG, EBG
5. B
6. D
7. x = 42°, y = 62°
9. 60°
10. x = 180° − a − b
11. x = 80°, y = 20°, z = 80°
13. x = 85°, y = 20°, z = 85°
14. D
15. x = 50°, y = 95°
16. A
17. C

18. x = 33°, y = 55°, z = 22°
19. x = 25°, y = 65°, z = 40°
20. x = a, y = 90° − a, z = 90° − 2a
22. a. x = 5 b. k = 12 c. m = 6, n = 6
d. x = 7 e. b = 4, a = 2 f. w = 3, x = 5
23. a. a = 50°, b = 50° and c = 80°
b. a = 50°, b = 70° and c = 70°
Challenge 19.2
1 2 4
3
7 5
19.6 Review
1. a. x = 50° b. x = 48°, y = 25° c. x = y = 28°, z = 56°
d. x = 90° e. y = 90° f. y = 140°
g. y = 55° h. y = 125° i. y = 70°
j. y = 100° k. m = 40° l. x = 90°, y = 60°, z = 40°
2. a. x = 90° b. x = 20°
c. x = 55° d. x = 125°
3. a. m = 3 b. m = 12
c. m = 9 d. m = 11.7
4. A, B, D
5. A, B, C
6. a. x = 95°, y = 80° b. x = 99°
c. x = 78°, y = 92° d. x = 97°, y = 92°
7. D
8. a. x = 42°
b. y = 62°
c. p = 65°
9. CE × ED = AE × EB
AE = CE (given)
∴ ED = EB
10. ∠AYC = ∠AXC
∠BXD = ∠BYD
But ∠AXC = ∠BXD
⇒ ∠AYC = ∠BYD
11. ∠PQT and ∠PST, ∠PTS and ∠RQS, ∠TPQ and ∠QSR, ∠QPS and ∠QTS, ∠TPS and ∠TQS, ∠PQS and ∠PTS,
∠PUT and ∠QUS, ∠PUQ and ∠TUS

1. 11 100 km
2. 10 931 km
Latitude Distance between P1 and P2 (km)
3.
0° 11 100
10° 10 931
20° 10 431
30° 9613
40° 8503
50° 7135
60° 5550
70° 3796
80° 1927
90° 0
4. The distance between P1 and P2 decreases from 11 100 km at the equator to 0 km at the pole. The change is not constant. The
distance between the points decreases more rapidly on moving towards the pole.
5. Latitude 60°
6. 12 000
Distance between P1 and P2 (km)
11 000
10 000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Latitude
7. Latitude 26°
8. Answers will vary. Teacher to check.

TOPIC 20
Trigonometry II
20.1 Overview
just where you need them, at the point of learning,
in your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They
will help you to learn the content and concepts
covered in this topic.

The ability to calculate distances using angles has
long been critical. Early explorers, using rudimen-
tary calculations, were able to navigate their way
around the planet and were even able to map coastlines along the way. It is essential to be able to calculate
distances that can’t be physically measured. Our explorations have now turned towards the skies. By apply-
ing trigonometry we can approximate the distances to other planets and beyond.

1. THINK List what you know about trigonometry. Use a thinking tool such as a concept map to show
your list.
knowledge of trigonometry.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
20.1 Overview
20.2 The sine rule
20.3 The cosine rule
20.4 Area of triangles
20.5 The unit circle
20.6 Trigonometric functions
20.7 Solving trigonometric equations
20.8 Review
Watch this eLesson: The story of mathematics: Agnesi (eles-2023)

20.2 The sine rule
20.2.1 Exact values
•• Most of the trigonometric values that we will deal with in this chapter are approximations.
•• However, angles of 30°, 45° and 60° have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
B
30°
2 2
60°
A D C
2
•• Consider an equilateral triangle, ABC, of side length 2 units.

If the triangle is perpendicularly bisected, then two congruent triangles, ABD and CBD, are
obtained. From triangle ABD it can be seen that altitude BD creates a right-angled triangle with angles
of 60° and 30° and base length (AD) of 1 unit. The altitude BD is obtained using Pythagoras’ theorem.
B
(AB) 2 = (AD) 2 + (BD) 2
22 = 12 + (BD) 2
4 = 1 + (BD) 2 2
30°
4−1 = (BD) 2 3

(BD) 2 = 3
BD = √3 60°
A D
1
•• Using triangle ABD and the three trigonometric ratios the following exact values are obtained:
opp opp
sin B = ⇒ sin 30° = 1 sin A = ⇒ sin 60° = √3
hyp 2 hyp 2
adj adj
cos B = ⇒ cos 30° = √3 cos A = ⇒ cos 60° = 1
hyp 2 hyp 2
opp opp
tan B = ⇒ tan 30° = 1 or √3 tan A = ⇒ tan 60° = √3 or √3
adj √3 3 adj 1
•• Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle EFG whose equal sides are of 1 unit. The hypotenuse EG is
obtained by using Pythagoras’ theorem.
G
(EG) 2 = (EF) 2 + (FG) 2
= 12 + 12
=
2 1
2
EG = √2 45°
E 1 F
•• Using triangle EFG and the three trigonometric ratios, the following exact values are obtained:
opp
sin E = ⇒ sin 45° = 1 or √2
hyp √2 2
adj
cos E = ⇒ cos 45° = 1 or √2
hyp √2 2
opp
tan E = ⇒ tan 45° = 1 or 1
adj 1
TOPIC 20 Trigonometry II 843

Summary of exact values
θ 30° 45° 60°
1 1 √2 √3
sin θ 2 =
√2 2 2
√3 1 √2 1
cos θ = 2
2 √2 2
1 √3
tan θ = 1 √3
√3 3
20.2.2 The sine rule B

B
•• In non–right-angled triangles, it is usual to label the angles A, B and C, and c a
the sides a, b and c, so that side a is the side opposite angle A, side b is the A C
A b C
side opposite angle B and side c is the side opposite angle C.
•• In a non–right-angled triangle, a perpendicular line, h, can be drawn from the
angle B to side b. B
This divides the triangle into two right-angled triangles, ABD and CBD.
•• Using triangle ABD and the sine trigonometric ratio for right-angled c h a
h
triangles, we obtain sin A = . Using triangle CBD and the sine
c A
D b
C
h
trigonometric ratio for right-angled triangles, we obtain sin C = . h– = sin A and h– = sin C
a c a
•• Transposing each equation to make h the subject, we obtain: h = c sin A and
h = a sin C. Since h is common to both triangles the two equations may be equated and we get
c sin A = a sin C.
Dividing both sides of the equation by sin A gives:
a sin C
c=
sin A
Dividing both sides of the equation by sin C gives:
=
c a
sin C sin A
•• In a similar way, if a perpendicular line is drawn from angle A to side a, the B
two right-angled triangles would give h = c sin B and h = b sin C. B
c
=
b c
•• This would give: h
sin B sin C
C
From this, the sine rule can be derived. A b C
•• In any triangle ABC: h = c sin B and
h = b sin C
= =
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
Notes
B
1. When using this rule, depending on the values given, any combination
c B a
of the two equalities may be used to solve a particular triangle.
A C
2. To solve a triangle means to find all unknown side lengths and angles. A b C
•• The sine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. two angles and one side length
2. two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.

In the triangle ABC, a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80°. Find A, C and c.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and fill B
in the given information. c 80° a = 4
A C
A b=7 C
2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule has The sine rule can be used since two side
been satisfied. lengths and an angle opposite one of these
side lengths have been given.
3 Write down the sine rule to find A. To find angle A:
=
a b

sin A sin B
=
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. 4 7

sin A sin 80°
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the subject. 4 sin 80° = 7 sin A
4 sin 80°
sin A =
7
A = sin−1 ( )
6 Evaluate. 4 sin 80°

7
≈ 34.246 004 71°
7 Round off the answer to degrees and minutes. ≈ 34°15′
8 Determine the value of angle C using the fact that the C ≈ 180° − (80° + 34°15′)
angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 65°45′
9 Write down the sine rule to find c. To find side length c:
=
c b
sin C sin B
=
10 Substitute the known values into the rule. c b

sin 65°45′ sin 80°
7 sin 65°45′
11 Transpose the equation to make c the subject. c=
sin 80°
12 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places ≈ 6.48 m
and include the appropriate unit.
20.2.3 The ambiguous case

•• If two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths are given, then two different
triangles may be drawn. For example, if a = 10, c = 6 and C = 30°, two possible triangles could be
created.
B B
B a = 10 B a = 10
c=6 c=6
A 30° A 30°
A C A C
In the first case (above left), angle A is an acute angle, while in the second case (above right), angle A
is an obtuse angle.

•• When using the sine rule to find an angle, the inverse sine function is used. If we are finding an angle,
given the sine value, it is important to rem||ember that an angle between 0° and 90° has the same sine
value as its supplement. For example, sin 40° = 0.6427, and sin 140° = 0.6427.
In the triangle ABC, a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30°. Find two possible values of A, and hence
two possible values of B and b.
Case 1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC B
and fill in the given information. B a = 10
c=6
A 30°
A C
2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule The sine rule can be used since two side lengths
has been satisfied. and an angle opposite one of these side lengths
have been given.

=
a c

sin A sin C
10 6
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. =
sin A sin 30°
10 sin 30° = 6 sin A
10 sin 30°
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the sin A =
6
subject.
( )
10 sin 30°
6 Evaluate angle A. A = sin−1
6
≈ 56.442 690 24°
7 Round off the answer to degrees and minutes. A = 56°27′
8 Determine the value of angle B, using the fact B ≈ 180° − (30° + 56°27′)

that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 93°33′
9 Write down the sine rule to find b. To find side length b:
=
b c

sin B sin C
6
=
10 Substitute the known values into the rule. b

sin 93°33′ sin 30°
6 sin 93°33′
11 Transpose the equation to make b the subject. b=
sin 30°
12 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ≈ 11.98 m
places and include the appropriate unit.
The values we have just obtained are only one set of possible answers for the given dimensions of the
triangle ABC.
We are told that a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30°. Since side a is larger than side c, it follows that
angle A will be larger than angle C. Angle A must be larger than 30°; therefore it may be an acute angle
or an obtuse angle.

Case 2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and fill B
in the given information. B a = 10
c=6
A 30°
A C
2 Write down the alternative value for angle A. Simply To find the alternative angle A:
subtract the value obtained for A in Case 1 from 180°. If sin A = 0.8333, then A could also be:
A ≈ 180° − 56°27′
= 123°33′
3 Determine the alternative value of angle B, using the B ≈ 180° − (30° + 123°33′)
fact that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 26°27′
4 Write down the sine rule to find the alternative b. To find side length b:
=
b c

sin B sin C
6
=
5 Substitute the known values into the rule. b

sin 26°27′ sin 30°
6 sin 26°27′
6 Transpose the equation to make b the subject. b=
sin 30°
7 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places ≈ 5.34 m
and include the appropriate unit.
Hence, for this example there were two possible solutions as shown by the diagrams below.
B B
B a = 10 B a = 10
c=6 c=6
A 30° A 30°
A C A C
•• The ambiguous case does not apply to every question. Consider Worked example 1, in which we were
required to solve the triangle ABC given a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80°. For angle A, we obtained
A = 34°15′. However, angle A could also have been A = 145°45′ (since there are two possible values of
A between 0° and 180° whose sine is the same; that is, sin 34°15′ = 0.5628 and sin 145°45′ = 0.5628).
We will now see whether or not A = 145°45′ is a possible solution.
To obtain C subtract angles A and B from 180°.
C = 180° − (80° + 145°45′)
= 180° − 225°45′
= −45°45′ (not possible)
Hence, for Worked example 1 only one possible solution exists.
•• The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin C, or any equivalent statement; for
example, if B is an acute angle and a > b > a sin B, and so.
–– In Worked example 2, where a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30°, there were two possible solutions
because C was an acute angle and a > c > a sin C, since 10 > 6 > 10 × 0.5.
–– In Worked example 1, where a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80°, there was only one possible solution
because even though B was an acute angle, the condition a > b > a sin B could not be satisfied.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 52°. He
then walks 20 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 60°. How high is
the building?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the situation and fill in the C
given information.
h
120°
52° 60°
A B D
20 x – 20
x
2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule has been The sine rule can be used for triangle
satisfied for triangle ABC. ABC since two angles and one side
length have been given.
3 Determine the value of angle ACB, using the fact that ∠ACB = 180° − (52° + 120°)
the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 8°
4 Write down the sine rule to find b (or AC). To find side length b of triangle ABC:
=
b c

sin B sin C
5 Substitute the known values into the rule. 20
=
b
sin 120° sin 8°
6 Transpose the equation to make b the subject. 20 × sin 120°
b=
sin 8°
7 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places and ≈ 124.45 m
include the appropriate unit.
8 Draw a diagram of the situation, that is, triangle ADC, C
labelling the required information.
Note: There is no need to solve the rest of the triangle 124.45 m
h
in this case as the values will not assist in finding the
height of the building. 52°
A D
9 Write down what is given for the triangle. Have: angle and hypotenuse
10 Write down what is needed for the triangle. Need: opposite side
11 Determine which of the trigonometric ratios is required O
sin θ =
(SOH–CAH–TOA). H
12 Substitute the given values into the appropriate ratio. h
sin 52° =
124.45
13 Transpose the equation and solve for h. 124.45 sin 52° = h

h = 124.45 sin 52°
14 Round off the answer to 2 decimal places. ≈ 98.07
15 Answer the question. The height of the building is 98.07 m.

Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Labelling right-angled triangles (doc-5398)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Calculating sin, cos or tan of an angle (doc-5399)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding side lengths in right-angled triangles (doc-5400)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Calculating the angle from a sin, cos or tan ratio (doc-5401)
Complete this digital doc: SkillSHEET: Finding angles in right-angled triangles (doc-5402)
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: The sine rule (doc-14631)
Exercise 20.2 The sine rule

Individual pathways

1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10–12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 1, 5–17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25
22, 23, 24 22, 24
Fluency
1. WE1 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, b = 12 and B = 58°. Find A, C and c.
2. In the triangle ABC, c = 17.35, a = 26.82 and A = 101°47′. Find C, B and b.
3. In the triangle ABC, a = 5, A = 30° and B = 80°. Find C, b and c.
4. In the triangle ABC, c = 27, C = 42° and A = 105°. Find B, a and b.
5. In the triangle ABC, a = 7, c = 5 and A = 68°. Find the perimeter of the triangle.
6. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 57°, B = 72° and a = 48.2.
7. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 105, B = 105° and C = 15°.
8. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 32, b = 51 and A = 28°.
9. Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC if a = 7.8, b = 6.2 and A = 50°.
In a triangle ABC, B = 40°, b = 2.6 and c = 3. The value of C is approximately:
a. 47° b. 48° c. 132° d. 133°
11. WE2 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, c = 8 and C = 50°. Find two possible values of A, and hence two
possible values of b.
12. In the triangle ABC, a = 20, b = 12 and B = 35°. Find two possible values for the perimeter of the
triangle.
13. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 27°, B = 43° and c = 6.4.
14. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 100°, b = 2.1 and C = 42°.
15. Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 25°, b = 17 and a = 13.
Understanding
16. WE3 To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 48°. He then
walks 18 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 64°. How high is the building?

Reasoning
17. A river has parallel banks that run directly east–west. From the south bank, Kylie takes a bearing to a
tree on the north side. The bearing is 047°T. She then walks 10 m due east, and takes a second bearing
to the tree. This is 305°T. Find:
a. her distance from the second measuring point to the tree
b. the width of the river, to the nearest metre.
18. A ship sails on a bearing of S20°W for 14 km; then it changes
direction and sails for 20 km and drops anchor. Its bearing from the
starting point is now N65°W.
a. How far is it from the starting point?
b. On what bearing did it sail the 20 km leg?
19. A cross-country runner runs at 8 km/h on a bearing of 150°T for
45 mins; then she changes direction to a bearing of 053°T and
runs for 80 mins at a different speed until she is due east of the
starting point.
a. How far was the second part of the run?
b. What was her speed for this section?
c. How far does she need to run to get back to the
starting point?
20. From a fire tower, A, a fire is spotted on a bearing
of N42°E. From a second tower, B, the fire is on a
bearing of N12°W. The two fire towers are 23 km apart,
and A is N63°W of B. How far is the fire from each tower?
21. MC A boat sails on a bearing of N15°E for 10 km and
then on a bearing of S85°E until it is due east of the
starting point. The distance from the starting point to the
nearest kilometre is:
a. 10 km b. 38 km c. 113 km d. 114 km
22. MC A hill slopes at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. A tree that is 8 m tall and leaning downhill is
growing at an angle of 10° m to the vertical and is part-way up the slope. The vertical height of the
top of the tree above the slope is:
a. 7.37 m b. 8.68 m c. 10.84 m d. 15.04 m
23. A cliff is 37 m high. The rock slopes outward at an angle of 50° to the horizontal and then cuts back
at an angle of 25° to the vertical, meeting the ground directly below
the top of the cliff.
Carol wishes to abseil from the top of the cliff to the ground as
shown in the diagram. Her climbing rope is 45 m long, and she
needs 2 m to secure it to a tree at the top of the cliff. Will the rope
be long enough to allow her to reach the ground?
50°
25° Rock
Rope 37 m

Problem solving
24. A yacht sets sail from a marina and sails on a bearing of 065°T for 3.5 km. It then turns and sails on a
bearing of 127°T for another 5 km.
a. How far is the yacht from the marina?
b. On what bearing to the nearest minute should the yacht travel if it was to sail directly back to the
marina?
25. Find the value of h, correct to 1 decimal place.

C
35° 70°
A 8 cm D B
Reflection
In what situations can the sine rule be used?
20.3 The cosine rule

20.3.1 The cosine rule
•• In any non–right-angled triangle ABC, a perpendicular line can be drawn B
from angle B to side b. Let D be the point where the perpendicular line
meets side b, and let the length of the perpendicular line be h. Let the length c h a
AD = x units. The perpendicular line creates two right-angled triangles,
ADB and CDB. A D C
x b–x
b
•• Using triangle ADB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain:
c2 = h2 + x2 [1]
Using triangle CDB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain:
a2 = h2 + (b − x) 2 [2]
Expanding the brackets in equation [2]:

a2 = h2 + b2 − 2bx + x2

Rearranging equation [2] and using c2 = h2 + x2 from equation [1]:
a2 = h2 + x2 + b2 − 2bx
= c2 + b2 − 2bx
= b2 + c2 − 2bx
From triangle ABD, x = c cos A; therefore a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bx becomes
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A.
•• This is called the cosine rule and is a generalisation of Pythagoras’ theorem.
•• In a similar way, if the perpendicular line was drawn from angle A to side a or from
angle C to side c, the two right-angled triangles would give c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C and
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B respectively. From this, the cosine rule can be stated:
In any triangle ABC: B
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A c B a
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B A C
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C A b C
•• The cosine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. three sides of the triangle
2. two sides of the triangle and the included angle (the angle between the given sides).
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 6, c = 10 and B = 76°.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and B

fill in the given information. c = 10 76° a=6
A C
A b C
2 Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule Yes, the cosine rule can be used since two side
has been satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been given.
3 Write down the appropriate cosine rule to To find side b:
find side b. b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
4 Substitute the given values into the rule. = 62 + 102 − 2 × 6 × 10 × cos 76°
5 Evaluate. ≈ 106.969 372 5
b ≈ √106.969 372 5
•• Note: Once the third side has been found, the sine rule could be used to find other angles if necessary.
•• If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule to make
cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A ⇒ cos A =
2bc
a + c2 − b2
2
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B ⇒ cos B =
2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C ⇒ cos C =
2ab

Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 4 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call C
it ABC and fill in the given information. b=7 C a=4
Note: The smallest angle will correspond to the A B
A c=9 B
smallest side.
Let a = 4
b=7
c=9
2 Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule has The cosine rule can be used since three
been satisfied. side lengths have been given.
3 Write down the appropriate cosine rule to find b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
angle A. 2bc
4 Substitute the given values into the rearranged rule. 7 + 92 − 42
2
=
2×7×9
5 Evaluate.
=
114
126
6 Transpose the equation to make A the subject by A = cos−1 (114 )
taking the inverse cos of both sides. 126
≈ 25.208 765 3°
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Two rowers, Harriet and Kate, set out from the same point. Harriet rows N70°E for 2000 m and
Kate rows S15°W for 1800 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the N A Harriet
2000 m
triangle, call it ABC and fill in the 70°
C
given information.
15°
1800 m
B Kate
2 Check that one of the criteria for the The cosine rule can be used since two side lengths and
cosine rule has been satisfied. the included angle have been given.
3 Write down the appropriate cosine To find side c:
rule to find side c. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
4 Substitute the given values into the rule. = 20002 + 18002 − 2 × 2000 × 1800 cos 125°
5 Evaluate. ≈ 11 369 750.342
c ≈ √11 369 750.342
7 Answer the question. The rowers are 3371.91 m apart.

Exercise 20.3 The cosine rule
Individual pathways

1, 3–5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 1, 2, 4, 6–9, 11–13, 15, 16, 18 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9–14, 16–19
Fluency
1. WE4 Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 3.4, b = 7.8 and C = 80°.
2. In triangle ABC, b = 64.5, c = 38.1 and A = 58°34′. Find a.
3. In triangle ABC, a = 17, c = 10 and B = 115°. Find b, and hence find A and C.
4. WE5 Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 8 cm. (Hint: The smallest angle
is opposite the smallest side.)
5. In triangle ABC, a = 356, b = 207 and c = 296. Find the largest angle.
6. In triangle ABC, a = 23.6, b = 17.3 and c = 26.4. Find the size of all the angles.
7. WE6 Two rowers set out from the same point. One rows N30°E for 1500 m and the other rows S40°E
for 1200 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
8. Maria cycles 12 km in a direction N68°W and then 7 km in
a direction of N34°E.
a. How far is she from her starting point?
b. What is the bearing of the starting point from her finishing
point?
Understanding
9. A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with sides of
length 3 m, 4.5 m and 5.2 m.
a. Calculate the smallest angle.
b. Hence, find the area of the garden. (Hint: Draw a diagram,
with the longest length as the base of the triangle.)
10. A hockey goal is 3 m wide. When Sophie is 7 m from one
post and 5.2 m from the other, she shoots for goal. Within
what angle, to the nearest degree, must the shot be made if
it is to score a goal?
11. An advertising balloon is attached to two ropes 120 m and
100 m long. The ropes are anchored to level ground 35 m
apart. How high can the balloon fly?
12. A plane flies in a direction of N70°E for 80 km and then
on a bearing of S10°W for 150 km.
a. How far is the plane from its starting point?
b. What direction is the plane from its starting point?
13. Ship A is 16.2 km from port on a bearing of 053°T and ship B is 31.6 km from the same port on a
bearing of 117°T. Calculate the distance between the two ships.
14. A plane takes off at 10.00 am from an airfield and flies at 120 km/h on a bearing of N35°W. A second
plane takes off at 10.05 am from the same airfield and flies on a bearing of S80°E at a speed of
90 km/h. How far apart are the planes at 10.25 am?

Reasoning 5 cm
6 cm
15. Three circles of radii 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are positioned so that they just touch
one another. Their centres form the vertices of a triangle. Find the largest angle in
the triangle.
16. For the given shape at near right, determine: 8
8 cm
a. the length of the diagonal 150° x
b. the magnitude (size) of angle B 7 B
c. the length of x. 60°
10 m
17. From the top of a vertical cliff 68 m high, an observer notices a yacht at sea. The angle of depression
to the yacht is 47°. The yacht sails directly away from the cliff, and after 10 minutes the angle of
depression is 15°. How fast does the yacht sail?
Problem solving
18. Find the measure of angles CAB, ABC and BCA. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
C
2 cm
B
5 cm
8 cm B
19. A vertical flag pole DB is supported by two

wires AB and BC. AB is 5.2 metres long, BC is
4.7 metres long and B is 3.7 metres above C
ground level. Angle ADC is a right angle. D
a. Find the distance from A to C.
b. Calculate the angle between AB and BC.
A
Reflection
In what situations would you use the sine rule rather than the cosine rule?
20.4 Area of triangles

20.4.1 Area of triangles
•• The area of any triangle is given by the rule area = 12bh, where b is the base and h is the perpendicular
height of the triangle.
•• However, often the perpendicular height is not given and needs to be B

calculated first. In the triangle ABC, b is the base and h is the perpendicular
height of the triangle. c h a
•• Using the trigonometric ratio for sine:
C
sin A =
h A b
C
c

Transposing the equation to make h the subject, we obtain:
h = c sin A
•• Therefore, the area of triangle ABC becomes:
area = 12 bc sin A
•• Depending on how the triangle is labelled, the formula could read:

area = 12 ab sin C area = 12 ac sin B area = 12 bc sin A
•• The area formula may be used on any triangle provided that two sides of the triangle and the included
angle (that is, the angle between the two given sides) are known.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the area of the triangle shown.

7 cm 9 cm
120°
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call B
it ABC and fill in the given information. c = 7 cm 120° a = 9 cm
A C
A C
Let a = 9 cm, c = 7 cm, B = 120°.
2 Check that the criterion for the area rule has been The area rule can be used since two side
satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been
given.
3 Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = 12ac sin B
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. = 12 × 9 × 7 × sin 120°
5 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ≈ 27.28 cm2
places and include the appropriate unit.
A triangle has known dimensions of a = 5 cm, b = 7 cm and B = 52°. Find A and C and hence
the area.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call B

it ABC and fill in the given information. 52° a=5
A C
A b=7 C
Let a = 5, b = 7, B = 52°.
2 Check whether the criterion for the area rule has The area rule cannot be used since the
been satisfied. included angle has not been given.

=
a b

sin A sin B
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. 5
=
7

sin A sin 52°
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the subject. 5 sin 52° = 7 sin A
5 sin 52°
sin A =
7
( )
5 sin 52°
6 Evaluate. A = sin−1
7
≈ 34.254 151 87°
8 Determine the value of the included angle, C, using the C ≈ 180° − (52° + 34°15′)
fact that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 93°45′
9 Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = 12 ab sin C
10 Substitute the known values into the rule. ≈ 12 × 5 × 7 × sin 93°45′

11 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places and ≈ 17.46 cm2
20.4.2 Heron’s formula

•• If the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are known but none of the angles are known, the cosine
rule can be used to find an angle and then the area can be calculated. Alternatively, Heron’s formula
could be used to find the area.
•• Heron’s formula gives the area of a triangle as:
Area = √s(s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle; that is,
s = 12 (a + b + c)
Note: The proof of this formula is beyond the scope of this course.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the area of the triangle with sides of 4 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it C

ABC and fill in the given information. 4 cm 6 cm
B 8 cm A
Let a = 4, b = 6, c = 8.
2 Determine which area rule will be used. Since three side lengths have been
given, use Heron’s formula.
3 Write down the rule for Heron’s formula. Area = √s(s − a) (s − b) (s − c)

4 Write down the rule for s, the semi-perimeter of the triangle. s = 12 (a + b + c)
5 Substitute the given values into the rule for the semi-perimeter. = 12 (4 + 6 + 8)
=9
6 Substitute all of the known values into Heron’s formula. Area = √9(9 − 4) (9 − 6) (9 − 8)
7 Evaluate. = √9 × 5 × 3 × 1
= √135
≈ 11.618 950 04
8 Round off the answer to 2 decimal places and ≈ 11.62 cm2
Complete this digital doc: WorkSHEET: Cosine rule and area of triangles (doc-14632)
Exercise 20.4 Area of triangles

Individual pathways

1–8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 23 1–6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23 1, 4, 5, 8–10, 12–14, 16–24
Fluency
1. WE7 Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7, b = 4 and C = 68°.
2. Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7.3, c = 10.8 and B = 104°40′.
3. Find the area of the triangle ABC with b = 23.1, c = 18.6 and A = 82°17′.
4. A triangle has a = 10 cm, c = 14 cm and C = 48°. Find A and B and hence the area.
5. WE8 A triangle has a = 17 m, c = 22 m and C = 56°. Find A and B and hence the area.
6. A triangle has b = 32 mm, c = 15 mm and B = 38°. Find A and C and hence the area.
7. MC In a triangle, a = 15 m, b = 20 m and B = 50°. The area of the triangle is:
a. 86.2 m2 b. 114.9 m2 c. 149.4 m2 d. 172.4 m2
8. WE9 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
9. Find the area of the triangle with sides of 40 mm, 30 mm and 5.7 cm.
10. Find the area of the triangle with sides of 16 mm, 3 cm and 2.7 cm.
11. MC A triangle has sides of length 10 cm, 14 cm and 20 cm. The area of the triangle is:
a. 41 cm2 b. 65 cm2 c. 106 cm2 d. 137 cm2
12. A piece of metal is in the shape of a triangle with sides of length 114 mm, 72 mm and 87 mm. Find its
area using Heron’s formula.
13. A triangle has the largest angle of 115°. The longest side is 62 cm and another side is 35 cm. Find the
area of the triangle.
14. A triangle has two sides of 25 cm and 30 cm. The angle between the two sides is 30°. Find:
a. its area b. the length of its third side
c. its area using Heron’s formula.

1m
Understanding
15. The surface of a fish pond has the shape shown in the diagram at right. How many 2m
5m
goldfish can the pond support if each fish requires 0.3 m2 surface area of water?
4m
16. Find the area of this quadrilateral.

3.5 m
8m
4m
60°
5m
Reasoning
17. A parallelogram has diagonals of length 10 cm and 17 cm. An angle between them is 125°. Find:
a. the area of the parallelogram b. the dimensions of the parallelogram.
18. A lawn is to be made in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 11 m, 15 m and 17.2 m. How much
grass seed, to the nearest kilogram, needs to be purchased if it is sown at the rate of 1 kg per 5 m2?
19. A bushfire burns out an area of level grassland shown in the diagram. (Note: This is a sketch of the
area and is not drawn to scale.) What is the area, in hectares, of the land that is burned?
km
1.8
2 km
River
400 m
200 m
Road

20. An earth embankment is 27 m long and has a vertical cross-section shown in 2m 130° 100°
the diagram. Find the volume of earth needed to build the embankment. 50° 80°
21. MC A parallelogram has sides of 14 cm and 18 cm and an angle between them 5m
of 72°. The area of the parallelogram is:

a. 118.4 cm2 b. 172.4 cm2 c. 239.7 cm2 d. 252 cm2
22. MC An advertising hoarding is in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with sides of length 15 m, 15 m
and 18 m. It is to be painted with two coats of purple paint. If the paint covers 12 m2 per litre, the
amount of paint needed, to the nearest litre, would be:
a. 9 L b. 18 L c. 24 L d. 36 L
Problem solving
23. A surveyor measured the boundaries of a property as D
8 km
shown. The side AB could not be measured because it 60°
C
crossed through a marsh. The owner of the property
wanted to know the total area and the length of the
side AB.
6 km
a. Find the area of the triangle ACD.
8.5
b. Find the distance AC.
km
c. Find the angle CAB.
d. Find the angle ACB. 115°
e. Find the length AB. B
f. Find the area of the triangle ABC.
g. What is the area of the property? A
Give all lengths correct to 2 decimal places and angles
to the nearest degree.
24. A regular hexagon has sides of length 12 centimetres. It is divided 12
cm
into six smaller equilateral triangles. Find the area of the hexagon,
giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Reflection
List three formulas for finding the area of a triangle.
CHALLENGE 20.1
Cosine, sine and area rule applied to right-angled triangles
The cosine rule states that c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C. If C° = 90° and cos 90° = 0, then:
c2 = a2 + b2– 2ab(0)
c2 = a2 + b2.
Hence, when the cosine rule is applied to a right-angled triangle, you are left with Pythagoras’ theorem for
right-angled triangles.
Investigate what happens when the sine and area rules are applied to right-angled triangles.

20.5 The unit circle
20.5.1 The unit circle 90°
y
•• A unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1 unit.
•• The unit circle is divided into 4 quadrants.
2nd 1st
•• All angles in quadrant 1 are between 0° and 90°. All angles in quadrant 2 quadrant quadrant 0°
are between 90° and 180°, in quadrant 3 between 180° and 270°, and in 180° 3rd 4th x
360°
quadrant 4 between 270° and 360°. quadrant quadrant
•• The quadrants are numbered in the anticlockwise direction, and positive
angles are measured anticlockwise from 0°. Negative angles are measured
270°
clockwise from 0°.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
State the quadrant of the unit circle in which each of the following angles is found.
a 145° b 282°
THINK WRITE
a The given angle is between 90° and 180°. a 145° is in quadrant 2.
State the appropriate quadrant.
b The given angle is between 270° and 360°. b 282° is in quadrant 4.
State the appropriate quadrant.
•• If a right-angled triangle containing angle θ is constructed in 90°

y
quadrant 1 of the unit circle, then the value of sin θ can be found 1
by measuring the length of the opposite side and the value of P
cos θ by measuring the length of the adjacent side.
sin θ
θ 0°
•• The point of intersection of the radius (which is one of the 180°
–1 1 x
cos θ
arms of angle θ ) with the unit circle is P. From the diagram 360°
above, observe that cos θ represents the x-coordinate of point
P and sin θ represents its y-coordinate. This observation –1
provides us with the technique for finding sine and cosine of 270°
any angle in the unit circle, as shown in the diagram at the top
of this page.
•• To find the value of sine, cosine or tangent of any angle θ from the unit circle, follow these steps:
1. Draw a unit circle.
2. Construct the required angle so that its vertex is at the origin and the angle itself is measured from
0° (as marked on the x-axis) in an anticlockwise direction. Label the point of intersection of the
radius and the unit circle, P.
3. Use a ruler to find the coordinates of point P.
y sin θ
4. Interpret the results: x = cos θ , y = sin θ and = = tan θ , where x and y are coordinates
x cos θ
of P.

20.5.2 The 4 quadrants of the unit circle
For the following activity and exercise, we will need to be able to read values for sine and cosine from a
unit circle.
Constructing your own unit circle
Step 1. Using graph paper, carefully draw a circle centred at the origin and with a radius of 5 cm.
Label the x- and y-axes.
Step 2. On your graph, mark in 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° and 360°.
Step 3. Since we need a unit circle, 5 cm will represent 1 unit; that is, 5 cm = 1 unit. Carefully mark a
scale on each axis, where each centimetre represents 0.2 units. (Draw as carefully as possible,
since you will need to read values from your axes in Exercise 20.5.)
Use a unit circle to investigate the following.
1. If P has coordinates (x, y) and is located on the unit circle, what is the highest value that the
x-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the largest value that the cosine of an angle can take?
2. What is the lowest value that the x-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the smallest value that the
cosine of an angle can take?
3. What is the highest value that the y-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the largest value that the sine
of an angle can take?
4. What is the lowest value that the y-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the smallest value that the sine
of an angle can take?
5. Note that P could be in any of the four quadrants (depending on the size of the angle). Hence, its
coordinates could take either positive or negative values, or zero.
Copy and complete the table below to summarise whether sine, cosine and tangent are positive or
negative for angles in each of the four quadrants.
1st quadrant 2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

sin θ positive (+) negative (−)
cos θ positive (+) negative (−)
tan θ positive (+) negative (−)
6. Copy and complete the following sentences.

