Hardware Software Co-Design and

Program Modeling

Prepared By
Dr. Prashant Kharote
Unit 2
 Introduction

❖ Communication interface is essential for communication with various

subsystems of the embedded system and with the external world

❖ Depending upon the mode of data transfer, communication interface can be

classified as:
1. Parallel Interface
2. Serial Interface
 Parallel Interface
❖ All the data bits transfer simultaneously over the processor bus or I/O
parallel port lines.

❖ Data communication is quick using parallel interface.

❖ Parallel interface is more advantageous for short distance communication.

 Serial Interface

❖ One bit of data transfers over the single line.

❖ Data transfer is slow as compared to parallel interface.

❖ Very important resource for long-distance communication and on-board

system communication.
 Types of Communication System

❖ Simplex

❖ Duplex
❖ Half Duplex
❖ Full Duplex
 Serial Transmission Formats
❖ Asynchronous
➢ It is a character-oriented data transfer.
➢ In this serial communication, one data byte is transferred serially at a time.
➢ Asynchronous serial communication can be used for debugging, servicing or
analyzing the system.

❖ Synchronous
❖ It is block or packet of data-oriented data transfer.
❖ The block of data bytes are transferred serially.
 Baud rate
❖ In serial communication, one bit is transmitted at a time.

❖ Therefore, how long the bit stays on or off is determined by the speed at which
bits are transmitted.

❖ Baud rate is defined as number of signal changes per second i.e. the rate at
which bits are transmitted - bit/second.

❖ 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800 and 9600.

 RS 232 Standard
❖ Standard developed by Electronic Industry Association (EIA).

❖ Oldest and most widely used serial communication standard.

❖ RS 232 is defined in reference to Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data

Communication Equipment (DCE).

❖ DTE – PC, serial printer & DCE - modem

 RS 232 Standard
❖ The communication between DTE and DCE is full duplex
i.e. the data transfer can take place in both direction.

Parameter Value
Speed 20 k Baud
Distance 50 ft
Logic 0 + 3v to + 25
Logic 1 - 3v to – 25
Receiver input voltage +15 V or – 15 V
RS – 232 Connector
RS 232 Standard
 What is RS-232
❖ RS-232 is a popular communications interface for connecting modems and
data acquisition devices (i.e. GPS receivers, electronic balances, data loggers) to
computers.

❖RS-232 can be plugged straight into the computer’s serial port (know as COM
or Comm port).
 RS-232

❖ The maximum speed, according to the standard, is 20kbit/s.

❖ The longer the cable and the slower the speed at which you can obtain
accurate results.

❖ A large wire capacitance and inductance limits the maximum length of the
cable and/or the maximum speed 50 feet (15m) @ max baud rate is commonly
quoted as the maximum distance.
 Flow Control
❖ If one of the device sends data at a very fast rate and other device cannot
absorb the data rate, flow control is used.

❖ RS 232 has signals (handshake signals) that can be used for flow control.
 Signals of RS-232 connector
1. DTR (Data Terminal Ready)
➢ The DTE alerts the DCE for data communication by sending this signal.
➢ In response to this signal, the DCE prepares itself for the communication.

2. DSR (Data Set Ready)

➢ The DCE sends this signal to DTE to inform DTE that it is ready for
communication.
 Signals of RS-232 connector
3. RTS (Request To Send)
➢ Once DTE receives the DSR, it prepares itself for the data transfer.
➢ It initializes the memory pointer and the byte counter.
➢ It then sends the RTS signal to the DCE to inform that it is ready for the
data transfer.

4. CTS (Clear To Send)

➢ Once a stable contact is established with the Remote MODEM, the DCE send
CTS to DTE.
➢ This begins the data transmission between DTE and Remote MODEM
through DCE.
 Data format
❖ 1 byte of data format consist of
➢ 1 Start bit
➢ 8 Data bits
➢ 1 Parity bit
➢ 1 Stop bit
 What is I2C
➢ The name stands for “Inter - Integrated Circuit Bus”

➢ A Small Area Network connecting ICs and other electronic systems

➢ Originally intended for operation on one single board / PCB

▪ Synchronous Serial Signal
▪ Two wires carry information between several devices
▪ One wire use for the data
▪ One wire used for the clock
➢ Today, a variety of devices are available with I2C Interfaces
▪ Microcontroller, EEPROM, Real-Timer, interface chips, LCD driver, A/D converter
 Synchronous Serial Bus Communication for networking

➢ Each specific I/O synchronous serial device may be connected to other using specific
interfaces, for example, with I/O device using I2C controller.

