Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review on electrical control strategies for wave energy

converting systems
Yue Hong a,n, Rafael Waters a,b, Cecilia Boström a, Mikael Eriksson b, Jens Engström a,
Mats Leijon a,b
a
Division for Electricity, Uppsala University, SE-751 21 Uppsala, Sweden
b
Seabased AB, SE-751 21 Uppsala, Sweden

ar t ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Renewable energy techniques are now gaining more and more attention as the years pass by, not only
Received 16 July 2013 because of the threat of climate change but also, e.g. due to serious pollution problems in some countries
Received in revised form and because the renewable energy technologies have matured and can be depended upon an increasing
14 October 2013
degree. The energy from ocean waves bares tremendous potential as a source of renewable energy,
Accepted 22 November 2013
Available online 21 December 2013
and the related technologies have continually been improved during the last decades. In this paper,
different types of wave energy converters are classified by their mechanical structure and how they
Keywords: absorb energy from ocean waves. The paper presents a review of strategies for electrical control of
Wave energy converter wave energy converters as well as energy storage techniques. Strategies of electrical control are
Electrical control
used to achieve a higher energy absorption, and they are also of interest because of the large variety
Wave power
among different strategies. Furthermore, the control strategies strongly affect the complexity of
Energy storage
both the mechanical and the electrical system, thus not only impacting energy absorption but also
robustness, survivability, maintenance requirements and thus in the end the cost of electricity from
ocean waves.
& 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
2. Energy absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
3. Classification of wave energy converters based on mechanical design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
3.1. Oscillating water column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
3.2. Overtopping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
3.3. Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
3.3.1. Point absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
3.3.2. Hinged attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
4. Electrical control strategies for different types of WECs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.1. Control strategies for OWCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.1.1. A‐Turbine rotational speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.1.1. B-Airflow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.1.2. Typical OWC type wave energy converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.2. Control strategies for overtopping device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
4.3. Control strategies for attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.3.1. A‐Hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.3.1. B-Typical WECs for hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.3.2. A‐Direct drive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.3.2. B-Typical WECs for direct drive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 46 764 235 292.
E-mail address: yue.hong@angstrom.uu.se (Y. Hong).

1364-0321 & 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.11.053
330 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

5. Energy storage techniques for wave energy converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

5.1. Oscillating water column devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.2. Hydraulic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.3. Direct drive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

1. Introduction
incident wave this “object” has to interact in an advantage way to
Oceans cover two thirds of the earth's surface and large this wave. Being able to absorb energy from the waves, radiated
amounts of energy is contained within its motion. This vast source and diffracted waves has to be created to interfere destructively
of renewable energy has the potential of meeting an important with incident waves. A good wave absorber has to be a good wave
part of the demand for non-polluting electricity for mankind. maker [2]. Assume an arbitrary shaped area of the ocean surface
Since the 1970s, following the oil crisis, research on renewable (Fig. 1). The energy flux into this volume is denoted as Ei , and the
energy has gained increasing support and this has also affected energy flux out from the area is denoted Eo . According to energy
the research on wave energy. So far, many types of wave energy balance the possible absorbable energy from the waves in the
converters (WECs) have been invented, developed and tested in given volume is given by Ei ¼ Eo þ Eabs . Being able to absorb energy
small and large scale experiments. an outgoing wave has to be created by the absorber.
When the electricity production from WECs depends on and Assume an undisturbed incident wave has the water particle
varies synchronously with the wave movement then the ampli- velocity, vi ¼ ðvi;x ; vi;y ; vi;z Þ and a hydrodynamical pressure po . The
tude and frequency of the converted electricity will naturally vary same for the diffracted/radiated wave from the wave absorber unit
dramatically during each wave period. This electricity is incompa- inside the volume, i.e. the outgoing wave from a wave absorber
tible with the electric grid since electricity supplied to the grid has unit have water particle velocity,vo ¼ ðvx ; vy ; vz Þ, and a hydrodyna-
to have a voltage that is of constant amplitude and frequency. mical pressure po . The total net flux of the energy in an arbitrary
Hence, some strategies of electrical control and storage as part of volume of the ocean during a time 2t is then given by
the energy conversion play a significant role in wave energy Z t Z 0
systems. Eabs ¼ ∮ ðpi  po Þðvi  vo Þ U n^ dz ds dt ð2Þ
t S z
This paper is mainly concerned with electrical control strate-
gies for wave energy conversion. In Section 2 a short introduction Note that for an undisturbed wave the absorbed energy is zero,
to wave energy absorption is presented. The purpose of this because the incoming energy to the volume is the same as the
section is to help the uninitiated reader to understand what the outgoing energy.
control strategies are trying to achieve in terms of the interaction In order to maximize the energy absorption from the ocean
with, and absorption of energy from the wave. In order to facilitate wave, Eq. (2) has to be maximized. It can be seen in Eq. (2) that the
relevant comparisons among control methods, the different types interaction is not momentarily, to maximize outtake of energy the
of wave energy converters are classified with respect to their incident wave has to be known in advance.
mechanical structures in Section 3. In Section 4, electrical control Absorption is about to create a wave with right amplitude,
strategies with devices as examples are discussed. Section 5 frequency and phase angle to cancel out incident wave.
presents energy storage strategies that are used during the energy
absorption.
This paper focuses on the control strategies and only provides
a brief overview of existing wave energy technologies, for a more 3. Classification of wave energy converters based on
thorough review and classification of wave energy converters see mechanical design
[10]. It is necessary to mention that for various reasons, such as
mechanical problems or lack of financial support, not all the Several systems for the classification of WECs have been
control strategies have been experimentally verified as proposed proposed through the years, ranging from detailed to rough, see
and studied in their academic publications. [3,4]. For simplicity we have chosen a basic separation into three
types: Oscillating Water Column devices (OWCs), overtopping
devices, and attenuators (Fig. 2). OWCs and overtopping devices
2. Energy absorption are both available for offshore and inshore installations. The
attenuators are predominantly offshore devices.
Oceans transport huge amounts of energy, this energy is
transported in form of polychromatic waves. An ocean wave is
water particles moving in elliptical orbits, where the radius
decreases with the water depth [1]. The power transport per unit
width of wave front is given by the hydrodynamic pressure and
the water particle velocity, according to
Z 0  
W
J¼ pi vi dz ð1Þ
z m
The integral is calculated from bottom to still water level. An
object or something else interacting with this incident wave will
create a radiated and a diffracted wave that will change shape of
the incident wave. To be able to take away energy from this Fig. 1. An arbitrary area of the ocean surface.
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 331

Fig. 2. Mechanical design on three types of WECs [5]: (A) Oscillating water column device; (B) Overtopping device; (C) Attenuator.

Fig. 3. The Pico Plant on Azores Island in Portugal [15].

Fig. 4. The Wave Dragon deployed and tested in the sea [20].