Sine is positive in the ______ and ______ quadrants and is negative in the ______ and
_____ quadrants.
Cosine is positive in the ______ and ______ quadrants and is negative in the ______ and
______ quadrants.
sin θ
7. Use the identity tan θ = to work out whether the tangent of an angle in each quadrant is positive
cos θ
or negative. Copy and complete the following sentence: Tangent is positive in the ______ and ______
quadrants and is negative in the ______ and ______ quadrants.
Find the approximate value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a sin 200°
b cos 200°
c tan 200°

THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw a unit circle and construct an angle of 200°. Label the point 90°
y
corresponding to the angle of 200° on the circle P. Highlight the 1
lengths, representing the x- and y-coordinates of point P.
θ = 200°
x 0°
180° y
–1 1 x
P 360°
–1
270°
a The sine of the angle is given by the y-coordinate of P. a sin 200° = − 0.3
Find the y-coordinate of P by measuring the distance along
the y-axis. State the value of sin 200°. (Note: The sine value
will be negative as the y-coordinate is negative.)
b The cosine of the angle is given by the x-coordinate of P. b cos 200° = − 0.9
Find the x-coordinate of P by measuring the distance along
the x-axis. State the value of cos 200°. (Note: Cosine is also
negative in quadrant 3, as the x-coordinate is negative.)
sin 200° −0.3 1
c tan 200° = c = = 0.3333
cos 200° −0.9 3
•• The approximate results obtained in Worked example 11 can be verified with the aid of a calculator:
sin 200° = −0.342 020 143, cos 200° = −0.939 692 62 and tan 200° = 0.3640.
Rounding these values to 1 decimal place would give − 0.3, − 0.9 and 0.4 respectively, which match
the values obtained from the unit circle.
•• Consider the special relationship between the sine, cosine and tangent of supplementary angles, say
A° and (180 – A)°.
•• In the diagram, triangle OBC is reflected in the y-axis to form t riangle y
ODE. Clearly, ∠BOC = ∠DOE = A°. It follows that the obtuse angle 1
BOE equals (180 – A)°. (180 –
A
From the diagram, |BC| = |ED| and |OB| = |OD|. E C )°
ED = sin (180 − A) and is positive. A° A°
OD = cos (180 − A) and is negative.
–1 D O B1 x
Thus, sin (180 − A) = sin A and cos (180 − A) = −cos A

sin (180 − A) sin A
It follows that tan (180 − A) = = = −tan A. –1
cos (180 − A) −cos A
Exercise 20.5 The unit circle

Individual pathways

1, 4–15, 18 Questions:1–6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18 1–19

Fluency
1. WE10 State which quadrant of the unit circle each of the following angles is in.
a. 60° b. 130° c. 310° d. 260°
e. 100° f. 185° g. 275° h. 295°
2. MC If θ = 43°, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:
a. quadrant 1 b. quadrant 2 c. quadrant 3 d. quadrant 4
3. MC If θ = 295°, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:
a. quadrant 1 b. quadrant 2 c. quadrant 3 d. quadrant 4
4. WE11 Find the value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a. sin 20° b. cos 20° c. cos 100° d. sin 100°
e. sin 320° f. cos 320° g. sin 215° h. cos 215°
5. Use the unit circle to find each of the following.
a. sin 90° b. cos 90° c. sin 180° d. cos 180°
e. sin 270° f. cos 270° g. sin 360° h. cos 360°
Understanding
6. On the unit circle, use a protractor to measure an angle of 30° from the y
positive x-axis. Mark the point P on the circle. Use this point to construct a
triangle in quadrant 1 as shown. P
a. Find cos 30°. (Remember that the length of the adjacent side of the sin 30°
30°
O x
triangle is cos 30°.) cos 30°
b. Find sin 30°. (This is the length of the opposite side of the triangle.)
c. Check your answers in a and b by finding these values with a calculator.
7. Using your graph of the unit circle, measure 150° with a protractor and
mark the point P on the circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in y
quadrant 2 as shown.
a. What angle does the radius OP make with the negative x-axis? P
150°
b. Remembering that x = cos θ , use your circle to find the value of sin 150°
cos 150°. O x
cos 150°
c. How does cos 150° compare to cos 30°?
d. Remembering that y = sin θ , use your circle to find the value of
sin 150°.
e. How does sin 150° compare with sin 30°? y
8. On the unit circle, measure 210° with a protractor and mark the point P
on the circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in quadrant 3 as shown.
210°
a. What angle does the radius OP make with the negative x-axis? cos 210°
b. Use your circle to find the value of cos 210°. O x
sin 210°
c. How does cos 210° compare to cos 30°?
d. Use your circle to find the value of sin 210°. P
e. How does sin 210° compare with sin 30°?

9. On the unit circle, measure 330° with a protractor and mark the y
point P on the circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in quadrant 4
as shown.
a. What angle does the radius OP make with the positive x-axis? 330° cos 330°
b. Use your circle to find the value of cos 330°. O x
c. How does cos 330° compare to cos 30°? sin 330°
d. Use your circle to find the value of sin 330°. P
e. How does sin 330° compare with sin 30°?

10. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 20° in quadrant 1. y
a. Find sin 20°. b. Find cos 20°.
c. Draw a tangent line and extend the hypotenuse of the triangle to meet the
tan 20°
sin 20°
tangent as shown.
20°
Accurately measure the length of the tangent between the x-axis and the x
cos 20°
point where it meets the hypotenuse and, hence, state the value of tan 20°.
sin 20°
d. What is the value of ?
cos 20°
sin 20°
e. How does tan 20° compare with ?
cos 20°
11. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 135° in y
quadrant 2.
tan 135°
a. Find sin 135°, using sin 45°. b. Find cos 135°, using cos 45°. 135°
tangent as shown. x
Accurately measure the length of the tangent to where it meets the
hypotenuse to find the value of tan 135°.
sin 135°
cos 135°
sin 135°
cos 135°
f. How does tan 135° compare with tan 45°?
12. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 220° in y
quadrant 3.
a. Find sin 220°. b. Find cos 220°.
220°
tangent as shown. x
tan 220°
Find tan 220° by accurately measuring the length of the tangent to
where it meets the hypotenuse.
sin 220°
cos 220°
sin 220°
cos 220°
y
f. How does tan 220° compare with tan 40°? (Use a calculator.)
13. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 300° in
quadrant 4. 300°
a. Find sin 300°. b. Find cos 300°. x
tangent as shown.
tan 300°
Find tan 300° by accurately measuring the length of the tangent to

where it meets the hypotenuse.
sin 300°
cos 300°
sin 300°
cos 300°
f. How does tan 300° compare with tan 60°? (Use a calculator.)
14. MC In a unit circle, the length of the radius is equal to:
a. sin θ b. cos θ c. tan θ d. 1
Reasoning
15. If sin x° = p, 0 ≤ x ≤ 90°, write each of the following in terms of p.
a. cos x° b. sin(180 – x)° c. cos(180 – x)°

16. Simplify sin(180 – x)° − sin x°.
17. The point P (cos θ , sin θ ) lies in the first quadrant on the circumference of a unit circle. Find the new
coordinates of P under the following transformations.
a. Dilated by a factor of 2 horizontally and then 3 vertically
b. Rotated 180° anticlockwise about the origin c. Reflected in both axes
Problem solving
18. Simplify:
sin(180° − θ )cos(270° + θ )
a. , given that sin (2 θ ) = 2 sin(θ )cos(θ )
tan(− θ )
sin2 (90° − θ ) − cos2 (270° − θ )
b. .
cos(90° − θ ) + cos(− θ )
19. Simplify:
sin(90° − x)cos(90° − x)
a.
cos2 (x)
b. sin (180° − x)cosec(270° + x) + cos2 (360° − x)sec(180° − x)
2
where sec(x) = and cosec(x) =

1 1 y
. 1
cos(x) sin(x)
y = sin x y
1
Reflection
0
–360° of the unit circle? x y = sin x
What is the length of the diameter 360°
20.6 Trigonometric functions

–360° 0 x
–1 360°
–1
20.6.1 Sine, cosine and tangent graphs
•• The graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tany x are shown below.
1
y y = cos x y
1 1
–360° y = sin x 0 360° x y = cos x
0 x –360° 0 x
–360° 360° –1 360°
–1 –1
y y
1 y = tan x
y = cos x
y = tan x
–360° 0 360°–90°x
–360° –270° –180° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x
–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1
•• Trigonometric graphs repeat themselves continuously in cycles, and hence they are called periodic
functions. y
•• The period of the graph is the distance between repeating peaks or troughs. In the graphs shown
above, the period between the repeating peaks for y = sin x and y = cos x is 360°. The graph of
y = tan x shows a periodicy =function,
tan x
but it is not of the same form as y = sin x and y = cos x. The
period of the basic tan graph is 180°, and asymptotes occur at x = 90° and intervals of 180°.
–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x
•• The amplitude of a periodic graph is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of
the function. In the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x shown on the previous page, the distance is half
of two units (the distance between − 1 and 1), hence the amplitude is 1 unit. Amplitude can also be
described as the amount by which the graph goes above and below its mean value. In the above
examples, the mean value lies along the x-axis. The amplitude of y = tan x is undefined.
Sketch the graphs of a y = 2 sin x and b y = cos 2x for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The graph must be drawn from 0° to 360°. a y
2 Compared to the graph of y = sin x each value
y = 2 sin x
2
of sin x has been multiplied by 2, therefore the
amplitude of the graph must be 2.
3 Label the graph y = 2 sin x. 0 x
180° 360°
–2
b 1 The graph must be drawn from 0° to 360°. b y

y = cos 2x
2 Compared to the graph of y = cos x, each value 1
of x has been multiplied by 2, therefore the
period of the graph must become 180°.
3 Label the graph y = cos 2x. 0 90° 180° 270° 360°
x
–1
360°
•• For the graph of y = a sin nx, or y = a cos nx, the amplitude is a and the period becomes .
n
•• If the graph has a negative value of a, the amplitude is the positive value of a, i.e. the amplitude is
always |a|.
180°
•• For the graph of y = a tan nx, the amplitude is undefined and the period is .
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
For each of the following graphs, state:

i the amplitude ii the period.
x
a y = 2 sin 3x b y = cos c y = tan 2x
3
THINK WRITE
a The value of a is 2. a i Amplitude = 2

360° 360
The period is . ii Period =
n 3
= 120°
b The value of a is 1. b i Amplitude = 1
360° 360
n 1
3
= 1080°

c The tangent curve has infinite amplitude. c i Amplitude infinite
180° 180°
2 2
= 90°
Try out this interactivity: Trigonometric functions (int-2796)
Exercise 20.6 Trigonometric functions

Individual pathways

1–19, 22, 24, 27 1–21, 23–27 1–20, 22, 24, 26–28
Fluency
1. Using your calculator (or the unit circle if you wish), complete the following table.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin x
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
sin x
2. On graph paper, rule x- and y-axes and carefully mark a scale along each axis. Use 1 cm = 30° on the
x-axis to show x-values from 0° to 720°. Use 2 cm = 1 unit along the y-axis to show y-values from − 1
to 1. Carefully plot the graph of y = sin x using the values from the table in question 1.
3. How long does it take for the graph of y = sin x to complete one full cycle?
4. From your graph of y = sin x, find the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 42° b. x = 130° c. x = 160° d. x = 200°
e. x = 180° f. x = 70° g. x = 350° h. x = 290°
5. From your graph of y = sin x, find the value of x for each of the following.
a. y = 0.9 b. y = −0.9 c. y = 0.7 d. y = −0.5
e. y = −0.8 f. y = 0.4
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
cos x
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
cos x
7. On graph paper, rule x- and y-axes and carefully mark a scale along each axis.
Use 1 cm = 30° on the x-axis to show x-values from 0° to 720°.
Use 2 cm = 1 unit along the y-axis to show y-values from − 1 to 1.
Carefully plot the graph of y = cos x using the values from the table in question 6.
8. If you were to continue the graph of y = cos x, what shape would you expect it to take?
9. Is the graph of y = cos x the same as the graph of y = sin x? How does it differ? What features are the same?

10. Using the graph of y = cos x, find a value of y for each of the following.
a. 48° b. 170° c. 180° d. 340°
e. 240° f. 140° g. 40° h. 165°
11. Using the graph of y = cos x, find a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = − 0.5 b. y = 0.8 c. y = 0.7
d. y = − 0.6 e. y = 0.9 f. y = − 0.9
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
tan x
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
tan x
13. On graph paper, rule x- and y-axes and carefully mark a scale along each axis. Use 1 cm = 30° on the
x-axis to show x-values from 0° to 720°. Use 2 cm = 1 unit along the y-axis to show y-values from − 2
to 2. Carefully plot the graph of y = tan x using the values from the table in question 12.
14. If you were to continue the graph of y = tan x, what shape would you expect it to take?
15. Is the graph of y = tan x the same as the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x? How does it differ? What
features are the same?
16. Using the graph of y = tan x, find a value of y for each of the following.
a. 60° b. 135° c. 310° d. 220°
e. 500° f. 590° g. 710° h. 585°
17. Using the graph of y = tan x, find a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = 1 b. y = 1.5 c. y = −0.4 d. y = –2 e. y = 0.2 f. y = –1
18. WE12 Sketch the following graphs
a. y = cos x, for x ∈ [−180°, 180°] b. y = sin x, for x ∈ [0°, 720°]
c. y = sin 2x, for x ∈ [0°, 360°] d. y = 2 cos x, for x ∈ [−360°, 0°]
19. WE13 For each of the graphs in question 18, state
i. the period ii. the amplitude.
20. For each of the following, state:
a. y = 3 cos 2x b. y = 4 sin 3x c. y = 2 cos
x
2
d. y = 12 sin
x
e. y = −sin x f. y = −cos 2x
4
21. MC Parts a to c refer to the graph below.
y
3
2
1
0 x
90° 180°
–1
–2
–3
a. The amplitude of the graph is:

a. 180° b. 90° c. 3 d. −3 e. 6
b. The period of the graph is:
a. 180° b. 360° c. 90° d. 3 e. −3

c. The equation of the graph could be:
a. y = cos x b. y = sin x c. y = 3 cos
x
3
d. y = 3 cos 2x e. y = 3 sin 2x
Understanding
22. Sketch each of the following graphs, stating the period and amplitude of each.
a. y = 2 cos , for x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. y = −3 sin 2x, for x ∈ [0°, 360°]
x
3
c. y = 3 sin , for x ∈ [−180°, 180°] d. y = −cos 3x, for x ∈ [0°, 360°]
x
2
e. y = 5 cos 2x, for x ∈ [0°, 180°] f. y = −sin 4x, for x ∈ [0°, 180°]
23. Use technology to sketch the graphs of each of the following for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a. y = cos x + 1 b. y = sin 2x − 2 c. y = cos(x − 60°) d. y = 2 sin 4x + 3
Reasoning
24. a. Sketch the graph of y = cos 2x for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
i. What is the minimum value of y for this graph?
ii. What is the maximum value of y for this graph?
b. Using the answers obtained in part a write down the maximum and minimum values of
y = cos 2x + 2.
c. What would be the maximum and minimum values of the graph of y = 2 sin x + 3? Explain how you
obtained these values.
25. a. Complete the table below by filling in the exact values of y = tan x
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
y = tan x
b. Sketch the graph of y = tan x for [0°, 180°].
c. What happens at x = 90°?
d. For the graph of y = tan x, x = 90° is called an asymptote. Write down when the next asymptote
would occur.
e. State the period and amplitude of y = tan x.
26. a. Sketch the graph of y = tan 2x for [0°, 180°].
b. When do the asymptotes occur?
c. State the period and amplitude of y = tan 2x.
Problem solving
27. The height of the tide above the mean sea level on the first day of the month is given by the rule
h = 3 sin(30t°)
where t is the time in hours since midnight.
a. Sketch the graph of h versus t.
b. What was the height of the high tide?
c. Calculate the height of the tide at 8 am.
28. The temperature inside a house t hours after 3 am is given by the rule
T = 22 − 2 cos(15t°) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24
where t is the temperature in degrees Celsius.
a. What is the temperature inside the house at 6 am?
b. Sketch the graph of T versus t.
c. What is the warmest and coolest that it gets inside the house over the 24-hour period?
Reflection
For the graph of y = a tan nx, what would be the period and amplitude?

20.7 Solving trigonometric equations
20.7.1 Solving trigonometric equations graphically
•• Because of the periodic nature of circular functions, there are infinitely many solutions to trigonometric
equations.
•• Equations are usually solved within a particular domain (x-values), to restrict the number of solutions.
•• The sine graph below shows the solutions between 0° and 360° for the equation sin x° = 0.6.
y
1
0.6
0 x
180° 360°
–1
In the example above, it can clearly be seen that there are two solutions to this equation, which are
approximately x = 37° and x = 143°.
•• The smaller the period, the greater the number of solutions within a particular domain.
•• It is difficult to obtain accurate answers from a graph. More accurate answers can be obtained using
technology.
20.7.2 Solving trigonometric equations algebraically
Exact answers can be found for some trigonometric equations using the table at the top of page 846.

RESOURCES
√3 1
a Trysin x= , x ∈ [0°,Trigonometry
out this interactivity:
360°] b cos 2x = − , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 √2
Searchlight ID: int-2797
THINK WRITE
(2 )
√3
a 1 The inverse operation of sine is sin . −1
a x = sin−1
2 The first solution in the given domain from the table at

the top of page 846 is x = 60°.
3 Since sine is positive in the first and second quadrants, There are two solutions in the given
another solution must be x = 180° − 60° = 120°. domain, x = 60° and x = 120°.
−1
(√2)
b 1 The inverse operation of cosine is cos−1. b 2x = cos−1
= 45°.
1
2 From the table of values, cos−1
√2
3 Cosine is negative in the second and third quadrants, 2x = 135°, 225°
which gives the first two solutions to the
equation as: 180° − 45° and 180° + 45°.
4 Solve for x by dividing by 2. x = 67.5°, 112.5°
5 Since the domain in this case is [0°, 360°] and the 360°
The period = = 180°
period has been halved, there must be 4 solutions 2
altogether. The other 2 solutions can be found by x = 67.5° + 180°, 112.5° + 180°
adding the period onto each solution. x = 67.5°, 112.5°, 247.5°, 292.5°

Try out this interactivity: Trigonometry (int-2797)
Exercise 20.7 Solving trigonometric equations

Individual pathways

1–6 1–7 1–7
Fluency
1. Use the graph at right to find approximate answers to the y
following equations for the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°. Check your 1
answers using a calculator.
i. cos x = 0.9
ii. cos x = 0.3 0 180° 360°
x
iii. cos x = −0.2

iv. cos x = −0.6 –1
2. Solve the following equations for the domain 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

√3
a. sin x = b. sin x = c. cos x = − d. cos x = −
1 1 1
2 2 2 √2
e. sin x = 1 f. cos x = −1 g. sin x = − h. sin x = −
1 1
2 √2
√3 √3
i. cos x = j. cos x = − k. sin x = 1 l. cos x = 0
2 2
Understanding
3. WE14 Solve the following equations for the given values of x.
√3 √3
a. sin 2x = , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. cos 2x = − , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
−1
c. tan 2x = d. sin 3x =
1
, x ∈ [0°, 360°] , x ∈ [−180°, 180°]
√3 √2
e. sin 4x = − , x ∈ [0°, 180°] f. sin 3x = − , x ∈ [−180°, 180°]
1 1
2 √2
g. tan 3x = −1, x ∈ [0°, 90°] h. cos 3x = 0, x ∈ [0°, 360°]
Reasoning
4. Solve the following equations for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
a. 2 sin x − 1 = 0 b. 2 cos x = √3 c. √2 cos x − 1 = 0 d. tan x + 1 = 0
5. Sam measured the depth of water at the end of the Intergate jetty at various times on Friday 13 August
2010. The table below provides her results.
Time 6 am 7 8 9 10 11 12 pm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.5

a. Plot the data.
b. Determine:
c. Sam fishes from the jetty when the depth is a maximum. Specify these times for the next 3 days.
d. Sam’s mother can moor her yacht when the depth is above 1.5 m. During what periods can she moor
the yacht on Sunday 16 January?
Problem solving
6. Solve:
a. √3 sin(x°) = cos(x°) for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
b. 2 sin(x°) + cos(x°) = 0 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
7. Solve 2 sin2 (x°) + 3 sin(x°) − 2 = 0 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
Reflection
Explain why sine and cosine functions can be used to model situations that occur in nature such as
tide heights and sound waves.
CHALLENGE 20.2
1
The grad (g) is another measurement used when measuring the size of angles. A grad is equivalent to of a
g
full circle. Write each of the following as grads (1 grad is written as 1 ). 400
1 90° 2 180° 3 270° 4 360°
20.8 Review
Fluency
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
55°
x
75°
12 cm
2. Find the value of θ , correct to the nearest minute.
105° 3.7 m
10.2 m
3. Find all unknown sides and angles of triangle ABC, given a = 25 m, A = 120° and B = 50°.
4. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
6 cm
6 cm
10 cm
5. Find the value of θ , correct to the nearest degree.

6 cm
6 cm
10 cm

6. A triangle has sides of length 12 m, 15 m and 20 m. Find the magnitude (size) of the largest angle.
7. A triangle has two sides of 18 cm and 25 cm. The angle between the two sides is 45°. Find:
a. its area
b. the length of its third side
c. its area using Heron’s formula.
8. If θ = 290°, the triangle to show this would be drawn in which quadrant?
9. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle 110° in quadrant 2.
a. Find sin 110° and cos 110°, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Find tan 110°, correct to 2 decimal places.
10. The value of sin 53° is equal to:
a. cos 53° b. cos 37° c. sin 37° d. tan 53°
sin 53°
11. Simplify .
sin 37°
12. Draw a sketch of y = sin x from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
13. Draw a sketch of y = cos x from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
14. Draw a sketch of y = tan x from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
Non-calculator questions
y
=
x
15. Label this triangle so that .
sin 46° sin 68°
B
16. State the period and amplitude of each of the following graphs.
a. y = 2 sin 3x b. y = −3 cos 2x
c. y
1
x
90° 180° 360°
–1
17. Sketch the following graphs.

a. y = 2 sin x, x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. y = cos 2x, x ∈ [−180°, 180°]
18. Use technology to write down the solutions to the following equations for the domain 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
to 2 decimal places.
a. sin x = −0.2 b. cos 2x = 0.7 c. 3 cos x = 0.1 d. 2 tan 2x = 0.5
√3
a. sin x = − , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. cos x =
1
, x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
c. cos x = d. sin x =
1 1
, x ∈ [0°, 360°] , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
√2 √2

20. The equation that represents the graph on the right could be: y
a. y = 3 sin 2x b. y = 2 cos 3x 3
c. y = 3 cos 2x d. y = 2 sin 2x 2
e. y = 2 sin 3x 1
21. a. Use technology to help sketch the graph of y = 2 sin 2x − 3. x

60° 120°
b. Write down the period and the amplitude of the graph in part a. –1
–2
22. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating
i. the period –3
ii. the amplitude.
a. y = 2 cos 2x, x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. y = 3 sin 4x, x ∈ [0°, 180°]
c. y = −2 cos 3x, x ∈ [−60°, 60°] d. y = 4 sin 2x, x ∈ [−90°, 90°]
23. Solve each of the following equations for the given values of x.
√3
a. cos 2x = b. sin 3x = , x ∈ [−90°, 90°]
1
, x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
c. sin 2x = d. cos 3x = − , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
1 1
, x ∈ [0°, 360°]
√2 √2
e. sin 4x = 0, x ∈ [0°, 180°] f. tan 4x = 21, x ∈ [0°, 180°]
24. Solve the following for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
a. 2 cos x − 1 = 0 b. 2 sin x = −√3 c. −√2 cos x + 1 = 0 d. √2 sin x + 1 = 0
25. Sketch the graph of y = tan 2x, x ∈ [0°, 180°]. Write down the period, amplitude and the equations of
any asymptotes.
Problem solving
26. A satellite dish is placed on top of an apartment building as shown in the diagram.
Find the height of the satellite dish.
27. Australian power points supply voltage, V, in volts, where V = 240 sin 18 000t 0.22°
and t is measured in seconds.
a. Complete the table below and sketch the graph, showing the fluctuations in
voltage over time. 48.3°
t v 450 m
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
b. Find the times at which the maximum voltage output occurs.
c. How many seconds are there between times of maximum voltage output?
d. How many periods (or cycles) are there per second?

Language
ambiguous case Heron’s formula trigonometric function
amplitude period unit circle
area periodic function
asymptote quadrants
cosine sine
cosine graphs sine graphs
cosine rule sine rule
exact value trigonometric equation

www.assesson.com.au

What’s an arbelos?
As an introduction to this task, you are required to complete the
following construction. The questions that follow require the
application of measurement formulas, and an understanding of
semicircles related to this construction.
1. Constructing an arbelos A 6 cm Y B
•• Rule a horizontal line AB 8 cm long.
8 cm
•• Find the midpoint of the line and construct a semicircle on top of
the line with AB as the diameter.
•• Mark Y as a point on AB such that AY = 6 cm.
•• Find the midpoint of AY and draw a small semicircle inside the larger semicircle with AY as the
diameter.
•• Find the midpoint of YB and construct a semicircle (also inside the larger semicircle) with a
diameter YB.
The shape enclosed by the three semicircles is known as an arbelos. The word, in Greek,
means shoemaker’s knife as it resembles the blade of a knife used by cobblers. The point Y is
not fixed and can be located anywhere along the diameter of the larger semicircle, which can
also vary in size.
2. Perimeter of an arbelos
The perimeter of an arbelos is the sum of the arc length of the three semicircles. Perform the
following calculations, leaving each answer in terms of π.
a. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle with diameter AB.
b. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle with diameter AY.
c. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle on diameter YB.
d. Compare the largest arc length with the two smaller arc lengths. What do you conclude?
3. We can generalise the arc length of an arbelos. The point Y can be located anywhere on the line
AB, which can also vary in length. Let the diameter AB be d cm, AY be d1 cm and YB be d2 cm.
Prove that your conclusion from question 2d holds true for any value of d, where d1 + d2 = d.
4. Area of an arbelos
The area of an arbelos may be treated as the area of a composite shape.
a. Using your original measurements, calculate the area of the arbelos you drew in question 1.
Leave your answer in terms of π.

The area of the arbelos can also be calculated using another Z
method. We can draw the common tangent to the two smaller
semicircles at their point of contact and extend this tangent to
the larger semicircle. It is said that the area of the arbelos is
the same as the area of the circle constructed on this common
tangent as diameter. A Y B
Triangles AYZ, BYZ and AZB are all right-angled triangles. YZ is the common tangent.
We can use Pythagoras’ theorem, together with a set of simul-
taneous equations, to determine the length of the tangent YZ.
b. Complete the following.
In ΔAYZ, AZ2 = AY2 + YZ2
= 62 + YZ2
In ΔBYZ, BZ2 = BY2 + YZ2
= ......................... + YZ2
Adding these two equations,
AZ2 + BZ2 = ......................... + .........................
But, in ΔAZB, AZ2 + BZ2 = AB2
......................... + ......................... = .........................
So,
YZ = ......................... (Leave your answer in surd form.)
c. Now calculate the area of the circle with diameter YZ. Is
your answer the same as that calculated in question 4a?
The area of an arbelos can be generalised.
Let the radii of the two smaller semicircles be r1 and r2.
5. Develop a formula for the area of the arbelos in terms of r1 A r1 Y r B
and r2. Demonstrate the use of your formula by checking 2
your answer to question 4a.
Complete this digital doc: Code puzzle: What is the periodic table? (doc-15955)

Answers
Topic 20 Trigonometry II
Exercise 20.2 The sine rule
1. 44°58′, 77°2′, 13.79
2. 39°18′, 38°55′, 17.21
3. 70°, 9.85, 9.4
4. 33°, 38.98, 21.98
5. 19.12
6. C = 51°, b = 54.66, c = 44.66
7. A = 60°, b = 117.11, c = 31.38
8. B = 48°26′, C = 103°34′, c = 66.26; or B = 131°34′, C = 20°26′, c = 23.8
9. 24.17
10. B, C
11. A = 73°15′, b = 8.73; or A = 106°45′, b = 4.12
12. 51.9 or 44.86
13. C = 110°, a = 3.09, b = 4.64
14. B = 38°, a = 3.36, c = 2.28
15. B = 33°33′, C = 121°27′, c = 26.24; or B = 146°27′, C = 8°33′, c = 4.57
16. 43.62 m
17. a. 6.97 m b. 4 m
18. a. 13.11 km b. N20°47′W
19. a. 8.63 km b. 6.48 km/h c. 9.90 km
20. 22.09 km from A and 27.46 km from B
21. C 22. B
23. Yes, she needs 43 m altogether.
24. a. 7.3 km b. 282°3′
25. h = 7.5 cm
Exercise 20.3 The cosine rule

1. 7.95
2. 55.22
3. 23.08, 41°53′, 23°7′
4. 28°57′
5. 88°15′
6. A = 61°15′, B = 40°, C = 78°45′
7. 2218 m
8. a. 12.57 km b. S35°1′E
9. a. 35°6′ b. 6.73 m2
10. 23°
11. 89.12 m
12. a. 130 km b. S22°12′E
13. 28.5 km
14. 74.3 km
15. 70°49′
16. a. 8.89 m b. 77° c. x = 10.07 m
17. 1.14 km/h
18. ∠CAB = 34.65°, ∠ABC = 84.83° and ∠BCA = 60.52°
19. a. 4.6637 m b. 55.93°
Exercise 20.4 Area of triangles

1. 12.98
2. 38.14
3. 212.88

4. A = 32°4′, B = 99°56′, area = 68.95 cm2
5. A = 39°50′, B = 84°10′, area = 186.03 m2
6. A = 125°14′, B = 16°46′, area = 196.03 mm2
7. C
8. 14.98 cm2
9. 570.03 mm2
10. 2.15 cm2
11. B
12. 3131.41 mm2
13. 610.38 cm2
14. a. 187.5 cm2 b. 15.03 cm2 c. 187.47 cm2
15. 17 goldfish
16. 22.02 m2
17. a. Area = 69.63 cm2 b. Dimensions are 12.08 cm and 6.96 cm.
18. 17 kg
19. 52.2 hectares
20. 175 m3
21. C
22. B
23. a. 29.44 km2 b. 8.26 km c. 41° d. 24°
e. 3.72 km f. 10.11 km2 g. 39.55 km2
24. 374.12 cm2
Challenge 20.1
a sin B = b
Area = 12ac
Exercise 20.5 The unit circle

1. a. 1st b. 2nd c. 4th d. 3rd
e. 2nd f. 3rd g. 4th h. 4th
2. A
3. D
4. a. 0.35 b. 0.95 c. − 0.17 d. 0.99
e. − 0.64 f. 0.77 g. − 0.57 h. − 0.82
5. a. 1 b. 0 c. 0 d. − 1
e. − 1 f. 0 g. 0 h. 1
6. a. 0.87 b. 0.50
7. a. 30° b. − 0.87 c. cos 150° = −cos 30°
d. 0.5 e. sin 150° = sin 30°
8. a. 30° b. − 0.87 c. cos 210° = −cos 30°
d. − 0.50 e. sin 210° = −sin 30°
9. a. 30° b. 0.87 c. cos 330° = −cos 30°
d. − 0.50 e. sin 330° = −sin 30°
10. a. 0.34 b. 0.94 c. 0.36
d. 0.36 e. They are equal.
11. a. 0.71 b. − 0.71 c. − 1
d. − 1 e. They are equal. f. tan 135° = −tan 45°
12. a. − 0.64 b. − 0.77 c. 0.84
d. 0.83 e. They are approx. equal. f. tan 220° = tan 40°
13. a. − 0.87 b. 0.5 c. − 1.73
d. − 1.74 e. They are approx. equal. f. tan 300° = −tan 60°
14. D
15. a. √1 − p2 b. p c. −√1 − p2
16. 0
17. a. (2 cos θ , 3 sinθ ) b. (−cos θ , −sin θ ) c. (−cos θ , −sinθ )
1
18. a. − sin (2θ ) b. cos ( θ ) − sin θ )
2
19. a. tan(x) b. −sec(x)

Exercise 20.6 Trigonometric functions
1.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin x 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 − 0.5° − 0.87 −1 − 0.87 − 0.5 0
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
sin x 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 − 0.5 − 0.87 −1 − 0.87 − 0.5 0
2. y
y = sin x
1
0 x
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
540°
630°
720°
–1
3. 360°
4. a. 0.7 b. 0.8 c. 0.35 d. − 0.35
e. 0 f. 0.9 g. − 0.2 h. − 0.9
5. a. 64°, 116°, 424°, 476° b. 244°, 296°, 604°, 656° c. 44°, 136°, 404°, 496°
d. 210°, 330°, 570°, 690° e. 233°, 307°, 593°, 667° f. 24°, 156°, 384°, 516°
6.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
cos x 1 0.87 0.5 0 − 0.5 − 0.87 −1 − 0.87 − 0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
cos x 0.87 0.5 0 − 0.5 − 0.87 −1 − 0.87 − 0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
7. y
y = cos x
1
0 x
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
540°
630°
720°
–1
8. The graph would continue with the cycle.

9. It is a very similar graph with the same shape; however, the sine graph starts at (0, 0), whereas the cosine graph starts at (0, 1).
10. a. 0.7 b. − 0.98 c. − 1 d. 0.9
e. − 0.5 f. − 0.8 g. 0.8 h. − 0.96
11. a. 120°, 240°, 480°, 600° b. 37°, 323°, 397°, 683° c. 46°, 314°, 406°, 674°
d. 127°, 233°, 487°, 593° e. 26°, 334°, 386°, 694° f. 154°, 206°, 514°, 566°
12. x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
tan x 0 0.58 1.73 undef. − 1.73 − 0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. − 1.73 − 0.58 0
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
tan x 0.58 1.73 undef. − 1.73 − 0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. − 1.73 − 0.58 0
13. y = tan x
180° 360° 540° 720°

0° x
90° 270° 450° 630°
14. The graph would continue repeating every 180° as above.