➢ I2C Bus communication− use of I2C bus simplifies the number of connections and provides
a common way (protocol) of connecting different or same type of I/O devices using
synchronous serial communication.
 What is I2C used for?
➢ Data transfer between ICs and systems at relatively low rates
▪ “Classic” I2C is rated to 100K bits/second
▪ “Fast Mode” devices support up to 400K bits/second
▪ A “High Speed Mode” is defined for operation up to 3.4M bits/second

➢ Reduces Board Space and Cost By:

▪ Allowing use of ICs with fewer pins and smaller packages
▪ Greatly reducing interconnect complexity
▪ Allowing digitally controlled components to be located close to their point of use
 I2C Bus Characteristics
➢ Includes electrical and timing specifications, and an associated bus protocol
➢ Two wire serial data & control bus implemented with the serial data (SDA) and clock (SCL) lines
▪ For reliable operation, a third line is required: Common ground
➢ Unique start and stop condition
➢ Slave selection protocol uses a 7-Bit slave address
▪ The bus specification allows an extension to 10 bits
➢ Bi-directional data transfer
➢ Acknowledgement after each transferred byte
➢ No fixed length of transfer.
 I2C Bus Characteristics (cont’d)
➢ Master:
▪ Initiates a transfer by generating start and stop conditions
▪ Generates the clock
▪ Transmits the slave address
▪ Determines data transfer direction

➢ Slave:
▪ Responds only when addressed
▪ Timing is controlled by the clock line
 IO I2C Bus
➢ Any device that is compatible with a I2C bus can be added to the system (assuming an
appropriate device driver program is available), and a I2C device can be integrated into
any system that uses that I2C bus.
 I2C Details
❖ Originally developed at Philips Semiconductors.

❖ Synchronous Serial Communication 400 kbps up to 2 m and 100 kbps for longer distances.

❖ Three I2C standards

➢ Industrial 100 kbps I2C
➢ 100 kbps SM (standard mode) I2C.
➢ 400 kbps (Fast Mode) I2C
I2C Bus Configuration Example
 I2C Hardware Details
➢ Devices connected to the bus must have an open drain or open collector output for serial clock and
data signal.

➢ The device must be able to sense the logic level on these pins.

➢ All devices have a common ground reference

➢ The serial clock and data lines are connected to Vdd (typically +5V) through pull up resistors

➢ At any given moment, the I2C bus is:

▪ Quiescent (Idle), or
▪ in Master transmit mode or
▪ in Master receive mode.
 Bit Transfer on the I2C Bus

➢ In normal data transfer, the data line only changes state when the clock is low

SDA

SCL
Data line stable; Change
Data valid of data
allowed
 Start and Stop Conditions
➢A transition of the data line while the clock line is high is defined as either a
start or a stop condition.
➢Both start and stop conditions are generated by the bus master
➢The bus is considered busy after a start condition, until a stop condition occurs

SDA SDA

SCL SCL

Start Stop
Condition Condition
 I2C Addressing
➢ Each node has a unique 7 (or 10) bit address

➢ Peripherals often have fixed and programmable address portions

➢ Addresses starting with 0000 or 1111 have special functions:-

▪ 0000000 Is a General Call Address
▪ 0000001 Is a Null (CBUS) Address
▪ 1111XXX Address Extension
 First Byte in Data Transfer on the I2C Bus

MSB LSB

R / Wr

7 – Bit Slave Address ACK

R/Wr
0 – Slave written to by Master
1 – Slave read by Master

ACK – Generated by the slave whose address has been output.

➢ 7 bit addressing allows a total of 128 devices to communicate over a shared I2C bus.
 I2C Bus Connections
➢ Masters can be
▪ Transmitter only
▪ Transmitter and receiver

➢ Slaves can be
▪ Receiver only
▪ Receiver and transmitter
 I2C Masters and Slaves Bus Connections

➢ Master device
– controls the SCL
– starts and stops data transfer
– controls addressing of other devices
➢ Slave device
– device addressed by master
➢ Transmitter/Receiver
– master or slave
– master-transmitter sends data to slave-receiver
– master-receiver requires data from slave transmitter
 Data Transfer on the I2C Bus
➢ Start Condition
➢ Slave address + R/W
▪ Slave acknowledges with ACK
➢ All data bytes
▪ Each followed by ACK
➢ Stop Condition
 Data Formats
➢Master writing to a Slave

A A A
 Data Formats Cont’d.

➢Master reading from a Slave :

Master is Receiver of data and Slave is Transmitter of data.