3.1. Oscillating water column from Norway, India, Japan and England, etc. were proposed at that
time, expressing their own unique designs and advantages.
The OWC (Figs. 2(A) and 3) device consists of a partially Queen's University of Belfast developed a device with an
submerged chamber with a water column that rises and falls in installed capacity of 75 kW positioned on Islay in 1991 [13]. This
response to the pressure from ocean waves [6]. Both the upwards was followed by the OWC LIMPET, which was installed in 2000
and downwards movement of the column drive air through a and rated at 500 kW. In 2010, the European Wave Energy Pilot
turbine and the turbine drives a generator for electricity produc- Plant(Fig. 3), which is located on the Azores [14], was operated
tion [7]. with a rated power of 400 kW. Its installation demonstrated the
The water level in the column rises when a wave crest is technical viability of wave energy in a small island grid.
pushing against the WEC. This increases the pressure in the device
and forces air go through the turbine. Conversely, the pressure is 3.2. Overtopping devices
lowered during a wave trough, resulting in air being pulled back
through the generator. Both of these two processes drive the air Overtopping devices are partially submerged wave energy
turbines [8], and the rotational speed of the turbines depends on converter with reservoirs for capturing wave crests and water
the air pressure in the column and the control system to the turbines to produce electricity [16]. The kinetic energy of the
turbines. waves is converted to potential energy when incoming waves are
Whistling Buoy, a device used as a navigational buoy, is led up a ramp and is collected in the reservoir (Fig. 2(B)). The
patented by J. M. Courtney of New York, and is the earliest OWC water returns to the ocean from the reservoir through water
device recorded in 19th centuries [9]. turbines, thus utilizing the potential difference between the ocean
Yoshio Masuda in Japan invented a navigation buoy situated and the reservoir to generate electricity.
in Osaka Bay in 1947. It initially utilized an air turbine to supply A tapered channel wave power device, or Tapchan [17], utiliz-
electricity [10]. An advanced version, called the Kaimei, was built ing this overtopping principle of operation, was installed on shore
in 1976 and was owned by the Ryokuseisha Company. The Kaimei in the 1980s. The device was rated at 350 kW and located at
had an output power of about 70–500 W [11]. During 1978–1980, Toftestallen, Norway [18]. Later on in 1998, a 1.1 MW Tapchan was
Kaimei Floating Platforms with rated power up to 125 kW was started to be constructed on the Indonesian island of Java.
built and tested [12]. Wave Dragon installed a prototype in scale 1:4.5 (58  33 m,
During the 1980s and 1990s, technologies for wave energy with a 28 m reflector and reservoir of 55 m3) constructed in 2003
conversion were developed with increasing support as a result of at Nissum Bredning in Denmark [19]. It had a rated power of
the oil crisis that broke out in 1973. Large amounts of OWC devices 140 kW (7 turbines each with a rated power of is 20 kW). It
332 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

became the first offshore overtopping device in the world (Fig. 4). interact with the ocean waves without being physically fixed in
Wave Dragon has started the development of 1.5 MW demonstra- place, e.g. the well-known Pelamis, but they can also be standing
tor offshore Hanstholm at the test center DanWEC, Denmark [20]. on the ocean floor or on land.
The Archimedes Wave Swing, AWS, is a submerged device [22]
point absorber with a linear generator. A prototype was deployed
3.3. Attenuators off the northern coast of Portugal in 2000 and tested during 2004.
It had a maximum power 2 MW [23].
Attenuators are devices where the water physically pushes and Another example of a point absorbing attenuator is the WEC
induces motion in the WECs structure and energy is converted by utilized in the Lysekil Project and developed at Uppsala University.
dampening this motion [21]. Fig.2(C) represents the concept of Today nine 10–40 kW prototypes have been installed outside
attenuators. The devices are often constructions that float on and Lysekil off the west coast of Sweden [24]. Its linear generator is
settled on the ocean floor and is driven via a connection line from
the top of the generator to a buoy floating on the ocean surface
(Fig. 5).
In 2007, a prototype of a floating point absorber with a linear
generator rated at 10 kW was developed by Oregon University and
deployed off Newport in Oregon State in the US [26].
Wavebob is composed of two heaving buoys [27]: a torus of
14 m in diameter and a float linked to a submerged tank with a
draught of 40 m. The Wavebob belongs to the heaving buoy point
absorber type. In 2007, Wavebob ltd. deployed its first test device
in Ireland and planned to install a more advanced version with
desired power production capacity in the order of several hundred
kW off the coast of Portugal in 2012 [28].

3.3.1. Point absorbers

Point absorbers are most commonly offshore devices that
mainly utilize heave motion for energy absorption [29]. They are
usually smaller size compared to other types of WECs. They can
mathematically be regarded as a point-like object in the ocean due
to their small size compared to the wave length of the wave from
which they capture energy [30]. They are equally good at absorb-
ing energy independent of the direction of the incoming waves.
This type of wave energy converters are also categorized as
Fig. 5. The WEC developed in the Lysekil Project [25]. oscillating body systems by Falcão.
Electrical controlling strategies devised for point absorbers vary
depending on the mechanical design of the WEC. Hydraulic system
and linear permanent magnet generator (LPMG) are, however,
most common.

3.3.2. Hinged attenuators

Hinged attenuators are made up of several body parts linked
horizontally by universal joints which allow flexing in two direc-
tions. Taking Pelamis [31] (Fig. 6) as the most known example, it
floats semi-submerged on the surface of the water and faces the
direction of waves. As waves pass down the length of the machine
and the sections bend in the water, the movement is converted
into electricity via hydraulic systems housed inside each joint of
the machine tubes, and power is transmitted to shore using
Fig. 6. The concept of the Pelamis with hydraulic conversion system [32]. standard subsea cables and equipment.

Fig. 7. Technology used in a Pico OWC device to produce electricity from wave [91].
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 333

4. Electrical control strategies for different types of WECs Table 1

Summarized control strategies of rotational speed control for OWCs.
4.1. Control strategies for OWCs
Control Different topologies Conclusion
strategy
The performance of the OWCs lies in the combined efficiency of
different stages (Fig. 7 [33] proposes three types of turbine set) in the Rotational (a) Variable frequency It is a feedback control method for
conversion process [34], they are (i) wave to pneumatic conversion in speed control rotational speed control.
control (b) (i) Constant torque Numerical simulations show that
the capture chamber, (ii) pneumatic to mechanical conversion in the control (iii) is the optimal strategy for speed
turbine, (iii) mechanical to electrical conversion in the generator. (ii) Speed control control.
Due to challenges of the natural environment and device (iii) Speed control
limitations, such as a mismatch between wave frequencies and within acceptable
oscillation
the resonance frequency, variations in the air velocity, or varia-
(c) (i) Uncontrolled Comparisons show controlled
tions in wave conditions, the efficiency of the overall system can scheme scheme on the stator is the optimal
be affected significantly [35]. For these reasons the combined (ii) V/f control on the topology.
efficiency has not been able to reach the theoretical values of stator
efficiency of 70–80% in real operation. Additionally, the impact (iii) V/f control on the
rotor
from flow oscillations onto the Wells turbine [36] also contributes
to the low actual efficiency, with results that are far from the
anticipated values.
In order to solve these problems, two control topologies are
presented by Falcão [37]. These two topologies are utilized to solve Table 2
the problems above to maximize the instantaneous power output Summarized control strategies of airflow control for OWCs.
of the wave energy converter: (i) the rotational speed control [38];
Control Different topologies Conclusion
(ii) air-flow control strategy. They are designed to match the
strategy
available wave level and the airflow control through the turbine,
to prevent or reduce the aerodynamic blade losses at the turbine Airflow (i) valves mounted in parallel with (ii) is better topology compared
rotor blades. control the turbine with (i) by avoiding the
(ii) valves mounted in series undesirable stalling to enhance
with the turbine duct the output power.