15. Quite different. y = tan x has undefined values (asymptotes) and repeats every 180° rather than 360°. It also gives all y-values,
rather than just values between − 1 and 1.
16. a. 1.7 b. − 1 c. − 1.2 d. 0.8
e. − 0.8 f. 1.2 g. − 0.2 h. 1
17. a. 45°, 225°, 405°, 585° b. 56°, 236°, 416°, 596° c. 158°, 338°, 518°, 698°
d. 117°, 297°, 477°, 657° e. 11°, 191°, 371°, 551° f. 135°, 315°, 495°, 675°

18. a. y b. y
y = cos x y = sin x
1 1
0 x 0 x
–180° –90° 90° 180° 180° 360° 540° 720°
–1 –1
c. y y = sin 2x d. y
1 y = 2 cos x
2
0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°
0 x
–1 –360° –270° –180° –90°
–2
19. a. i. 360° ii. 1

b. i. 360° ii. 1
c. i. 180° ii. 1
d. i. 360° ii. 2
20. a. i. 180° ii. 3
b. i. 120° ii. 4
c. i. 720° ii. 2
d. i. 1440° ii. 12
e. i. 360° ii. 1
f. i. 180° ii. 1
21. a. C b. A c. D
22. a. y Period = 1080° b. y Period = 180°
y = –3 sin 2x
Amplitude = 2 3 Amplitude = 3
2 y = 2 cos –3x
0 x
0 x 90° 180° 270° 360°
540° 1080°
–3
–2
c. y Period = 720° d. y Period = 120°

y = –cos 3x
1
3 Amplitude = 3 Amplitude = 1
y = 3 sin –2x
0 x
0 x 120° 240° 360°
–180° –90° 90° 180°
–1
–3
e. y y = 5cos 2x Period = 180° f. y y = –sin 4x Period = 90°

5 1
Amplitude = 5 Amplitude = 1
0 x
90º 180º
0 x
180º
–1
–5
b. y
23. a. y
y = cos x + 1 0
2
–1 90° 180° 270° 360° x
1
–2
0 x –3
–1 90° 180° 270° 360°
–4 y = sin 2x – 2
–2
c. y d. y y = 2sin 4x + 3
1 y = cos (x – 60°) 5
4
3
0 x
120° 240° 360° 2
–1 1
0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

24. a. y
y = cos 2x
1
0 x
180° 360°
–1
i. − 1 ii. 1
b. i. 3 ii. 1
c. Max value of sin x = 1, hence max value of y = 2 × 1 + 3 = 5
d. Min value of sin x = − 1, hence min value of y = 2 × −1 + 3 = 1
25. a.
x 0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
y 0 √3 √3 undef − √3 √3 0
−
3 3
b. y
y = tan x
x
0 90° 180°
c. At x = 90°, y is undefined. d. x = 270°

e. The period = 180°, amplitude is undefined.
26. a. y
y = tan 2x
b. x = 45° and x = 135°
c. Period = 90° and amplitude is undefined.
0 x
90° 180°
27. a. h b. 3 metres
4
3 c. − 2.6 metres
2
1
0 t
–1 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
–2
–3
–4
28. a. 22 °C
b. T
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 t
c. Coolest 20 °C d. Warmest 24 °C
Exercise 20.7 Solving trigonometric equations

1. Calculator answers
i. 25.84°, 334.16° ii. 72.54°, 287.46° iii. 101.54°, 258.46° iv. 126.87°, 233.13°
2. a. 30°, 150° b. 60°, 120° c. 120°, 240° d. 135°, 225°
e. 90° f. 180° g. 210°, 330° h. 225°, 315°
i. 30°, 330° j. 150°, 210° k. 90° l. 90°, 270°

3. a. 30°, 60°, 210°, 240° b. 75°, 105°, 255°, 285°
c. 15°, 105°, 195°, 285° d. −165°, −135°, −45°,15°, −75°, 105°
e. 52.5°, 82.5°, 142.5°, 172.5° f. −165°, −135°, −45°, −15°,75°, 105°
g. 45° h. 30°, 90°, 150°, 210°, 270°, 330°
4. a. 30°, 150° b. 30°, 330° c. 45°, 315° d. 135°, 315°
5. a.
3.0
2.6 m • •
2.5 •
•
• •
2.0 1.05 m
Depth (m)
• • •
1.5 • 1.55 m
1– • 1.05 m •
≈ 12 hours
2
1.0 •
•
0.5 0.5 m • •
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
am pm
Time (hours)
b. i. 12 12 h ii. 1.05 m

c. 10.00 am, 10.30 pm, 11.00 am, 11.30 pm, noon
d. Until 1.45 am Sunday, 8 am to 2.15 pm and after 8.30 pm
6. a. x = 30°, 210° b. x = 153.43°, 333.43°
7. x = 30°, 150°
Challenge 20.2
1. 100g
2. 200g
3. 300g
4. 400g
20.8 Review
1. 14.15 cm
2. 20°31′
3. b = 22.11 m, c = 5.01 m, C = 10°
4. 3.64 cm
5. 34°
6. 94°56′
7. a. 159.10 cm2 b. 17.68 cm c. 159.10 cm2
8. 4th quadrant
9. a. 0.94, − 0.34 b. − 2.75
10. b
11. tan 53°
12. y
y = sinx
1
0 x
180°
90°
270°
360°
450°
–1
13. y
y = cosx
1
0 x
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
–1

14. y = tan x
y
180° 360°
0° x
90° 270°
15. B
y
x
A 46°
68°
C
16. a. Period = 120°, amplitude = 2 b. Period = 180°, amplitude = 3 c. Period = 180°, amplitude = 0.5
17. a. b. y y = cos 2x
2 1
1 y = 2sin x
x x
–1 180° 360° –180° 180°
–2 –1
18. a. x = 191.54, 348.46 b. x = 22.79, 157.21, 202.79, 337.21

c. x = 88.09, 271.91 d. x = 7.02, 97.02, 187.02, 277.02
19. a. 210°, 330° b. 30°, 330° c. 45°, 315° d. 45°, 135°
20. e
21. a. y x b. Period = 180°, amplitude = 2
–1 180° 360°
–2
–3
–4
–5
y = 2sin 2x – 3
22. a. y y = 2cos 2x b. y y = 3sin 4x

2 3
x
180° 360° x
–2 90° 180°
–3
i. Period = 180° i. Period = 90°

ii. Amplitude = 2 ii. Amplitude = 3
c. y d. y y = 4sin 2x
y = –2cos 3x 4
2
x x
–60° 60° –90° 90°
–2 –4
i. Period = 120° i. Period = 180°

ii. Amplitude = 2 ii. Amplitude = 4
23. a. 15°, 165°, 195°, 345° b. −70°, 10°, 50°
c. 22.5°, 67.5, 202.5°, 247.5° d. 45°, 75°, 165°, 195°, 285°, 315°
e. 0, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180° f. 33.75°, 78.75°, 123.75°, 168.75°
24. a. 60°, 300° b. 240°, 300° c. 45, 315° d. 225, 315°
25. y
y = tan 2x
x
90° 180°
Period = 90, amplitude is undefined.

Asymptotes are at x = 45° and x = 135°.

26. 3.92 m
27. a. V (Volts)
t V
0.000 0 240
0.005 240 .010 .020 .030 .040

.005 .015 .035 t (second)
0.010 0
0.015 − 240 –240
0.020 0
0.025 240
0.030 0
0.035 − 240
0.040 0
b. Maximum voltage occurs at t = 0.005 s, 0.025 s.
c. 0.02 s
d. 50 cycles per second

Take one triangle containing the angle θ and label its sides.
x
1
θ
y
This gives
1
tan ( θ ) =
x
1
⇒x=
tan ( θ )
and
1
sin ( θ ) =
y
1
⇒y= .
sin ( θ )
Continue until you get the following lengths.
(θ)
tan
1 θ
tan(θ) sin(θ) 1
cos(θ)
cos(θ)
1
θ
θ
1
sin(θ)
1
Area1 = sin ( θ )cos ( θ )
2
90 − θ
Area2 = π
360
2(cos ( θ ) )
1 1
Area3 = − cos ( θ ) sin ( θ )
1 1 90 − θ
Area4 = × − π
2 tan ( θ ) 360
3π
Area5 =
4

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
TOPIC 21
Programming
21.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embed-
ded just where you need them, at the point of
learning, in your learnON title at www.jacplus.
com.au. They will help you to learn the content

Computer programming is the process of creat-
ing instructions for a computer to follow to per-
form tasks.
In this topic the computer language JavaScript
is used in most of the examples and questions.
JavaScript has been chosen for its popularity and
availability on nearly all web browsers.
This topic will introduce how a program can
process and organise large amounts of data, and
will explore generating many random numbers to
run simulations. The topic will also explore the use
of graphics as powerful tools to visualise simulations.

1. THINK Write what you know about computer programming languages. Use a thinking tool such as a
concept map to display your ideas.
3. SHARE As a class, combine all the ideas into one large concept map or poster.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
21.1 Overview
21.2 Programs
21.3 Data structures
21.4 Algorithms
21.5 Matrices
21.6 Graphics
21.7 Simulations
21.8 Review
Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A, Topic 21

21.2 Programs
21.2.1 Values
•• Three of the most common types of values used in computer programming are:
– numbers (numerical values): for example 1, −2, 1.234, −14.345345
– strings (any text surrounded in quotation marks " "): for example
"In quotation marks", "213.2",
"Subject: Year 10 Mathematics", "!@#$%^&", " "
– Booleans (used for logic, this type only has two possible values): either false or true.
•• In JavaScript the expression typeof value returns either "number", "string" or
"boolean" if value is a number, string or Boolean respectively.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Answer these questions for each of the following values.

i Is the value a number, a string or Boolean?
ii Apply the expression typeof value to each value. What is the result of the expression
typeof value?
a "Brendan" b 1.41421 c false d "1.41421"
THINK WRITE
a i ”Brendan” is in quotation marks, so this value a i String
is a string.
ii 1 Apply the expression typeof value to ii typeof “Brendan”
the value “Brendan”.
2 typeof “Brendan” is a “string”. “string”
b i 1.41421 is a numerical value not in quotation b i Number
marks, so this value is a number.
ii 1 Apply the expression typeof value to ii typeof 1.41421
the value 1.41421.
2 typeof 1.41421 is a “number”. “number”
c i false is a Boolean value. c i Boolean
ii 1 Apply the expression typeof value to ii typeof false
the value false.
2 typeof false is a “boolean”. “boolean”
d i ”1.41421” is in quotation marks, so it is a d i String
string.
ii 1 Apply the expression typeof value to ii typeof “1.41421”
the value “1.41421”.
2 typeof “1.41421” is a “string”. “string”
21.2.2 Variables
•• Computer languages use memory locations to store values. These named containers are called
variables. There are complex rules as to what is a valid variable name. For simplicity, this topic will
restrict the variable names to three simple rules.

•• Variable names:
– must not start with a number
– can only contain upper and lower case letters, numbers, and the underscore character (_), and
cannot contain spaces
– cannot be JavaScript keywords. The following are JavaScript keywords which should not be used as
variable names.
abstract, arguments, Array, boolean, break, byte, case,
catch, char, class, const, continue, Date, debugger, default,
delete, do, double, else, enum, eval, export, extends, final,
finally, float, for, function, goto, hasOwnProperty, if,
implements, import, in, Infinity, instanceof, int, interface,
isFinite, isNaN, i
sPrototypeOf, length, let, long, Math,
name, NaN, native, new, null, Number, Object, package,
private,
protected, prototype, public, return, short, static,
String, super, switch,
synchronized, this, throw, throws,
toString, transient, true, try, typeof, undefined, valueOf,
var, void,
volatile, while, with, yield, false
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Each of the following is a valid variable name. True or false?

a someReallyLongName b 3.14_nearly_pi
c number/divide d age_43
e while
THINK WRITE
a someReallyLongName is valid because it only uses letters. a True
b 3.14_nearly_pi is invalid because it uses a number as the first character. b False
c number/divide is invalid because it uses a / character. c False
d age_43 is valid as it only uses letters, numbers and the _ character. d True
It also does not start with a number.
e while is invalid because it is a JavaScript keyword. e False
21.2.3 Numerical expressions

•• In JavaScript, numerical expressions involving numbers, brackets, and plus and minus signs evaluate
normally.
•• Multiplication uses the character *.
•• Division uses the character /.
•• Fractions can be evaluated using the division character, but the numerator and denominator e xpressions
must be put in brackets.
300 + 10 + 4
= (300 + 10 + 4)/(1 + 9 * 11)
1 + 9 × 11
•• The % symbol is used to find remainder after a division. For example, 32%10 evaluates to 2, as
10 divides into 32 three times with a 2 remainder.
•• JavaScript has a square root function: √x = Math.sqrt(x). This function returns only the p ositive
square root.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Write the following as JavaScript expressions.

a (11 − 1 + 1.2) + (15 − 4) b 213 × 32 × 0.5
c 720 ÷ (6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) d 17 + 13
7−2
e The remainder from the division 19 ÷ 6 f √169
THINK WRITE
a This is a simple numerical expression with no special a (11−1+1.2)+(15−4)
characters required.
b Substitute × with *. b 213*32*0.5
c Replace the × with a * and the ÷ with a /. c 720/(6*5*4*3*2*1)
d The fraction is a division. The numerator and d (17+13)/(7−2)
denominator require brackets.
e Use the modulus symbol, %, to find the remainder e 19%6
from the division 19 ÷ 6.
f Use the Math.sqrt function to find the square f Math.sqrt(169)
root of 169.
21.2.4 Assigning
• When assigning to a variable for the first time, the statement should begin with the JavaScript keyword
var. JavaScript uses the following assignment structure to assign a value or expression to a variable.
The chosen The expression

variable name or value
var any_name = "Expression or value";
JavaScript ; indicates the end

= is an assignment
keyword (short of a JavaScript
symbol
for ‘variable’) statement
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Write JavaScript statements to make the following variable assignments.

a Assign the value 1236 to the variable population.
b Assign "Australia" to the variable country.
c Assign the mathematical expression 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 to the variable factorial5.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Identify the variable name, which in this case is a
population.
2 Identify the value, which in this case is 1236.

3 Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var population = 1236;
write the statement.
b 1 Identify the variable name, which in this case is b
country.
2 Identify the value, which in this case is
“Australia”.
3 Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var country = “Australia”;
c 1 Identify the variable name, which in this case is c
factorial5.
2 Identify the mathematical expression, which in
this case is 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
3 Convert the mathematical expression into a 5*4*3*2*1
JavaScript expression.
4 Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var factorial5 = 5*4*3*2*1;
21.2.5 Reassigning
•• A variable can change value and type as the The chosen The initial
variable name expression or value
program runs through a sequence of s tatements
in order. When a variable is reassigned, the
statement does not require the J avaScript key-
var any_name = "Initial value";
word var. JavaScript uses the following
any_name = "New value";
sequence to assign and reassign a value or
expression to a variable. The value of the vari-
able changes with each assignment. The new
expression or
value
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:

i what is the final type of the variable value
ii what is the final value stored in the variable value
iii what is the result of the expression typeof value?
a var value = 9876; b var value = 4+3+2+1;
value = true; value = (5*4*3*2*1)/value;
c var value = false;
var another = "Victoria";
value = another;
another = true;

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the initial assignment. a value = 9876

2 Write the reassignment. value = true
i true is one of the Boolean values, so i Boolean
this value is a Boolean.
ii The last value assigned to value was ii true
true.
iii Apply the expression typeof value iii “boolean”
to the value true.
b 1 Write the initial assignment. b value = 4+3+2+1
2 Evaluate the expression. value = 10
3 Write the reassignment. value = (5*4*3*2*1)/value
4 On the right-hand side of the assignment, value = (5*4*3*2*1)/10
substitute 10 for value.
5 Substitute 120 for (5*4*3*2*1). value = 120/10
6 Substitute 12 for 120/10. value = 12
i 12 is a numerical value not in quotation i Number
marks, so this value is a number.
ii The last value assigned to value was ii 12
12.
iii Apply the expression typeof value iii “number”
to the value 12.
c 1 Write the initial assignment to value. c value = false
2 Write the initial assignment to another. another = “Victoria”
3 Write the reassignment to value. value = another
4 Substitute “Victoria” for another. value = “Victoria”
5 Write the reassignment to another. another = true
i “Victoria” is in quotation marks, so i String
this value is a string.
ii The last value assigned to value was ii “Victoria”
“Victoria”.
iii Apply the expression typeof value iii “string”
to the value “Victoria”.
21.2.6 If structure i
f (decision) {
•• Decisions are based on Boolean values. In JavaScript, the if statement 1
structure is used to make a decision to run a section of code if statement 2
the decision value is true. For example, the following program
will run {statement 1, statement 2, ..., statement n
statement n} if decision is true. }

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, what is the final value
stored in the variable data?
a var data = 22;
if (true) {
data = data/2;
}
b var data="Stays the same";
if (false) {
data="Changed";
}
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the first assignment. a data = 22
2 decision is true, so run the statement
inside the {} block.
3 Write the assignment. data = data/2
4 On the right-hand side of the assignment, data = 22/2
substitute 22 for data.
5 Substitute 11 for 22/2. data = 11
6 Write the final value stored in data. 11
b 1 Write the first assignment. b data=”Stays the same”
2 decision is false, so ignore the statement
inside the {} block.
3 Write the final value stored in data. “Stays the same”
21.2.7 If else structure

•• In JavaScript, the if else structure is used to execute one of two different sections of code.
1. Execute {statement 1, statement 2, ..., statement n} if d ecision
is true.
2. Execute {statement A, statement B, ..., statement Z} if d ecision
is false.
if (decision) {
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
} else {
statement A
statement B
statement Z
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, what is the final value
stored in the variable results?
a var results = 1.23; b var results = 12;
if (true) { var multiplyBy3 = false;
results = 3.21; if (multiplyBy3) {
} else { results = 3*results;
results = 2.13; } else {
} results = results/results;
}
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the first assignment. a results = 1.23

2 decision is true, so run the statement
inside the first {} block.
3 Write the assignment. results = 3.21
4 Write the final value stored in results. 3.21
b 1 Write the first assignment. b results = 12
2 Write the second assignment. multiplyBy3 = false
3 decision multiplyBy3 is false, so
run the statement inside the second {} block.
4 Write the equation. results = results/results
5 On the right-hand side of the assignment, results = 12/12
substitute 12 for results.
6 Substitute 1 for 12/12. results = 1
7 Write the final value stored in results. 1
Try out this interactivity: CodeBlocks Activity 1 (int-6573)
Exercise 21.2 Programs

Fluency
1. WE1 Answer these questions for each of the following values.
i. Is the value a number, a string or Boolean?
ii. Apply the expression typeof value to each value. What is the result of the expression
typeof value?
a. "A string" b. "-2.344"
c. false d. "The first sentence."
e. −2.344 f. true
g. "1234567" h. 1234567

2. WE2 Each of the following is a valid variable name. True or false?
a. value2||value1 b. number*multiply
c. thisIsAValidName d. 23.34_a_decimal
e. element_1_2 f. else
g. length_12 h. age_16
i. for j. isThisOne_Valid
k. 2 l. false
m. ______ n. a name
o. and&&this
3. WE5 Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. what is the final type of the variable result
ii. what is the final result stored in the variable result
iii. what is the result of the expression typeof result?
a. var result = 23.234;
result = false;
b. var result = 123+2+32+2+222+2+1;
result = result / (61+1+16+1+111+1+1);
c. var result = "Was this";
result = "Now this, but the same type";
d. var result = true;
var another = "Another type and value";
result = another;
another = false;
4. WE6 Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, what is the final value
stored in the variable information?
a. var information = true;
if (false) {
information = false;
}
b. var information = 3;
if (true) {
information = information*information*information;
}
5. WE7 Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, what is the final value
stored in the variable calculations?
a. var calculations = 3;
var tooSmall = false;
if (tooSmall) {
calculations = calculations/2;
} else {
calculations = calculations*calculations;
}
b. var calculations = (1+2+3)*5;
if (true) {
} else {
}

Understanding
6. WE3 Write the following as JavaScript expressions.
a. 2048 ÷ (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2)
2.2 + 0.7 + 0.1
b.
3.2 − 0.1 × 2
15 − 4
c. (11 + 2) + + 16
11
d. The remainder from the division 22 ÷ 16
e. 22 × 12 ÷ 2 f. √ 625 ÷ (5 × 5) g. 18 × 9 × 27 × 2 × 0.5
7. WE4 Write JavaScript statements to make the following variable assignments.
a. Assign "Earth" to the variable planet.
b. Assign the mathematical expression 2 × 4 + 1 to the variable threeSquared.
c. Assign the value 10.2 to the variable timeInSeconds.
2+3+3
d. Assign the mathematical expression to the variable division.
2
e. Assign the value 2 to the variable distanceOverThereInKilometers.
8. Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. what is the final type of the variable a
ii. what is the final result stored in the variable a
iii. what is the result of the expression typeof a?
a. var a = 34; b. var a = 480;
var b = 12; var r = 12;
var c = 22; var y = 12;
b = c; a = a/r;
b = b*b; var t = 23;
a = c+b; a = a + t;
c = 34; a = a * y;
9. Manually simulate running the following program. What is the final value stored in the variable
number?
var test1 = true;
var test2 = false;
var test3 = false;
var test4 = true;
var number = 322;
if (test1) { number = number / 2; }
if (test2) { number = 3 * number + 1; }
if (test3) { number = number / 2; }
if (test4) { number = 3 * number + 1; }
10. Manually simulate running the following program. What is the final value stored in the variable
time?
var time = 100;
if (true) {
time = time + time - 2;
time = 20 * time;
} else {
time = 2 * time + time * 4 + 2;
}

Reasoning
11. Write the rest of the program below to calculate the perimeter and area for a rectangle, given
the width and height of the rectangle.
var width = 10;
var height = 12;
12. Write the rest of the program below to calculate the total surface area and volume of a box,
given the width, height and depth of the box.
var width = 8;
var height = 5;
var depth = 3;
Problem solving
13. Given the equation (fx + g)(hx + i) = ax2 + bx + c, write the rest of the program below to solve for
a, b and c given f, g, h and i.
var f = 7;
var g = 12;
var h = 2;
var i = -3;
14. Given the equation ax2 + bx + c = (fx + g)(hx + i), write the rest of the program below to solve for
g, h and i given a, b, c and f.
var a = 12;
var b = 39;
var c = 30;
var f = 3;
var g = 6;
21.3 Data structures

21.3.1 Data structures and numbers
•• In JavaScript, data structures can be constructed from basic building blocks. The building blocks
include numbers, strings and Booleans. These building blocks can be combined to represent more
complex values.
•• A basic piece of data associated with other data is called a property. For example, a person’s data
may be made up of many properties.
Property Example value Type

firstName “Tom” String
surname “Jones” String
yearOfBirth 1940 Number
isAdult true Boolean

•• Numbers are the most widely used type in computer programs. JavaScript uses the number type to
represent both integers and real numbers. Most other programming languages use different types to
represent integers and real numbers.
•• It is important to understand that there are limitations on the size and accuracy of numbers stored in
JavaScript.
–– JavaScript can accurately store all integer values between −9007199254740992 and
9007199254740992 inclusive.
–– JavaScript can approximately store real values between
−1.797 693 134 823 157 × 10308 and 1.797 693 134 823 157 × 10308 . However, if a value is very
close to 0, JavaScript approximates the value as 0 . JavaScript cannot represent very small
real values between −5 × 10−324 and 5 × 10−324 ; all values in that range are approximated
as 0 .
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Can the following values be stored? If so, will they be stored accurately or approximately?
a 12 b 11.00 c 10.01
d 9007199254740992 e 9007199254740997 f 1.79 × 10308
g 1.80 × 10308 h 2.3 × 10 −380
THINK WRITE
a The value 12 is an integer and within the limits of an a Can be stored accurately
accurate integer.
b The value 11.00 is still considered an integer and within b Can be stored accurately
the limits of an accurate integer.
c The value 10.01 is not an integer, but is within the limits c Can be stored approximately
of an approximate real number.
d The value 9007199254740992 is an integer and just d Can be stored accurately

within the limits of an accurate integer.
e The value 9007199254740997 is an integer and is e Can be stored approximately

outside limits of an accurate integer, but is within the limits
of an approximate real number.
f The value 1.79 × 10308 is outside limits of an accurate f Can be stored approximately
integer, but is within the limits of an approximate real
number.
g The value 1.80 × 10308 is outside the limits of an g Cannot be stored

approximate real number.
h The value 2.3 × 10−380 is too small to be represented. h Cannot be stored

21.3.2 Strings
•• Strings are used to represent text. A character is a string of length 1. A string is a list of characters.
Each character position in a string has an incrementing index starting at 0.
The string “Year 10”
Character Index
“Y” 0
“e” 1
“a” 2
“r” 3
“ “ 4
“1” 5
“0” 6
•• The first character in a string of length N is accessed with index 0, the second character is accessed
with index 1, the third character is accessed with index 2, and the last character is accessed with index
N-1.
var string= “ a b c ... # “

Location 1st 2nd 3rd ... N
JavaScript index 0 1 2 N-1
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
What is the JavaScript index of each of the following characters in the string "abcdefgh"?
a "a" b "f" c "b" d "h"
THINK WRITE
a ”a” is the 1st value, so it has an index 0. a 0
b ”f” is the 6th value, so it has an index 5. b 5
c ”b” is the 2nd value, so it has an index 1. c 1
d ”h” is the 8th value, so it has an index 7. d 7
•• Characters inside a string are accessed using an index with the expression string[index].
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var string = "The quick brown fox";
a string[1] b string[0] c string[12] d string[4+3]
THINK WRITE
a string[1] has an index of 1, which is the 2nd character in the string. a “h”
b string[0] has an index of 0, which is the 1st character in the string. b “T”
c string[12] has an index of 12, which is the 13th character in the string. c “o”
d string[4+3] has an index of 7, which is the 8th character in the string. d “c”

21.3.3 Booleans
•• You will recall that Booleans are the simplest value type, and are often used in logic. A Boolean has
only two possible values: true or false. The value of a Boolean can be toggled using the
expression !value.
•• Two numerical values can be compared with each other by using different combinations of symbols as
shown in the following table. The comparisons return Boolean results as shown.
Expression Description
!value Opposite of value, where value is a Boolean
x1===x2 true if x1 equals x2, otherwise false
x1!==x2 true if x1 does not equal x2, otherwise false
x1>x2 true if x1 is greater than x2, otherwise false
x1>=x2 true if x1 is greater than or equal to x2, otherwise false
x1<x2 true if x1 is less than x2, otherwise false
x1<=x2 true if x1 is less than or equal to x2, otherwise false
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

a !false b !true c 5.43===5.34
d 1233.4!==1323.4 e 18.4>-12.2 f 6.8>=6.7
g 34.015<34.025 h 101.99<=101.01
THINK WRITE
a The opposite of false is true. a true

b The opposite of true is false. b false
c The statement “5.43 equals 5.34” is false. c false

d The statement “1233.4 does not equal 1323.4” is true. d true
e The statement “18.4 is greater than −12.2” is true. e true
f The statement “6.8 is greater than or equal to 6.7” is true. f true
g The statement “34.015 is less than 34.025” is true. g true
h The statement “101.99 is less than or equal to 101.01” is h false
false.
•• The statement boolean1&&boolean2 returns true if boolean1 and boolean2 are both
true; otherwise, the statement returns false.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

a true&&true b false&&false
c true&&false d false&&true
THINK WRITE
a Both the Booleans are true. a true
b At least one Boolean is false. b false
c At least one Boolean is false. c false
d At least one Boolean is false. d false
•• The statement boolean1||boolean2 returns true if either boolean1 or boolean2 are

true; otherwise, the statement returns false.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13

a false||false b true||false
c false||true d true||true
THINK WRITE
a Both the Booleans are false. a false
b At least one Boolean is true. b true
c At least one Boolean is true. c true
d At least one Boolean is true. d true
21.3.4 Arrays
•• Arrays are one method of combining multiple types into a list data structure. A variable can contain an
array of the basic building blocks: numbers, strings and Booleans.
•• An array takes the form [value0, value1, value2, ...] where value0,
value1, value2, ... are the different values of the array. An array can have zero,
one or more values, and the values can be any type (i.e. number, string or Boolean).
•• An array with many values can be split over multiple lines. For example:
var array = [
value0,
value1,
value2,
...
];
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Each of the following is an array. True or false?

a "abc" e ["abc"]
b 123.12 f ["a", "b", "c"]
c [2.3,6.7,53] g true
d [] h [14,false, " ",[3,3]]

THINK WRITE
a ”abc” is in quotation marks, so this value is a string, not an array. a False
b 123.12 is a numerical value not in quotation marks, so this value is a number, not b False
an array.
c [2.3,6.7,53] is a list of 3 numbers, so this is an array. c True
d [] is an empty list, so this is an array. d True
e [“abc”] is a list of 1 string, so this is an array. e True
f [“a”,”b”,”c”] is a list of 3 strings, so this is an array. f True
g true is a Boolean value, not an array. g False
h [14,false,” “,[3,3]] is a list of 4 different types of values so this is an array. h True
•• Values in an array are accessed in a similar fashion to how characters are accessed in a string. The
values inside an array are accessed using an integer index starting at 0. The first value in an array
of length N is accessed with index 0, the second value is accessed with index 1, the third value is
accessed with index 2, and the last value is accessed with index N-1.
var array= [ “first” , “second” , “third” ,..., “last” ];

Location 1st 2nd 3rd ... Nth
JavaScript index 0 1 2 N−1
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
What are the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array
["one","two","three","four","five","last"]?
a "one" b "three" c "four" d "last"
THINK WRITE
a ”one” is the 1st value, so it has an index of 0. a 0

b ”three” is the 3rd value, so it has an index of 2. b 2
c ”four” is the 4th value, so it has an index of 3. c 3
d ”last” is the 6th value, so it has an index of 5. d 5
•• A value inside an array is accessed by its index using the expression array[index].
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Given the array assignment

var array = ["String",false,14,51,"true",3];
evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
a array[1] b array[3]
c array[2] d array[array[5]]
THINK WRITE
a array[1] has an index of 1, which is the 2nd a false

value in the array.
b array[4] has an index of 4, which is the 5th b “true”
value in the array.
c array[2] has an index of 2, which is the 3rd c 14
value in the array.

d 1 array[5] has an index of 5, which is the 6th d
value in the array.
2 The 6th value is 3. array[5]=3
3 Write the original expression. array[array[5]]
4 Substitute 3 for array[5]. = array[3]
5 array[3] has an index of 3, which is the 4th = 51
value in the array.
•• The expression array.length will return the number of values in the array.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17

a [].length b [13,2].length
c [12.2,false,[12,11,10,9]].length
THINK WRITE
a [] is an empty list, so it has a length of 0. a 0
b [13,2] is a list of 2 numbers. b 2
c [12.2,false,[12,11,10,9]].length is a list of 3 different c 3
types of values.
Note: Do not count the number of values in the [12,11,10,9] array, as
this is counted as one value in the outer array.
21.3.5 Objects
•• Arrays combine a list of different values, where each value is accessed using an integer index. If an integer
is not descriptive enough, then a JavaScript object can be used to build data structures. Arrays use integer
indexes to access the values in the array, whereas JavaScript objects require property names to access the
values.
•• The following structure assigns the JavaScript object with the properties property1, property2,
..., propertyN and values value1, value2, ... , valueN to the variable.
var variable = {
property1: value1,
property2: value2,
propertyN: valueN
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Assign a JavaScript object using the following information to the variable singer.
Property Value
firstName “Tom”
surname “Jones”
yearOfBirth 1940
isAdult true

THINK WRITE
1 Start the assignment to singer. var singer = {
2 Define the first property and value. firstName: “Tom”,
3 Define the second property and value. surname: “Jones”,
4 Define the third property and value. yearOfBirth: 1940,
5 Define the last property and value. isAdult: true
6 Close the brackets. Note that the last property does not }
require a trailing comma.
21.3.6 Accessing properties

•• A property of an object variable is extracted using the expression variable.
property.
var variable = {
property: "store this",
ignoreProperty: "ignore this"
}
var stored = variable.property;
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var person = {
firstName: "Tom",
surname: "Jones",
yearOfBirth: 1940,
isAdult: true
}
a person.surname b person.isAdult
c person.yearOfBirth
THINK WRITE
a Access the surname property of person. a “Jones”
b Access the isAdult property of person. b true
c Access the yearOfBirth property of person. c 1940
21.3.7 Pointers
•• A pointer is a reference to an object. Variables become pointers when they are assigned an array or object.
Variables are not pointers when they are assigned a number, string or Boolean. Instead, a new copy is created.
// Pointers
var arrayOriginal = ["Array","array"];
var arrayPointer = arrayOriginal;var

objectOriginal = {x:1,y:2};
var objectPointer = objectOriginal;
// New copies are created

var stringOriginal = "String";
var stringNewCopy = stringOriginal;
var numberOriginal = 1;
var numberNewCopy = numberOriginal;
var booleanOriginal = true;

var boolanNewCopy = booleanOriginal;
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
In each of the following programs, the variable is a pointer. True or false?

a var variable = ["Value1","Value2"];
b var location = {
x: 10,
y: 20
}
var variable = location;
c var original = true;
var variable = original;
d var Anthony = "Tony";
var variable = Anthony;
e var calculation = 10*2;
var variable = calculation;
THINK WRITE
a The assignment to variable is an array, so variable is a pointer. a True
b The variable location is an object, so variable is a pointer. b True
c The variable original is a Boolean, so variable is not a pointer. c False
d The variable Anthony is a string, so variable is not a pointer. d False
e The variable calculation is a number, so variable is not a pointer. e False
•• In JavaScript, it is possible for two variables, originalPointer and newPointer, to point

to a single object. That is, either of the two pointers will reference the same object.
var originalPointer = {
property1: value1,
property2: value2,
...
propertyN: valueN
}
var newPointer = originalPointer;

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Consider the following program.

var pointer1 = {
colour:"Blue",
bold:true,
x:10,
y:1
}
var pointer2 = pointer1;
pointer1.colour = "Red";
pointer2.bold = false;
pointer1.x = pointer2.y;
Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions after the program has run.
a pointer2.colour b pointer1.bold
c pointer2.x d pointer1.y
THINK WRITE
1 pointer1 and pointer2 both reference the same {

object. colour:”Blue”,
bold:true,
x:10,
y:1
}
object. colour:”Red”,
pointer1.colour = “Red”; bold:true,
The above statement changes the object’s x:10,
property colour to “Red”. y:1
}
pointer2.bold = false; bold:false,
property bold to false. y:1
}
pointer1.x = pointer2.y; bold:false,
property x to equal the property y. y:1
}
a pointer2.colour accesses the colour a “Red”
property.
b pointer1.bold accesses the bold property. b false
c pointer2.x accesses the x property. c 1
d pointer1.y accesses the y property. d 1

21.3.8 Linked lists
•• A linked list is a list of objects in which each object stores data and points to the next object in
the list. The list points to the first object. The last object points to a terminator to indicate the
end of the list.
•• It is easier to build linked lists in reverse order because the pointers in each object point to the next
item in the list. The last object in the list only points to the terminator, so it can be completely built.
Once the last object has been built, the second last object can be completely built, and so on.
var terminator = {};

var object4 = { data:"value 4", next:terminator};
var object3 = { data:"value 3", next:object4};
var list = object1;
list
object1 object2 object3 object4

data:”value 1” data:”value 2” data:”value 3” data:”value 4”
next next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Represent the list of values "a", "b" and "c" as a linked list.
THINK WRITE
1 Define a terminator. var terminator = {};

2 Define the last object with the data: “c” and var object3 = {
next pointing to the terminator. data:”c”,
next:terminator
}
3 Define the object with the data: “b” and next var object2 = {
pointing to the previous object (object3). data:”b”,
next:object3
}
4 Define the first object with the data: “a” and var object1 = {
next pointing to the previous object (object2). data:”a”,
next:object2
}
5 Define list pointing to the first object (object1). var list = object1;
•• Linked lists are useful data structures, as they can represent lists of data that have no set length and
can change throughout the program.