1
 Disadvantage of I2C bus
➢ Certain ICs support the protocol and certain do not.

➢ Open collector drivers at the master need a pull-up resistance of 2.2 K on each
line.
 CAN (Controller Area Network)
❖ A CAN is an asynchronous serial bus network that connects devices, sensors and actuators
in a system or sub-system for control applications.
❖ Multi-master communication protocol.
❖ First developed by Robert Bosch in 1986.
❖ Compact
• Twisted Pair Bus line.
❖ Highest Baud Rate is 1Mbps.
❖ Robust in noisy environments.
❖ CAN uses a message-oriented transmission protocol.
❖ There are no defined addresses, just defined messages.
❖ It is present in both physical and data link layer of OSI layers.
 CAN (Controller Area Network)
❖ It was designed for automotive applications needing data rates of up to 1 Mbps and high
levels of embedded communication system for microcontrollers, as well as a standard
communication network for industrial control system.

❖ CAN provides two communication services: the sending of a message (data frame
transmission) and the requesting of a message (remote transmission request, RTR).
Before CAN
After CAN
 What are some real-world applications of CAN?
– Controller Area Networks are used in many different fields, the bulk of which are
• Auto-motive industry
• Factory Automation
• Machine Control
• Medical Equipment and devices
• And more….
 CAN – Protocol
❖ The CAN protocol is an international standard defined in the ISO 11898.

❖ Beside the CAN protocol itself the conformance test for the CAN protocol is defined in
the ISO 16845, which guarantees the interchangeability of the CAN chips.

❖ CAN is based on the “broadcast communication mechanism”, which is based on a

message-oriented transmission protocol.
 Data Information - Protocol

❖ Messages are distinguished by message identifiers.

❖ The identifier is unique to the network and defines the content & priority of the message.
 CAN Message Format
❖ There are two types of CAN messages:
1) Standard CAN message
2) Extended CAN message
 Standard CAN message

❖ CAN defines a logic 0 as dominant bit and a logic 1 as recessive bit.

❖ SOF – Single dominant start of frame.

❖ Identifier – 11 bit identifier set the priority of message. (The lower the binary value, the
higher is the priority.)

❖ RTR - remote transmission request. (dominant when information is required from another
node).
 Standard CAN message

❖ IDE – A dominant single identifier extension (IDE) (standard CAN identifier with no
extension is being transmitted).

❖ RB0 – Reserved bit.

❖ DLC – The 4 bit data length code specify the number of bytes of data being transmitted.+
 Standard CAN message

❖ Data – This field is used for application data. Data size may be upto 64 bits.

❖ CRC – The 16 bit cyclic redundancy check contains the check sum of the preceding
application data for error detection.
 Standard CAN message

❖ ACK – error-free message has been sent.

❖ EOF – End of frame is 7 bit field marks the end of CAN frame.

❖ IFS – 7-bit inter-frame space (IFS) contains the time required by the controller to move a
correctly received frame to its proper position in a message buffer area.
 Extended CAN message

❖ Same as the standard message with additional fields.

❖ SRR – The substitute remote request (SRR) bit replaces the RTR bit in the standard
message location as a placeholder in the extended format.
 Extended CAN message

❖ IDE – The recessive bit in the identifier (IDE) indicates that more identifier bits
follow.

❖ RB1 – Reserved bit.

 CAN Message Types
❖ Data frame:
➢ The data frame is the most common message type, comprises the arbitration field
(Identifier field), data field, CRC field, and the acknowledge field.

❖ The Remote Frame:

➢ The intended purpose of the remote frame is to solicit the transmission of data from
another node.
❖ Error frame:
➢ It is transmitted when a node detects an error in a message and causes all other nodes in
the network to send an error frame. (retransmission)

❖ The Overload Frame:

➢ It is transmitted by busy node.
➢ It is primarily used to provide extra delay between messages.
 CAN Microcontrollers

❖ All CAN Microcontrollers have a set of common features:

❖ Flash memory for code

❖ E2PROM

❖ RAM

❖ In Application Programming capability assisted by a boot loader.

❖ Same CAN engine to simplify Software Migration.

❖ Low voltage capability (2.7 volts min).

❖ Enough MIPS to run high layer protocol + application

 CAN – Advantages

❖ Capable of providing real-time communication.

❖ Uses error correction greatly helpful in noise-critical environments.

❖ Uses a lossless, bitwise arbitration scheme.

❖ High Speeds at Low-Cost.

❖ Suitability for small networks.

❖ The protocol is designed to increase integrity of the system.

❖ It is designed for control – not transmission of large blocks of data.