4.1.1. A‐Turbine rotational speed control

The goal of the rotational speed control is to regulate the
output power of the generator according to the error signal caused 4.1.1. B-Airflow control
by abrupt changes in the fluid dynamics through the Wells As the efficiency of the Wells turbine depends strongly on the
turbines. Several strategies on the rotational speed control are flow rate, flow oscillations will have a strong effect on the efficiency
proposed. of OWC devices equipped with a Wells turbine. Thus, a method for
A variable frequency control strategy[40] is used as one controlling air valves in the chamber, in order to prevent excessive
strategy for the rotational speed control, which is a feedback flow rate, has been proposed [47]. As Falcão describes in his article,
control loop based on the cubic relationship between the fre- two schemes of airflow control are compared and discussed:
quency of the rotor in the generator and the instantaneous power (i) valves mounted in parallel with the turbine; (ii) valves mounted
of generator. in the turbine duct. According to the simulations, it is concluded that
Falcão points out that improvement of the turbine efficiency scheme (ii) is expected to achieve a better result [48,49].
[41] depends strongly on the control strategy to the instanta- In scheme (ii), error signals are induced by the difference
neous rotational speed. Three methods are proposed on con- between actual output power and reference output power. The
trolling the turbine rotational speed within a limited range of reference power is set in accordance with the available pressure
flow conditions around the optimal efficiency point, these are drop with the goal of maximizing the power output by avoiding
(i) constant torque control depending on the power estimation the undesired stalling behavior. The control signal, attained by
[42], (ii) speed control to a reference rotational speed, with both the error signal and pressure regulation signal, drives the
linear derivative function between torque and rotational speed, valve to adjust the pressure drop across the Wells turbine.
and (iii) control within acceptable oscillation [43]. Numerical Furthermore, in practice, bypass valves with large capacity are
simulations and analyses have been performed wherein the required in order to limit the air flow through the turbine under
conclusion is reached that the third method (iii), electric power extreme environmental conditions [50]. Table 2 gives a summary
output controlled in the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) of the control strategies of the airflow control for OWC devices.
[44], seems to be the optimal control method in the OWC
device.
Srinivasa [45] also made comparison among three speed-
control topologies to Wells turbine by simulations, which are 4.1.2. Typical OWC type wave energy converters
(i) uncontrolled scheme, (ii) V/f (Velocity/Frequency) [46] con- a. LIMPET. A turbine-generator system [51] is utilized and a torque
trolled scheme on the stator and (iii) V/f controlled scheme on the control algorithm for the rotational speed control of the turbine is
rotor. Conclusion is that controlled scheme on the stator is the designed for the inverter drive connected to generators settled in
optimal topology, as power fluctuations will bring serious harm LIMPET [52].
to the power factor in the grid under uncontrolled condition, The system is composed of a simple switchboard feeding each
and rotor circuit will absorb power under the rotor controlled generator system and connecting the plant to the grid via a 400/
condition. 11 000 V transformer (Fig. 8). Each generator is controlled by the
Table 1 gives a summary of the control strategies to control the supervisory plant controller [53] that in turn controls an inverter
rotational speed of the turbines. drive connected to the machines.
334 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

Consisting of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) [54] lubrication system of the turbine bearings, and the position of the
based inverters and an anti-parallel Thyristor converter, the valves, the power electronics and other electrical components.
control system is used in LIMPET for adjusting the speed of the Because of the complexity and the high cost of implementation,
rotor is to optimize the relationship between its rotational speed and because the environment is not suitable for installation, direct
and the velocity of the fluid flow. Three control strategies for torque measurement at the turbine shaft was never installed [57]. As a
rotational speed control are posited: (i) constant speed control; result, the lack of instantaneous torque measurements has led to a lack
(ii) constant power control; (iii) constant torque control [55]. of the possibility to apply control strategies to the generator.
These three strategies are all implemented in the electric power Nevertheless, theoretical research has been pursued in spite of
interface in order to adjust the mean rotational speed to achieve this [58,59]. Based on stochastic modeling [60], Falcão pointed out
the optimum speed by the generator's torque demand. that the so-called cube-law utilized into a control algorithm of the
relationship between the electromagnetic torque and the rota-
b. The Pico plant. The Pico plant was equipped with a horizontal tional speed, may be the optimal control strategy for the Pico
axis Wells turbine with fixed pitch blades with a rotational speed Plant. Furthermore, different rotational speed control methods
is in the range of 750–1500 rpm [56]. An asynchronous generator (with and without relief valve control) were compared and the
rated at 400 kW of the wound rotor induction type was adopted. results (Fig. 9), thick and thin lines represent the cube-law method
The by-pass valve for air flow relief was designed and installed on without and with controlled valve respectively, while dashed lines
the top of the air chamber so excessive energy can dissipate to the represent a simplified method. The result [61] showed that proper
atmosphere when stormy weather might otherwise cause damage control of the relief valves might lead to an increase of 37%.
to the turbine-generator system.
The control and monitoring is achieved in a programmable logic
controller (PLC), with the use of an interface that allows visualization 4.2. Control strategies for overtopping device
of the main relevant parameters such as temperature, vibrations, the
Tapchan is a typical demonstration of overtopping device in early
years, however, the project stopped due to mechanical damage [62].
So far there is not any control information given out. In this section,
the well-known Wave Dragon is used as the example to illustrate the
electrical control to the WECs of overtopping devices. Fig. 10 gives an
illustration on the conversion stages from fluid power processed to
electric power of one Wave Dragon.
The Wave dragon, is a slack moored [63] floating device
consisting of two reflector arms and a central hull with a storage
reservoir. The reflector arms focus the waves onto the doubly
curved ramp on the front of the hull, where the waves run up and
Fig. 8. The electrical system of LIMPET [55].
fill the reservoir. The water in the reservoir, which is situated
above the mean sea level [64], is released back into the sea
through a set of specially designed low head water turbines.
Direct power control, utilizing Direct Power and Torque Space
Vector Modulation (DPTC-SVM) [66], is applied for the control of
the converters. Direct Torque Control with Space Vector Modula-
tion (DTC-SVM) is used on the Generator Side Converter to control
the variable speed [67], while Direct Power Control with Space
Vector Modulation (DPC-SVM) is used on Grid Side Converter with
Pulse Width Modulation.
In order to decrease the actual DC-link voltage fluctuation
during transients, the power is fed into the DC-link using a control
device named Active Power Feed-Forward (APF). Fig. 11 represents
the control system used in Wave Dragon. This approach shows
high performance in stabilizing the speed of the generator, and it
has shown to operate safely even during transient conditions.
A frequency power converter [68] is proposed and the current
controller of AC/DC/AC converters is designed and simulated in
dq0 frame, Fig. 12 shows the results of generated power and
generator rotational speed, which are regulated to values with the
Fig. 9. Comparison of rotational speed control methods (with and without relief maximum efficiency of turbine. Table 3 gives a summary of the
valve control) [61]. control strategies designed on the converters of Wave Dragon.

Fig. 10. Technology used in Wave Dragon to produce electricity from waves [91].
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 335

Fig. 11. DPTC-SVM with APF for Active and Reactive Power Control (P&Q Control) [65].

Table 3
Summarized control strategies of the examples for Overtopping system.

WECs Control strategies Conclusion

on the converters

Wave Dragon DTC-SVM on the generator The combined control is

side converter possible to achieve
APF on the DC/DC control maximum efficiency of
DPC-SVM on the grid side the turbine.
converter