Exercise 21.3 Data structures
Fluency
1. WE8 Can the following values be stored? If so, will they be stored accurately or approximately?
a. 2.6 × 10−480 b. 244 c. 61.00
d. −23.0001 e. −9007199254740999 f. −1.79 × 10308
g. 9007199254740992 h. 26 i. 6.00
j. −120.99 k. −9007199254740992 l. 1.797 693 135 × 10308
m. 1.236 × 10−20 n. 2 × 10308 o. −9007199254740994
p. 1.797 693 134 × 10 308
2. WE11 Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

a. !true b. true===false c. true!==false
d. "223"==="223" e. 3.41!==3.42 f. 822.4>222.2
g. 61.18>=162.17 h. 32.15<224.25 i. 53===54
j. 3.4!==3.4 k. 82.4>-1222.2 l. !!true
m. 1021.929<=10222.1 n. !false o. !!!false
p. "23"==="4" q. 61.18>=162.17 r. 342.15<3224.25
s. 101.929<=122.1
a. false&&false b. true&&false
a. true||true b. false||false
5. Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
a. true||false b. false&&true
c. false||true d. true&&true
a. [1,2,3,2].length
b. ["blah","blah","blah",true,["Hello"]].length
c. [].length
d. [111,12,24,42,41,4].length
e. ["A string",false,["Array","here"],12].length
Understanding
7. WE9 What is the JavaScript index of the following characters in the string
"The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog"?
a. "x" b. "c" c. "z"
d. "p" e. "f" f. "g"
8. WE10 Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var someText = "Strings are a little bit like arrays.";
a. someText[9] b. someText[19] c. someText[20+3]
9. WE14 Each of the following is an array. True or false?
a. [] b. ["TIME"] c. false d. "TIME" e. 1.1233
f. ["T","I","M","E"]
g. [14,false,"Y","A",61.71,[1,2,3],161.7]
h. [0.13,16,61.71,161.7,253]

10. WE15 What are the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array
["JAN","FEB","MAR","APR","MAY","JUN",
"JUL","AUG","SEP","OCT","NOV","DEC"]?
a. "DEC" b. "JUL" c. "MAR" d. "JAN" e. "JUN" f. "NOV"
11. WE19 Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var purchase = {
item: "iPad",
number: 1,
cost: 765.00,
paid: true
}
a. purchase.cost b. purchase.item c. purchase.paid
12. WE20 In each of the following programs, the possiblePointer is a pointer. True or false?
a. var possiblePointer = ["A","B","C"].length;
b. var string = "Some string";
var possiblePointer = string;
c. var boolean = false;
var possiblePointer = boolean;
d. var point = {
x: 10,
y: 20
}
var possiblePointer = point.x;
e. var possiblePointer = ["An array"];
f. var workThisOut = [(100+99+98−1)*0];
var possiblePointer = workThisOut;
g. var objects = {d:"Data"};
var possiblePointer = objects;
13. WE21 Consider the following program.
var original = {
firstName:"Wendy",
surname:"Cook",
age: 76
}
var newSurname = "Simons";
var pointer = original;
original.surname = newSurname;
pointer.firstName = "Clare";
original.age = 19;
Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions after the program has run.
a. pointer.surname b. original.firstName
c. original.age
Reasoning
14. WE22 Represent the list of objects 5, 4 and 3 as a linked list called list.
15. Explain why a linked list is easier to build in reverse order.

Problem solving
16. Given the linked list below, write reassignment(s) required to remove the object with
the data "value 1" from the list.
var growingList = terminator;
growingList = { data:"value 2", next:growingList};
growingList = { data:"value 1", next:growingList};
var list = growingList;
17. Given the linked list below, write reassignment(s) required to remove the object
with the data "value 3" from the list.
var object4 = { data:"value 4", next:terminator};
var list = object1;
21.4 Algorithms
•• An algorithm is a step-by-step set of tasks to solve a particular problem. A program is the
implementation of an algorithm.
21.4.1 Output
•• The console is a special region in a web browser for monitoring the running of JavaScript programs.
Most web browsers, including Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Edge and Opera,
allow you activate the console through the menus options.
•• In order to see the result of an expression or value, the JavaScript console.log function can be
used. This function outputs results to the console.
JavaScript statement Output to console

console.log(“Output value”); Output value
Note that the quotation marks in strings are not shown in the output.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
What is the output to the console after each of the following statements runs?
a console.log([true,"23",4.5][2]);
b console.log("Simple string");
THINK WRITE
a 1 Show the original statement. a console.log([true,”23”,4.5][2]);
2 [true,”23”,4.5][2] is accessing console.log(4.5);
the 3rd value in the array
[true,”23”,4.5]
3 Write the output to console. 4.5

b 1 Show the original statement. b console.log(“Simple string”);
2 Write the output to console. Note that the Simple string
quotation marks in strings are not shown
in the output.
21.4.2 Comments
•• Comments are added to code to give hints about function of the program. The comments are completely
ignored by the computer, so they are only for our benefit.
•• JavaScript comments start with //. All the text after // on a line is ignored by the computer. For
example, consider the following line:
var sqrt2 = 1.4142; // An approximation to square root of 2
The first part of the line, var sqrt2 = 1.4142;, is the actual JavaScript code to be run.
The second part (until the end of the line), // An approximation to square root
of 2, is ignored by the computer and is only there for our own reference. The text could be changed
and would make no difference to the running of the program.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Add a comment to each statement of the form // variable=value where variable is

the variable name and value is the evaluated value.
a var sqrt2 = 1+4/10; b var pages = 12+11;
c var product = 1*2*3;
THINK WRITE
a 1 The variable name is sqrt2. a
2 The calculated value is 1+4/10 = 1.4.
3 Append the comment. var sqrt2 = 1+4/10; // sqrt2=1.4
b 1 The variable name is pages. b

2 The calculated value is 12+11 = 23. var pages = 12+11; // pages=23
3 Append the comment.
c 1 The variable name is product. c
2 The calculated value is 1*2*3 = 6.
3 Append the comment. var product = 1*2*3;// product=6
21.4.3 Defining a function

•• In more complex programs, it is useful to wrap a section of code in a JavaScript function. This gives
the section of code {statement 1, statement 2, ..., statement n} a descrip-
tive name. A function with a name can be given zero, one or more inputs, x1,x2,....
function name(x1,x2,...) {
statement 1
statement 2

statement n
return output;
}
var store = name(v1,v2,...);
•• Once a function is defined, it can be called with the statement name(v1,v2,...);. The value
v1 is assigned to input x1, the value v2 is assigned to input x2, and so on.
•• In JavaScript a function name can return an internal value output to be stored.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
What is the output to the console of each of the following programs?

a function mean(a,b,c) {
console.log((a+b+c)/3);
}
mean(11,100,12);
b function probability(events,samples) {
console.log(events/samples);
}
probability(2,200);
c function willNotChange() {
return "Same";
}
console.log(willNotChange());
THINK WRITE
a 1 The input a equals 11. a a = 11
2 The input b equals 100. b = 100
3 The input c equals 12. c = 12
4 Write the output statement. console.log((a+b+c)/3)
5 Substitute 11 for a, 100 for b and 12 for c. console.log((11+100+12)/3)
6 Substitute (11+100+12)/3 for 41. console.log(41)
7 Write the output to the console. 41

b 1 The input events equals 2. b events = 2
2 The input samples equals 200. samples = 200
3 Write the output statement. console.log(events/samples)
4 Substitute 2 for events and 200 for console.log(2/200)
samples.
5 Substitute 2/200 for 0.01. console.log(0.01)
6 Write the output to the console. 0.01
c 1 The function has no inputs. c
2 Write the return expression. willNotChange()=”Same”
3 Write the output statement. console.log(willNotChange());

4 Substitute “Same” for console.log(“Same”);
willNotChange().
5 Write the output to the console. Same
21.4.4 Return at any point

•• A function can have many return points within itself. Once the return point is reached, the function
does not execute any further. This is useful when the result is known before running through the rest
of the function.
function name() {
...
if (decision) {
return early;
}
...
return output;

}
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
What is the output to the console of the following program?

function isFirst(index) {
var decision = index===0;
if (decision) {
return "Yes";
}
return "No";
}
var test = isFirst(0);
console.log(test);
THINK WRITE
1 Write the assignment. test = isFirst(0)
2 The input a equals 0. index = 0
3 Write the first assignment inside the function isFirst. decision = index===0
4 Substitute 0 for index. decision = 0===0
5 Substitute true for 0===0. decision = true
6 decision is true, so run the statement inside the first return “Yes”;
{} block. The function is now finished.
7 Write the return expression. isFirst(0) = “Yes”
8 Rewrite the assignment outside the function. test = isFirst(0)
9 Substitute “Yes” for isFirst(0). test = “Yes”
10 Write the output statement. console.log(test);
11 Substitute “Yes” for test. console.log(“Yes”);
12 Write the output to console. Yes

21.4.5 Designing an algorithm
•• Designing an algorithm for a problem involves:
– determining the inputs
– determining the function name
– breaking the problem into simple steps.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Design an algorithm for each of the problems below. For each problem:
i determine the inputs
ii determine the function name
iii break the problem into simple steps.
a Round a decimal down to the nearest unit.
b Count the number of squares with a given side length that fit inside a rectangle with a given
width and height.
THINK WRITE
a i Write the input. a i decimal
ii Give the function a short ii roundDown
meaningful name.
iii 1 Write step 1. iii Find the decimal part.

2 Write step 2. Find the whole number part.
b i Write the inputs. b i side,width,height
ii Write the output (function ii count
name).
iii 1 Write step 1. iii Count the number of squares that fit along the width.
2 Write step 2. Round the width count down to the nearest integer.
3 Write step 3. Count the number of squares that fit up the height.
4 Write step 4. Round the height count down to the nearest integer.
5 Write step 5. Return the width count multiplied by the height count.
21.4.6 Implement an algorithm

•• Implementing an algorithm in JavaScript involves:
– designing an algorithm
– writing function inputs
– writing a JavaScript statement for each step
– returning the required result (output).
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
Implement an algorithm as a function in JavaScript for each of the problems below.

a Round a decimal down to the nearest unit.
b Count the number of squares with a given side length that fit inside a rectangle with a given
width and height.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Design an algorithm. a
2 Write the function function roundDown(decimal) {
input.
3 Write step 1. // Find the decimal part
var decimalPart = decimal%1;
4 Write step 2. // Find the whole number part.
var whole = decimal-decimalPart;
5 Return the required return whole;
result. }
b 1 Design an algorithm. b
2 Write the function function count(side,width,height) {
inputs.
3 Write step 1. // Count number squares that
// fit along the width.
var widthCount = width/side;
4 Write step 2. // Round the width count down
// to the nearest unit.
widthCount=roundDown(widthCount);
5 Write step 3. // Count number squares that
// fit up the height.
var heightCount = height/side;
6 Write step 4. // Round the height count down
// to the nearest unit.
heightCount=roundDown(heightCount);
7 Write step 5. var squares=widthCount*heightCount;
8 Return the required return squares;
result. }
21.4.7 Linked list algorithms and empty lists

•• The following algorithms are required to create and manipulate a list of data.
– Create a terminator.
– Create an empty list.
– Add data to the start of the list.
– Add data to the end of the list.
– Add data at a particular location in the list.
– Remove data from the start of the list.
– Remove data from the end of the list.
– Remove data at a particular location in the list.
– Read the data at particular location in the list.
– Change the data at particular location in the list.
– Copy a list.
– Sort a list.

Create an empty list
•• In order to build on a list, the first thing required is an empty list. The variable list normally points
to the start of the list, but in this case the start of an empty list is the terminator.
list
terminator
// Create a terminator.
// Define a function to create an empty list.
function empty() {
return terminator;
}
// Store the empty list
var list = empty();
Add data
Once you have a list, new data can be added to the list.
list
data object1 object2

”add” + data:”value 1” data:”value 2”
next next
terminator
list
newObject object1 object1

data:”add” data:”value 1” data:”value 2”
next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Design and implement an algorithm to add data to the start of a linked list and return the
updated list. Create an empty list called blank. Call the function defined above with the data
"Only" and the blank list. Store the updated list in the variable list. Use the following
steps.
a Determine the inputs.
b Determine the function name.
c Break the problem into simple steps.

d Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.
i Write function inputs.
ii Write JavaScript statements for each step.
iii Return the required result (output).
e Test the function.
THINK WRITE
a Write the inputs. a list, data

b Give the function a short b addToStart
meaningful name.
c 1 Write step 1. c Create a new object.
2 Write step 2. Add the data to the new object.
3 Write step 3. Point the new object to the first item in the original list.
4 Returning the required Return the new object as the start of the new list.
result.
d i Implement the algorithm. Start d function addToStart(list, data) {
by writing the function inputs.
ii 1 Comment on step 1. // Create a new object.
2 Comment on step 2. // Add the data to the new
object.
3 Comment on step 3. // Point the new object to the
// first item in the original
list.
4 Implement steps 1, 2 var newObject = {
and 3. data: data,
next: list
}
iii Return the required result. return newObject;
}
e 1 Test the new function. e var terminator = {};
Start by defining the function empty() {
terminator and return terminator;
function empty as }
outlined previously in the
chapter.
2
Create an empty list. var blank = empty();
3
Call the function var data = “Only”;
addToStart with the var list = addToStart(data, blank);
required inputs and store
the result.

21.4.8 Remove data
•• Once you have a populated list (a list that contains objects), objects can be removed from the list.
list list
× object1
data:”value 1”
next
object2
data:”value 2”
next
= object2
data:”value 2”
next
terminator terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
Design and implement an algorithm to remove the first object in a linked list, and return the
updated list. Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and
call it with the list3 list. Store the updated list in the variable list2.
i Write the function inputs.
ii Write a JavaScript statement for each step.
e Now test the function.
THINK WRITE
a Write the inputs. a list

b Give the function a short b removeFromStart
meaningful name.
c 1 Write step 1. c Create a pointer to the second object.
2 Return the required result. Return the second object as the start of the new list.
d i 1 Implement the algorithm. Start d function removeFromStart(list) {
by writing the function inputs.
ii 1 Comment on step 1. ii // Create a pointer to
// the second object.
2 Implement step 1. var secondObject = list.next;
iii Return the required result. iii // Return the second object
// as the start of the list.
return secondObject;
}
e 1 Test the new function. Start by e var terminator = {};
defining a terminator.
2 Define the last object with the var object3 = {
data value 3 and next data:3,
pointing to the terminator. next:terminator
}
3 Define the object with the var object2 = {
pointing to the previous object. next:object3
}

4 Define the first object with the var object1 = {
pointing to the previous object. next:object2
}
5 Define list3 pointing to the var list3 = object1;
first object.
6 Call the function var list2 = removeFromStart
removeFromStart with (list3);
the required inputs and
store the result.
21.4.9 Accessing data

•• Once you have a populated list, objects can be accessed at any position in the list. Objects in a linked
list are accessed in a similar way to objects in an array, using an integer index starting at 0. The first
object in a list of length N is accessed with index 0, the second object is accessed with index 1, the
third object is accessed with index 2, and the last object is accessed with index N−1.
list
index0 index1 index2 index3

data:”first” data:”second” data:”third” data:”fourth”
next next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 31
Design and implement an algorithm to return the data at a particular index in a linked list.
Represent the list of values "Find", "me" and "here." as the linked list. Create a
function, call it function with the list and access the second piece of data. Store the returned
data in the variable found.
e Now test the function.
THINK WRITE
a Write the inputs. a list, index
b Give the function a short b getData
meaningful name.
c 1 Write step 1. c If the index is 0 or less, then return the data of the first object.
2 Write step 2. Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.

3 Write step 3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4 Write step 4. Return getData using the reduced list and index.
d i Implement the algorithm. i function getData(list, index) {
Start by writing the
function inputs.
ii 1 Comment on step 1. ii // If index 0 or less then return
// data of the first object.
2 Implement step 1. if (index <= 0) {
return list.data;
}
3 Comment on step 2. // Create a reduced list pointer
// to the second object.
4 Implement step 2. var reduced = list.next;
5 Comment on step 3. // Create a new index one less
// than the input index.
6 Implement step 3. var newIndex = index-1;
7 Comment on step 4. // Return getData using the
// reduced list and index.
8 Implement step 4. return getData(reduced, newIndex);
}
e 1 Test the new function. e var terminator = {};
Start by defining a
terminator.
2 Define the last object var object3 = {
with the data: data:”here.”,
“here.” and next next:terminator
pointing to the }
terminator.
3 Define the object with the var object2 = {
data: “me” and next data:”me”,
pointing to the previous next:object3
object. }
4 Define the first object with var object1 = {
the data: “Find” and data:”Find”,
next pointing to the next:object2
previous object. }
5 Define a list pointing var list = object1;
to the first object.
6 Call the function var found = getData(list,1);
getData with the
list and index 1
(2nd value). Then store
the result in found.

Exercise 21.4 Algorithms
Fluency
1. WE23 What is the output to the console after each of the following statements runs?
a. console.log("A string");
b. console.log(["A","B","C","D"][2]);
c. console.log(Math.sqrt(16));
d. console.log(true);
e. console.log(123*4/2);
f. console.log(true&&false);
2. Match the following JavaScript comments with the appropriate program statements in the table below.
// set the depth to 1.4
// set the height to 2.3
// calculate the volume
// calculate the top area
// set the width to 3
Program Comment
var width = 3;
var height = 2.3;
var depth = 1.4;
var area = width*height;
var volume = area*depth;
3. WE25 What is the output to the console of each of the following programs?
a. function total(a,b,c,d,e) { b. function boring() {
console.log((a+b+c+d+e)); return "Nothing to see
} here";
total(19,28,37,46,55); }
console.log(boring());
c. function surfaceArea(width,height,depth){
var faceTop = width*depth;
var faceFront = width*height;
var faceSide = height*depth;
var area = 2*(faceTop + faceFront + faceSide);
console.log(area);
}
surfaceArea(4,7,9);
4. WE26 What is the output to the console of the following program?
function testLast(index, length) {
var decision = index===length-1;
if (decision) {
return "Yes";
}
return "No";
}
var isLast = testLast(100,100);
console.log(isLast);

5. Match the following algorithm design steps with their function implementations.
•• Calculate the total of a, b and c.
•• Calculate the average.
•• Return the average.
•• The function average requires three values: a,b,c.
•• Store the number of values.
Function Design
function average(a,b,c) {
var total = a+b+c;
var number = 3;
var output = total/number;
return output;}
Understanding
6. WE24 Add a comment to each statement of the form // variable=value where v ariable
is the variable name and value is the evaluated value.
a. var nearly_2 = 1+1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32;
b. var distanceKm = 2600/1000;
c. var seconds = 60*60*24*356.25;
7. For each statement in the following program, find the variable name between var and =, then
calculate the value assigned to this variable. Add a comment to the end of each statement
indicating the progress: // variable=value.
var percentage=22+3;
var total=6+14;
var amount=(percentage/100)*total;
8. WE27 Design an algorithm for each of the problems below. For each problem:
i. determine the inputs
ii. determine the function name
iii. break the problem into simple steps.
a. Test if a triangle with sides a, b and c is a right-angled triangle. Assume c is the largest value.
b. Test if a number is a positive integer.
c. Test if three numbers a, b and c are a Pythagorean triad. (A Pythagorean triad is 3 positive inte-
gers (whole numbers) that could form a right-angled triangle.) Assume c is the largest value.
d. Test if three numbers x, y and z are a Pythagorean triad. The variables x, y and z could be in
any order.
9. WE28 Implement an algorithm as a function in JavaScript for each of the problems given in question 8.
Reasoning
10. WE29 Design and implement an algorithm to add data to the end of a linked list and return the
updated list. Use the following steps. Assume there is a terminator already defined.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as a linked list. Call the function with the list3 list and
the value 4. Store the updated list in the variable list4.
a. Determine the inputs.
b. Determine the function name.
c. Break the problem into simple steps.

d. Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.
i. Write function inputs.
ii. Write JavaScript statements for each step.
iii. Return the required result (output).
e. Test the function.
11. WE30 Design and implement an algorithm to remove the last object in a linked list and return the
updated list. Assume there is a terminator already defined.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and call it with the
list3 list. Store the updated list in the variable list2.
i. Write the function inputs.
ii. Write a JavaScript statement for each step.
e. Now test the function.
12. WE31 Design and implement an algorithm to set the data at a particular index in a linked list.
Represent the list of values "Replace", "me" and "here." as the linked list. Create a
function, call it with the list and set the third piece of data as "there.".
Problem solving
13. Design and implement an algorithm to remove at an object at a particular index in a list and
return an updated list.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and call it with
list3 and index 1. Store the updated list in the variable list2.
14. Design and implement a function to return the maximum possible area with a given perimeter.
(Hint: Of all the plane shapes, a circle has the maximum possible area for a given perimeter.)

21.5 Matrices
21.5.1 Two-dimensional arrays
•• Section 21.3 introduced the concept of arrays. In a simple array, every item can be accessed with a
single index. A simple array that requires only one index to access elements is called a one-dimensional
array. An array of arrays is considered a two-dimensional array, as it requires two indexes to access
a single element.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32
How many dimensions do the following arrays have?

a [1,2,3] b [[1,2],[3,4]] c [[1],[2],[3]]
d [[1,2,3]] e [[],[],[]]
THINK WRITE
a Each element in the array is a simple number. a 1
b Each element in the array is another array. b 2

c Each element in the array is still another array with of c 2
length 1.
d The only element in the array is another array. d 2
e Each element in the array is a simple empty array. e 2
21.5.2 Array indexes

•• Values in a two-dimensional array are accessed with two indexes, both starting at 0. The first index
accesses the sub-array, and the second index accesses the value inside the sub-array.
var array = [[ 1 , 2 , 3 ],[ 4 , 5 , 6 ]];

First index 0 0 0 1 1 1
Second index 0 1 2 0 1 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 33
Consider the following two-dimensional array.

var array = [["a","b"],["c","d"],["e","f"]];
i What is the first JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array?
ii What is the second JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the
array?
a "a" b "b" c "f" d "c"
THINK WRITE
a i ”a” is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. a i 0

ii ”a” is the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index is 0. ii 0

b i ”b” is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. b i 0
ii ”b” is the 2nd in the sub-array, so the second index is 1. ii 1
c i ”f” is in the 3rd sub-array, so the first index is 2. c i 2

ii ”f” is the 2nd in the sub-array, so the second index is 1. ii 1
d i ”c” is in the 2nd sub-array, so the first index is 1. d i 1
ii ”c” is the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index is 0. ii 0
•• Values inside a two-dimensional array are accessed using two indexes index1 and index2
with the following expression array[index1][index2].
WORKED EXAMPLE 34
Consider the two-dimensional array below.

var array = [[3.4,2.1,3.9,8.3],[4.1,8.7,3.2,2.3]];
a array[1][3] b array[0][1] c array[0][2]
THINK WRITE
a array[1][3] has a first index of 1 which is the 2nd a 2.3
sub-array. array[1][3] has a second index of 3 which is
the 4th value in the 2nd sub-array.
b array[0][1] has a first index of 0 which is the 1st b 2.1
the 2nd value in the 1st sub-array.
c array[0][2] has a first index of 0 which is the 1st c 3.9
the 3rd value in the 1st sub-array.
21.5.3 Matrices and arrays

•• Matrices are a mathematical concept. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and
columns.
•• A JavaScript two-dimensional array can represent a matrix as long as all the sub-arrays have the same
length (number of columns).
WORKED EXAMPLE 35
The arrays below can represent matrices. True or false?

a [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]]
b [[3],[3,3.1],[3,3.1,3.14]]
c [[[10,9],[8,7]],[[6,5],[4,3]]]

THINK WRITE
a [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]] can represent a matrix because it is a a True
two-dimensional array and all 3 sub-arrays have length 2.
b [[3],[3,3.1],[3,3.1,3.14]] cannot represent a matrix b False
because all 3 sub-arrays have different lengths.
c [[[10,9],[8,7]],[[6,5],[4,3]]] cannot represent a c False
matrix because it is a three-dimensional array.
21.5.4 Matrix size

•• The size of a matrix (also known as its order) is described with the number rows first then the number
columns. The size of a matrix is described as m × n, or ‘m by n’, where m is the number of rows and
n is the number of columns.
•• In JavaScript, there is a direct relationship between the size of a matrix and the array that represents it.
– The number of rows in a matrix corresponds to the number of sub-arrays.
– The number of columns in a matrix corresponds to the length of each sub-array.
WORKED EXAMPLE 36
Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. Answer the following for each array.
i Reformat the array so there is one sub-array per line.
ii How many rows does the corresponding matrix have?
iii How many columns does the corresponding matrix have?
a [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]] b [[3,1,4]]
c [[3,1,9,8],[3,2,4,2]] d [[4],[2],[2],[21]]
THINK WRITE
a i Reformatting the array helps to make the number of a i [

rows and columns clearer. [1,2],
[3,4],
[5,6]
]
ii The array has 3 sub-arrays, so the matrix has 3 rows. ii 3
iii Each sub-array has length 2, so the matrix has iii 2
2 columns.
b i Reformatting the array helps to make the number of b i [
rows and columns clearer. [3,1,4]
]
ii The array has 1 sub-array, so the matrix has 1 row. ii 1
iii The sub-array has length 3, so the matrix has iii 3
3 columns.
c i Reformatting the array helps to make the number of c i [
rows and columns clearer. [3,1,9,8],
[3,2,4,2]
]

4 columns.
d i Reformatting the array helps make the number of d i [
rows and columns clearer. [4],
[2],
[2],
[21]
]
1 column.
21.5.5 Matrix representation

•• A matrix can be converted into a two-dimensional array. For each row in the matrix, create a sub-array
of the row. The final representation is an array of the sub-arrays in the same order they appear in the
matrix.
Matrix JavaScript two-dimensional array

11 12 … 19 [
[ 71⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
21 22 … 29 [11, 12, ..., 19],
[21, 22, ..., 29],
72 … 79 ...
[71, 72, ..., 79]
]
WORKED EXAMPLE 37
Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two-dimensional array.

a [22 41 15] 2
[ 1 3 1 31 ] [71]
2 4 5 62 9
b c
THINK WRITE
a 1 Open the outer array. a [

2 Convert the first/last row into a sub-array. [22, 41, 15]
3 Close the outer array once all rows have been ]
converted.
b 1 Open the outer array. b [
2 Convert the first row into a sub-array. [2, 4, 5, 62],
3 Convert the last row into a sub-array. [1, 3, 1, 31]
converted.

c 1 Open the outer array. c [
2 Convert the first row into a sub-array. [2],
3 Convert the second row into a sub-array. [9],
4 Convert the third row into a sub-array. [7],
5 Convert the last row into a sub-array. [1]
converted.
21.5.6 Matrix indexes

•• Traditionally, elements in a matrix are referenced with two integer indexes starting at 1. This is
different to the JavaScript method of referencing an array element using an index starting at 0.
Matrix JavaScript two-dimensional array
The matrix below has m rows The two-dimensional array below has m rows and n columns.
and n columns. Elements of a Elements of a two-dimensional array are accessed with two integer
matrix are accessed with two indexes starting at 0. The first index accesses the sub-array and the
integer indexes starting at 1. second index accesses value in the sub-array.
The first index references the
row and the second index
references the column.
a11 a12 … a1n [
[ am1 am2 … amn ]

a21 a22 … a2n [a[0][0], a[0][1], ..., a[0][n-1]],
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ [a[1][0], a[1][1], ..., a[1][n-1]],
...
[a[m-1][0], a[m-1][1], ..., a[m-1][n-1]]
]
WORKED EXAMPLE 38
Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.
[ 46 28 92 15]
12 22 13 24
A=
var A = [
[12,22,13,24],
[46,28,92,15]
];
Answer the following for each of the values below.
i What is the first index required to access this value in the matrix A?
ii What is the second index required to access this value in the matrix A?
iii What is the first index required to access this value in the JavaScript array A?
iv What is the second index required to access this value in the JavaScript array A?
v Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access this value in the JavaScript
array A.
a 13 b 15 c 12

THINK WRITE
a i 13 is in the 1st row of the matrix A. a i 1
ii 13 is in the 3rd column of the matrix A. ii 3
iii 13 is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. iii 0
iv 13 is in the 3rd in the sub-array, so the second index is 2. iv 2
v Use the JavaScript indexes 0 and 2. v A[0][2]
b i 15 is in the 2nd row of the matrix A. b i 2
ii 15 is in the 4th column of the matrix A. ii 4
iii 15 is in the 2nd sub-array, so the first index is 1. iii 1
iv 15 is in the 4th in the sub-array, so the second index is 3. iv 3
c i 12 is in the 1st row of the matrix A. b i 1
ii 12 is in the 1st column of the matrix A. ii 1
iii 12 is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. iii 0
iv 12 is in the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index is 0. iv 0
Exercise 21.5 Matrices

Fluency
1. WE32 How many dimensions do the following arrays have?
a. [[12],[5]] b. [1]
c. [] d. [[[2]]]
e. [[21,29,31,24,23]] f. [[[]]]
g. [[[21,29],[31,24]]] h. [[],[],[],[],[]]
i. [[101,22],[13,14],[36,44],[33,45]]
2. WE33 Consider the two-dimensional array below.
var matrix = [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6],[7,8]];
i. What is the first JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array?
ii. What is the second JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array?
a. 7 b. 1 c. 5 d. 6
3. WE34 Consider the two-dimensional array below.
var matrix = [[23,4,3],[4,6,7],[1,1,72]];
a. matrix[2][1] b. matrix[2][2] c. matrix[1][0]
4. WE35 The arrays below can represent matrices. True or false?
a. [[1],[1,2],[1,2,3],[1,2,3,4]]
b. [[],[3]]
c. [[12,12],[223,14]]
d. [[[101,19],[84,47],[78,77]],[[26,5],[28,72],[28,79]]]

Understanding
5. WE36 Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. For each array:
i. how many rows does the corresponding matrix have?
ii. how many columns does the corresponding matrix have?
a. [[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]]
b. [[32.2,13.5,44.3,3.3,23.2,3.1]]
c. [[3,1,9],[31,12,14],[32,27,47],[3,24,44],[34,42,4]]
d. [[1,2,3,4,5],[6,7,8,9,10]]
6. WE37 Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two-dimensional array.
[ 71 ]
21 11
[ 5 6 2] [ 1 3 1 2 31]
1 2 3 2 4 5 2 62 19 12
a. b. c.
82
12 81
7. WE38 Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.
[ 1 2 4]
6 8 2
B=
var B = [
[6,8,2],
[1,2,4]
];
i. What is the first index required to access this value in the matrix B?
ii. What is the second index required to access this value in the matrix B?
iii. What is the first index required to access this value in the JavaScript array B?
iv. What is the second index required to access this value in the JavaScript array B?
v. Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access this value in the JavaScript array B.
a. 6 b. 4 c. 8
Reasoning
8. Create a JavaScript representation of a 4 by 4 matrix called
indexProduct where the values are the product of the two [50, 50] 100
corresponding JavaScript indexes.
9. Create a JavaScript representation of a 4 by 2 matrix called square. Each
row of the matrix is the [x,y] coordinates of a corner of a unit square. The
square is centred at the coordinates [50,50] and has side lengths of 100.
Problem solving
10. Create a JavaScript representation of an 8 by 2 matrix called
octagon. Each row of the matrix is the [x,y] corner coordinates
of an octagon. The octagon is centred at coordinates [100,100] and
[100, 100] 40
has side lengths of 40. Round all values to the closest integer.
21.6 Graphics
21.6.1 Web pages
•• A simple way of drawing graphics on a computer screen is to create an HTML page with a canvas.
The canvas is a defined area on your web page where the graphics can be drawn with JavaScript.

•• The HTML page will be the same for all graphical examples in this section, but it can be modified for
your own programs. The canvas provided has a set width of 600 and height of 500. These parameters
can also be modified for your own programs. What will change for each example is the JavaScript
used to draw on the canvas.
•• Depending on what technology and internet access you have available, there are two options to build
the HTML web page and the necessary JavaScript programs: you can build it either locally (stored on
your own computer) or online.
Local web page
•• The first option to build a web page is to create it locally on your
computer.
•• It is important to edit and create program files using a plain text editor.
Do not use word processing programs such as Word, as they add extra
information in the files for structure, formatting and so on. Many plain
text editors are available, and some are designed for editing programs.
Two simple plain text editors installed by default on most computers
are Notepad on PCs and TextEdit (in plain text mode) on Macs.
•• In order to use TextEdit in plain text mode on a Mac, you will need to
change some preferences.
1 Go to TextEdit > Preferences > New Document and set Format
to Plain text. Also turn off all the Options.
2 Go to TextEdit > Preferences > Open and Save. Under When
Opening a File, check Display HTML files as HTML code
instead of formatted text.
•• Once the preferences in TextEdit have been set correctly, you can create web pages locally on your
computer using the following steps.
1 On your computer, create a new directory for each web page.
2 In the new directory, create a new standard HTML file called index.html with following content.
(The content of this file is the same for all examples in this section.)
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head></head>
<body>
<canvas id="canvas" width="600" height="500"></canvas>
<script>
var canvas = document.getElementById("canvas");
var context = canvas.getContext("2d");
</script>
<script src="script.js"></script>
</body>
</html>

3 In the new directory, create a new JavaScript file called script.js with the following content.
(The content of this file will change for different graphical examples.)
// Assume there exists an HTML page which

// provides a context to the canvas
var gradient=context.createLinearGradient(0,0,400,300);
gradient.addColorStop(0,"red");
gradient.addColorStop(1,"blue");
context.fillStyle=gradient;
context.fillRect(100,100,400,300);
4 Open the file index.html with any web browser on your computer and it should display a red and
blue rectangle.
Online web page

•• Your second option for building a web page is to do it online. There are a number of online JavaScript
editors, such as JSFiddle and JS Bin, which allow you to edit HTML and JavaScript online without
having to save files locally. The following instructions are for JS Bin, but similar steps will be required
for other online JavaScript editors.
1 Open http://jsbin.com/?html,js,output in your web browser.
2 In the HTML section, add the following standard content (this will stay the same for all
examples).
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head></head>
<body>
<canvas id="canvas" width="600" height="500"></canvas>
<script>
var canvas = document.getElementById("canvas");
var context = canvas.getContext("2d");
</script>
</body>
</html>

3 In the JavaScript section, add the following example content (this will change for different graphical
examples).

var gradient=context.createLinearGradient(0,0,400,300);
gradient.addColorStop(0,"red");
gradient.addColorStop(1,"blue");
context.fillStyle=gradient;
4 The output section should display a red and blue rectangle.
21.6.2 Canvas coordinates

0 600 x
•• Coordinates (x,y) are used to reference every point on the 0
canvas. The example canvas provided has a width of 600 and
height of 500.
•• The x value indicates how far right the point is. The left edge is Canvas
at x = 0 and the right edge is at x = 600.
•• The y value indicates how far down the point is. The top edge
is at y = 0 and the bottom edge is at y = 500. 500
y
Lines
•• The HTML page provides a context to the canvas. The context allows JavaScript to draw on
the canvas.
•• In order to draw a line, two coordinate pairs are required. The following code will draw a line from
(x1,y1) to (x2,y2).

context.moveTo(x1,y1);
context.lineTo(x2,y2);
context.stroke();
•• The width of line can be changed with context.lineWidth = width;.