 CAN Applications
❖ Cars and truck engine control.
❖ Medical equipments.
❖ Environment research
❖ Factory automation
❖ Industrial machine control
❖ Lifts and escalators
❖ Building automation
❖ Non-industrial control
Zigbee
 ZigBee Technology
▪ Technological standard created for control and sensor networks

▪ The low rate (LR) wireless personal access network (WPAN) (IEEE 802.15.4/LRWPAN)

▪ It is intended to serve a set of industrial, residential, and medical applications with very low
power consumption, low cost requirement, and relaxed needs for data rate and QoS.

▪ The low data rate enables the LR-WPAN to consume little power.

▪ Supports sixteen channels.

 ZigBee Technology
▪ ZigBee technology is a low data rate, low power consumption, low cost, wireless networking
protocol targeted toward automation and remote control applications.

▪ The IEEE 802.15.4 committee and ZigBee Alliance worked together and developed the
technology commercially known as ZigBee.

▪ It is expected to provide low-cost and low-power connectivity for devices that need battery
life as long as several months to several years but does not require data transfer rates as high
as those enabled by Bluetooth.
 ZigBee Technology
▪ ZigBee can be implemented in mesh (peer- to-peer) networks larger than is possible
with Bluetooth

▪ It operate in the unlicensed RF worldwide (2.4 GHz global, 915 MHz America, or
868 MHz Europe) bands.

▪ The data rate is 250 kbps at 2.4 GHz, 40 kbps at 915 MHz, and 20 kbps at 868 MHz.

▪ Very long battery life

 ZigBee network feature
❖ Self-organising and supports peer-to-peer and mesh networks.

❖ Self-organising means detects nearby Zigbee device and establishes communication

and network.
 Peer-to-peer and mesh network
❖ Each node at network function as requesting device as well as responding
device.

❖ Mesh network means each nodes network function as a mesh.

❖ A node can connect to another directly or through mutually interconnected

intermediate nodes.

❖ Data transfer is between two devices in Peer-to-Peer or between a device and

multiple devices in the mesh network.
Peer-to-peer and mesh network
 ZigBee supporting devices
❖ ZigBee protocol supports large number of sensors, lighting devices, air
conditioning, industrial controller and other devices for home and office
automation and their remote control and formation of WPAN (wireless personal
area network).
 ZigBee network
❖ Zigbee router
➢ Transfers packets received from a neighboring source to nearby node in the path to
destination.

❖ End devices
➢ Connects one Zigbee network with another or connects to WLAN or cellular network.

❖ Coordinator
➢ Transceiver of data.
 NETWORK DEVICES

IEEE
802.15.4 Zigbee
device device roles
roles

FFD RFD

Coordinator Router End device

PAN
Coordinator Device
coordinator
 Device Types
❖ The ZigBee coordinator node :
❖ There is one, and only one, ZigBee coordinator in each network to act as the router to
other networks, and can be likened to the root of a (network) tree.

❖ It is designed to store information about the network.

 Device Types
❖ The full function device FFD :
❖ The FFD is an intermediary router transmitting data from other devices.

❖ It needs lesser memory than the ZigBee coordinator node, and entails lesser
manufacturing costs.

❖ It can operate in all topologies and can act as a coordinator.

 Device Types
❖ The reduced function device RFD :
❖ This device is just capable of talking in the network; it cannot relay data from other
devices.

❖ Requiring even less memory, (no flash, very little ROM and RAM), an RFD will thus be
cheaper than an FFD.

❖ This device talks only to a network coordinator and can be implemented very simply in
star topology.
 DATA TRANSFER MODELS

Peer to peer
Star

mesh
 Where to use ZigBee?
❖ Building Automation

❖ Remote Control

❖ Home energy savings

❖ Health and fitness monitoring

❖ Smart homes

❖ Easy-to-use touchpads

❖ mice, keyboards, wands

❖ LED lighting control etc…

Computational Model

Prepared by: Dr. Prashant Kharote

 Model:
• A model is a formal system consisting of objects & composition rules.
• It is hard to make a decision on which model should be followed in particular system design.
• Most often designers switch between variety of models from requirement specification to
implementation.