4.3.1. B-Typical WECs for hydraulic system

a. Wavebob. In the hydraulic circuit of the Wavebob, two separate
elevated pressure levels are set next to the biased low pressure (LP)
level: the variable pressure (VP) and the high pressure (HP). They are
established for de-coupling of power output and input. The HP level
is used to maintain the displacement control through HP motor, in
order to maintain the working pressure for the hydraulic motor and
to compensate the variations. The VP level is used to provide a
defined damping force through the pumping module by defining
the backpressure [70].
A Hydraulic Parallel Circuit (HPC) is preferred to maintain
Fig. 12. Output power from generator and generator speed with current control
algorithm [67]. constant pressure and speed conditions within the limits set by
the accumulator capacity. The AC generator is driven by two
variable displacement motors—A HP motor and VP motor placed
4.3. Control strategies for attenuators in parallel on a common shaft. While the VP motor displacement
ramps up and down with the wave-dependent input flow, the HP
4.3.1. A‐Hydraulic system motor is used to maintain a constant generator speed.
Hydraulic systems are typically efficient energy conversion According to the structure of a HPC, latching control [71] is
systems consisting of two energy conversion steps. The first step used as a method to control the damping force. The latching
is that mechanical energy from waves is absorbed by a floating control strategy is achieved by two different control methods: VP
body and converted to hydraulic energy through a compression motor control and HP motor control. Control of the VP motor is to
unit [69], which functions synchronously with the motion of control the damping force and pressure linearly proportional to
floating body. Second, the generator or motor produces electrical the velocity of buoy system [72], while control of the HP motor is
energy in relation to the pressure difference resulting from the to maintain the accumulator pressure by adjusting the flow rate of
compression unit. A basic hydraulic system is explained in Fig. 13. the HP motor. Fig. 14 shows a schematic block of the function of
Components of a basic compression unit include a hydraulic the hydraulic system in Wavebob [73]. And in Fig. 15, the one on
cylinder, two pressure accumulators and a valve-control system the top is the absorbed mechanical power by Wavebob, while the
(Fig. 17). The hydraulic cylinder is used to transfer the motion of bottom one represents the output electrical power from a Power
the floating body into that of direct-linked double-acting piston in Take Off (PTO) system with non-linear damping control. The test
the cylinder. Two chambers are connected respectively to a high results conclude that Wavebob succeeds to gain smooth output
pressure accumulator and to a low pressure accumulator, and the power under irregular wave conditions with the damping control.
cylinder motion leads to a varied pressure difference that results in In [69], a general hydraulic model is built theoretically attached
a torque on the generator/motor. Since unstable power output and with a point absorber WEC. It could also be fitted to the Wavebob,
energy loss is due to the existence of irregular waves, the valve- in spite of having been conceived for SEAREV. In the model, an
control technique is used to significantly smooth the power as well extra accumulator is designed for energy storage [74]. Controlled
as for achieving energy storage for better efficiency. valves with a PID controller are installed in each accumulator [75].
In the following section, two examples of WECs for hydraulic Fig. 16 represents the output electrical power with different
system are illustrated with the control technologies, which are accumulators control method. When two accumulators are both
summarized in Table 4. working, the electrical power is enhanced by up to 50% in
336 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

Fig. 13. Technology used in a hydraulic system to produce electricity from wave [91].

Table 4
Summarized control strategies of the examples for hydraulic system.

WECs Control strategy Description

Wavebob Latching control Control the damping force

of the buoy system
Pelamis Frequency tuning Control the rotational speed
and thus compressing motion in the cylinders

Fig. 14. Schematical block diagram of the control to WEC of the Wavebob [73].

Fig. 16. Output electrical power from the hydraulic system with extra accumulator
control [69].

Fig. 15. The absorbed power and the output electrical power from Wavebob [73].
Fig. 17. Simplified schematic system of the Pelamis [78].

comparison with power with no accumulator control. In spite of structure is stretched out along the direction of the moving
the increase of the electrical power, this control strategy actually waves [77], its snake-like motion is caused by the forces from
decreases the efficiency of the PTO. waves and produces an angular relative motion between the
cylinders which in turn leads to the pressurization and de-
pressurization of the hydraulic system.
b. Pelamis. The Pelamis is a hinged wave energy converter The hydraulic system is composed of two transmission parts.
consisting of cylinders connected by the joints aiming at One is the primary transmission, in which energy from wave
pumping high pressure oil through hydraulic motors to drive motion is converted into the hydraulic energy stored in the
electrical generators to realize electrical conversion [76]. The accumulators [78]. The secondary transmission is the conversion
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 337

of the stored energy into electricity in the generators by use of the top of generator hinged to a buoy floating on the ocean surface
hydraulic motors (Fig. 17). [85], as illustrated in Fig. 5. So far, three different control strategies
The efficiency of Pelamis can be enhanced [79] by the frequency have been experimentally tested in the project. They are the
tuning, which is achieved by the control to the bias angle, leading to passive diode rectification, DC control [86] and resonance circuit
the control of rotational speed and thus compressing motion in the [87]. Future work will continue with the testing of marine
cylinders. The frequency tuning [80] mainly depends on the high- substation [88]. During 2011 and 2012, a novel passive rectifier
pressure fluid inside the hydraulic system. Therefore, electronically circuit was tested. The circuit can be seen in Fig. 20 and is a
controlled valves are installed to control the flow of fluid and combination of a diode rectifier and resonance circuit with
consequently affecting and controlling the angular relative cylinder capacitors. The purpose with the circuit is to achieve a higher
motion of the Pelamis. Fig. 18 gives a simulated plot of absorbed and damping, e.g. power absorption, and at the same time maintain a
generated power from full-scale Pelamis operating under regular sea high voltage output from the generator.
condition. The generated power shows that the smoothening effect The generator is connected to the rectified circuit [89] and in
from the secondary transmission is achieved comparing with the the experiments the translator's reciprocating motion was
instantaneous power absorbed in the primary transmission. Addi- achieved with the help of a crane. The result from the experiment
tionally, Pelamis Wave Power Ltd. goes further with the theoretical is presented in Fig. 21. The result [90] shows that the voltage
research on maximum wave energy absorption by volume con- across the capacitor C2, is increasing when the translator speed is
straints, more details in [81]. decreasing to an operating frequency which is closed to the
resonance frequency [91].
4.3.2. A‐Direct drive system
Direct drive system is a type of wave energy converter that
b. Archimedes Wave Swing. The AWS consists of a submerged
generally has a more simple mechanical structure compared to
floater [92] that oscillates with the frequency of the ocean waves
that of hydraulic systems. It is employed in order to absorb the
passing the device overhead. It is standing on a foundation fixed to
available wave energy more efficiently. The direct drive system
the sea floor. Its reciprocating motion is driven by the varying
with a linear generator [82] consists of a magnetic translator
pressure from the waves that act on an internal gas spring, causing
which is driven to reciprocate synchronously with the motion of a
a synchronous motion relative to the waves [93]. Since the wave
directly coupled buoy/floating body [83]. A simplified structure of
energy is converted via the directly driven LPMG to produce
direct drive conversion system is shown in Fig. 19. The result is
electrical energy, strategies on converter control is of significance
directly induced three phase AC power without intermediate
for extracting maximum energy from the waves.
energy converting steps.
Consisting of two voltage source converters (VSCs) and one
Directly driven systems have the advantage of not requiring an
capacitor, a full scale back-to-back converter is used for the
intermediate mechanical interface and thus avoiding the losses
converter system in AWS, with target of higher energy yielding
that take place in these devices (turbines and hydraulic motors) in
and the converted power fluctuation smoothening [94].
other PTO systems. On the other hand, linear electrical generators
for wave energy applications are in need of power electronics in
order to convert the generated electricity to a form that is suitable Table 5
for the electric grid. Summarized control strategies of the examples for point absorbers.
Table 5 gives a summary of the control strategies used in the
examples in the following section. WECs Control strategy Description

The Lysekil Resonant circuit To achieve electric resonance with the

Project generator’s winding
4.3.2. B-Typical WECs for direct drive system AWS Feedback To cancel the non-linear dynamics of the
linearization generator in order to achieve closed-loop
a. The Lysekil Project. The linear generator developed in the Lysekil
control linear control
Project [84] is settled on the sea floor, via the connection line from Reactive control Control the output impedance to be equaled
to the complex conjugate of the intrinsic
impedance of generator
Phase and Control the floater’s vertical velocity in
amplitude phase with wave excitation force, and the
control amplitude is also regulated
Latching control Control the water damper to prevent the
floater from moving
Stiffness and Current control in the dq0 frame to control
damping control the active and reactive power respective
stiffness and damping factor
The Oregon Vector control of Control the generated current’s phase to be
University PADA system 901 ahead of the flux inside the generator
Fig. 18. Absorbed and generated power from hydraulic system with active control L10
strategy during continuous wave periods [78].