WORKED EXAMPLE 39
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript
code to draw a line:
a from (5,15) to (500,500)
b from (300,10) to (50,400) with width 15
c from (50,50) to (550,50) to (300,483) back to (50,50).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Assume there exists a context. a
2 Move to the first point, (5,15). context.moveTo(5,15);
3 Create a line to the second point, (500,500). context.lineTo(500,500);
4 Draw the line stroke. context.stroke();
b 1 Assume there exists a context. b
2 Set the line width. context.lineWidth = 15;
c 1 Assume there exists a context. c
4 Create a line to the third point, (300,483). context.lineTo(300,483);
5 Create a line to the fourth point, (50,50). context.lineTo(50,50);
21.6.3 Polygons
•• In order to draw a polygon, a list of m coordinates (vertices) is required. The following code will draw
a filled polygon from a list of coordinates (x1,y1),(x2,y2),...,(xm,ym).

context.beginPath();
...
context.lineTo(xm,xm);
context.closePath();
context.fill();

WORKED EXAMPLE 40
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a (100,50)

context to the canvas. Write JavaScript code to draw a filled
rectangle with corners at(100,50) and (500,250).

(500,250)
THINK WRITE
1 Assume there exists a context.
2 Store the 1st point, (100,50). var x1 = 100;
var y1 = 50;
3 Infer and store the 2nd point, (500,50), from the var x2 = 500;
two given corners. var y2 = 50;
4 Store the 3rd point, (500,250). var x3 = 500;
var y3 = 250;
5 Infer and store the 4th point, (500,50), from the var x4 = 100;
two given corners. var y4 = 250;
6 Restart the path. context.beginPath();
7 Move to the 1st point, (x1,y1). context.moveTo(x1,y1);
8 Create a line to the 2nd point, (x2,y2). context.lineTo(x2,y2);
9 Create a line to the 3rd point, (x3,y3). context.lineTo(x3,y3);
10 Create a line to the 4th point, (x4,y4). context.lineTo(x4,y4);
11 Create a line to the beginning of the path. context.closePath();
12 Fill in the closed path. context.fill();
21.6.4 Circles
•• To draw a circle we require the function
•• arc(x,y,radius,start,end,counterclock-
arc end
wise).
– x,y define the centre.
– radius defines the radius of the arc. radius
x
– The two inputs start and end define the start and end centre
x,y
points of the arc. They are measured in radians (another way
to measure angles); 360° equals 2π radians. start
– counterclockwise is an optional input and defines the
direction the arc is drawn. The direction defaults to clock-
wise (false) if counterclockwise is omitted. The
input counterclockwise can be set to true to reverse
the direction to anticlockwise.
•• To draw a circle, we require a full circuit, so the start is set to 0 and the end is set to 2π radians
(2*Math.PI). The following code will draw a filled circle with the centre (x,y) and a given
radius.

var end = 2*Math.PI;

context.arc(x, y, radius, 0, end);
context.fill();
WORKED EXAMPLE 41
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript
code to draw a filled circle:
a with centre (100,100) and radius 50
b with centre (50,200) and diameter 80.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Assume there exists a context. a
2 Store the centre, (100,100). var x = 100;
var y = 100;
3 Store the radius of 50. var radius = 50;
4 Store the end as a complete circuit. var end = 2*Math.PI;
6 Create a full arc at the radius context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
around x,y.
7 Close the path. context.closePath();
b 1 Assume there exists a context. b
var y = 200;
3 Store the diameter of 80. var diameter = 80;
4 Calculate and store the radius of 50. var radius = diameter/2;
7 Create a full arc at the radius context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
around x,y.

21.6.5 Colour
•• Graphical displays use light to display colour. This is additive colour. This is different from mixing
paints, which is subtractive colour.
•• The three primary colours used in computer graphics are red, green and blue. The following code
generates a Venn diagram to show how red, green and blue add together.
context.fillStyle = "black";

// Forces the new shapes to add colours
context.globalCompositeOperation = "lighter";

context.fillStyle = "Red";
context.arc(300, 181, 160, 0, 2*Math.PI);
context.fill();

context.fillStyle = "Lime"; // Pure green
context.fill();

context.fillStyle = "Blue";
context.fill();
•• There a number of predefined colours, but sometimes more

control is required. Another method to define a colour is with
the string "rgb(red,green,blue)" where red,
green and blue define the intensity using integers between
0 and 255.
WORKED EXAMPLE 42
Define a string of the form "rgb(red,green,blue)" for each of the following colours.
a Green b Yellow c White d Dark red
THINK WRITE
a Set the green to maximum intensity, 255, and set the other a “rgb(0,255,0)”
colours to 0.
b It can be seen from the Venn diagram that in additive colour, b “rgb(255,255,0)”
yellow is a combination of red and green. Set the red and green
to maximum intensity, 255, and set blue to 0.

c It can be seen from the Venn diagram that in additive colour, c “rgb(255,255,255)”
white is a combination of red, green and blue. Set all colours to
maximum intensity, 255.
d Reduce the red intensity to a value about midway between 0 d “rgb(128,0,0)”
and 255 and set the other colours to 0.
•• Colour can be added to lines with context.strokeStyle = lineColour;.

•• Colour can be added to fill with context.fillStyle = fillColour;.
WORKED EXAMPLE 43
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
JavaScript code to draw a blue circle with its centre at (300,180), a radius of 70,
and an outline of width 15 and colour dark red.
THINK WRITE
1 Assume there exists a context.
var y = 180;
3 Store the radius, 70. var radius = 70;
5 Store the blue fill colour. var fillColour = “rgb(0,0,255)”;
6 Store the dark red outline colour. var lineColour = “rgb(128,0,0)”;
8 Set the fill colour of the circle. context.fillStyle = fillColour;
9 Set the outline width. context.lineWidth = 15;
10 Set the outline colour of the circle. context.strokeStyle = lineColour;
11 Create a full arc at the radius around context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
x,y.
14 Draw the outline. context.stroke();
Exercise 21.6 Graphics


Fluency 0 300 x
0
1. A canvas has width 300 and height 400. On the canvas, what are the
coordinates in the form [x,y] of:
Canvas
a. the centre?
b. the middle of the right edge?
c. the middle of the bottom edge? 400
d. the right top corner?
2. WE42 Define a string of the form "rgb(red,green,blue)" for each of y
the following colours.
a. Blue b. Black
c. Cyan (green and blue) d. Dark green
3. Match the colours below with the colour strings in the following table.
Red, pink, yellow, blue, green, light green, black, light blue
Colour string Colour
“rgb(128,255,128)”
“rgb(0,0,0)”
“rgb(255,255,0)”
“rgb(255,128,128)”
“rgb(255,0,0)”
“rgb(0,255,0)”
“rgb(128,128,255)”
“rgb(0,0,255)”
4. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas.
Write a JavaScript statement to change the colour of a line to red. Use the string structure
"rgb(red,green,blue)".
Write a JavaScript statement to change the colour of a fill to yellow. Use the string structure
Understanding
6. WE39 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas.
Write JavaScript code to draw a line:
a. from (500,10) to (10,500)
b. from (66,14) to (20,410) with width 10
c. from (86,3) to (50,150) with width 3
d. from (20,13) to (5,40) with width 9
e. from (50,50) to (550,50) to (550,450) to (50,450) and back to (50,50).
7. WE40 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. (40,20)
Write JavaScript code to draw a filled rectangle with corners at (40,20) and
(200,250).
8. WE41 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas.
Write JavaScript code to draw a filled circle: (200,250)
a. with centre (22,43) and radius 20.
b. with centre (100,100) and diameter 160.
9. WE43 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the
canvas. Write JavaScript code to draw a red circle with centre (200,280),
diameter 200, and an outline of width 8 and colour dark green.

10. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript code
to draw lines to create a square with opposite corners at:
a. (150,200) and (200,100)
b. (116,240) and (120,210)
c. (400,130) and (110,250).
Reasoning
Write JavaScript code to draw two equal touching blue circles with centres
(200,300) and (400,300).
Write JavaScript code to draw a filled circle to fit inside a square with corners at
(200,150) and (400,300). Also draw the square with no fill.
13. Given that 180° equals π radians and equals Math.PI in JavaScript, write the x = 300
JavaScript expression to represent the following angles in radians.
[300,50]
a. 90° b. 60° c. 30°
d. 45° e. 161.2°
Draw a black arc with a radius of 200. The arc has an angle of 60° and rotates 60°
about the point [300,250]. The arc is symmetrical about the line 200
x = 300, and its highest point is [300,50]. [300,250]
15. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the
canvas. Draw a light blue square with a blue outline. The square is centred
on the point [50,50] and has side lengths of 100.
[50, 50] 100
Problem solving
16. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the
canvas. Draw a light blue octagon with a blue outline. The octagon is
centred on the point [100,100] and has side lengths of 40.
Round all values to the closest integer.
[100, 100] 40
Draw a red sector with a black outline. The sector has a radius of 200. The
sector point has an angle of 60° and coordinates [300,250]. The sector is
symmetrical about the line x = 300 and is pointing down.
Using JavaScript, draw a colour wheel as shown, centred at the point x = 300
[300,250] with radius 200. The fill colours have the extreme
intensities of 0 and 255. The outlines are black.
60°
200
[300,250] [300,250]

21.7 Simulations
•• The more complex a problem is, the harder it is to analyse manually. Simulating a complex problem
in computer programs can help our understanding of the problem, as we can change the variables and
view the results.
21.7.1 Random numbers

•• Some simulations require random events. JavaScript has a function named Math.random to
generate numbers. Every time Math.random() is called, a different random number between 0
(inclusive) and 1 (exclusive, but can come very close) is returned. The following statement stores a
random number in the variable sample.
var sample = Math.random();
•• Math.random() returns a real number between 0 (inclusive) and 1 (exclusive). Often a larger or
smaller range of random numbers is required. The value returned from Math.random() can be
multiplied by a scaling factor to adjust the range. The following statement stores a random number
between 0 (inclusive) and scale (exclusive) in the variable sample.
var sample = scale*Math.random();
WORKED EXAMPLE 44
Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:

a 20 b 0.01 c −3
THINK WRITE
a The scale factor is 20. a 20*Math.random()
b The scale factor is 0.01. b 0.01*Math.random()
c The scale factor is −3. c −3*Math.random()
21.7.2 For loops

•• Simulations often require that the same task be applied to every value in an array. Loops can execute
a task many times on different data without needing multiple copies of the same code.
•• The JavaScript keyword for provides a mechanism to loop over the same code many times. There
are four sections where the for loop can be customised.
– initialise provides a place to initialise a variable. This is usually involves setting an index
variable to 0.
– If repeat is true, the code in the loop is repeated until repeat changes to false. The
repeat is usually a Boolean expression to indicate if there is any more data to process.
– iterate is executed each time, directly after the code block is executed. It is extremely important
that iterate eventually changes the repeat expression to false. This step usually involves
increasing the index variable.
–{ statement 1, statement 2, ..., statement S} is the section of code
repeated every time repeat is true.

for (initialise; repeat; iterate) {
statement 1
statement 2

statement S
}
Loop over an array

•• The following structure is one way to repeat a section of code {statement 1, statement 2,
..., statement S} for each item in an array. The variable i is the array index and is also
used to track the current loop iteration.
var array = [...];

var m = array.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var item = array[i];
statement 1
statement 2

statement S
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 45
How many times is the loop code executed in each of the following programs?
a var employees = ["Ben","Tom","Tim"];
var payRates = [54.50,43.00,90.00];
var m = employees.length;
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var item = employees[i];
var payRate = payRates[i];
console.log(item+ "gets payed "+payRate+" per hour");
}
b var sum = 0;
var groups = [[2,3,5,7],[11,13,17,19]];
var m = groups.length;
for (var j=0; j < m; j = j+1) {
var group = primes[j];
sum = sum + group.length;
}
console.log(sum);
THINK WRITE
a 1 The code follows the structure to loop over the array a
employees=[“Ben”,”Tom”,”Tim”].
2 The length of the employees array is 3. 3

b 1 The code follows the structure to loop over the array b
groups=[[2,3,5,7],[11,13,17,19]].
2 The array groups has 2 sub-arrays, so it has a length of 2. 2
21.7.3 Nested loops

•• A single loop over a multi-dimensional array only gives you access to the sub-arrays. In order to
access all the items in a multi-dimensional array, a nested loop is required.
•• The following structure is one way to repeat a section of code {statement 1, statement 2,
..., statement S} for each item in a two-dimensional array. The variable i is the first array
index and is also used to track the outer loop iteration. The variable j is the second array index and is also
used to track the inner loop iteration.
var array = [[...],...,[...]];

var m = array.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var n = array[i].length;
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var item = array[i][j];
statement 1
statement 2

statement S
}
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 46
Given the following two-dimensional array assignment, write a nested loop to total all the values
in the two-dimensional array. Store the total in the variable sum.
var array = [
[1,2,3,4],
[5,6,7,8]
];
THINK WRITE
1 Write the initial array assignment. var array = [
[1,2,3,4],
[5,6,7,8]
];
2 Initialise the sum with 0. var sum = 0;
3 Store the length of the array. var m = array.length;
4 Start the outer for loop. for (var i=0; im; i=i+1) {
5 Store the length of the sub-array. var n = array[i].length;
6 Start the inner for loop. for (var j=0; j<n; j=j+1) {

7 Store the current array item. var item = array[i][j];
8 Increase sum by the array item. sum = sum + item;
9 Close the inner for loop. }
10 Close the output for loop. }
21.7.4 Initialising arrays

•• It is not always practical to initialise arrays to the correct size and values straight away. Sometimes the
values are generated by a program, or the initial size is unknown. The following statement stores an
empty array in the variable empty.
var empty = [];
•• Values can be added to the array using the push function. The following statement pushes the item
to the end of existing array.
array.push(item);
WORKED EXAMPLE 47
Create a function called randomNumbers to return an array of size random numbers

between 0 and 1.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the function inputs. function randomNumbers(size) {
2 Create an empty array var array = [];
3 Start the for loop. for (var i=0; isize; i=i+1) {
4 Find a new random value. var random = Math.random();
5 Add the random number to the array.push(random);
end of the array. }
6 Return the generated array. return array;
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 48
Create a function called randomBooleans to return a matrix of Booleans with a given

number of rows and columns where each value has a probability of being true.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the function function randomBooleans(
inputs. rows,
columns,
probability) {
2 Create an empty var matrix = [];
matrix.
3 Start the outer for for (var i=0; irows; i=i+1) {
loop.

4 Create a new var newRow = [];
empty row.
5 Start the inner for (var j=0; j < columns; j=j+1) {
for loop.
6 Find a new random var random = Math.random();
value.
7 Generate a random var isTrue = randomprobability;
Boolean.
8 Add the random newRow.push(isTrue);
Boolean to the end }
of the array.
9 Store the new row matrix.push(newRow);
in the new matrix. }
10 Return the generated return matrix;
matrix. }
21.7.5 The Game of Life

•• The Game of Life was invented by the mathematician John Conway. It has some simple rules but
is very difficult to analyse without using a simulation. The next few subsections will work towards
building a simulation of the Game of Life.
•• The Game of Life consists of a matrix of cells. Each cell in the matrix has 8 adjacent cells. A cell can
be either alive or empty.
6 7 8
5 cell 1
4 3 2
•• If a given cell has a live cell adjacent to it, that cell is referred to as a neighbour of the first cell. Each
cell lives or dies depending on how many neighbours it has. If a cell is alive and:
– has only one or no neighbours, it will die of loneliness
– has two or three neighbours, it will continue to live
– has four or more neighbours, it will die from overcrowding.
•• If a cell is empty and has three neighbours, the neighbours will reproduce and the cell will become
alive.

WORKED EXAMPLE 49
Design and implement a function to return true if a cell lives according to John Conway’s rules
for the Game of Life. Return false if the cell stays empty or dies. The function isAlive has
the Boolean input alive and number of neighbours.
a Break the problem into simple steps.
b Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write step 1. a Initialise a variable to track the status of the new cell. A status
of true indicates alive, a status of false indicates dead or empty.
2 Write step 2. If the current cell is alive and has 2 or 3 neighbours set the
new status to alive.
3 Write step 3. If the current cell is alive and does not have 2 or 3 neighbours
set the new status to dead.
4 Write step 4. If the current cell is empty and has 3 neighbours set the new
status to alive.
5 Write step 5. If the current cell is empty and does not have 3 neighbours set
the new status to empty.
6 Return the required Return the status.
result
b i Implement the b i functionisAlive(alive,neighbours) {
algorithm. Start by
writing the function
inputs.
ii 1 Comment on step 1. ii // Initialise a variable to
// track the status of the new cell
// A status of true indicates alive,
// a status of false indicates
// dead or empty.
2 Implement step 1. var newStatus = false;
3 Comment and if (alive) {
implement step 2 // If the current cell is alive
and 3. // and has 2 or 3 neighbours set
// the new status to alive.
// If the current cell is alive
// and does not have 2 or 3
// neighbours set the new status
// to dead.
newStatus = neighbours===2 ||
neighbours===3;
}

6 Comment and else {
implement step 4 and 5. // If the current cell is empty
// and has 3 neighbours set the
// new status to alive.
// If the current cell is empty
// and does not have 3 neighbours
// set the new status to empty.
newStatus = neighbours === 3;
}
7 Return the required return newStatus;
result. }
21.7.6 Adjacent cells

•• Computer programs often perform image manipulations such as blurring, sharpening and resizing.
These operations involve treating an image as a large matrix and performing calculations based on
adjacent cells. The locations of these adjacent cells can be considered as indexes [i,j] relative to
the current cell. For example, the adjacent right cell is 0 units down and 1 unit right [0,1].
[–1,–1] [–1,0] [–1,–1]
[0,–1] cell [0,1] j
[1,–1] [1,0] [1,1]
WORKED EXAMPLE 50
Given the following list of adjacent cells (adjacents), create a function to count the
number of adjacent true values at the cell location [i,j] of the input matrix.
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]
];
THINK WRITE
1 Rewrite the list of adjacents. var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]
];
2 Write the function inputs. function count(i,j,matrix) {
3 Initialise the total to 0. var total = 0;
4 Store the number of adjacents. var tests = adjacents.length;
5 Start the for loop. for (var k=0; ktests; k=k+1) {

6 Offset the i index up or down. var ai = i + adjacents[k][0];
7 Offset the j index left or right. var aj = j + adjacents[k][1];
8 Check the adjacent row exists. if (matrix[ai]) {
9 Check the adjacent cell. if (matrix[ai][aj]) {
10 Increment the total if true. total = total+1;
11 Close the if statements. }
}
12 Close the for loop. }
13 Return the generated count as the return total;
number of neighbours. }
21.7.7 Matrix transforms

•• Some simulations require large amounts of information to be stored as a matrix. As part of the
simulation, these matrices are transformed to produce new matrices. The following function
transforms a matrix into a new transformed matrix.
var transformed = transforms(matrix);
•• For example, weather prediction involves extremely com-
plex simulations. The following is a major oversimplifi-
cation of predicting the weather. Fundamentally, weather
simulations divide the surface of the Earth into a grid and con-
vert relevant information into a matrix. A sequence of transfor-
mations is applied to the matrix to simulate weather propagation.
For weather prediction to be useful, the simulated propagation has
to be faster than real weather propagation. The following is an
example of a transform function in a weather simulation.
var weatherAtTime1 = timeTransform(weatherAtTime0);
•• The following function structure can be used to iterate through all the elements in a matrix and gener-
ate a new transformed matrix of the same size.
function transforms(matrix) {
var newMatrix = [];
var m = matrix.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newColumn = [];
var n = matrix[i].length;
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var item = matrix[i][j];
// Processing to create a newItem
newColumn.push(newItem);
}
newMatrix.push(newColumn);
}
return newMatrix;
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 51
Given the following adjacent cells and function definitions, create a function called trans
forms to accept a matrix. The matrix represents the current state of the cells in an
instance of John Conway’s Game of Life. Each element in the matrix is a Boolean cell.
The cell is true if alive and false if empty.
function isAlive(alive, neighbours) {
var newStatus = false;
if (alive) {
newStatus = neighbours === 2||neighbours === 3;
} else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]
];
function count(i, j, matrix) {
var total = 0;
var tests = adjacents.length;
for (var k=0; ktests; k = k+1) {
var ai = i + adjacents[k][0];
var aj = j + adjacents[k][1];
if (matrix[ai]) {
if (matrix[ai][aj]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
THINK WRITE
1 Write the function and input. function transforms(matrix) {
2 Create an new empty matrix. var newMatrix = [];
3 Store the length of the matrix. var m = matrix.length;
4 Start the outer for loop.
for (var i=0; im; i=i+1) {
5 Create a new empty row. var newRow = [];
6 Store the length of the row. var n = matrix[i].length;
7 Start the inner for loop. for (var j=0; jn; j=j+1) {
8 Store the current matrix var item = matrix[i][j];
item.

9 Count the number of var neighbours = count(i,j,matrix);
neighbours around the cell.
10 Determine if the cell var newItem = isAlive(item,
is still alive in the new neighbours);
iteration.
11 Store the item in the new row. newRow.push(newItem);
12 Close the inner for loop. }
13 Store the new row in the new newMatrix.push(newRow);
matrix.
14 Close the outer for loop. }
15 Return the new transformed return newMatrix;
matrix. }
21.7.8 Simulation animations

•• Animating the results of a simulation can help visualise the process. The following program structure
can be expanded and used to animate a simulation. The animation loop updates and redraws the simu-
lation state a number of times a second, depending on the computer’s speed. The details of the code
are explained in the comments.

// Create the first simulation state

var matrix = initialiseMatrix();
function draw() {
// Clear the canvas
context.clearRect(0,0,width,height);
// Draw the current state

// add your own code here
// Update the state

matrix = transforms(matrix);
// Wait for the next animation time

window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);
}
// Start the animation


WORKED EXAMPLE 52
Below are some functions created in previous worked examples. These will be used for the final
simulation. Use them to create a loop to simulate John Conway’s Game of Life. Create a 500
by 500 matrix of cells. Initially each cell has a 0.5 probability of being alive. Display the cells’
progression as an animation.
function randomBooleans(rows, columns, probability) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < columns; j = j+1) {
var random = Math.random();
var isTrue = random <= probability;
newRow.push(isTrue);
}
matrix.push(newRow);
}
return matrix;
}
if (alive) {
newStatus = neighbours === 2||neighbours === 3;
} else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]
];
var total = 0;
for (var k=0; k<tests; k = k+1) {
if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];

for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours = count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem = isAlive(item, neighbours);
newRow.push(newItem);
}
newMatrix.push(newRow);
}
return newMatrix;
}
THINK WRITE
1 Store the number of cell rows and var rows = 500;
columns. var columns = 500;
2 Generate a rows-by-columns matrix var matrix = randomBooleans(
of random Booleans. Each cell has a rows,
0.5 probability of being alive. columns,
0.5);
3 Define a draw function. function draw() {
4 Clear the canvas each loop. context.clearRect(0,0,600,500);
5 This part of the code is used to draw all for (var i=0; i<rows; i=i+1) {
the cells each time through the animation for (var j=0; j<columns; j=j+1) {
loop. The nested for loop iterates if (matrix[i][j]) {
through the rows and columns. If the context.fillRect(j,i,1,1);
cell is alive, a 1 by 1 black rectangle is }
drawn at the cell location. }
}
6 The matrix is updated according to John matrix = transforms(matrix);
Conway’s Game of Life rules. This is
done by the predefined transforms
function.

7 The animation loop is now complete. window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);
Request the next animation frame. }
8 This call starts the animation loop. window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);
Exercise 21.7 Simulations

Fluency
1. WE44 Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:
a. 1 b. 0.11 c. –0.22
d. 3 e. 2 f. –3
g. 5 h. 2.4 i. 1000
2. Write an expression to return a random number between 20 and 30.
3. WE45 How many times is the following loop code executed?
var matrix = [[2,3],[5,7],[6,4],[1,8]];
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var row = matrix[i];
console.log(row[0]+row[1]);
}
4. How many times is the inner loop code executed?
var matrix = [[2,3,3],[5,7,2],[6,4,1],[1,8,0]];
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var n = row.length;
for (var j=0; j < n; j = j+1) {
console.log(row[j]);
}
}
5. Consider the following program.
var sum = 0;
var speed = 12;
var times = [2,2,3,2,4,5];
var m = times.length;
for (var i=0; i = m; i = i+1) {
var time = times[i];
var distance = time*speed;
sum = sum + distance;
}
console.log(sum);
a. How many times is the loop code executed?
b. What is the output to the console?

Understanding
6. WE46 Given the following matrix assignment, write a nested loop to total all the values in the matrix.
Store the average in the variable mean.
var matrix = [
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7],
[8,9,10,11,12,13,14],
[15,16,17,18,19,20,21]
];
7. WE47 Create a function called randomBooleans to return an array of size required random
Boolean where true and false have an equal random chance.
8. Create a function called randomGenders to return an array of size people. Make the elements
of the array random strings, either "Male" or "Female", where "Male" has a 51% random
chance.
9. WE48 Create a function called randomScaled to return a matrix of random numbers between 0
and scale with a given number of rows and columns.
10. a. Create a function called randomColours to return a height-by-width matrix of colours
where each colour string has a random probability according to the table below.
Colour Probability
“rgb(255,0,0)” 0.05
“rgb(0,255,0)” 0.10
“rgb(0,0,255)” 0.15
“rgb(0,0,0)” 0.70
b. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write a JavaScript
function to draw an image matrix where each element is a pixel with a colour string. (Hint: Use
the function context.fillRect(x,y,1,1) to draw a filled 1-by-1 square with a corner at
x,y.)
c. Call the two functions with the following code and describe the image generated on the canvas.
var image = randomColours(500,600);
draw(image);
Reasoning
11. WE49 Design and implement a function to return true if a cell lives according to Nathan
Thompson’s rules for Highlife. Highlife has very similar rules to John Conway’s Game of Life except
for the rule for reproduction.
In Highlife, if a cell is alive and:
•• has only one or no neighbours, it will die of loneliness
•• has two or three neighbours, it will continue to live
•• had four or more neighbours, it will die from overcrowding.
In Highlife, if a cell is empty and has three or six neighbours, the neighbours will reproduce and the
cell will become alive.
Return false if the cell stays empty or dies. The function isAlive has the
Boolean input alive and number of neighbours.
a. Break the problem into simple steps.
b. Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.

12. WE50 Given the list of closeCells, create a function to average the value of all the close cells
relative to the cell location [i,j] of the input image matrix.
var closeCells = [[0,0],[0,1],[1,0],[0,-1],[-1,0]];
[–1,0]
[0,–1] [0,0] [0,1] j
[1,0]
13. WE51 Given the following program definitions, create a function called transforms to accept a
matrix. The matrix represents a greyscale image. Each element in the matrix represents a pixel’s
shade. The function transforms and generates a new matrix that is a blurred version of the original.
The new matrix is generated by taking the average of a 3 by 3 grid centred around the pixel location.
[–1,–1] [–1,0] [–1,1]
[0,–1] Pixel [0,1] j

[0,0]
[1,–1] [1,0] [1,1]
var grid = [
[0,0],[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],
[-1,1]
];
function smooth(i, j, matrix) {
var count = 0;
var total = 0;
var tests = grid.length;
var ai = i + grid[k][0];
var aj = j + grid[k][1];
if (matrix[ai]) {
if (typeof matrix[ai][aj] === "number") {
count = count+1;
total = total + matrix[ai][aj];
}
}
}

if (count === 0) {
return 0;
}
var mean = total / count;
return mean;
}
Problem solving
14. WE52 Create a simulation loop to simulate Nathan Thompson’s Highlife, using the rules given in
question 11. Create a 100 by 100 matrix of cells. Initially each cell has a 0.4 probability of being
alive. Display the cells’ progression as an animation. Each cell should be displayed as a 5 by 5
rectangle.
15. Create a simulation of John Conway’s Game of Life. Use a
100 by 100 matrix of cells. Initially each cell has a 0.5
probability of being alive. The program should also draw
a scatterplot showing the proportion of alive cells against
the simulation iteration number. Run the simulation for
600 iterations and restart each time. The program should
automatically restart the simulation 20 times and draw the 20
graphs on top of each other, with a result similar to the image
on the right.
21.8 Review
Fluency
1. Answer the questions below for each of the following values.
i. Is the value a number, string or Boolean?
ii. Apply the expression typeof value to the value. What is the result of the expression typeof
value?
a. false b. “−99823.232” c. −99823.232
d. true e. 0
f. “Some information as a string”
2. Each of the following is a valid variable name. True or false?
a. camelCase b. snake-case c. −negative
d. result&&other e. to^power f. some space
g. item_12_21 h. function i. dimension_2
j. _2_
3. Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. what is the final type of the variable change?
ii. what is the final result stored in the variable change?
iii. what is the result of the expression typeof change?
a. var change = 3;
if (change < 5) {
change = change*change;
}

b. var change = 3;
var tooLarge = change >= 3;
if (tooLarge) {
change = change - 3;
} else {
change = change * change * change;
}
c. var change = true||false;
change = true && change;
change = false && change;
d. var change = "Start with this.";
change = "End with this.";
e. var change = false;
var less = 1213;
change = less;
change = "A string";
less = 22;
less = true;
f. var change = 123*2;
change = 12*22;
change = true;
g. var change = true;
if (change) {
change = false;
}
4. Can the following values be stored? If so, will they be stored accurately or approximately?
a. 1.6 × 10−200 b. 9007199254740992
c. 1.797 693 1 × 10 308
d. −9007199254740995
e. −1.79 × 10308 f. −9007199254740992
g. −9007199254740991 h. −9007199254740994
i. 2412 j. 14.00
k. −123.1 l. 26
m. 61.00 n. −866.99
o. 1.2 × 10−800 p. 3 × 10308
q. 9007199254740991 r. 1.797 693 2 × 10308
5. Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
a. !(true&&false) b. false&&true
c. false||true d. 537===538
e. 3.41!==3.41
f. ["some","string","here",false,true,10,["Array"]].length
g. false!==true h. "923"==="923"
i. false&&false j. 14401.9249<=1242.1
k. !!!(true||false) l. "2"==="42"
m. [111,12,2932,32].length n. [1,2,3,2,4,3,2].length
o. 61363.1>=163242.17 p. 34122.12315<1233224.25
q. [].length r. 33.33<74.275
s. 21.122>=122.17 t. Math.sqrt(100)

u. true&&false v. truetrue
w. falsefalse x. !true
y. true===false z. 32.4221!==32.4212
6. What is the JavaScript index of each of the following characters in the string "The review
questions."?
a. "." b. "q" c. "v"
d. "w" e. "t" f. "T"
7. Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var heading = "The review questions.";
a. heading[2] b. heading[5] c. heading[4+3]
8. Each of the following is an array. True or false?
a. −21.13
b. ["Q","U","E","S","T","I","O","N"].length
c. ["QUESTION"] d. true e. "DATA"
f. [true,false,"W","WEWE",120,[],[1,2]]
g. [0.13,16] h. []
9. What are the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array shown below?
["Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday","Friday",
"Saturday","Sunday"]
a. "Wednesday" b. "Monday" c. "Sunday"
d. "Saturday" e. "Tuesday"
10. Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var day = {
name: "Monday",
day: 9,
month: "May",
year: 2016
}
a. day.name b. day.month c. day.year
11. In each of the following programs, the aPointer is a pointer. True or false?
a. var aPointer = ["Some data","in","an","array"].length;
b. var aPointer = { a:"complex",data:"structure"};
c. var aPointer = "True";
d. var someObject = {};
var aPointer = someObject;
e. var person = {
firstName: "Beth",
class: "Mathematics"
};
f. var aPointer = person;
g. var aPointer = ["Some data","in","an","array"];
h. var aPointer = 10;
i. var aPointer = true;
var person = {
firstName: "Beth",
class: "Mathematics"
};
var aPointer = person.firstName;

12. Match the following JavaScript comments with the appropriate program statements in the table below.
// total surface area
// set the depth to 6
// set the height to 5
// calculate the top area
// set the width to 3
// calculate the front area
// calculate the side area
Program Comment
var width = 3;
var height = 5;
var depth = 6;
var tArea = width*depth;
var fArea = width*height;
var sArea = depth*height;
var area = 2*(tArea + fArea + sArea)
13. What is the output to the console of each of the following programs?
a. function distance(x1,y1,x2,y2) {
var diffX = x2 - x1;
var diffY = y2 - y1;
console.log(Math.sqrt(diffX*diffX+diffY*diffY));
}
distance(50,200,200,400);
b. function doTheSame() {
return "Nothing changes";
}
console.log(doTheSame());
c. function edgeLength(width,height,depth) {
var totalEdges = 4*(width+height+depth);
console.log(totalEdges);
}
edgeLength(4,7,9);
d. function median(sortedArray) {
var arrayLength = sortedArray.length;
var isOdd = arrayLength%2 === 1;
if (isOdd) {
var index = (arrayLength-1)/2;
return sortedArray[index];
}
var index1 = arrayLength/2;
var index2 = index1-1;
return (sortedArray[index1]+sortedArray[index2])/2;
}
var theMedian = median([1,2,3,4,6,7,9,144]);
console.log(theMedian);

14. Match the following algorithm design steps with their function implementations.
•• Return the square root of the sum of squares.
•• The function distance requires two points, p1 and p2.
•• Calculate the difference in y coordinates.
•• Calculate the difference in x coordinates.
•• Sum the differences squared.
Function Design
function distance(p1,p2) {
var dx = p2.x-p1.x;
var dy = p2.y-p1.y;
var sum = dx*dx+dy*dy;
return Math.sqrt(sum);
}
15. Consider the following arrays.

i. How many dimensions does each array have?
ii. The arrays below can represent matrices. True or false?
a. [[13],[52],[2]] b. [100]
c. [] d. [[[[4]]]]
e. [[271,279,274,273],[2,9,4,3]]
f. [[23,4,7],[2,3],[2,3,3]]
g. [[271,27],[2,93],[1]] h. [[1]]
16. Consider the two-dimensional array below.
var matrix = [[19,28,37,46],[55,64,73,82]];
For each of the following values in the matrix:
i. what is the first JavaScript index required to access the value?
ii. what is the second JavaScript index required to access the value?
iii. what is the JavaScript expression required to access the value?
a. 64 b. 73 c. 46 d. 19 e. 28 f. 82
17. Consider the two-dimensional array below.
var results = [[1,4,7,3],[7,6,7,3],[1,2,6,3],[4,6,7,31]];
a. results[2][0] b. results[3][1] c. results[3][3]
18. Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. For each array:
i. how many rows does the corresponding matrix have?
ii. how many columns does the corresponding matrix have?
a. [[1],[2]]
b. [[31,12,97,3,4,7],[321,122,124,4,3,2],[324,422,42,3,2,9]]
c. [[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10],[10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1]]
d. [[12,3,23,9],[2,32,2,76],[3,2,6,42]]
19. Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two-dimensional array.
[ 14 31 61 ]
a. b. 13 22 31 c. 72 24 56
[ ]
[ 51 26 29 ]
2 9
1 3 8 2 8
19 122
23 83
9 5

20. Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.
[ 57 17 ]
2 11
3 13
C =
19
var C = [
[2,11],
[3,13],
[5,17],
[7,19]
];
i. What is the first index required to access the value in the matrix C?
ii. What is the second index required to access the value in the matrix C?
iii. What is the first index required to access the value in the JavaScript array C?
iv. What is the second index required to access the value in the JavaScript array C?
v. Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access the value in the JavaScript array C.
a. 17 b. 13 c. 2
21. A canvas has height 512 and width 1024. On the canvas, what is the coordinate in the form [x,y]
of:
a. the centre? b. the middle of the left edge?
c. the middle of the top edge? d. the right bottom corner?
22. Match the colours below with the colour strings in the following table.
Light red, dark purple, dark green, dark yellow, light yellow, dark grey, light grey, blue
“rgb(128,0,128)”
“rgb(0,0,255)”
“rgb(0,128,0)”
“rgb(255,255,128)”
“rgb(200,200,200)”
“rgb(128,128,0)”
“rgb(255,128,128)”
“rgb(50,50,50)”
23. Define a string of the form "rgb(red,green,blue)" for each of the following colours. for
the following colours. Use the value 128 to represent a medium intensity of red, green or blue. For
example, dark green is "rgb(0,128,0)" and light green is "rgb(128,255,128)".
a. Red b. Blue c. Dark blue d. Green
e. Cyan f. Dark cyan g. Dark red h. Black
i. White j. Light blue k. Yellow
24. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
a JavaScript statement to change the colour of a line to blue. Use the string structure
25. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
a JavaScript statement to change the colour of a fill to cyan. Use the string structure

26. Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:
a. 1 b. −10 c. 255
d. 3.14 e. 2*Math.PI f. √2
g. 360
27. Write an expression to return a random number between 180 and 270.
28. How many times is the following loop code executed?
var array = [3,4,234,3,32];
for (var i=0; i < array.length; i = i+1) {
var value = array[i];
console.log(value);
}
var matrix = [[2,3,3,2,2],[5,7,2,4,5],[6,4,1,5,6]];
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var n = row.length;
for (var j=0; j < n; j = j+1) {
console.log(row[j]);
}
}
a. How many times is the outer loop code executed?
b. How many times is the inner loop code executed?
var mass = 0;
var densities = [1000,500,100,10];
var volumes = [2,2,3,42];
var matrix = [densities,volumes];
var m = volumes.length;
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var volume = matrix[0][i];
var density = matrix[1][i];
var weight = volume*density;
mass = mass + weight;
}
console.log(mass);
a. How many times is the loop code executed?
b. What is the output to the console?
Problem solving
31. a. Design and implement an algorithm sumMultiples(value1,value2,limit) to sum
all of the positive integers that are multiples of value1 or value2 below limit.
b. What is the output of the function from part a given value1=7, value2=11 and
limit=1000?
32. For each of the following problems:
i. write a program to solve the problem and output the solution to the console
ii. state the solution to the problem.

a. How many different ways are there to make 1 dollar using only 5-cent, 10-cent, 20-cent and 50-cent
coins?
2× + 2× + + =
b. A prime number is an integer greater than 1 with only two whole number factors, itself and 1. What
is the thousandth prime?
Complete this digital doc: Concept map (doc-19319)
Complete this digital doc: How to write your own program (doc-18769)
Language
canvas matrices property
character nested loop radians
coordinates object two-dimensional array
linked list one-dimensional array
loops pointer

www.assesson.com.au

Answers
Topic 21 Programming
Exercise 21.2 Programs
1. a. i. String ii. "string"
b. i. String ii. "string"
c. i. Boolean ii. "boolean"
d. i. String ii. "string"
e. i. Number ii. "number"
f. i. Boolean ii. "boolean"
g. i. String ii. "string"
h. i. Number ii. "number"
2. a, b, d, f, I, k, l, n, o. False
c, e, g, h, j, m. True
3. a. i. Boolean ii. false iii. "boolean"
b. i. Number ii. 2 iii. "number"
c. i. String
ii. "Now this, but the same type"
iii. "string"
d. i. String
ii. "Another type and value"
iii. "string"
4. a. true b. 27
5. a. 9 b. 15
6. a. 2048/(2*2*2*2*2*2*2*2)
b. (2.2+0.7+0.1)/(3.2−0.1*2)
c. (11+2)+(15−4)/11+16
d. 22%16
e. 22*12/2
f. Math.sqrt(625/(5*5))
g. 18*9*27*2*0.5
7. a. var planet = “Earth”;
b. var threeSquared = 2*4+1;
c. var timeInSeconds = 10.2;
d. var division = (2+3+3)/2;
e. var distanceOverThereInKilometers = 2;
8. a. i. Number ii. 506 iii. "number"
9. 484
10. 3960
11. var width = 10;
12. var height = 12;
var perimeter = 2*(width+height);
var area = width*height;
var width = 8;
var height = 5;
var depth = 3;
var topArea = width*depth;
var sideArea = height*depth;

var frontArea = width*height;
var surface = 2*(topArea+sideArea+frontArea);
var volume = width*height*depth;
13. var f = 7;
var g = 12;
var h = 2;
var i = −3;
var a = f*h;
var b = f*i + g*h;
var c = g*i;
14. var a = 12;
var b = 39;
var c = 30;
var f = 3;
var g = 6;
var h = a/f;
var i = c/g;
Exercise 21.3 Data structures

1. a, l, n. Cannot be stored
b, c, g, h, i, k. Can be stored accurately
d, e, f, j, m, o, p. Can be stored approximately
2. a, b, g, i, j, p, q. false
c–f, h, k–o, r, s. true
3. a. false b. false
4. a. true b. false
5. a. true b. false c. true d. true
6. a. 4 b. 5 c. 0
d. 6 e. 4
7. a. 18 b. 7 c. 38
d. 23 e. 16 f. 43
8. a. "r" b. "e" c. "t"
9. a, b, f, g, h. True c, d, e. True
10. a. 11 b. 6 c. 2
d. 0 e. 6 f. 10
11. a. 765 b. "iPad" c. true
12. a–d. False e–g. True
13. a. "Simons" b. "Clare" c. 19
14. var terminator = {};
var object3 = { data:3, next:terminator};
var object2 = { data:4, next:object3};
var object1 = { data:5, next:object2};
var list = object1;
15. The terminator is a blank object that references nothing, so it can be built first. The last object only points to the terminator so
it can be built next.
If the first object is built first, the data can be added but the next has nothing to point to yet.
16. list = list.next;
17. list.next.next = list.next.next.next;

Exercise 21.4 Algorithms
1. a. A string b. C c. 4
d. true e. 246 f. false
2. Program Comment
var width = 3; // set the width to 3
var height = 2.3; // set the height to 2.3
var depth = 1.4; // set the depth to 1.4
var area = width*height; // calculate the top area
var volume = area*depth; // calculate the volume
3. a. 185
b. Nothing to see here
c. 254
4. No
5. Function Design
function average(a,b,c) { The function average requires three values: a,b,c.
var total = a+b+c; Calculate the total of a, b and c.
var number = 3; Store the number of values.
var output = total/number; Calculate the average.
return output; Return the average.
}
6. a. var nearly_2 = 1+1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32;

// nearly_2=1.96875
b. var distanceKm = 2600/1000; //
distanceKm=2.6
c. var seconds = 60*60*24*356.25; //
seconds= 30780000
7. var percentage=22+3; // percentage=25
var total=6+14; // total=20
var amount=(percentage/100)*total; // amount=5
8. a. i. a,b,c
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isRightAngled
iii.
1. Use Pythagoras’ theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
2. Calculate the left-hand side: a2 + b2
3. Calculate the right-hand side: c2
4. Return true if the left-hand side equals the right-hand side.
b. i. number
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isNatural
iii.
1. Return false if number is not positive.
2. Find the decimal part of number.
3. Return true if the decimal part is zero.
4. Return false if the decimal part does not equal zero.
c. i. a,b,c
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isTriad
iii.
1. If a is not a positive integer, return false.
2. If b is not a positive integer, return false.

3. If c is not a positive integer, return false.
4. Return true if a, b and c form a right-angled triangle.
d. i. x,y,z
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isPythagoreanTriad
iii. 1. If x,y,z is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
2. If x,z,y is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
3. If y,z,x is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
4. Otherwise, return false.
9. a. function isRightAngled(a,b,c) {
// Use the Pythagoras’ theorem
// a*a+b*b=c*c
// Calculate left side a*a+b*b
var left = a*a+b*b;
// Calculate right side c*c
var right = c*c;
// Return true if left side equals
// right side
return left === right;
}
b. function isNatural(number) {
// Return false if number is not positive.
if (number <= 0) { return false; }
// Find the decimal part.
var decimalPart = number%1;
// Return true if the decimal part is zero
// Return false if the decimal part
// does not equal zero
return decimalPart===0;
}
c. function isTriad(a,b,c) {
// If a is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(a)===false) {
return false;
}
// If b is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(b)===false) {
return false;
}
// If c is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(c)===false) {
return false;
}
// Return true if a, b and c form a
// right angled triangle.
return isRightAngled(a,b,c);
}
d. function isPythagoreanTriad(x,y,z) {
// If x,y,z is a Pythagorean triad
// return true.
if (isTriad(x,y,z)) { return true; }
// If x,z,y is a Pythagorean triad
// return true.
if (isTriad(x,z,y)) { return true; }
// If y,z,x is a Pythagorean triad

// return true.
if (isTriad(y,z,x)) { return true; }
// Otherwise return false.
return false;
}
10. There are many ways to implement the required algorithm. One method is shown below.
a. list, data b. addToEnd
c. 1. If list is empty, return a new object with the data as the new list.
2. Create a reduced list pointer to point to the next item in the list.
3. Create an appended list by calling addToEnd with the reduced list and data.
4. Update the first object in the list to point to the appended list.
5. Return the updated list as the new list.
d. var terminator = {};
function addToEnd(list, data) {
// If list is empty return a new object
// with the data as the new list.
if (list === terminator) {
return {
data:data,
next:terminator
}
}
// Create a reduced list pointer to point
// to the next item in the list.
var reducedList = list.next;
// Create an appended list by calling
// addToEnd
// with the reduced list and data.
var appendedList = addToEnd(list.next, data);
// Update the first object in the list
// to point to the appended list.
list.next = appendedList;
// Return the updated list as the new
// list.
return list;
}
e. var object3 = {
data:3,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2,
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:1,
next:object2
}
var list3 = object1;
var list4 = addToEnd(list3, 4);
a. list b. removeFromEnd
c. 1. If the list has no objects, return the terminator.
2. If the list has only one object, return the terminator.
3. Create a sub-list pointer to point to the next item in the list.
4. Create a reduced list by calling removeFromEnd with the sub-list.
5. Update the first object in the list to point to the reduced list.
6. Return the updated list as the new list.

d. var terminator = {};
function removeFromEnd(list) {
// If list has no objects
// return the terminator.
if (list === terminator) {
return terminator;
}
// If list has only one object
// return the terminator.
if (list.next === terminator) {
return terminator;
}
// Create a sub list pointer to
// point to the next item in the list.
var subList = list.next;
// Create a reduced list by calling
// removeFromEnd with the sub list.
var reducedList = removeFromEnd(subList)
// Update the first object in the
// list to point to the reduced list.
list.next = reducedList;
// Return the updated list as the new
// list.
return list;
}
e. var object3 = {
data:3,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2,
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:1,
next:object2
}
var list2 = removeFromEnd(list3);
a. list, index, data b. setData
c. 1. If the index is 0 or less, then set the data of the first object and terminate the function.
2. Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.
3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4. Call setData using the reduced list, reduced index and data.
d. function setData(list, index, data) {
// If index 0 or less then set
// data of the first object and
// terminate the function.
if (index <= 0) {
list.data = data;
return;
}
// Create a reduced list pointer
var reduced = list.next;
// Create a new index one less
var newIndex = index-1;
// Call setData using the

// reduced list, reduced index
// and data.
setData(reduced, newIndex, data);
}
e. var terminator = {};
var object3 = {
data:"here.",
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:"me",
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:"Replace",
next:object2
}
var list = object1;
setData(list,2,"there.");
a. list, index
b. removeAtIndex
c. 1. If the index is 0 or less, then return the next object in the list.
2. Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.
3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4. Call removeAtIndex using the reduced list and index, then store the list.
5. Update the first object in the list to point to the list created above.
6. Return removeAtIndex using the reduced list and index.
d. function removeAtIndex(list, index) {
// If index 0 or less then return the
// next object in the list.
if (index <= 0) {
return list.next;
}
// Create a reduced list pointer
var reduced = list.next;
// Create a new index one less
var newIndex = index-1;
// Call removeAtIndex using the
// reduced list and index then
// store the list.
var removedList = removeAtIndex(reduced, newIndex);
// Update the first object in the
// list to point to the list created above.
list.next = removedList;
// Return the updated list as the new list.
return list;
}
e. var terminator = {};
var object3 = {
data:3,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2,
next:object3
}

var object1 = {
data:1,
next:object2
}
var list2 = removeAtIndex(list3, 1);
14. function maximumArea(perimeter) {
// A circle contains the maximum possible
// area with a perimeter.
// Store an approximation to PI
var PI = 3.141592653589793;
// Calculate the radius of a circle with
// a given perimeter
var radius = perimeter / (2*PI);
// Calculate the area of a circle with a
// given radius
var area = PI * radius * radius;
// Return the area of a circle with
// a given perimeter.
return area;
}
Exercise 21.5 Matrices

1. a. 2 b. 1 c. 1 d. 3 e. 2
f. 3 g. 3 h. 2 i. 2
2. a. i. 3 ii. 0
b. i. 0 ii. 0
c. i. 2 ii. 0
d. i. 2 ii. 1
3. a. 1 b. 72 c. 4
4. a. False b. False c. True d. False
5. a. i. 6 ii. 1
b. i. 1 ii. 6
c. i. 5 ii. 3
d. i. 2 ii. 5
6. a. [
[1,2,3],
[5,6,2]
]
b. [
[2,4,5,2,62],
[1,3,1,2,31]
]
c. [
[21,11],
[19,12],
[71,82],
[12,81]
]
7. a. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. 0 iv. 0 v. B[0][0]
b. i. 2 ii. 3 iii. 1 iv. 2 v. B[1][2]
c. i. 1 ii. 2 iii. 0 iv. 1 v. B[0][1]

8. var indexProduct = [
[0,0,0,0],
[0,1,2,3],
[0,2,4,6],
[0,3,6,9]
];
9. Any order of the vertices is correct.
var square = [
[0,0],
[100,0],
[100,100],
[0,100]
];
10. Any order of the vertices is correct.
11. var octagon = [
[148,80],
[148,120],
[120,148],
[80,148],
[52,120],
[52,80],
[80,52],
[120,52]
];
Exercise 21.6 Graphics
1. a. [150,200] b. [300,200] c. [150,400] d. [300,0]
2. a. "rgb(0,0,255)" b. “rgb(0,0,0)” c. “rgb(0,255,255)” d. “rgb(0,128,0)”
3. Colour string Colour
“rgb(128,255,128)” Light green
“rgb(0,0,0)” Black
“rgb(255,255,0)” Yellow
“rgb(255,128,128)” Pink
“rgb(255,0,0)” Red
“rgb(0,255,0)” Green
“rgb(128,128,255)” Light blue
“rgb(0,0,255)” Blue
4. context.strokeStyle = “rgb(255,0,0)”;
5. context.fillStyle = “rgb(255,255,0)”;
6. a. context.moveTo(500,10);
context.lineTo(10,500);
context.stroke();
b. context.lineWidth = 10;
context.moveTo(66,14);
context.stroke();
c. context.lineWidth = 3;
context.stroke();
d. context.lineWidth = 9;
context.stroke();

e. context.moveTo(50,50);
context.stroke();
7. Many answers are possible. One method is shown below.
var x1 = 40;
var y1 = 20;
var x2 = 200;
var y2 = 20;
var x3 = 200;
var y3 = 250;
var x4 = 40;
var y4 = 250;
context.fill();
8. a. var x = 22;
var y = 43;
var radius = 20;
context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
b. var x = 100;
var y = 100;
var diameter = 160;
var radius = diameter/2;
context.fill();
9. var x = 200;
var y = 280;
var diameter = 200;
var fillColour = “rgb(255,0,0)”;
var lineColour = “rgb(0,128,0)”;
context.fillStyle = fillColour;
context.lineWidth = 8;
context.strokeStyle = lineColour;

context.fill();
context.stroke();
10. a. Many answers are possible. One method is shown below.
var x1 = 150;
var y1 = 200;
var x2 = 200;
var y2 = 100;
// Find middle of the square
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// Find the difference of x and y from
// the centre.
var dx = x1-mx;
var dy = y1-my;
context.moveTo(mx-dx,my-dy);
context.lineTo(mx+dy,my-dx);
context.lineTo(mx+dx,my+dy);
context.lineTo(mx-dy,my+dx);
context.lineTo(mx-dx,my-dy);
context.stroke();
b. var x1 = 116;
var y1 = 240;
var x2 = 120;
var y2 = 210;
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// the centre.
var dx = x1-mx;
var dy = y1-my;
context.stroke();
c. var x1 = 400;
var y1 = 130;
var x2 = 110;
var y2 = 250;
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// the centre.
var dx = x1-mx;

var dy = y1-my;
context.stroke();
11. var x1 = 200;
var y1 = 300;
var x2 = 400;
var y2 = 300;
var diameter = x2-x1;
var fillColour = “rgb(0,0,255)”;
context.fillStyle = fillColour;
context.arc(x1,y1,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
context.arc(x2,y2,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
12. // Assume there exists a HTML page which
var x1=200;
var y1=100;
var x2=400;
var y2=100;
var x3=400;
var y3=300;
var x4=200;
var y4=300;
context.stroke();
var x = (x1+x3)/2;
var y = (y1+y3)/2;
var radius = (x3-x1)/2;
context.arc(x, y, radius, 0, end);
context.fill();

13. a. Math.PI/2 b. Math.PI/3 c. Math.PI/6 d. Math.PI/4
e. Math.PI*161.2/180
14. var x = 300;
var y = 250;
var radius = 200;
var startAngle = 240;
var endAngle = 300;
var startRatio = startAngle/360;
var endRatio = endAngle/360;
var start = 2*Math.PI * startRatio;
var end = 2*Math.PI * endRatio;
context.arc(x,y,radius,start,end);
context.stroke();
// Assume there exists a HTML page which
context.fillStyle = “rgb(128,128,255)”;
context.strokeStyle = “rgb(0,0,255)”;
context.fill();
context.stroke();
context.fillStyle = "rgb(128,128,255)";
context.strokeStyle = "rgb(0,0,255)";
context.fill();
context.stroke();
var x = 300;
var y = 250;
var radius = 200;

var start = 2*Math.PI * 4 / 6;
var end = 2*Math.PI * 5 / 6;
context.fillStyle = “rgb(255,0,0)”;
context.moveTo(x,y);
context.lineTo(x,y);
context.fill();
context.stroke();
function sector(colour, i) {
var x = 300;
var y = 250;
var radius = 200;
var start = 2*Math.PI * i / 6;
var end = 2*Math.PI * (i+1) / 6;
context.fillStyle = colour;
context.moveTo(x,y);
context.lineTo(x,y);
context.fill();
context.stroke();
}
sector("rgb(0,0,255)",0);
sector("rgb(0,255,255)",1);
sector("rgb(0,255,0)",2);
sector("rgb(255,255,0)",3);
sector("rgb(255,0,0)",4);
sector("rgb(255,0,255)",5);
Exercise 21.7 Simulations

1. a. Math.random() b. 0.11*Math.random() c. −0.22*Math.random()
d. 3*Math.random() e. 2*Math.random() f. −3*Math.random()
g. 5*Math.random() h. 2.4*Math.random() i. 1000*Math.random()
2. 20+10*Math.random()
3. 4 4. 12
5. a. 6 b. 216
6. var matrix = [
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7],
[8,9,10,11,12,13,14],
[15,16,17,18,19,20,21]
];
var sum = 0;
var count = 0;
for (var i=0; i<m; i=i+1) {
for (var j=0; j<n; j=j+1) {
sum = sum + item;

count = count + 1;
}
}
var mean = sum / count;
7. function randomBooleans(required) {
var array = [];
for (var i=0; i<required; i=i+1) {
var random = Math.random() <= 0.5;
array.push(random);
}
return array;
}
8. function randomGenders(people) {
var array = [];
for (var i=0; i<people; i=i+1) {
var isMale = Math.random() <= 0.51;
if (isMale) {
array.push("Male");
} else {
array.push("Female");
}
}
return array;
}
9. function randomScaled(
rows,
columns,
scale) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i=0; i<rows; i=i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j=0; j<columns; j=j+1) {
var random = scale*Math.random();
newRow.push(random);
}
}
return matrix;
}
10. a. function randomColours(
height,
width) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i=0; i<height; i=i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j=0; j<width; j=j+1) {
if (random <= 0.05) {
newRow.push("rgb(255,0,0)");
} else if (random <= 0.15) {
} else if (random <= 0.30) {
} else {
}
}
}
return matrix;
}

b. // Assume there exists a HTML page which
function draw(image) {
var rows = image.length;
var columns = image[i].length;
var colour = image[i][j];
context.fillStyle = colour;
context.fillRect(j,i,1,1);
}
}
}
c. The 600 by 500 canvas image is mainly black with random blue, green and red points.
11. a. 1. Initialise a variable to track the status of the new cell. A status of true indicates alive; a status of false indicates dead
or empty.
a. If the current cell is alive and has 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new status to alive.
b. If the current cell is alive and does not have 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new status to dead.
c. If the current cell is empty and has 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new status to alive.
d. If the current cell is empty and does not have 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new status to empty.
5. Return the status.
b. function isAlive(alive, neighbours) {
// Initialise a variable to track the
// status of the new cell. A status
// of true indicates alive, a status
// of false indicates dead or empty.
if (alive) {
// If the current cell is alive and
// has 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new
// status to alive.
// If the current cell is alive and
// does not have 2 or 3 neighbours,
// set the new status to dead.
newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
} else {
// If the current cell is empty and
// has 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new
// status to alive.
// If the current cell is empty and
// does not have 3 or 6 neighbours, set
// the new status to empty.
newStatus =
neighbours === 3 ||
neighbours === 6;
}
// Return the status.
return newStatus;
}
12. var closeCells = [[0,0],[0,1],[1,0],
[0,-1],[-1,0]];
function average(i,j,image) {
var total = 0;
var count = 0;
var tests = closeCells.length;
for (var k=0; k<tests; k=k+1) {
var ai = i + closeCells[k][0];

var aj = j + closeCells[k][1];
if (image[ai]) {
if (typeof image[ai][aj] ===
"number") {
total = total + image[ai][aj];
count = count + 1;
}
}
}
return total/count;
}
13. function transforms(matrix) {
var newMatrix = [];
var rows = matrix.length;
var newRow = [];
var columns = matrix[i].length;
newRow.push(smooth(i,j,matrix));
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
function randomBooleans(rows, columns,
probability) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
}
}
return matrix;
}
if (alive) {
newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
} else {
newStatus =
neighbours === 3 ||
neighbours === 6;
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]];
var total = 0;

if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours =
count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem =
isAlive(item, neighbours);
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
var rows = 100;
var columns = 100;
var matrix = randomBooleans(
rows,
columns,
0.4);
function draw() {
context.clearRect(0,0,600,500);
if (matrix[i][j]) {
context.fillRect(j*5,i*5,5,5);
}
}
}
}
function randomBooleans(rows, columns,
probability) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
}
}
return matrix;
}

if (alive) {
newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
} else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]];
var total = 0;
if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours =
count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem =
isAlive(item, neighbours);
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
var rows = 100;
var columns = 100;
for (var loop = 0; loop < 20; loop++) {
var matrix = randomBooleans(rows,
columns, 0.5);
for (var iteration = 0; iteration <= 600;
iteration++) {
var alive = 0;
if (matrix[i][j]) {
alive = alive + 1;
}
}
}
var ratio = alive / (rows * columns);
context.fillRect(iteration,

500*(1-ratio),1,1);
}
}
21.8 Review
1. a. i. Boolean ii. "boolean"
b. i. String ii. "string"
c. i. Number ii. "number"
d. i. Boolean ii. "boolean"
e. i. Number ii. "number"
f. i. String ii. "string"
2. a, g, i, j. True
b–f, h. False
3. a. i. Number ii. 9 iii. "number"
c. i. Boolean ii. false iii. "boolean"
d. i. String"
ii. End with this."

iii. "string"
e. i. String ii. "A string" iii. "string"
f. i. Boolean ii. true iii. "boolean"
g. i. Boolean ii. false iii. "boolean"
4. a, c, d, e, h, k, n. Can be stored approximately
b, f, g, i, j, l, m, q. Can be stored accurately
o, p, r. Cannot be stored
5. a. true b. false c. true d. false e. false f. 7
g. true h. true i. false j. false k. false l. false
m. 4 n. 7 o. false p. true q. 0 r. true
s. false t. 10 u. false v. true w. false x. false
y. false z. true
6. a. 20 b. 11 c. 6 d. 9 e. 15 f. 0
7. a. "e" b. "e" c. "i"
8. a. False b. False c. True d. False e. False f. True
g. True h. True
9. a. 2 b. 0 c. 6 d. 5 e. 1
10. a. "Monday" b. "May" c. 2016
11. a. False b. True c. False d. True e. True f. True
g. False h. False i. False
12.
Program Comment
var width = 3; // set the width to 3
var height = 5; // set the height to 5
var depth = 6; // set the depth to 6
var tArea = width*depth; // calculate the top area
var fArea = width*height; // calculate the front area
var sArea = depth*height; // calculate the side area
var area = 2*(tArea + fArea + sArea) // total surface area
13. a. 250 b. Nothing changes c. 80 d. 5

14.
Function Design
function distance(p1,p2) { The function distance requires two points, p1 and p2.
var dx = p2.x-p1.x; Calculate the difference in x coordinates.
var dy = p2.y-p1.y; Calculate the difference in y coordinates.
var sum = dx*dx+dy*dy; Sum the differences squared.
return Math.sqrt(sum);} Return the square root of the sum of squares.
15. a. i. 2 ii. True

b. i. 1 ii. False
c. i. 1 ii. False
d. i. 4 ii. False
e. i. 2 ii. True
f. i. 2 ii. False
g. i. 2 ii. False
h. i. 2 ii. True
16. a. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. matrix[1][1]
b. i. 1 ii. 2 iii. matrix[1][2]
c. i. 0 ii. 3 iii. matrix[0][3]
d. i. 0 ii. 0 iii. matrix[0][0]
e. i. 0 ii. 1 iii. matrix[0][1]
f. i. 1 ii. 3 iii. matrix[1][3]
17. a. 1 b. 6 c. 31
18. a. i. 2 ii. 1
b. i. 3 ii. 6
c. i. 2 ii. 10
d. i. 3 ii. 4
19. a. [[2,9],[1,3],[19,122],[23,83],[9,5]]
b. [[13,22,31],[8,2,8],[51,26,29]]
c. [[72,24,56],[14,31,61]]
20. a. i. 3 ii. 2 iii. 2 iv. 1 v. C[2][1]
b. i. 2 ii. 2 iii. 1 iv. 1 v. C[1][1]
c. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. 0 iv. 0 v. C[0][0]
21. a. [256,512] b. [0,512] c. [256,0] d. [512,1024]
22.
“rgb(128,0,128)” Dark purple
“rgb(0,0,255)” Blue
“rgb(0,128,0)” Dark green
“rgb(255,255,128)” Light yellow
“rgb(200,200,200)” Light grey
“rgb(128,128,0)” Dark yellow
“rgb(255,128,128)” Light red
“rgb(50,50,50)” Dark grey
23. a. "rgb(255,0,0)" b. "rgb(0,0,255)" c. "rgb(0,0,128)"

d. "rgb(0,255,0)" e. "rgb(0,255,255)" f. "rgb(0,128,128)"
g. "rgb(128,0,0)" h. "rgb(0,0,0)" i. "rgb(255,255,255)"
j. "rgb(128,128,255)" k. "rgb(255,255,0)"

24. context.strokeStyle = "rgb(0,0,255)";
25. context.fillStyle = "rgb(0,255,255)";
26. a. Math.random() b. −10*Math.random()
c. 255*Math.random() d. 3.14*Math.random()
e. 2*Math.PI*Math.random() f. Math.sqrt(2)*Math.random()
g. 360*Math.random()
27. 180 + 90*Math.random()
28. 5
29. a. 3 b. 15
30. a. 5 b. 3720
31. a. function sumMultiples(value1,value2,limit) {
var sum = 0;
for (var i = 1; i < limit; i++) {
if ((i%value1===0)||(i%value2===0)) {
sum = sum + i;
}
}
return sum;
}
110110
32. a. i. Many answers are possible. One solution is shown below.
var combinations = 0;
for (var fifties = 0; fifties <= 2; fifties++) {
for (var twenties = 0; twenties <= 5; twenties++) {
for (var tens = 0; tens <= 10; tens++) {
for (var fives = 0; fives <= 20; fives++) {
var amount = fifties*50+twenties*20+tens*10+fives*5;
if (amount === 100) {
combinations++;
}
}
}
}
}
console.log(combinations);
ii. 49
b. i. Many answers are possible. One solution is shown below.
var primes = [];
for (var i = 2; primes.length < 1000; i++) {
var isPrime = true;
for (var j = 0; (j < primes.length) && isPrime; j++) {
if (i%primes[j] === 0) {
isPrime = false;
}
}
if (isPrime) {
primes.push(i);
}
}
console.log(primes[1000-1]);
ii. 7919

APPENDIX
CAS Calculator companion
The information below is a sample. Full CAS Calculator companions are located as interactives in the Reading panel of your
learnON title and as PDFs in the Resources section of the About this course topic.
TOPIC 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
( y4 )
3 3 2x3 4 3
a (2n4) b (3a2b7) c d (−4)
a–d On a Calculator page, a–d a–d On the Main screen, a–d

use the brackets and use the brackets and
complete the entry complete the entry
lines as: lines as:
3
(2n )
3
(2n )
4 4
3
(3a b )
3
(3a b )
2 7 2 7
( y4 )
2x3 4
( y4 )
3 2x3 4
(2n ) = 8n
4 12
3
(−4)
3
(3a b ) = 27a b
2 7 6 21 3
Press ENTER · (−4)
( y4 )
2x3 4 16x12
after each entry. = Press EXE after each
y16 entry.
3
(−4) = −64
3
(2n ) = 8n
4 12
3
(3a b ) = 27a b
2 7 6 21
( y4 )
2x3 4 16x12
=
y16
3
(−4) = −64
TOPIC 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
If c = √a2 + b2, calculate c if a = 12 and b = −5.

In a new document, open a To type the equation, √ is on
calculator page. To substitute the Keyboard screen. The
values, use the symbol ∣ . Press vertical line ∣ is on the Keyboard
CTRL / and then = to bring screen.
up the palette; use the Touchpad Complete the entry line as:
to select the ∣ symbol. Then type
‘and’ or find it in the catalog . c = √a2 + b2 ∣ a = 12 and b = −5
Complete the entry line as: Then press EXE.
If a = 12 and b = −5, then
c = √a2 + b2 ∣ a = 12 and b = −5
c = √a2 + b2 = 13.
Then press ENTER ·.
If a = 12 and b = −5 then
c = √a2 + b2 = 13.

TOPIC 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Solve each of the following linear equations.
a 6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0 b 7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
a−b On a Calculator page, a–b a−b On the Main screen,

complete the entry complete the entry lines
lines as: as:
solve solve
(6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0, x) (6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0, x)
solve solve
(7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10, x) (7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10, x)
Press ENTER · after Press EXE after each
6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0
each entry. entry.
⇒ x = −7
Convert b to a proper
7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
fraction.
⇒ x = 41
5
6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0
⇒ x = −7
7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
⇒x = 41
5
TOPIC 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Plot the linear graph defined by the rule y = 2x − 5 for the x-values −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 and 3.
1 In a new document, on a 1 It is possible to plot this

Lists & Spreadsheet page, graph using a calculator.
label column A as x and label On the Spreadsheet screen,
column B as y. enter the x-values into
Enter the x-values into column A.
column A. Then in cell B1, complete
Then in cell B1, complete the the entry line as:
entry line as: = 2A1 − 5
= 2a1 − 5 Then press EXE.
Then press ENTER ·.
2 Hold down the SHIFT key and 2 Highlight cell B1 to B7,

the down arrow to fill down the then tap:
y-values. • Edit
• Fill Range
• OK.

3 Open a Data & Statistics page. 3 Highlight cells A1 to B7,
Press TAB e to locate the then tap:
label of the horizontal axis and • Graph
select the variable x. • Scatter.
Press TAB e again to locate
the label of the vertical axis
and select the variable y. The
graph will be plotted as shown.
4 To join the dots with a line, 4 To join the dots with a line,
press: tap the icon.
• MENU b Note that the equation is
• 2: Plot Properties 2 given, if required.
• 1: Connect Data Points 1.
TOPIC 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (5, –1) with a gradient of 3.
The equation can be found using a On the Main screen, complete

CAS calculator as follows. the entry lines as:
In a new problem on a Calculator solve (y = 3x + c, c) | x = 5 | y = −1
page, completed the entry lines as: Press EXE.
y = m × x + c | m = 3
solve (y = 3x + c, c) | x = 5 and y = –1
y = 3x + c | c = –16
Press ENTER · after each entry.
The equation is y = 3x − 16.
The equation is
y = 3x − 16.

TOPIC 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the distance between the points P(−1, 5) and Q(3, −2).
On a Calculator page, On the Main screen, complete the entry lines

complete the entry as:
lines as: √ (x − a) 2 + (y − b) 2∣ x = −1∣ y = 5∣ a = 3∣ b = −2
x1: = −1 x1 = x = −1
y1: = 5 y1 = y = 5
x2: = 3 a = x2 = 3
y2: = −2 b = y2 = −2
√(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
The distance between the
Press ENTER · after
two points is √65.
each entry.
The distance between

the two points is
√65.
TOPIC 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
6
Find the point(s) of intersection between y = x + 5 and y =
x
TI | THINK WRITE/DRAW CASIO | THINK WRITE
a 1 In a new problem, on a a Ensure the calculator is set a

Calculator page, press: to Standard mode.
• MENU b On the Main screen, tap:
• 1: Actions 1 • Action
• 1: Define 1. • Advanced
Complete the entry line • solve.
as: Complete the entry lines as:
Define f 1(x) = x + 5
( x )
6
Repeat for the second solve x +5 = ,x
function:
Press EXE.
6
Define f 2(x) =
x
each entry.
The points of intersection
are (−6, −1) and (1, 6).
2 To find the intersection b In the Graph & Table page, b

points algebraically, complete the entry lines as:
press: y1 = x + 5
• MENU b 6
y2 =
• 3: Algebra 3 x
• 1: Solve 1. Then tap the graphing icon.
Complete the entry line To find the points of
as: intersection, tap:
The points (−6, −1) and • Analysis
solve ( f 1(x) = f 2(x), x)
(1, 6) are the points of • G-Solve
intersection. • Intersection.
To find the next point of
inter-section, press the right
arrow.

b 1 On a Graphs page, press
the up arrow ▴ to select
the function f 2(x), then
press ENTER ·. The
graph will be displayed.
Now press TAB e,
select the function f1(x)
and press ENTER ·
to draw the function.
Apply colour if you
would like to.

are (−6, −1) and (1, 6) .
2 To find the points of
intersection between the
two graphs, press:
• MENU b
• 6: Analyze Graph 6
• 4: Intersection 4.
Move the cursor to
the left of one of the The points (−6, −1) and
intersection points, press (1, 6) are the points of
ENTER ·, then move intersection.
the cursor to the right
of this intersection point
and press ENTER ·.
The intersection point
is displayed. Repeat
for the other point of
intersection.
TOPIC 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Identify the required region in the following pair of linear inequalities.
2x + 3y ≥ 6, y < 2x − 3
TI | THINK WRITE/DRAW CASIO | THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 In a new problem, on a 1 On the Graph & Table

Graphs page at the function screen at the function
entry line, press the delete entry line, type:
key to delete the equals y < 2x − 3
sign =. Complete the entry To get the inequality
line as y ≥ 2 − .
2x tap ▾.
3 Tick the inequality.
Then press ENTER ·. Tap and the shaded
The graph region
region is displayed.
corresponding to 2x + 3y ≥ 6
is displayed.
The graph region corresponding

to y < 2x − 3 is displayed.