Fig. 19. Technology used in a direct drive system to produce electricity from wave [91].
338 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

Fig. 20. Installed electrical system in the measuring station [85].

Fig. 23. Instantaneous active power from LPMG with stiffness control and without
stiffness control [39].

In spite of employing it into the realistic environment, obvious

increase of the energy absorption is obtained by the feedback
linearization strategies. Furthermore, several control strategies
including phase control and amplitude control [98], reactive
control, and latching control [99–101] are proposed and relevant
models are simulated comparatively. Fig. 22 shows the simulation
result from database from different strategies and comparison
with energy absorption without control is done [102]. From the
result the feedback linearization is found to be the best control
Fig. 21. Measured voltage across capacitor, C2, result from [85].
strategy, then following the latching control, the reactive control,
the phase and amplitude control.
Furthermore, a method of a dq0 model was proposed for
dynamics and stability analysis of the stiffness and for the
damping control on the generator instead of abc model that was
used to control the prototype. Results (Fig. 23) from simulation
show the proposed controllers are able to yield higher output
voltage [103], and higher reactive power with an increase of 14.3%,
and a higher sensation is as well achieved in tracking control
reference value, even under situation of small disturbance.

c. L10 of Oregon State University. The L10 consists of a deep-

draught spar, restricting the device body to heaving motion. The
motion of the linear generator is controlled by a stiff voltage
applied to the terminals produced in an active control module.
The Power Analysis and Data Acquisition (PADA) system [104]
for the electrical control to the generator is designed to fit in the
WEC with rated power 30 kW [105], including functions of vector
Fig. 22. Results of the energy absorption in March with comparison among control [106], active and passive rectification [107,108], maximum
different control strategies [102]. power point tracking, and power control[109].
PADA system has two main power electronic components
The generator side converter for AC/DC conversion is the one of [110]: three-phase active rectified circuit and an output buck
the VSCs connected to the stator of LPMG, while the grid side converter. The three-phase rectifier is connected to the generator
converter for DC/AC conversion is also the VSC linked to the grid and provides a path for the power flow into a common DC link.
on land [95]. As variable frequencies and magnitudes of power The output buck converter connected to the backside of the DC
induced in the generator will cause dramatically fluctuations in link provides control of the power flow to a fixed resistive load.
the transmission, it is necessary to insert the storage unit— The schematic system is described in Fig. 24, PWM controllers and
capacitor to smooth the ripples and guarantee the constant output phase controllers are comprised to control the IGBT Switch board
of power to the grid. on both side of the converter, aiming at regulating the energy
Electrical control strategies to generator side converter of AWS absorption to maximum and to smoothen the power flow to the
with anticipation for energy absorption have been proposed. grid. All data from the voltage and current sensor to the DC link
Feedback linearization control [96] was employed in the prototype are sent through the remote monitoring.
of AWS. Its aim is to provide a control action that cancels the non- Test results with active rectifier with PADA system show that
linear system dynamics [97] of the plant. the DC link voltage is achieved to maintain the desired DC link
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 339

Fig. 24. Schematic conversion system of the so-called L10 of Oregon University.

between the input power from generator and output power to the
load by adjusting the load value. Another solution is to place
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) across the DC
link after the three-phase rectification with power electronic
controller.

5.2. Hydraulic systems

In the Pelamis' conversion system, short-term energy storage is

provided by high pressure accumulators that help to deliver a
smooth power flow to drive grid-connected electric generators
[113]. Storage takes effect whenever there is a fluid exchange
between the pressurizing chamber and the high pressure accu-
mulators. The main problems contributed to the energy loss are
related to mechanics, including the compressibility, bearing and
seal friction of the hydraulic cylinders, and flow losses through
Fig. 25. Generated power with current reference during 1 h session [104]. valves and pipes.

voltage maximum of 600 V [111]. Fig. 25 presents the result of 5.3. Direct drive systems
generated power with active control during one hour session,
showing that PADA system is promising to improve the power Battery Energy Storage (BES) is proposed to be integrated into
factor of the generator over that of a passive rectifier. the electrical converters of the AWS device in order to regulate the
power quality and smooth the output power via a DC/DC converter
[114]. In the case of a wave energy plant with multiple branches of
5. Energy storage techniques for wave energy converters WEC connection, BES is a possible solution to balance the power
and phase difference between the instantaneous output powers
The output of energy from WECs varies dramatically due to the from each individual WEC to the power grid. Within acceptable
intermittent nature of the wave motion, both on the second scale system disturbance, experiments have shown that BES is able to
and on the scale of hours and days. The resulting fluctuations of smooth the active power of WEC with improvement of power
the harnessed energy affect the quality of the electricity supplied quality.
the grid, and increase the costs of the transmission. Because of this
physical fact of the energy source, energy storage or buffer systems
are often deemed as particular necessary for smoothening the 6. Conclusions
variations and delivering high quality electrical power, and in
order to provide stable electricity to grid. Short time scale As an indispensable stage in the energy conversion process,
variations of the input power from the WECs to the grid can be electrical control strategies are taking a more and more important
handled by utilizing energy storage systems as the examples role and concern in how to harvest energy efficiently from ocean
described below. waves. The intermittent nature of ocean waves is a challenge that
needs to be met in order to secure a good quality and reliability of
5.1. Oscillating water column devices power supply.
This paper has categorized the WECs into three groups with
In the case of the demonstration wave energy plant in India regard to the mechanism of the wave energy conversion. Different
[112], a high-speed flywheel type storage device was introduced control topologies of the conversion system utilized in typical
along with an inverter to the three phase load for short duration examples of WECs are explained. In Table 6, these three categories
energy storage. With the help of PID controller, the output load are listed, and different WECs with related control systems are
was switched to maintain the frequency and the voltage of AC presented and classified. Control strategies are also listed accord-
supply within small variation, making it possible to gain balance ing to the different WECs discussed in the paper.
340 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

Table 6
Three categories of WECs.

Type Device Testing location Rated power Conversion system Control strategies Ref.

Oscillating water column LIMPET Islay, Scotland 500 kW Turbine-generator (a) Speed control [55]
(b) Power control
(c) Torque control

Pico plant Azores, Portugal 100 kW Turbine-generator (a) Speed control [60]
700 kW (b) Airflow control [61]

Overtopping Wave Dragon Portugal 1.5 MW Turbine-generator (a) DPTC-SVM [66]

(b) DTC-SVM [67]
Nissum Bredning, Denmark 7 MW (c) APF [68]
11 MW
Attenuator Hydraulic system Wavebob Ireland 500 kW Hydraulic system Hydraulic parallel circuit [70]
[72]
Pelamis Orkney, Scotland 750 kW Hydraulic system Frequency tuning [73]
[79]
[80]
Direct drive system Lysekil Project Lysekil, Sweden 10 kW Linear generator Passive rectification DC control Resonant circuit [86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
AWS Portugal 2 MW Linear generator (a) Feedback linearization control [96]
(b) Stiffness control [98]
[102]
[39]
[94]
Oregon L10 Oregon, USA 10 kW Linear Generator PADA system [104]
[110]
[111]

One conclusion is that the control strategies are very depen- and to compare the experimental results with that from simula-
dent on the mechanical structure of the WECs. For example, OWCs tion modeling. Moreover, it is expected that much experience and
are mainly focused on rotational speed control of the turbine and knowledge on control strategies and related energy absorption is
airflow control of the valve, while Point Absorbers are more unpublished and owned by commercial wave energy developers.
concerned with the electrical control of the WECs. Although Although this information would be much appreciated by the
different control strategies are of course comparable when applied scientific community that it is a lot to ask from industry to
to a specific WEC device, it is not easy to make parallel compar- disseminate some of their intellectual property.
isons between different WECs even within the same basic cate- Although not much research has been presented on energy
gory, thus making it difficult to reach a conclusion on which storage for wave energy as of yet, this often important and
overall control strategy, if any, that is optimal for wave energy integrated part of the energy conversion strategies has been
extraction. Fundamental understanding of wave energy absorp- considered briefly in the paper. In wave energy, short time energy
tion, see Section 2, tells us what we are trying to achieve with the storage is often needed for smoothening of the output power and
electrical control, but the necessary mechanical and electrical for improving the power quality and the dynamic response.
engineering choices taken in the design of a WEC strongly affects Because of the nature of oceans waves, with large power variations
and constrains the possible control strategies. Taking the Wave on the second scale, the authors see energy storage as a natural
Bob and the Lysekil Project as an example – in spite of both WEC and important future research topic for wave energy.
technologies being based on linear drive point absorbers, the In general, due to the necessity of large-scale offshore installa-
different power take-offs and choice of electrical system affects tions and experiments, wave energy research and development is
the possibilities of applying, e.g. a reactive control strategy. expensive. However, the physical nature of the resource, e.g. the
Conversely, for some control strategies on overtopping devices large potential as a source of renewable energy for the world's
and OWCs, i.e. the controls of the turbine and the generator, there societies, the relatively high density of energy, and its availability
are similarities due to the form and purpose of the electrical and predictability, stands as clear motivations to the substantial
conversion stage. ongoing activity worldwide. Strategies for active control, often in
As indicated by this paper, although many studies have been combination with energy storage, have the potential to dramati-
performed on active control, the wave energy community would cally affect the absorbed energy and hence the economy of the
benefit a lot from more comparative studies and experimental devices. The complexity of the electrical control strategies and
verification of theory. Today the published knowledge of electrical related technologies affect the risk of experiments in terms of
control varies a good deal between the three general concepts and survivability and cost, which is something that needs to be taken
between the specific WEC technologies. Some technologies benefit into consideration by the wave energy developers.
from long periods of operation, e.g. some OWCs, where different
control strategies have been developed and tested over time, while
other technologies still await the experiences from experiments in Acknowledgments
the sea. The authors suggest that the control methods in Table 6 be
used as a starting point for future comparative studies. Further- The work is supported by SweGRIDS, KIC InnoEnergy-
more, it is of course valuable to study practical experiments of CIPOWER, Vetenskapsrådet, Statkraft AS, Fortum OY, the Swedish
various control strategies carried out in the wave energy test sites, Energy Agency, Seabased Industry AB, Chinese Scholarship
 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342 341