2 Press TAB e. At the 2 On the Main screen,
function entry line, press the complete the entry line as:
delete key to delete the solve (2x + 3y ≥ 6, y)
equals sign =, then complete Highlight the previous
the entry line as y < 2x − 3. answer and drag it to
Then press ENTER ·. complete the entry line as:
( )
You may need to change the −(2x − 6)
simplify y ≥
Line Colour and Fill Colour The shaded region indicated 3
of this inequality to green to is the area corresponding to Press EXE after each entry
see the shaded region in dark 2x + 3y ≥ 6 and y < 2x − 3. line.
green as shown.
The inequality is given by
( )
−(2x − 6)
y≥
3
3 Go back to the Graph &
Table screen and, at the
function entry line, type:
2x
y≥− +2
3
Tap and the shaded
region is displayed.
4 If the solution region is

hard to see, fix this by
setting an appropriate
viewing window.
To do this, tap .
Select the values as shown
in the screenshot and tap
OK.
5 The darker shaded

region to the top right is
the area corresponding
to y < 2x − 3 and
2x + 3y ≥ 6.

TOPIC 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Find the size of angle θ: 3.1 m
a correct to the nearest second θ
b correct to the nearest minute.
7.2 m
a On a Calculator page, in a a On the Main screen, a

degree mode, complete the complete the entry line as:
(3.1)
entry line as: 7.2
tan−1
(3.1)
7.2
tan−1
To convert the decimal
To convert the decimal degree answer into degrees,
into degrees, minutes and minutes and seconds, tap:
seconds, press: • Action
• CATALOG • Transformation
• 1: 1 • DMS
• d: D. • dms.
Scroll and select ▸ DMS. Highlight the decimal
Then press ENTER ·. answer and drag across.
Then press EXE.
θ = 66°42′20ʺ correct to
θ = 66°42′20″correct to the the nearest second.
nearest second.
b Using the same screen, round b θ = 66°42ʹ correct to the b Using the same screen, b θ = 66°42ʹ correct to the
to the nearest minute. nearest minute. round to the nearest minute. nearest minute.
TOPIC 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find the total surface area of the cone shown.
15 cm
12 cm
On the Calculator a-b On the Main screen, complete a-b

page, complete the entry lines as:
the entry line as: π r(r + s)∣ r = 12∣ s = 15
π(r + s) ∣ r = 12 From the bottom of the
and s = 15 screen, tap the word
Press CTRL / ‘standard’ to change to
ENTER · to decimal mode and an
get a decimal approximation.
The total surface area of the
approximation. 2
cone is 1017.9 cm correct to
1 decimal place.
The total surface area of the

cone is 1017.9 cm2 correct
to 1 decimal place.

TOPIC 7
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
a (2x − 5) 2 b −3(2x + 7) 2
a–b In a new problem, a–b a–b On the Main a–b

on a Calculator page, screen, complete
complete the entry the entry lines as:
lines as: expand(2x − 5)2
expand(2x − 5)2 expand(−3(2x + 7)2)
expand (−3(2x + 7)2) Press EXE after
Press ENTER · each entry.
after each entry. (2x − 5) 2 = 4x2 − 20x + 25
−3(2x + 7) 2 = −12x2 − 84x − 147
(2x − 5) 2 = 4x2 − 20x + 25

−3(2x + 7) 2 = −12x2 − 84x − 147
TOPIC 7
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Factorise the following by completing the square.
a x2 + 4x + 2 b x2 − 9x + 1
a 1 In a new problem, on a a a–b On the Main screen, a–b

Calculator page, to express a complete the entry
quadratic in the completing lines as:
the square form, press: rfactor (x2 + 4x + 2)
• CATALOG rfactor (x2 − 9x + 1)
• 1: 1 Press EXE after each
• C: C entry.
then scroll down, until
completeSquare( and is
highlighted, then
press ENTER ·.
Using the catalog is
one method to show the
syntax required for various
commands.
x2 + 4x + 2 = (x + √2 + 2) (x − √2 + 2)
( 2)( 2)
√77 9 √77 9
x2 − 9x + 1 = x+ − x− −
2 2
2 Complete the entry lines as:

completeSquare(x2 + 4x + 2, x)
factor(x2 + 4x + 2, x)
Press ENTER · after each
entry.
x2 + 4x + 2 = (x + 2) 2 − 2
= (x + √2 + 2)(x − √2 + 2)

b Press: b
• MENU b
• 3: Algebra 3
• 5: Complete the Square 5.
Complete the entry lines as:
completeSquare(x2 − 9x + 1, x)
factor(x2 − 9x + 1, x)
Press ENTER · after each
entry.
( 2)
9 2 77
x2 − 9x + 1 = x− −
4
(2x + √77 − 9)(2x − √77 − 9)
=
4
TOPIC 8
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Determine the solution of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting their corresponding graphs.
Give answers to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a x2 + x − 2 = 0 b 2x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
a In a new problem, on a Graphs a a On the Graph & Table a

page, complete the function entry screen, complete the
line as: function entry line as:
2
f 1(x) = x2 + x − 2 y1 = x + x − 2
Then press ENTER ·. The Press EXE.
graph will be displayed. Then tap the icon.
To find the x-intercepts, press: The graph will be
• MENU b displayed. To find the
x2 + x − 2 = 0
• 6: Analyze Graph 1
⇒ x = 1 or − 2 x-intercepts, tap the
• 1: Zero 1.
Move the cursor to the left of the icon.
zero, press ENTER ·, then To find the second root,
move the cursor to the right of the tap the right arrow.
zero and press ENTER ·. The Note: Ensure that the
coordinates of the x-intercept are graph arrows have been
x2 + x − 2 = 0
displayed. Press ENTER · to activated in the ‘graph ⇒ x = 1 or − 2
fix the coordinates on the graph. format’ menu.
Repeat for the other x-intercept.
b On a Graphs page, complete the b b On the Graph & Table b

function entry line as: screen, complete the
f 1(x) = 2x2 − 4x − 5 function entry line as:
Then press ENTER ·. The y1 = 2x2 − 4x − 5
graph will be displayed. Press EXE.
To find the x-intercepts, press: Then tap the icon.
• MENU b The graph will be
• 6: Analyze Graph 1 2 displayed. To find the
• 1: Zero 1. 2x − 4x − 5 = 0
⇒ x ≈ −0.9 or 2.9 correct x-intercepts, tap the
Move the cursor to the left of the icon.
zero, press ENTER ·, then to 1 decimal place.
To find the second root,
move the cursor to the right of the tap the right arrow.
zero and press ENTER ·. The
coordinates of the x-intercept are
displayed. Press ENTER · to 2
2x − 4x − 5 = 0
fix the coordinates on the graph. ⇒ x ≈ −0.9 or 2.9
Repeat for the other x-intercept. correct to 1 decimal
place.

TOPIC 9
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
For each of the following graphs, give the coordinates of the turning point and state whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a y = −(x − 7) 2 b y = 5 − x2
a In a new problem, on a a a On the Graph & Table a

Graphs page, complete screen, complete the
the function entry line as: function entry line as:
f 1(x) = −(x − 7) 2 y1 = −(x − 7) 2
Then press ENTER ·. Tick the y1 box and tap the
icon.
To find the turning point,
tap the icon.
The turning point (7, 0) is a
maximum.

maximum.
b In a new problem, on b b On the Graph & Table b
a new Graphs page, screen, complete the
complete the function function entry line as:
2
entry line as: y1 = 5 − x
f 1(x) = 5 − x2 Tick the y1 box and tap
Then press ENTER ·. .
To find the turning point,
The turning point (0, 5) is a tap the icon.
maximum.

maximum.

TOPIC 12
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
The number of lollies in each of 8 packets is 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation correct to 2 decimal places.
In a new problem, on a Calculator page, On the Statistics

complete the entry lines as shown. This screen, label list1 as
stores the data values to the variable ‘x’ and enter the
‘lollies’. values from the
lollies := { 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 } question.
Although we can find many summary Press EXE after
statistics, to find the mean only, open a entering each value.
Calculator page and press: To find the summary
The mean number of lollies
• MENU b statistics, tap:
is 15 and the population
• 6: Statistics 6 • Calc
standard deviation is
• 3: List Math 3 • One-Variable.
σ = 2.74.
• 3: Mean 3. Set values as:
Press var h and select ‘lollies’, then press • XList: main\x
ENTER ·. • Freq: 1.
To find the population standard deviation Tap OK. The mean number of
only, press: The standard lollies is 15 with a standard
• MENU b deviation is shown deviation of 2.74.
• 6: Statistics 6 as σx and the mean
• 3: List Math 3 is shown as x.
• 9: Population standard deviation 9.
Press var h and select ‘lollies’, then press
ENTER ·. Press CTRL/ENTER / ·
to get a decimal approximation.
TOPIC 12
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Below are the scores for two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year:
John: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Penny: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a Use the statistics function on a calculator to find the mean and standard deviation for each student.
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
a 1 In a new problem, on a a 1 On the Statistics a

a Lists & Spreadsheet screen, label list1 as
page, label column A ‘John’ and list 2 as
as ‘john’ and column B ‘Penny’. Enter the
as ‘penny’. data set as shown.
Enter the data sets Press EXE after each
from the question. value.
Press ENTER ·
after each value.

2 To find only the 2 To find only the
mean and standard mean and standard
deviation of each data deviation of each
set, open a Calculator data set, tap:
page and complete • Calc
the entry lines as: • Two-Variable.
mean( john) Set values as:
stDevPop( john) • XList: main\john
mean( penny) John: x = 57, σ = 6 • YList: main\penny
stDevPop( penny) Penny: x = 57.5, σ = 17.42 • Freq: 1.
Press CTRL / correct to 2 decimal places. Tap OK.
ENTER · The x-values relate to
after each entry John and the y-values
to get a decimal to Penny. Scroll down
approximation. to see all the statistics.
John: x = 57, σ = 6
Penny: x = 57.5, σ = 17.42
correct to 2 decimal places.
b–c To draw the two b–c b–c To draw the two box- b–c
boxplots on the same and-whisker plots on
Data & Statistics the same Statistics
page, press TAB e screen, tap:
to locate the label of
the horizontal axis •
and select the variable • Settings
‘john’. Then press: • 1.
• MENU b Penny performed slightly Set values as:
• 1: Plot Type 1 better overall as her mean • Type: MedBox
• 2: Box Plot 2. mark was higher than • XList: main\john
Then press: John’s; however, John • Freq: 1.
• MENU b was more consistent as Tap Set.
• 2: Plot properties 2 his standard deviation was Repeat the process
• 5: Add X-variable 5 lower than Penny’s. for Penny, but after
and select ‘penny’. tapping Settings, Penny performed slightly
To change the colour tap 2 and set XList: better overall as her mean
of each main\penny. mark was higher than
boxplot, press CTRL Tap Setgraph. John’s; however, John
/ MENU b. was more consistent as
Tick StatGraph1 and
Then press: his standard deviation was
StatGraph2.
• 6: Color 6
lower than Penny’s.
• 2: Fill Color 2.
Select whichever
colour you like from
the palette for each of
the boxplots.

TOPIC 13
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Mary sells business shirts in a department store. She always records the number of different styles of shirt sold during the
day. The table below shows her sales over one week.
Price($) 14 18 20 21 24 25 28 30 32 35
Number of shirts sold 21 22 18 19 17 17 15 16 14 11

b State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
a–b 1 In a new document, a–b a–b 1 On the Statistic screen,

on a Lists & label list1 as ‘Price’ and
Spreadsheet page, list 2 as ‘Shirts’, then
label column A as enter the values from the
‘price’ and label question.
column B as ‘sold’. Press EXE after entering
Enter the data as each value.
shown in the table.
2 Open a Data & 2 Tap:

Statistics page. • SetGraph
Press TAB e to • Settings.
locate the label of the Set values as shown in
horizontal axis and the screenshot, then tap:
select the variable • Set
‘price’. Press TAB • y.
e again to locate the Tap OK.
label of the vertical The standard deviation is
axis and select the shown.
variable ‘sold’.

3 To change the colour 3 The scatterplot will
of the scatterplot, appear.
place the pointer over
one of the data points.
Then press CTRL /
MENU b.
Press:
3: Colour 3
The scatterplot is shown,
2: Fill Colour 2.
using a suitable scale for
Select a colour from
both axes. The points are
the palette for the
close to forming a
scatterplot. Press
straight line. There is a strong
ENTER ·.
negative, linear correlation
between the two variables.
The trend indicates that the The scatterplot is shown,
price of a shirt appears to using a suitable scale for
affect the number sold; that both axes. The points
is, the more expensive the are close to forming a
shirt, the fewer are sold. straight line. There is a
strong negative, linear
correlation between the
two variables. The trend
indicates that the price of
a shirt appears to affect
the number sold; that is,
the more expensive the
shirt, the fewer are sold.
TOPIC 13
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
The percentages from two tests (English and Maths) for a group of 5 students are as shown.
Student English (%) Maths (%)
1 95 85
2 85 95
3 80 70
4 70 65
5 60 70
a Calculate the correlation coefficient between the two sets of results.
b Based on this value, describe the relationship between the English and Maths results for this group of students.
a 1 In a new problem, on a a On the Statistic screen, label a

a Lists & Spreadsheet list1 as ‘English’ and list 2
page, label column A as ‘Maths’, then enter the
as ‘english’ and label values from the question.
column B as ‘maths’. Press EXE after entering
Enter the data as in the each value.
table. To find the correlation
coefficient, tap:
• Calc
• Regression
• Linear Reg.
Set values as:
• XList: main\English
• YList: main\Maths
• Freq: 1.
Tap OK. The correlation
The correlation coefficient is coefficient is 0.69.
represented by the ‘r’ value.

2 Open a Calculator page. b b The correlation
Press: coefficient of 0.69
• MENU b is only a moderate
• 4: Statistics 4 correlation. Therefore,
• 1: Stat Calculations 1 students who do well in
• 4: Linear Regression English don’t necessarily
(a + bx) 4. do well in Maths and
Select ‘english’ as the X vice versa.
List and ‘maths’ as the Y
List, and leave the next
fields as shown. TAB e
to OK and press ENTER
·.
b The value of the b
correlation is shown as
r, and its value is stored
in the variable stat. r.
A correlation coefficient
of 0.69 indicates the
relationship between
English and Maths marks
for this group of students is
only moderate. This seems
to indicate that students who
are good at English are not
necessarily good at Maths,
and vice versa.
TOPIC 14
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
The Australian women’s national basketball team, the Opals, competed at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, winning a
silver medal. These are the heights (in metres) of the 12 team members:
1.73, 1.65, 1.8, 1.83, 1.96, 1.88, 1.63, 1.88, 1.83, 1.88, 1.8, 1.96
a The mean height of the team is greater than their median height.
b The range of the heights of the 12 players is almost 3 times their interquartile range.
c Only 5 players are on the court at any one time. A team of 5 players can be chosen such that their mean, median and
modal heights are all the same.
a 1 In a new problem, on a Lists & a a On the Statistics a

Spreadsheet page, label column screen, label list1 as
A as ‘heights’. Enter the data ‘heights’. Enter the
from the question. data in the table as
shown.
Press EXE after each
value.

2 Open a Calculator page and To find the statistics
complete the entry lines as: summary, tap:
mean(heights) • Calc
median(heights) • One-Variable.
Press ENTER · after each Set values as:
entry. • XList:
main\height
• Freq: 1.
The mean heights are less than
Tap OK.
the median heights, so the
Scroll down to find
statement is false.
the median.
The mean height

(1.82 m) is less than the
median height (1.83 m),
so the statement is false.
b To find all the summary b b More statistics can b
statistics, open the Calculator be found from the
page and press: statistics summary.
• MENU b
• 6: Statistics 6
• 1: Stat Calculations 1
• 1: One-Variable Statistics 1.
Select 1 as the number of lists.
The range is max − min
Then on the One-Variable
= 1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33Q1
Statistics page, select ‘heights’
= 1.765 and Q3 = 1.88
as the X1 List and leave the
IQR = Q3 − Q1 = 1.88 − 1.765
frequency as 1. Leave the next
= 0.115.
two fields empty and TAB e
Now 2. 91QR ≈ range so the
to OK and then press
statement is true.
ENTER ·. The range is max − min
= 1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33
Q1 = 1.765 and Q3 = 1.88
IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 1.88 − 1.765 = 0.115.
Now 2. 91QR ≈ range so
the statement is true.
c Note that the mode is 1.88 as c c Note that the mode is c
three players have this height. 1.88 as three players
If you chose one player shorter have this height.
and one player taller than the If we chose one
mode by the same amount, player shorter and
then the 5 heights chosen from one player larger
this sample will have their than the mode by the
same amount, then
mode, median and mean all
The mode, median and mean of the 5 chosen from
equal.
the sample chosen are all equal. this sample will have
To verify this, open a their mode, median
Calculator page and complete and mean all equal.
the entry lines as: To verify this complete
h1: = { 1.8, 1.88, 1.88, 1.88, 1.96 } the entry lines as:
mean ( { 1.8, 1.88,
mean(h1)
median(h1) The mode, median and
Press ENTER · after each 1.88, 1.88, 1.96 } ) mean of the sample
median ( { 1.8, 1.88,
entry. chosen are all equal.
1.88, 1.88, 1.96 } )

Press EXE after each
entry.

TOPIC 15
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the future value of an investment of $4000 at 6% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly.
Use the finance functions available On the Financial screen, select:

on the calculator for this question. • Compound Interest.
On a Calculator page, press: Enter the values as shown in the
• MENU b screenshot.
• 8: Finance 8 The FV is left blank. Tap it and it
• 2: TVM Functions 2 will calculate the value.
• 5: Future Value 5. Note that the number of
Complete the entry line as:
compounding periods is 8, that
tvmFV (8, 1.5, 4000, 0) The future value is $4505.97.
is 4 times a year for 2 years, and
Press ENTER ·.
6
Note that the number of the interest is = 1.5% quarterly.
compounding periods is 8, that is 4
4 times a year for 2 years, and the
6
interest is = 1.5% quarterly.
4
The future value is
$4505.97.
TOPIC 16
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Evaluate log535 + log515 − log521.

On a Calculator page, press On the keyboard
CTRL / log and
10 x
screen, tap:
complete the entry line as:
log 535 + log 515 − log 521 • .
Then press ENTER ·. Complete the entry line as:
log 5 (35) + log 5 (15) − log 5 (21)
Then press EXE.
log 535 + log 515 − log 521 = 2
log 535 + log 515−log 521 = 2

TOPIC 17
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
If P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4, find:
a P(1) b P(−2) c P(a) d P(2b) e P(x + 1)
a–e On a Calculator page, a–e a–e On the Main screen, a–e

press: complete the entry
• MENU b lines as:
• 1: Actions 1 Define
• 1: Define 1. p(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
Complete the entry p(1)
p(−2)
lines as: p(a)
Define p(2b)
P(1) = −4
p(x) = 2x + x − 3x − 4
3 2
p(x + 1)
P(−2) = −10
p(1) expand(p(x + 1))
P(a) = 2a + a − 3a − 4
3 2
p(−2)
P(2b) = 16b + 4b − 6b − 4
3 2 Press EXE after each
p(a)
P(x + 1) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4 entry.
p(2b)
p(x + 1)
P(1) = −4
each entry.
P(−2) = −10
P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4
P(2b) = 16b3 + 4b2 − 6b − 4
P(x + 1) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4
TOPIC 18
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
1
Find any points of intersection between = f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) .
x
1 In a new problem, on a Calculator On the Main screen,

page, press: complete the entry lines
• MENU b as:
• 1: Actions 1 2x + 1|x = −1
• 1: Define 1. 1
Complete the entry lines as: 2x + 1|x =
2
( x )
Define f 1(x) = 2x + 1 1
1 solve 2x + 1 = , x
Define f 2(x) = The points of intersection
(2 )
x 1 Press EXE.
Press ENTER · after each entry. are (−1, −1) and , 2 .
Then press:
• MENU b
• 3: Algebra 3
• 1: Solve 1.
Complete the entry lines as: The points of intersection
(2 )
solve ( f 1(x) = f 2(x), x) 1
are (−1, −1) and , 2 .
f 1(−1)
(2)
1
f2
Press ENTER · after each entry.

2 Alternatively, open a Graphs page Alternatively, tap .
in the current document. Since the Highlight each
functions have already been entered, just equation and drag it
select the functions and press ENTER down to the axis below.
·. The graphs will be displayed. The window may
need to be adjusted by
tapping .
3 The viewing window may need to be To find the points of

altered to see the graphs more clearly. intersection, tap:
To find the points of intersection • Resize
between the two functions, press: • Analysis
• MENU b • G-Solve
• 6: Analyze Graph 6 • Intersection.
• 4: Intersection 4. To find the other
Move the cursor to the left of the intersection point, tap
intersection point, and press ENTER the right arrow.
are (−1, −1) and (0.5, 2) .
·. Then move the cursor to the right
of the intersection point and press
ENTER ·. The intersection point is
displayed.
Repeat for the other intersection point.
are (−1, −1) and (0.5, 2) .
TOPIC 20
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sketch the graphs of a y = 2 sin x and b y = cos 2x for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a 1 In a new problem, on a a On a Graph & Table screen,

Graphs page, ensure the set an appropriate viewing
Graphs & Geometry Settings window as shown.
are set to the degrees mode,
as shown in the screenshot.
To do this, press:
• MENU b
• 9: Settings 9.
TAB e to Graphing Angle
and select ‘Degree’. TAB
e to OK and press ENTER
·.

2 To set an appropriate viewing a Complete the function entry a
window, press: line as:
• MENU b y1 = 2 sin (x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
• 4: Window/Zoom 4 Press EXE.
• 1: Window Settings 1. Tap the graph tab and
Select the values as shown in the graph is displayed
the screenshot. as required only for
TAB e to OK and press 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
ENTER ·.
3 Complete the function entry b Complete the function entry b

line as: line as:
f 1 = 2 sin (x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 y1 = cos (2x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
Press ENTER ·. The graph Press EXE.
is displayed as required for Tap the graph tab and
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. the graph is displayed
as required only for
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
b Complete the function entry b

line as:
f 1 = cos (2x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
Press ENTER ·, and
the graph is displayed,
as required only for
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

GLOSSARY
3-dimensional: a shape that occupies space (a solid); that is, one that has dimensions in three
directions — length, width and height
Addition Law of probability: if A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
or P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).
algebraic fractions: fractions that contain pronumerals (letters)
algorithm: a step-by-step set of tasks to solve a particular problem. A program is an implementation of
an algorithm.
amplitude: half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of a function
angle of depression: the angle measured down from the horizontal line (through the observation point) to
the line of vision
Horizontal
Angle of depression
Line of sight
Object
angle of elevation: the angle measured up from the horizontal line (through the observation point) to the
line of vision
Object
Line of sight
Angle of elevation
Horizontal
area: the amount of flat surface enclosed by the shape. It is measured in square units, such as square
metres, m2, or square kilometres, km2.
Associative Law: a method of combining two numbers or algebraic expressions is associative if the result
of the combination of these objects does not depend on the way in which the objects are grouped.
Addition and multiplication obey the Associative Law, but subtraction and division are not associative.
asymptote: a line that a graph approaches but never meets
back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot: a method for comparing two data distributions by attaching two sets of
‘leaves’ to the same ‘stem’ in a stem-and-leaf plot; for example, comparing the pulse rate before and
after exercise
Pulse rate
Before After
9 8 8 8 6
8 6 6 4 1 1 0 7
8 8 6 2 8 6 7 8 8
6 0 9 0 2 2 4 5 8 9 9
4 10 0 4 4
0 11 8
12 4 4
13
14 6
908 Glossary
base: the digit at the bottom of a number written in index form. For example, in 64, the base is 6. This
tells us that 6 is multiplied by itself four times.
bivariate data: sets of data where each piece is represented by two variables
Boolean: a JavaScript data type with two possible values: true or false. JavaScript Booleans are used
to make logical decisions.
boundary line: indicates whether the points on a line satisfy the inequality
boxplots (box-and-whisker plots): a graphical representation of the 5-number summary; that is, the
lowest score, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and highest score, for a particular set of data
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Pulse rate
by eye (line of best fit): carefully looking at the data and drawing a line so that there is an equal number
of points above and below the line
canvas: a defined area on your web page where graphics can be drawn with JavaScript
capacity: the maximum amount of fluid that can be contained in an object. It is usually applied to the
measurement of liquids and is measured in units such asmillilitres (mL), litres (L) and kilolitres (kL).
Cartesian plane: the area formed by a horizontal line with a scale (x-axis) joined to a vertical line with a
scale (y-axis). The point of intersection of the lines is called the origin.
census: collection of data from a population (e.g. all Year 10 students) rather than a sample
centre (of circle): middle point of a circle, equidistant (equal in distance) from all points on its
circumference
centre of enlargement: the point from which the enlargement of an image is measured
character: in programming, a string of length 1. A JavaScript character is used to represent a letter, digit
or symbol.
circle (equation): the general equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r is x2 + y2 = r2.
circumcentre: the centre of a circle drawn so that it touches all three vertices of a triangle
circumcircle: a circle drawn so that it touches all three vertices of a triangle
Closure Law: when an operation is performed on an element (or elements) of a set, the result produced
must also be an element of that set.
coincident: lines that lie on top of each other
collinear points: points that all lie on the same straight line
Commutative Law: a method of combining two numbers or algebraic expressions is commutative if the
result of the combination does not depend on the order in which the objects are given. For example,
the addition of 2 and 3 is commutative, since 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. However, subtraction is not commutative,
since 2 − 3 ≠ 3 − 2.
compass bearings: directions measured in degrees from the north–south line in either a clockwise or
anticlockwise direction. To write the compass bearing we need to state whether the angle is measured
from the north or south, the size of the angle and whether the angle is measured in the direction of east
or west; for example, N27°W, S32°E.
complement (of a set): the complement of a set, A, written A′, is the set of elements that are in ξ but not
in A.
complementary events: events that have no common elements and together make up the sample space. If
A and A′ are complementary events, then P(A) + P(A′) = 1.
completing the square: a procedure used to transform an algebraic expression into a perfect square
composite figure: a figure made up of more than one basic shape
compound interest: the interest earned by investing a sum of money (the principal) when each successive
interest payment is added to the principal for the purpose of calculating the next interest payment. The
Glossary 909
formula used for compound interest is: A = P(1 + R)n, where A is the amount to which the investment
grows, P is the principal or initial amount invested, R is the interest rate per compounding period
(as a decimal) and n is the number of compounding periods. The compound interest is calculated by
subtracting the principal from the amount: CI = A − P.
compounded value: the value of the investment with accrued interest included
compounding period: the period of time over which interest is calculated
concave polygon: a polygon with at least one reflex interior angle
concyclic (points): points that lie on the circumference of a circle
conditional probability: where the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on another event
occurring first. For two events A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A
occurs, is denoted by P(B|A) and can be calculated using the formula:
P(A ∩ B)
P(B|A) = , P(A) ≠ 0.
P(A)
cone: a solid formed by taking a circular base and a point not in the plane of the circle, called the vertex,
which lies above or below the circle, and joining the vertex to each point on the circumference of the
circle.
Radius r
Height h Slant height l
Vertex
congruent triangles: there are five standard congruence tests for triangles: SSS (side, side, side), SAS
(side, included angle, side), ASA (two angles and one side), AAS (two angles and a non-included side)
and RHS (right angle, hypotenuse, side).
conjugate surds: surds that, when multiplied together, result in a rational number. For example,
(√a + √b) and (√a − √b) are conjugate surds, because (√a + √b) × (√a − √b) = a − b.
console: a special region in a web browser for monitoring the running of JavaScript programs
converse: the reverse of a statement
convex polygon: a polygon with no interior reflex angles
coordinates (programming): a pair of values (typically x and y) that represent a point on the screen
correlation: a measure of the relationship between two variables. Correlation can be classified as linear,
non-linear, positive, negative, weak, moderate or strong.
correlation coefficient r: the value of r indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Its range is −1 ≤ r ≤ + 1, −1 being a strong negative relationship and +1 being a strong positive
relationship. The closer the value of r is to 0, the less strong the relationship between the variables.
Q
G D
C F B
910 Glossary
cosine (cos) ratio: the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle.
adjacent
So, cos θ = .
hypotenuse
Hypotenuse
Opposite
θ
Adjacent
cosine rule: in any triangle ABC, c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.

B
c
a
A
b
C
cube: a polyhedron with 6 faces. All faces are squares of the same size.
cubic functions: the basic form of a cubic function is y = ax3. These functions can have 1, 2 or 3 roots.
cumulative frequency: the total of all frequencies up to and including the frequency for a particular score
in a frequency distribution
cumulative frequency curve: a line graph that is formed when the cumulative frequencies of a set of data
are plotted against the end points of their respective class intervals and then joined up by straight-line
segments. It is also called an ogive.
cyclic quadrilateral: a quadrilateral that has all four vertices on the circumference of a circle. That is, the
quadrilateral is inscribed in the circle.
cyclical pattern: a pattern that displays fluctuations that repeat but will usually take longer than a year to
repeat
cylinder: a solid that has parallel circular discs of equal radius at the ends. The centres of the discs form
the axis of the cylinder.
Axis
Cross-section
is a circle
Cylinder
data: various forms of information
degree (angle): a unit used to measure the size of an angle
degree (of a polynomial): the degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression.
denominator: the lower number of a fraction that represents the number of equal fractional parts a whole
has been divided into
dependent events: successive events in which one event affects the occurrence of the next
dependent variable: this variable is graphed on the y-axis.
depreciation: the reduction in the value of an item as it ages over a period of time. The formula used is
A = P(1 − R)n, where A is the depreciated value of the item, P is its initial value, R is the percentage
the item depreciates each year (expressed as a decimal) and n is the number of years the item has
depreciated.
Glossary 911
deviation: the difference between a data value and the mean
direction (correlation): if the points in a scatterplot show an upward pattern, the direction is said to be
positive; if the pattern is downward, the direction is negative.
discriminant: referring to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the discriminant is given by
Δ = b2 − 4ac. It is the expression under the square-root sign in the quadratic formula and can be used
to determine the number and type of solutions of a quadratic equation.
domain (of a function or relation): the set of all allowable values of x
dot plot: this graphical representation uses one dot to represent a single observation. Dots are placed in
columns or rows, so that each column or row corresponds to a single category or observation.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Passengers
1
n n
Eighth Index Law: terms with fractional indices can be written as surds. For example, a = √a and
m
n n
a = √am.
elimination method: a method used to solve simultaneous equations. This method combines the two
equations into a third equation involving only one of the variables.
enlargement (dilation): a scaled-up (or down) version of a figure in which the transformed figure is in
proportion to the original figure; that is, the two figures are similar
equation: a statement that asserts that two expressions are equal in value. An equation must have an equal
sign. For example, x + 4 = 12.
equilateral triangle: a triangle with all sides equal in length, and all angles equal to 60°
event space: a list of all the possible outcomes obtained from a probability experiment. It is written
as ξ or S, and the list is enclosed in a pair of curled brackets { }. It is also called the sample
space.
experimental probability: the probability of an event based on the outcomes of experiments, simulations
or surveys
exponential decay: a quantity that decreases by a constant percentage in each fixed period of time. This
growth can be modelled by exponential functions of the type y = kax, where 0 < a < 1.
exponential functions: relationships of the form y = ax, where a ≠ 1, are called exponential functions
with base a.
exponential growth: a quantity that grows by a constant percentage in each fixed period of time. This
growth can be modelled by exponential functions of the type y = kax, where a > 1.
extrapolation: the process of predicting a value of a variable outside the range of the data
factor theorem: if P(x) is a polynomial, and P(a) = 0 for some number a, then P(x) is divisible by
(x − a).
Fifth Index Law: to remove brackets containing a product, raise every part of the product to the index
outside the brackets. So, (ab)m = ambm.
First Index Law: when terms with the same base are multiplied, the indices are added. So,
am × an = am+n.
flat-rate loan: a loan in which the interest charged is simple interest
FOIL: a diagrammatic method of expanding a pair of brackets. The letters in FOIL represent the order of
the expansion: First, Outer, Inner and Last.
form (correlation): the general shape of a pattern. For example, if the points in a scatterplot show an
approximate linear pattern, it is described as having linear form.
912 Glossary
Fourth Index Law: to remove brackets, multiply the indices inside the brackets by the index outside the
brackets. Where no index is shown, assume that it is 1. So, (am)n = amn.
frequency: the number of times a particular score appears
function: a process that takes a set of x-values and produces a related set of y-values. For each distinct
x-value, there is only one related y-value. They are usually defined by a formula for f(x) in terms of x;
for example, f(x) = x2.
future value: the future value of a loan or investment
general upward or downward trend: a graph that overall goes up or down over time
half plane: the solution that is the region on one side of the line
Heron’s formula: this formula is used to find the area of a triangle when all three sides are known. The
formula is A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where a, b and c are the lengths of the sides and s is the
a+b+c
semi-perimeter or s = .
2
histogram: a special type of column graph, in which no gaps are left between columns and each column
straddles an x-axis score. The x-axis scale is continuous and usually a half-interval is left before the
first column and after the last column.
y
10
8
Frequency
0 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 x
Height
1
hyperbola: the graph of y = is a rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes on the x- and y-axes.
x
hypotenuse: the longest side of a right-angled triangle. It is the side opposite the right angle.
Identity Law: when 0 is added to an expression or the expression is multiplied by 1, the value of the
variable does not change. For example, x + 0 = x and x × 1 = x.
image (similar figures): the enlarged (or reduced) figure produced
independent events: successive events that have no effect on each other
independent variable: this is the x-axis (or horizontal) variable
index (power or exponent): the number expressing the power to which a number or pronumeral is
raised. For example, in the expression 32, the index is 2. Plural: indices
index (programming): a integer that points to a particular item in an array
inequality: when one algebraic expression or one number is greater than or less than another
inequations: similar to equations, but contain an inequality sign instead of an equal sign. For example,
x = 3 is an equation, but x < 3 is an inequation.
integers (Z): These include the positive and negative whole numbers, as well as zero; that is, … ,
−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …
interpolation: the process of predicting a value of a variable from within the range of the data
interquartile range: the difference between the upper (or third) quartile, QU (or Q3), and the lower (or
first) quartile, QL (or Q1); that is, IQR = QU − QL = Q3 − Q1. It is the range of approximately the
middle half of the data.
Inverse Law: when the additive inverse of a number or pronumeral is added to itself, the sum is equal
to 0. When the multiplicative inverse of a number or pronumeral is multiplied by itself, the product is
1
equal to 1. So, x + (−x) = 0 and x × = 1.
x
Glossary 913
irrational numbers (I): numbers that cannot be written as fractions. Examples of irrational numbers
include surds, π and non-terminating, non-recurring decimals.
isosceles triangle: a triangle with two sides equal in length
lay-by: a method used to purchase an item whereby the purchaser makes regular payments to the retailer,
who retains the item until the complete price is paid
line of best fit: a straight line that best fits the data points of a scatterplot that appear to follow a linear
trend. It is positioned on the scatterplot so that there is approximately an equal number of data points
on either side of the line, and so that all the points are as close to the line as possible.
line segment: a line segment or interval is a part of a line with end points.
A B
linear graphs: consist of an infinite number of points that can be joined to form a straight line
linked list: a list of objects. Each object stores data and points to the next object in the list. The last
object points to a terminator to indicate the end of the list.
literal equation: an equation that includes two or more pronumerals or variables
logarithm: the power to which a given positive number b, called the base, must be raised in order
to produce the number x. The logarithm of x, to the base b, is denoted by logb x. Algebraically:
logb x = y ↔ by = x; for example, log10100 = 2 because 102 = 100.
logarithmic equation: an equation that requires the application of the laws of indices and logarithms to
solve
loop: in JavaScript, a process that executes the same code many times with different data each time
many-to-many relation: a relation in which one range value may yield more than one domain value and
vice versa
many-to-one relation: a function or mapping that takes the same value for at least two different elements
of its domain
matrix: a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns
maximal domain: the limit of the x-values that a function can have
sum of all scores Σx

mean: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is given by mean = or x = .
number of scores n
∑ (f × x)
When data are presented in a frequency distribution table, x = .
n
measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode
measures of spread: range, interquartile range, standard deviation
median: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is the middle score for an odd number of scores
arranged in numerical order. If there is an even number of scores, the median is the mean of the two
n+1
middle scores when they are ordered. Its location is determined by the rule .
2
For example, the median value of the set 1 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 9 is 5, while the median value for the set
1 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 9 10 is the mean of 5 and 6 (5.5).
midpoint: the midpoint of a line segment is the point that divides the segment into two equal parts.
The coordinates of the midpoint M between the two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by the
( 2 )
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
formula , .
2
914 Glossary
y
y2 Q(x2, y2)
M(x, y)
y
T
y1
P(x1, y1) S
0 x1 x x2 x
mode: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is the score that occurs most often. There may be
no mode (all scores occur once), one mode or more than one mode (two or more scores occur equally
frequently).
moderate (correlation): describes a relationship in which the points on the scatterplot are reasonably
close together and approximate a linear pattern
Multiplication Law of probability: if events A and B are independent, then:
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) or P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B).
mutually exclusive events: events that cannot occur together. On a Venn diagram, two mutually exclusive
events will appear as disjoint sets.
natural numbers: the set of positive integers, or counting numbers; that is, the set 1, 2, 3, …
negatively skewed: showing larger amounts of data as the values of the data increase
nested loop: a loop within a loop. The outer loop contains an inner loop. The first iteration of the outer
loop triggers a full cycle of the inner loop until the inner loop completes. This triggers the second
iteration of the outer loop, which triggers a full cycle of the inner loop again. This process continues
until the outer loop finishes a full cycle.
Null Factor Law: if a × b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 or both a = 0 and b = 0; used when solving
quadratic equations
number (programming): a JavaScript data type that represents a numerical value
object: a general JavaScript data type that can have many properties. Each property is a name–value pair
so that the property has a name to reference a value.
odds: relates to probabilities in gambling. They are given as ratios, such as 5−1, 51 or 5:1.
ogive (cumulative frequency polygon): a graph formed by joining the top right-hand corners of the
columns of a cumulative frequency histogram
one-dimensional array: a simple array of values in which the values can be of any type except for
another array
one-to-many relation: a relation in which there may be more than one range value for one domain value
but only one domain value for each range value
one-to-one relation: refers to the relationship between two sets such that every element of the first set
corresponds to one and only one element of the second set
outlier: a piece of data that is considerably different from the rest of the values in a set of data; for
example, 24 is the outlier in the set of ages {12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 24}.
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Age
parabola: the graph of a quadratic function has the shape of a parabola. For example, the typical shape is
that of the graph of y = x2.
Glossary 915
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4x
–2
parallel: parallel lines in a plane never meet, no matter how far they are extended. Parallel lines have the
same gradient.
parallel boxplots: two or more boxplots drawn on the same scale to visually compare the five-number
summaries of the data sets. These boxplots compare the pulse rates of the same group of people before
and after exercise.
After
Time
Before
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Pulse rate
parallelogram: a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel

A D
B C
percentile: the value below which a given percentage of all scores lie. For example, the 20th percentile is
the value below which 20% of the scores in the set of data lie.
periodic functions: functions that have graphs that repeat themselves continuously in cycles, for example,
graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x. The period of the graph is the distance between repeating peaks or
troughs.
perpendicular: perpendicular lines are at right angles to each other. The product of the gradients of two
perpendicular lines is −1.
pi (π): the Greek letter π represents the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter. The
number π is irrational, with an approximate value of 22 7
, and a decimal value of π = 3.141 59 ….
pointer: in JavaScript, a variable that points to a JavaScript object or array. Multiple pointers can point to
the same object or array.
polygon: a plane figure bounded by line segments
916 Glossary
polynomial: an expression containing only non-negative integer powers of a variable
population: the whole group from which a sample is drawn
positively skewed: showing larger amounts of data as the values of the data decrease
primary data: data collected by the user
principal: an amount of money borrowed or invested
probability: the likelihood or chance of a particular event (result) occurring.
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) = .
number of possible outcomes
The probability of an event occurring ranges from 0 (impossible — will not occur) to 1 (certainty —
will definitely occur).
proof: an argument that shows why a statement is true
property (programming): references a value on an object. A complex object may have many properties.
Each property has a unique name on the object.
Pythagoras’ theorem: in any right-angled triangle, the square on the A
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. This
is often expressed as c2 = a2 + b2.
c b
B a C
quadratic formula: gives the roots of the quadratic equation

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0. It is expressed as x = .
2a
quantiles: percentiles expressed as decimals. For example, the 95th percentile is the same as the 0.95
quantile.
quartic functions: the basic form of a quartic function is y = ax4. If the value of a is positive, the curve
is upright, whereas a negative value of a results in an inverted graph. A maximum of 4 roots can result.
quartiles: values that divide an ordered set into four (approximately) equal parts. There are three
quartiles — the first (or lower) quartile Q1, the second quartile (or median) Q2 and the third (or upper)
quartile Q3.
radian: a unit used to measure angles; 360° equals 2π radians
radius: the straight line from a circle’s centre to any point on its circumference
random pattern: a pattern that does not show any regular fluctuation
range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of data; that is,
range = highest score − lowest score
range (of a function or relation): the set of all allowable values of y
rational numbers (Q): numbers that can be written as fractions, where the denominator is not zero
real numbers (R): the set of all rational and irrational numbers
reciprocal: a number by which a given number is multiplied to result in 1
rectangular prism (cuboid): a solid that has six rectangular faces and a uniform cross-section
recurring decimals: These decimals have one or more digits repeated continuously; for example,
0.999 …. They can be expressed exactly by placing a dot or horizontal line over the repeating digits;
··
for example, 8.343 434 = 8.34 or 8.34.
reducible-interest-rate loan: a loan in which the interest charged is compound interest, but the amount
of the loan and the interest are repaid with regular repayments
regular polygon: a polygon with sides of the same length and interior angles of the same size
relation: a set of ordered pairs
Glossary 917
relative frequency: represents the frequency of a particular score divided by the total sum of the
frequencies. It is given by the rule:
frequency of the score
relative frequency of a score = .
total sum of frequencies
remainder theorem: if a polynomial P(x) is divided by x − a, where a is any real number, the remainder
is P(a).
required region: the region that contains the points that satisfy an inequality
rhombus: a parallelogram with all sides equal
sample: part of a population chosen so as to give information about the population as a whole
sample space: see Event space.
scale factor: the ratio of the corresponding sides in similar figures, where the enlarged (or reduced) figure
is referred to as the image and the original figure is called the object.
image length
scale factor =
object length
scatterplot: a graphical representation of bivariate data that displays the degree of correlation between
two variables. Each piece of data on a scatterplot is shown by a point. The x-coordinate of this point is
the value of the independent variable and the y-coordinate is the corresponding value of the dependent
variable.
seasonal pattern: a pattern that displays fluctuations that repeat at the same time over a particular time
interval (such as a week, month or quarter) and usually last less than a year
Second Index Law: when terms with the same base are divided, the indices are subtracted.
So, am ÷ an = am−n.
secondary data: data collected by others
Seventh Index Law: a term with a negative index can be expressed with a positive index using this law.
1 1
So, a−n = n and −n = an.
a a
similar figures: figures that have identical shape but different size. The corresponding angles in similar
figures are equal in size, and the corresponding sides are in the same ratio, called a scale factor.
similar triangles: triangles that have similar shape but different size. There are four standard tests to
determine whether two triangles are similar: AAA (angle, angle, angle), SAS (side, angle, side), SSS
(side, side, side) and RHS (right angle, hypotenuse side).
simple interest: the interest accumulated when the interest payment in each period is a fixed fraction of
P×r×T
the principal. The formula used is I = , where I is the interest earned (in $) when a principal
100
of $P is invested at an interest rate of r% p.a. for a period of T years.
simultaneous: occurring at the same time
simultaneous equations (linear): two (or more) linear graphs that have the same solution
sine (sin) ratio: the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle.
opposite
So, sin θ = .
hypotenuse
a b c
sine rule: in any triangle ABC, = =
sin A sin B sin C
918 Glossary
B
B
c
a
A
A
b C
C
Sixth Index Law: to remove brackets containing a fraction, multiply the indices of both the numerator
(b)
a m am
and denominator by the index outside the brackets. So, = m.
b
sphere: a solid for which all points on the surface are equidistant from the centre
standard deviation: a measure of the variability of spread of a data set. It gives an indication of the
degree to which the individual data values are spread around the mean.
strength (correlation): an indication of how closely the points on a scatterplot fit a straight line
string (programming): a JavaScript data type that represents text
strong (correlation): describes a relationship in which the points on a scatterplot are close together and
show a definite linear pattern
subjective probability: probability that is based on one or more of the following: judgements, opinions,
assessments, estimations and conjectures by individuals. It may also involve beliefs, emotions and bias.
substitution method: a method used to solve simultaneous equations. It is useful when one (or both) of
the equations has one of the variables as the subject.
successive discount: a discount applied after an initial discount has been applied
supplementary (angles): angles that add to 180°
surds: roots of numbers that do not have an exact answer, so they are irrational numbers. Surds
3
themselves are exact numbers; for example, √6 or √5.
symmetrical: the identical size, shape and arrangement of parts of an object on opposite sides of a line or
plane
system of equations: a set of two or more equations with the same variables
tangent (tan) ratio: the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side in a right-angled triangle.
opposite
So, tan θ = .
adjacent
terminating decimals: decimals that have a fixed number of places; for example, 0.6 and 2.54
theorems: rules or laws
number of favourable outcomes n(E)
theoretical probability: given by the rule P(event) = or P(E) = ,
number of possible outcomes n(S)
where n(E) = number of times or ways an event, E, can occur and n(S) = number of elements in the
sample space or number of ways all outcomes can occur, given all the outcomes are equally likely
Third Index Law: any term (excluding 0) with an index of 0 is equal to 1. So, a0 = 1.
time series: a sequence of measurements taken at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly and so on)
over a certain period of time. They are used for analysing general trends and making predictions for the
future.
total surface area (TSA): the area of the outside surface of a 3-dimensional figure
transcendental number: a non-recurring decimal that is not the root of any polynomial equation with
rational coefficients. A transcendental number is an irrational number but not an algebraic number.
Pi (π) is an example of a transcendental number.
transformations (quadratics): changes that occur to the basic parabola y = x2 in order to obtain another
graph. Examples of transformations are translations, reflections or dilations. Transformations can also
be applied to non-quadratic functions.
Glossary 919
transversal: a line that meets two or more other lines in a plane
Transversal
tree diagrams: branching diagrams that list all the possible outcomes of a probability experiment. This
diagram shows the outcomes when a coin is tossed twice.
Head, Head
Head
Head Tail
Head, Tail
Tail, Head
Tail Head
Tail
Tail, Tail
trend: a general tendency in a set of data

trend line: the line of best fit that is drawn on a time series graph, which is used to forecast future values
trial: the number of times a probability experiment is conducted
trigonometric ratios: three different ratios of one side of a triangle to another. The three ratios are the
sine, cosine and tangent ratios.
true bearings: directions that are written as the number of degrees (3 digits) from north in a clockwise
direction, followed by the word true or T; for example, due east would be 090° true or 090°T
two-dimensional array: an array of one-dimensional arrays
two-step chance experiment: a probability experiment that involves two trials
two-way tables: tables that list all the possible outcomes of a probability experiment in a logical manner
Hair colour Hair type Total
Red 1 1 2
Brown 8 4 12
Blonde 1 3 4
Black 7 2 9
Total 17 10 27
unit circle: a circle with its centre at the origin and having a radius of 1 unit
univariate data: data relating to a single variable
variable (programming): a named container or memory location that holds a value
vertically opposite angles: when two lines intersect, four angles are formed at the point of intersection,
and two pairs of vertically opposite angles result. Vertically opposite angles are equal.
Y B
A X
volume: the amount of space a 3-dimensional object occupies. The units used are cubic units, such as
cubic centimetres (cm3) and cubic metres (m3).
weak (correlation): describes a relationship in which the points on a scatterplot are far apart
920 Glossary
INDEX
A FOIL method 265–6 and simultaneous linear
addition square of binomial 267 equations 135
algebraic fractions 37–41 bits 24 tangents and secants 828
polynomials 731–3 bivariate data 550–57 translation 788–9
surds 685–6 boundary line 143 unit circles 861–6
Addition Law of probability 443 box-and-whisker plots circumcentres 819–20
algebraic expressions (boxplots) 508–17 circumcircles 820
binomial expansion 265 describing distributions 509–11 Closure Law 33–4
data entry errors rich task 60 and dot plots 511 coincident lines 116
expanding 265–71 and five number summaries 508 collinear points 89–90
substitution 32–7 and histograms 511–12 Commutative Law 32
algebraic fractions identification of extreme compass bearings 200–1
adding and subtracting 37–41 values 509 complementary events 442–3
in equations 50–2 parallel boxplots 512–13 completing the square
lowest common denominator 37 shapes of graphs 511–12 factorising by 283–5
multiplying and dividing 41–4 symmetry and skewness 509–11 process 281–3
pronumerals in denominator business expenses rich task 156–7 to solve quadratic
38–9 buying on terms 645–9 equations 300–1
simplifying 41 bytes 24 turning point form 281
amplitude, periodic graphs 867–8 composite figures, area 227–8
angle of depression 196–200 C composite solids
angle of elevation 196–200 Cartesian plane total surface area (TSA) 236–8
angles boundary line 143 volume 246–7
at a point 395 distance between two compound interest 654–60
calculating size using points 82–5 compounding period 656–7
trigonometry 190–5 half plane 142 fixed principal at various interest
in a circle 808–15 linear inequalities 142–8 rates over time 656
parallel lines and transversals 396 required region 143 guess and refine method 657
properties of triangles 396–7 cash payments 642 compounded value 654
supplementary angles 395 causation and correlation 551–2 computer symbols rich task 102–3
vertically opposite angles 395 celebrity squares and doubles concave polygons 422
arbelos 877–8 game 291–2 concyclic points 823
area censuses 592 conditional probability 468–72
composite figures 227–8 central tendency, measures cones
formulas 225–6 of 492–502 total surface area (TSA) 235
Heron’s formula 226–7 centre of enlargement, similar volume 245–6
units of measurement 225 figures 405 congruence tests, triangles 397
see also total surface area (TSA) chords, intersecting 815–16 congruent triangles 397–8
Associative Law 33 circles conjugate surds 690–1
asymptotes 354 alternate segment theorem Consumer Price Index (CPI) rich
826–7 task 669–70
B angles in 808–15 convex polygons 422
back-to-back stem-and-leaf area 225 correlation
plots 527 chords and radii 818–19 and causation 551–2
bearings circumcentres 819–20 determining using
compass bearings 200–1 circumcircles 820 spreadsheets 573
explained 200 constructing tangents 810–12 explained 551
true bearings 201–3 intersecting chords 815–16 correlation coefficient 563–4
binary system 24–5, 720–1 intersecting secants 816–17 cosine graphs 866–8
binomial expansion intersecting tangents 817–18 cosine ratio 180
algebraic expressions 265–71 non-linear relationships 362–6 cosine rule 851–5
difference of two squares parts 808–9 credit card payments 642
(DOTS) 267–8 quadrilaterals in 823–6 cricket scores rich task 537–8
Index 921
cubes discriminant vertical translation 354
total surface area (TSA) 234 determining if graphs exponential growth 770
volume 243 intersect 317 extrapolation 562
cubic functions 779–83, 790–1 in quadratic equations 315–20 extreme values
cumulative frequency curves types of solutions 316–17 identification 509
495–7 division and standard deviation 520–1
cyclic quadrilaterals 823–6 algebraic fractions 42
cylinders polynomials 733–8 F
total surface area (TSA) 234–5 surds 687–8 factor theorem 71–2
volume 243 dot plots, and box-and-whisker Fifth Index Law 3
plots 511 First Index Law 2
D five number summaries 508, 509
data E flat-rate loans 663
primary data 597–601 Eighth Index Law 12–13 FOIL method, expansion of binomial
secondary data 601–2 elevation, angles of 196–200 product 265–6
data analysis 608–11 elimination method, solving Fourth Index Law 3
primary data 619 simultaneous linear fractional indices 11–16, 695–9
secondary data 620 equations 122–6 frequency distribution tables,
data collection methods 606–8 ellipses 226 calculating mean,
primary data 618 enlargements, similar median and mode 493–4
secondary data 619 figures 405–6, 431–2 function notation 762–3
data entry errors rich task 60 equation of a line functions
data organisation parallel or perpendicular to another cubic functions 779–83, 790–1
primary data 618 line 91–2 definition 761
secondary data 619 equations domain and range 762
data sets, comparing 526–32 involving algebraic evaluating 762–3
decimal system 720 fractions 50–2 exponential functions 770–8,
deductive geometry literal equations 54–7 789–90
Theorem 1 395–6 logarithmic equations 702–6 horizontal line test 765–7
Theorem 2 396 with multiple brackets 50 identifying features 763–4
Theorem 3 397 one-step equations 45 inverse functions 764–7
Theorem 4 398–9 pronumeral on both sides 46–7 maximal domain 762
Theorem 5 412 restrictions on variables 55 points of intersection 764
Theorem 6 412–13 solving multi-step equations 50–4 quadratic functions 788
Theorem 7 413 solving polynomial quartic functions 784–7, 791
Theorem 8 413–14 equations 747–50 transformations 788–91, 798–9
Theorem 9 414 solving simple equations 45–50 vertical line test 761
Theorem 10 414 solving trigonometric future value 654
Theorem 11 415 equations 871–3
Theorem 12 415–17 two-step equations 46 G
denominators see also linear equations; gigabytes (GB) 24
pronumerals 38–9 quadratic equations; grouped data, mean, median and
rationalising 689–92 simultaneous linear equations mode 494–5
dependent events 463–4 equilateral triangles 396–7
dependent variables 550 Euclidean geometry 395 H
depreciation 660–3 event space 440 half plane 142
depression, angles of experimental probability 440 Heron’s formula 226–7, 857–8
196–200 experiments 456–9, 599 Hindu–Arabic number system 720
deviation 517 exploring patterns rich task 798–9 histograms, and box-and-whisker
dice games rich task 479–80 exponential decay 770 plots 511–12
difference of two squares exponential functions 770–8 horizontal line test,
(DOTS) 267–8 combining tranformations 355–6 functions 765–7
digital world rich task 24–5 comparing graphs 354 horizontal lines 92–3
dilation and graphs 353–8 horizontal translation
hyperbolas 789 reflection about x-axis 354 parabolas 338–9
parabolas 337 reflection about y-axis 355 quadratic functions 788
quadratic functions 788 transformations 789–90 hyperbolas 359–61, 789
922 Index
hyperbolic equations, and finding given two points mean
simultaneous linear 75–6 calculating from frequency
equations 133–5 finding using gradient and one distribution tables 493–4
hypotenuse, calculating 169 point 77–9 comparing data sets 526–32
see also simultaneous linear definition 492
I equations grouped data 494
Identity Law 33 linear graphs ungrouped data 492
image, similar figures 405 plotting 67 measurement
independent events 462–3 sketching 67–71 primary data 598
independent variables 550 y = c and x = a form 70–1 significant figures 259–60
index laws y = mx form 69–70 see also units of measurement
combining 16–21 linear inequalities measurement errors
and logarithm laws 706–11 between two expressions and rounding 260
review 2–6 138 tolerance of measurement 259
First Index Law 2 boundary line 143 measures of central
Second Index Law 2 on Cartesian plane 142–8 tendency 492–502
Third Index Law 2–3 required region 143 cricket scores rich task 537–8
Fourth Index Law 3 solving 138–42 measures of spread 503–8
Fifth Index Law 3 see also simultaneous linear media reports, investigating
Sixth Index Law 3–4 inequalities 620–2
Seventh Index Law 7–9 lines of best fit median
Eighth Index Law 12–13 by eye 558–9 calculating from frequency
indices correlation coefficient 563–4
distribution tables 493–4
digital world rich task 24–5 explained 558
comparing data sets 526–32
fractional indices 11–16, interpolation and
definition 492
695–9 extrapolation 562
grouped data 494
index laws 2–6 least squares regression 563
ungrouped data 492
negative indices 7–11, 699–701 making predictions 559–62
megabytes (MB) 24
inequalities see linear inequalities reliability of predictions 562
midpoint theorem 415–17
inequations 138 literal equations 54–7
mixed factorisation 286–8
integers (Z) 677 loan repayments 663–6
modal class 495
interest loans
mode
compound interest 654–60 explained 646
calculating from frequency
simple interest 641 flat-rate loans 663
distribution tables 493–4
interpolation 562 reducible-interest-rate
interquartile range loans 664 comparing data sets 526–32
(IQR) 503–5, 526 logarithm laws definition 492
intersecting events 443–9 and index laws 706–11 grouped data 495
inverse functions 764–7 Law 1 706–7 ungrouped data 492
Inverse Law 33 Law 2 707–8 multi-step equations, solving 50–4
irrational numbers 34 Law 3 708 multiplication
irrational numbers (I ) 677–8 Law 4 708 algebraic fractions 41–2
isosceles triangles 398–9 Law 5 708 polynomials 731–3
Law 6 709 surds 686–7
K Law 7 709 Multiplication Law of
kilobytes (KB) 24 logarithmic equations 702–6 probability 462
kites, area 226 logarithmic equations mutually exclusive events 443
solving 711–16
L logarithms, explained 702 N
latitude 836–7 longitude 836–7 natural numbers 677
lay-by 642 lowest common denominator, negative indices 7–11, 699–701
least squares regression 563 algebraic fractions 37 negatively skewed box plots 509
line segments, midpoint 85–8 non-integer rational numbers 677
linear equations M non-linear equations, and
computer symbols rich many-to-many relations 760 simultaneous linear
task 102–3 many-to-one relations 760 equations 131–7
determining 75–81 maximal domain 762 Null Factor Law 299–300
Index 923
number classification, factorising using long no solutions 311
review 676–80 division 743–5 Null Factor Law 299–300
number laws 32–4 factorising using short only one solution 311
Associative Law 33 division 745–6 and simultaneous linear
Closure Law 33–4 investigation rich task 752–3 equations 131–3
Commutative Law 32 long division 733–8 solving algebraically 299–306
Identity Law 33 multiplication 731–3 solving by completing the
Inverse Law 33 remainder theorem 741 square 300–1
number systems 24, 720–1 subtraction 731–3 solving graphically 310–14
transformation 791–3 solving problems 301–2
O populations weaving rich task 323–4
observation 598 explained 592 quadratic expressions
odds 449–51 and samples rich task 630–2 celebrity squares and doubles
ogives 495–7 standard deviations 520 game 291–2
one-step equations 45 positively skewed box plots 510–11 factorising by completing the
one-to-many relations 760 primary data 597–601, 618–19 square 281–5
one-to-one relations 760 prisms, volume 243–5 factorising expressions with four
outliers 504 probability terms 277–8
Addition Law of probability 443 factorising expressions with three
P complementary events 442–3 terms 272–7
parabolas conditional probability 468–72 factorising expressions with two
dilation 337 definition 440 terms 277
horizontal translation 338–9 dependent events 463–4 factorising monic quadratic
plotting 330–6 dice games rich task 479–80 trinomials 272–3
reflection 339–40 event/sample space 440 factorising non-monic quadratic
sketching 337–43 experimental probability 440 trinomials 273–4
sketching in turning point independent events 462–3 mixed factorisation 286–8
form 343–9 of intersecting events 443–9 quadratic formula 306–10
sketching y = ax2 + bx + c language of 440–9 quadratic functions 788
form 350–3 Multiplication Law of quadratic graphs, x- and
vertical translation 337–8 probability 462 y-intercepts 343–6
parallel boxplots 512–13 mutually exclusive events 443 quadrilaterals
parallel lines 88–9, 91–2, 396 odds 449–51 definitions and
parallelograms 225, 412–14 payouts 449–51 properties 416–17
parametric equations rich task 370–1 relative frequency 440 relationships between 417
payment options 642 subjective probability 472–5 theorems 412–16
payouts 449–51 theoretical probability 442 quantiles 495–7
percentiles 495 tree diagrams 456–62 quartic functions 784–7, 791
periodic functions 866 trials 440 quartic graphs 784–5
periodic graphs, amplitude 867–8 two-way tables 441 quartiles 495
perpendicular lines 90–1, 116 proofs 395
pi (π), 678–9 purchasing goods R
points buying on terms 645–9 range 503, 526
collinear points 89–90 loans 646 rational numbers (Q) 676
distance between 82–5 payment options 642 real numbers (R) 678
polygons simple interest 641 rectangles
exterior angles 423 successive discounts 650–4 area 225
interior angles 422–3 pyramids, volume 245–6 theorems 414
types 422 Pythagoras’ theorem 82 rectangular prisms
polynomial equations, review 169 total surface area (TSA) 234
solving 747–50 in three dimensions 175–9 volume 243
polynomial values 738–40 recurring decimals 677
polynomials Q reducible-interest-rate loans 664
addition 731–3 quadratic equations reductions, similar figures 405
degree of 729 confirming solutions 311–12 reflection
explained 729 the discriminant 315–20 cubic functions 790, 791
factor theorem 741–2 general form 299 exponential functions 354–5
924 Index
parabolas 339–40 sine graphs 866–8 surveys 598
quadratic functions 788 sine ratio 180 symmetrical box plots 509
quartic functions 791 sine rule 843–51 system of equations 113
regular polygons 422 ambiguous case 845–8
relations 760–1 exact values 843–4 T
relative frequency 440 Sixth Index Law 3–4 tangent graphs 866–8
remainder theorem 741 spheres tangent ratio 180
reporting results of statistical total surface area (TSA) 234 tangents
investigations 619 volume 245 constructing 810–12
required region 143 spread, measures of 503–8 intersecting 817–18
rhombuses 415 spreadsheets and secants 828
right-angled triangles determining correlation 573 terabytes (TB) 24
calculating angle size 190–5 interest calculations 655 terminating decimals 677
calculating side lengths 185–90 square of binomial 267 theorems 395–9, 412–17
names of sides 180 square-based pyramids, total surface theoretical probability 442
similar 168–9 area (TSA) 236 Third Index Law 2–3
rounding, and measurement squares, area 225 3-dimensional (3-D) objects 175
errors 260 standard deviation 517–25 three-step chance
comparing data sets 526–32 experiments 458–9
S and extreme values 520–1 time series 569–77, 581–2
sample space 440 of populations and samples tolerance of measurement 259
samples 520, 592–7 520 total surface area (TSA)
scale factor, similar figures 405 properties 521–3 composite solids 236–8
scatterplots 550 statistical graphs 608–11 cones 235
secants statistical investigations cubes 234
intersecting 816–17 618–24 cylinders 234–5
and tangents 828 statistical reports 611–14 rectangular prisms 234
Second Index Law 2 steepness rich task 216–17 spheres 234
secondary data 601–2, 619–20 straight lines square-based pyramids 236
sectors, area 225 sketching using transcendental numbers 678
segments, alternate theorem 826–7 gradient–intercept 69 transformations
Seventh Index Law 7–9 sketching using x- and exploring patterns rich
similar figures 405 y-intercepts 68 task 798–9
similar triangles 405–6 subjective probability 472–5 functions 788–91
simple equations, solving 45–50 substitution 32–7 in general polynomials 791–3
simple interest 641 substitution method, solving translation
simplification simultaneous linear circles 788–9
algebraic fractions 41 equations 119–122 cubic functions 790
surds 684–5 subtraction exponential functions 354
simulation 599–600 algebraic fractions 37–41 horizontal 338–9, 788
simultaneous linear equations polynomials 731–3 parabolas 337–9
applications 127–30 surds 685–6 quadratic functions 788
business expenses rich task 156–7 successive discounts 650–4 vertical 337–8, 354, 788
and circles 135 supplementary angles 395 transposition errors 60
explained 113 surds transversals and parallel lines 396
graphical solution 113–18 addition 685–6 trapeziums, area 225
and hyperbolic equations 133–5 conjugate surds 690–1 tree diagrams
with multiple solutions 116 dividing 687–8 three-step chance
with no solutions 116 explained 681 experiments 458–9
and non-linear equations 131–7 multiplication 686–7 two-step chance
perpendicular lines 116 operations with 684–94 experiments 456–8
and quadratic equations 131–3 proof a number is trend lines 562, 571–2
solving using elimination 122–6 irrational 681–2 trends
solving using substitution 119–22 rationalising cyclical patterns 570
system of equations 113 denominators 689–90 general upward or
simultaneous linear inequalities, simplifying 684–5 downward 569
solving 148–52 subtraction 685–6 random patterns 570
Index 925
seasonal patterns 569 trigonometry area 225
types 569–71 angles of elevation and volume 243
triangles depression 196–200 univariate data 492
angle properties 396–7 applications 207–12
area 225, 855–60 area of triangles 225, 855–60 V
congruence tests 397 bearings 200–6 vertical line test, functions 761
congruent triangles 397–8 calculating angle size 190–5 vertical lines 92–3
equilateral triangles calculating the hypotenuese 169 vertical translation
396–7 calculating side lengths 185–90 exponential functions 354
Heron’s formula 226–7, 857–8 cosine rule 851–5 parabolas 337–8
isosceles triangles 398–9 Pythagoras’ theorem 168–74 quadratic functions 788
similar triangles 405–6 Pythagoras’ theorem in three vertically opposite angles 395
similarity tests 406–7 dimensions 175–9 volume
see also right-angled triangles similar right-angled capacity 247
triangular prisms, volume 243 triangles 168–9 composite solids 246–7
trigonometric equations sine rule 843–51 cones 245–6
solving algebraically 871 steepness rich task 216–17 cubes 243
solving graphically 871 unit circles 861–6 cylinders 243
trigonometric functions, sine, cosine true bearings 201–3 prisms 243–5
and tangent graphs 866–70 turning point form pyramids 245–6
trigonometric graphs 866 completing the square 281 rectangular prisms 243
trigonometric ratios sketching parabolas in 343–9 spheres 245
basic definitions 180 two-step chance experiments 456–8 triangular prisms 243
cosine ratio 180 two-way tables 441 units of measurement 243
finding values using
calculator 180–2 U
naming sides in right-angled ungrouped data, mean, median and
triangles 180 mode 492–4
sine ratio 180 unit circles 861–6
tangent ratio 180 units of measurement
926 Index

Maths Quest: Jacaranda

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maths Quest: Jacaranda

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maths Quest: Jacaranda

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JACARANDA

First edition published 2015

Typeset in 11/14 pt Times LT Std

© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2018

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Front cover image: tea maeklong/Shutterstock.com

Cartography by Spatial Vision, Melbourne and MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane

Illustrated by various artists, diacriTech and the Wiley Art Studio.

Typeset in India by diacriTech

Topic 2 Algebra and equations 31

Topic 3 Coordinate geometry 66

Topic 4 Simultaneous linear equations

Topic 5 Trigonometry I 167

Topic 6 Surface area and volume 224

Topic 7 Quadratic expressions 264

Topic 8 Quadratic equations 298

Topic 9 Non-linear relationships 329

Topic 10 Deductive geometry 394

Project: Getting the budget in order 437

Topic 12 Univariate data 491

Topic 13 Bivariate data 549

Topic 14 Statistics in the media 591

Project: Climate change 639

Topic 15 Financial mathematics 640

Topic 16 Real numbers 675

Topic 18 Functions and relations 759

Topic 19 Circle geometry 807

Topic 20 Trigonometry II 842

Topic NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Visit your

put the topic

sequence at a LEARNING SEQUENCE

8.3 The quadratic formula

TOPIC 3 Coordinate geometry 67

298 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

Fully worked WORKED EXAMPLE 14 TI | CASIO Investigation | Rich task

throughout the text end of each topic to

Your FREE RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Try out this interactivity: Exponential graphs (int-1149)

Cut Price Rentals

online learnON of travel

and traditional    Individual pathway interactivity: int-4609 ONLINE ONLY

for all abilities. y = 3x, y = 3x + 2, y = 3x + 5, y = 3x − 3 y

Question types are

to every question are

each sub-topic provided online, and d. $

answers are provided

at the end of each

of learning for every 0

152 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

xii ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3

5√75 − 6√12 + √8 − 4√3

1.1.1 Why learn this?

1.1.2 What do you know?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Topic 2 Algebra and equations 31

Topic 3 Coordinate geometry 66

Topic 5 Trigonometry I 167

Topic 6 Surface area and volume 224

Topic 7 Quadratic expressions 264

Topic 8 Quadratic equations 298

Topic 9 Non-linear relationships 329

Topic 10 Deductive geometry 394

Project: Getting the budget in order 437

Topic 12 Univariate data 491

Topic 13 Bivariate data 549

Topic 14 Statistics in the media 591

Project: Climate change 639

Topic 15 Financial mathematics 640

Topic 16 Real numbers 675

Topic 18 Functions and relations 759

Topic 19 Circle geometry 807

Topic 20 Trigonometry II 842

1.1.2 What do you know?

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 TI | CASIO

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 TI | CASIO

   Individual pathway interactivity: int-4562 ONLINE ONLY

Exercise 1.3 Negative indices

   Individual pathway interactivity: int-4563 ONLINE ONLY

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 TI | CASIO

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 TI | CASIO