Council, Draka Cable AB, the Gothenburg Energy Research Foun- [31] Yemm R, Pizer D, Retzler C, Henderson R. Pelamis: experience from concept
dation, Falkenberg Energy AB, Helukabel, Proenviro, ÅF Group, to connection. Philos Trans R Soc A 2012;370:365–80.
[32] Pelamis Wave Power Ltd. The Pelamis absorbs the energy of ocean waves
Vinnova, the Foundation for the Memory of J.Gust, Richert, the and converts it into clean, green electricity; 2013. Available online 〈http://
Göran Gustafsson Research Foundation, Vargöns Research Founda- www.pelamiswave.com/image-library〉.
tion, Swedish Research Council grant no. 621-2009-3417 and the [33] Khan J, Bhuyan G, Moshref A, Morison K, Pease JH, Gurney J. Ocean wave and
tidal current conversion technologies and their interaction with electrical
Wallenius Foundation for their support of the project. networks. In: Power and energy society general meeting-conversion and
delivery of electrical energy in the 21st century, vol. 20; 2008. p. 1–8.
[34] Alberdi M, Amundarain M, Garrido AJ, Garrido I, Casquero O, De la Sen M.
References Complementary control of oscillating water column-based wave energy
conversion plants to improve the instantaneous power output. IEEE Trans
[1] Dean RG, Dalrymple RA. Water wave mechanics for engineers and scientists. Energy Convers 2011;26:1021–32.
World Scientific; 1984. [35] Takao M, Setoguchi T, Kaneko TH, Takao M, Maeda T, Inoue M. Impulse
[2] Falnes J. Ocean waves and oscillating systems. Cambridge University Press; turbine for wave power conversion with air flow rectification system. Int J
2002. Offshore Polar Eng 2002;12(2).
[3] Cruz J. Ocean wave energy, current status and future perspectives. Germany: [36] Narayanan V, Murthy BK, Bose S, Sridhara Rao G. Dynamic analysis of a grid-
Springer-Verlag; 2008. connected induction generator driven by a wave-energy turbine. Power
[4] Eriksson M. Modelling and experimental verification of [PhD thesis]. Uppsala electronics. In: Proceedings of the 1996 international conference on drives
University, Electricity; 2007. and energy systems for industrial growth; 8 January 1996. p. 433–8.
[5] Waters R. Energy from ocean waves: full scale experimental verification of a [37] Falcão AF, Vieira LC, Justino PAP, Andre JMCS. By-pass air-valve control of an
wave energy converter [PhD thesis]. Uppsala University, Electricity; 2008. OWC wave power plant. J Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 2003;125:205–10.
[6] Charlier RH, Justus JR. Ocean energies: environmental, economic and [38] Setoguchi T, Takao M. Current status of self rectifying air turbines for wave
technological aspects of alternative power sources. Elsevier; 1993. energy conversion. Energy Convers Manag 2006;47:2382–96.
[7] Sabzehgar R, Moallem M. A review of ocean wave energy conversion [39] Wu F, Zhang XP, Ju P, Sterling MJH. Optimal control for AWS-based wave
systems. In: Electrical power & energy conference (EPEC), 2009 IEEE; 2009. energy conversion system. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2009;24:1747–55.
p. 1–6. [40] Alberdi M, Amundarain M, Garrido AJ, Garrido I, Maseda FJ. Fault-ride-
[8] Mohamed KH, Sahoo NC, Ibrahim TB. A survey of technologies used in wave through capability of oscillating-water-column-based wave-power-
energy conversion systems. In: 2011 International conference on energy, generation plants equipped with doubly fed induction generator and airflow
automation, and signal (ICEAS); 2011, p. 1–6. control. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58:1501–17.
[9] Heath TV. A review of oscillating water columns. Philos Trans R Soc A [41] Justino PAP, Falcão AF. Rotational speed control of an OWC wave power
2012;370:235–45. plant. J Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 1999;121:65–70.
[10] Falcão AF. Wave energy utilization: a review of the technologies. Renew [42] Justino PAP, Falcão AF. Control simulation of an OWC wave power plant. In:
Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:899–918. Second European wave power conference; 1995. p. 268–72.
[11] Masuda Y. An experience of wave power generator through tests and [43] Falcão AF de O, Justino PAP. OWC Wave Energy converters with valve-
improvement. Int Union Theor Appl Mech 1986:445–52. constrained air flow. In: Second European wave power conference; 1995. p.
[12] Bhattacharyya R, McCormick ME. Wave energy conversion. 1st ed. Amsterdam; 187–194.
Boston: Elsevier; 2003. [44] Sarmento A, Brito-Melo A, Neumann F. Results from sea trials in the OWC
[13] Amundarain M, Alberdi M, Garrido AJ, Garrido I, Maseda J. Wave energy European wave energy plant at Pico, Azores. Invited paper for WREC-IX
plants: control strategies for avoiding the stalling behaviour in the Wells Florence, Italy; 2006.
turbine. Renew Energy 2010;35:2639–48. [45] Rao SS, Murthy BK. Control of Induction generator in a Wells turbine based
[14] Pico. OWC wave power plant on the Azores-a late success n.d. Available wave energy system. In: International conference on power electronics and
online 〈http://wavec.org/client/files/AF_Folheto_Maio_ING.pdf〉. drives systems (PEDS), vol. 2; 2005. p. 1590–4.
[15] Wave Energy Centre. Pico OWC plant, 2013. Available online 〈http://www. [46] Munoz-Garcia A, Lipo TA, Novotny DW. A new induction motor V/f control
pico-owc.net/〉. method capable of high-performance regulation at low speeds. IEEE Trans
[16] Jasinski M, Malinowski M, Kazmierkowski MP, Sorensen HC, Friis-Madsen E, Ind Appl 1998;34:813–21.
Swierczynski D. Control of AC/DC/AC converter for multi MW wave dragon [47] Falcão AF, Justino PAP. OWC wave energy devices with air flow control.
offshore energy conversion system. In: IEEE international symposium on Ocean Eng 1999;26:1275–95.
industrial electronics; 2007. p. 2685–90. [48] Gato LMC, Warfield V, Thakker A. Performance of a high-solidity wells
[17] Tapered Channel Wave Energy. Tapchan Model; 2010. Available online turbine for an OWC wave power plant. J Energy ResourTechnol 1996;118:
〈http://taperedchannelwaveenergy.weebly.com/index.html〉. 263–268.
[18] Thorpe T. An overview of wave energy technologies: status, performance and [49] Sarmento A, Falcão AF. Wave generation by an oscillating surface-pressure
costs n. d. wave power: moving towards commercial viability. Westminster, and its application in wave energy extraction. J Fluid Mech 1985;150:467–85.
London: Broadway House; 1999. [50] Sarmento A, Melo A, Pontes MT. The influence of the wave climate on the
[19] Kofoed JP, Frigaard P, Friis-Madsen E, Sørensen HC. Prototype testing of the design and annual production of electricity by OWC wave power plants.
wave energy converter wave dragon. Renew Energy 2006;31:181–9. J Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 2003;125:139–44.
[20] Wave Dragon. Wave Dragon has started the development of a 1.5 MW North [51] Boake CB, Whittaker TJ, Folley M, Ellen H. Overview and initial operational
Sea Demonstrator n.d. Available online 〈http://www.wavedragon.net/index. experience of the LIMPET wave energy plant. In: Proceedings of the twelfth
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=42&Itemid=67〉. international offshore and polar engineering conference; 2002. p. 586–94.
[21] Count BM, Miyazaki T. Hydrodynamic studies on floating attenuator wave [52] Voith Hydro Wavegen Ltd. Islay Wave Cam; 2013. Available online 〈http://
energy devices. Central electricity generating board technology planning and www.wavegen.co.uk/what_we_offer_limpet_islay_wavecam.htm〉.
research division; 1983. [53] Heath T, Whittaker TJT, Boake CB. The design, construction and operation of
[22] Gardner FE. Learning experience of AWS pilot plant test offshore Portugal. In: the LIMPET wave energy converter (Islay, Scotland). In: 4th European wave
Proceedings of 6th European wave energy conference; 2005. energy conference; 2000. p. 49–55.
[23] Beirdol P, Valério D, da Costa JS. Linear model identification of the [54] Rashid H. Power electronics: circuits, devices, and applications. Pearson/
Archimedes wave swing. In: International conference on power engineering, Prentice Hall; 2004.
energy and electrical drives, vol. 12; 2007. p. 660–665. [55] Wilfred PJ. Control system for wave energy devices. U.S. Patent GB2424042
[24] Lejerskog E, Gravråkmo H, Savin A, Strömstedt E, Tyrberg S, Haikonen K, (A); 2006.
et al. Lysekil research site, Sweden: a status update. In: 9th European Wave [56] Falcão AF, Sabino M, Whittaker T, Lewis A. Design of a shoreline wave power
and Tidal Energy Conference. Southampton, UK; 2011. pilot plant for the island of Pico, Azores. In: Proceedings of the 2nd European
[25] Seabased AB. Wave energy converter; 2013. Available online 〈http://www. wave power conference; 1995. p. 87–93.
seabased.com/〉. [57] Neumann F, Izan IL. Pico OWC-the Frog Prince of Wave Energy? Recent
[26] Von Jouanne A, Brekken T. Wave energy research, development and autonomous operational experience and plans for an open real-sea test
demonstration at Oregon State University. Power and energy society general centre in semi-controlled environment. In: Proceedings of the 9th European
meeting, vol. 24; 2011. p. 1–7. wave and tidal energy conference (EWTEC 2011), Southampton, UK; 2011.
[27] Kazmierkowski MP, Jasiń ski M. Power electronics for renewable sea wave [58] Salter SH, Taylor JRM, Caldwell NJ. Power conversion mechanisms for wave
energy. In: 12th international conference on optimization of electrical and energy. Proc Inst Mech Eng M: J Eng Maritime Environ 2002; 216:1–27.
electronic equipment (OPTIM); 2010. p. 4–9. [59] Le Crom I, Melo A, Neumann F, Sarmento A. Numerical estimation of incident
[28] Weber J. Wavebob – research, and development network and tools in the wave parameters based on the air pressure measurements in Pico OWC
context of systems engineering. In: Proceedings of the 8th European wave Plant. In: Proceeding of the 8th European wave and tidal energy conference
and tidal energy, Uppsala, Sweden; 2009. (EWTEC), Uppsala; 2009.
[29] Clément A, McCullen P, Falcão A, Fiorentino A, Gardner F, Hammarlund K, [60] Falcão AF, Rodrigues RJA. Stochastic modelling of OWC wave power plant
et al. Wave energy in Europe: current status and perspectives. Renew performance. Appl Ocean Res 2002;24:59–71.
Sustain Energy Rev 2002;6:405–31. [61] Falcão AF. Control of an oscillating-water-column wave power plant for
[30] Budar K, Falnes J. A resonant point absorber of ocean-wave power. Nature maximum energy production. Appl Ocean Res 2002;24:73–82.
1975;256:478–9. [62] Duckers L. Wave power. Eng Sci Educ J 2000;9:113–22.
342 Y. Hong et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 329–342

[63] Frigaard P. Overtopping measurements on the Wave Dragon Nissum Bredn- Proceedings of the 10th European wave and tidal conference (EWTEC),
ing prototype. In: The proceedings of the fourteenth (2004) international Aalborg, Denmark; 2–5 September 2013.
offshore and polar engineering conference; 2004. p. 210–216. [89] Ekergård B, Bostrom C, Hagnestål A, Waters R, Leijon M. Experimental results
[64] Polinder H, Scuotto M. Wave energy converters and their impact on power from a linear wave power generator connected to a resonance circuit. Wiley
systems. In: International conference on future power systems, vol. 18; 2005. Interdisciplinary Rev: Energy Environ 2013;2:456–64.
pp. 618–623. [90] Bostrom C, Ekergard B, Leijon M. Electric resonance-rectifier circuit for
[65] Jasinski M, Kazmierkowski MP. Direct power and torque control of AC/DC/AC renewable energy conversion. Appl Phys Lett 2012;100:043511.
converter with induction generator for renewable energy system–Wave [91] Bostrom C, Ekergard B, Waters R, Eriksson M, Leijon M. Linear generator
Dragon MW. In: Proceedings of the 6th WSEAS/IASME, Spain; 2006. connected to a resonance-rectifier circuit. IEEE J Ocean Eng 2013;38:255–62.
p. 328–33. [92] Da Costa JS, Pinto P, Sarmento A, Gardner F. Modeling of an ocean waves
[66] Kazmierkowski MP. Control in power electronics. Academic Press; 2002. power device AWS. In: Proceedings of 2003 IEEE conference on control
[67] Zhou Z, Knapp W, MacEnri J, Sorensen HC, Friis Madsen E, Masters I, et al. applications; 2003. p. 618–623.
Permanent magnet generator control and electrical system configuration for [93] Polinder H, Damen MEC, Gardner F. Linear PM Generator system for wave
Wave Dragon MW wave energy take-off system. IndElectron 2008:1580–5. energy conversion in the AWS. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2004;19:583–9.
[68] Rodriguez JR, Dixon LW, Espinoza JR, Pontt J, Lezana P. PWM regenerative [94] Wu F, Zhang XP, Ju P, Sterling M. Modeling and control of AWS-Based wave
rectifiers: state of the art. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2005;52:5–22. energy conversion system integrated into power grid. IEEE Trans Power Syst
[69] Ricci P, Lopez J, Santos M, Ruiz-Minguela P, Villate JL, Salcedo F, et al. Control 2008;23:1196–204.
strategies for a wave energy converter connected to a hydraulic power take- [95] Prado M, Polinder H. Direct drive in wave energy conversion—AWS full scale
off. IET Renew Power Gener 2011;5:234–44. prototype case study. Power Energy Soc General Meeting 2011:1–7.
[70] Schlemmer K, Fuchshumer F, Böhmer N, Costello R, Villegas C. Design and [96] Valério D, Beirao P, da Costa JS. Feedback linearisation control applied to the
control of a hydraulic power take-off for an axis-symmetric heaving point Archimedes Wave Swing. In: Mediterranean conference on control and
absorber. In: Proceedings of the NINTH European wave and tidal energy automation; 2007. p. 1–6.
conference, Southampton; 2011. [97] Slotine JJE, Li W. Applied nonlinear control. New Jersey: Prentice hall; 1991.
[71] Babarit A, Clément AH. Optimal latching control of a wave energy device in [98] Valério D, Beirao P, Costa JS. Reactive control and phase and amplitude
regular and irregular waves. Appl Ocean Res 2006;28:77–91. control applied to the Archimedes Wave Swing. In: 17th international
[72] Villegas C. Implementation of a pitch stability control for a wave energy offshore (ocean) and polar engineering conference and exhibition, Lisbon;
converter. Wavebob Ltd.; n.d. 2007.
[73] Cândido JJ, Justino PAP. Frequency, stochastic and time domain models for an [99] Babarit A, Duclos G, Clément AH. Comparison of latching control strategies
for a heaving wave energy device in random sea. Appl Ocean Res
articulated wave power device. Proc ASME 2008.
2004;26:227–38.
[74] Falnes J, Lillebekken PM. Budal’s latching-controlled-buoy type wave-power
[100] Falnes J. Optimum control of oscillation of wave-energy converters. Int J
plant. In: 5th European wave energy conference; 2003, p. 17–20.
Offshore Polar Eng 2002:12.
[75] Lopes MFP, Hals J, Gomes RPF, Moan T, Gato LMC, Falcão AF. Experimental
[101] Greenhow M, White SP. Optimal heave motion of some axisymmetric wave
and numerical investigation of non-predictive phase-control strategies for a
energy devices in sinusoidal waves. Appl Ocean Res 1997;19:141–59.
point-absorbing wave energy converter. Ocean Eng 2009;36:386–402.
[102] Valério D, Beirão P, Costa JS. Optimisation of wave energy extraction with the
[76] Carcas MC. The OPD Pelamis WEC: current status and onward programme
Archimedes Wave Swing. Ocean Eng 2007;34:2330–44.
(2002). Int J Ambient Energy 2003;24:21–8.
[103] Brooking PRM, Mueller MA. Power conditioning of the output from a linear
[77] Pizer DJ, Retzler CH, Yemm RW. The OPD Pelamis: experimental and
vernier hybrid permanent magnet generator for use in direct drive wave
numerical results from the hydrodynamic work program. In: Proceedings
energy converters. IEEE Proc – Gener Transm Distrib 2005;152:673–81.
of Fourth European wave energy conference, Aalborg; 2000. p. 227–33.
[104] Brekken TKA, von Jouanne A, Han HY. Ocean wave energy overview and
[78] Henderson R. Design, simulation, and testing of a novel hydraulic power
research at Oregon State University. In: Power electronics and machines in
take-off system for the Pelamis wave energy converter. Renew Energy
wind applications, vol. 24; 2009. p. 1–7.
2006;31:271–83. [105] Amon E, Brekken TKA, von Jouanne A. A power analysis and data acquisition
[79] Retzler C, Pizer D, Henderson R, Ahlqvist J, Cowieson F, Shaw M, et al., Recent system for ocean wave energy device testing. Renew Energy 2011;36(7):
advances in the numerical and experimental modelling programme. In: 1922–1930.
Proceeding on 6th European wave energy conference, vol. 5; 2003. p. 59–66. [106] Mohan N. Advanced electric drives – analysis, modeling and control using
[80] Retzler C. Measurements of the slow drift dynamics of a model Pelamis wave Simulink. Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Power Electronics Research & Educa-
energy converter. Renew Energy 2006;31:257–69. tion; 2001.
[81] Stansell P, Pizer DJ. Maximum wave-power absorption by attenuating line [107] Bostrom C, Waters R, Lejerskog E, Svensson O, Stalberg M, Stromstedt E, et al.
absorbers under volume constraints. Appl Ocean Res 2013;40:83–93. Study of a wave energy converter connected to a nonlinear load. IEEE J Ocean
[82] Leijon M, Bernhoff H, Agren O, Isberg J, Sundberg J, Berg M, et al. Multi- Eng 2009;34:123–7.
physics simulation of wave energy to electric energy conversion by perma- [108] Luan H, Onar OC, Khaligh A. Dynamic modeling and optimum load control of
nent magnet linear generator. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2005;20:219–24. a PM Linear Generator for ocean wave energy harvesting application. In:
[83] Krishna R, Kottayil SK, Leijon M. Direct predictive current control of grid Applied power electronics conference and exposition; 2009. p. 739–43.
connected neutral point clamped inverter for wave power extraction. In: [109] Henshaw NR. A force control algorithm for a wave energy linear test bed
2010 international symposium on power electronics electrical drives auto- [Master Thesis]. Oregon State University; 2009.
mation and motion (SPEEDAM); 2010. p. 175–9. [110] VanderMeulen AH. Novel control of a permanent magnet linear generator for
[84] Uppsala Universitet. Lysekil Project; 2013. Available online 〈http://www.el. ocean wave energy applications [Master Thesis]. Oregon State University; 2007.
angstrom.uu.se/forskningsprojekt/WavePower/Lysekilsprojektet.html〉. [111] Amon EA, Schacher AA, Brekken TKA. A novel maximum power point
[85] Waters R, Stalberg M, Danielsson O, Svensson O, Gustafsson S, Stromstedt E, tracking algorithm for ocean wave energy devices. Energy Convers Congress
et al. Experimental results from sea trials of an offshore wave energy system. Expos 2009:2635–41.
Appl Phys Lett 2007;90 (034105–3). [112] Muthukumar S, Kakumanu S, Sriram S, Jayashankar V. Energy storage
[86] Kurupath V, Ekström R, Leijon M. Optimal constant DC link voltage operation considerations for a stand-alone wave energy plant. In: IEEE international
of a wave energy converter. Energies 2013;6(4):1993–2006. conference on electric machines and drives, vol. 15; 2005. p. 193–8.
[87] Bostrom C, et al. Design proposal of electrical system for linear generator [113] Shek JKH, Macpherson DE, Mueller MA. Power conversion for wave energy
wave power plants. In: Industrial electronics, 2009. IECON'09. 35th Annual applications. Power Electron Mach Drives 2010:1–6.
conference of IEEE. IEEE; 2009. p. 4393–8. [114] Wu F, Zhang XP, Ju P. Application of the battery energy storage in wave
[88] Ekström R, Baudoin A, Rahm M, Leijon M. Marine substation design for grid- energy conversion system. Sustainable power generation and supply. In:
connection of a research wave power plant on the Swedish West coast. In: International Conference on SUPERGEN’ 09; 2009. p. 1–4.