• Data Flow Graph/Diagram (DFG) Model

• Control Data Flow Graph/Diagram (CDFG) Model
• State Machine Model
• Sequential Program Model
• Concurrent/Communicating Process Model
• Object Oriented Model
 Data Flow Graph/Diagram (DFG) Model :
▪ Translates the data processing requirements into a data flow graph.
▪ It is data driven model in which program execution is determined by data.
▪ It emphasizes on data and operation on data which transform the input data to output data.
▪ It is visual model in which operation on data(Process) is represented using a block(Circle) and data flow is
represented by arrows(inward arrow => i/p to process and outward arrow=> o/p of process)
▪ Embedded application which are computational intensive & data driven are modeled using DFG
▪ Eg.: DSP
▪ For example suppose computation x = a + b & y = x + c needs to be carried out, then
▪ Acyclic DFG: doesn’t contain multiple values for i/p variables and multiple values for o/p variables
 Control Data Flow Graph (CDFG) Model:
▪ Is used for applications involving control program execution.
▪ Contains both data operation and control operation.
▪ Data nodes- elements
▪ control nodes- decision makers
▪ For example, if Flag=1, x=a+b else y=a-b.
▪ This requires decision making
▪ Control node is represented by a Diamond Block
 State Machine Model :
▪ Used for modeling reactive or event-driven embedded systems, whose behavior are
dependent on state transitions.
▪ State machine model describes the system behavior with ‘State’, ‘Event’, ‘Action’ &
‘Transition’.
▪ State - representation of current situation.
▪ Event - i/p to state, acts as stimuli for state transition.
▪ Action - activity to be performed by state machine.
▪ Transition - movement from one state to another.
▪ FSM: Finite state machine model is one in which the number of states are finite.
 State Machine Model :
▪ Example-1: SEAT BELT WARNING SYSTEM
▪ Requirements:
▪ 1. When vehicle ignition is turned ON & seat belt is not fastened within 10 secs of Ignition ON, the
system generates an alarm signal for 5 secs.
▪ 2. The alarm is turned OFF when the seat belt is fastened / alarm time expires / the ignition is off==
whichever happens first.
▪ Events: ‘Ignition_Key_ON’ ‘Ignition_Key_OFF’, ‘Time Expire’, ‘Alarm Time Expire’ and ‘Seat_Belt_ON’.
▪ States: ‘Alarm_OFF’, ‘Waiting’, and ’Alarm_ON’.
State Machine Model :
▪ Example-2: Automatic Tea/Coffee vending Machine
▪ Requirements:
▪ 1. Tea/Coffee vending machine is initiated by user by inserting 5 Rs. Coin.
▪ 2. After inserting Coin, user can select either coffee /tea / press cancel order and take back the
coin.
▪ Events: ‘Insert Coin’ ‘Tea Button Pressed’, ‘Coffee Button Pressed’,
‘Cancel Button Pressed’, ‘Coffee Dispensed’ and ‘Tea Dispensed’
▪ States: A= ‘OFF/wait for coin’, B= ‘wait for user i/p’, C= ’Dispense Tea’ and
D= ’Dispense Coffee’.
 State Machine Model :
▪ Example-3: Coin Operated Public Telephone Unit
▪ Requirements:
1. Call is initiated by lifting the receiver.
2. After lifting user needs to insert 1 Rs. Coin
3. If line is busy, coin is returned on placing the receiver back.
4. If line is through/free user is allowed to talk for 60 secs & at the end of 45th sec prompt for inserting another if
want to continue call.
5. If doesn’t insert coin, call is terminated after completing 60 secs .
6. The system is ready to take up new call when receiver is placed back on hook.
7. The system goes Out of order state when there is line fault.
▪ Events: ‘Receiver lifted’ ‘Coin inserted’, ‘Valid Number’, ’Line available’, ’Line busy’,
‘Time out’, ‘Place Receiver’, ‘Invalid Number’, ‘Line fault’ and ‘Line OK’
▪ States: A= ‘Ready’, B=‘wait for coin’, C=‘wait for number’, D=’Dialing’ E=’Call in Progress’
F=’Call Terminated’ G=’Unable to make call’ H=’Invalid Number’ and I=’Out of Order’.
▪ States:
▪ A= Ready
▪ B= wait for coin
▪ C= wait for number
▪ D= Dialing
▪ E= Call in Progress
▪ F= Call Terminated
▪ G= Unable to make call
▪ H= Invalid Number and
▪ I= Out of Order
 Sequential Program Model:
▪ The functions or processing requirements are executed in sequence.
▪ Program instructions are iterated and executed conditionally and data gets
transformed through a series of operations.
▪ FSMs are good choice for sequential Program modeling.
▪ Flow charts are also good tool for modeling sequential program.
▪ FSMs represents States, events, transitions and actions
▪ Flow charts model the execution flow
 Concurrent/Communicating Process Model :
▪ Models concurrently executing tasks/processes
▪ Sequential models leads to poor utilization of processor, when the tasks waits for
I/O Sleeping.
▪ here a task is subdivided into multiple sub tasks & CPU is effectively used.
▪ but requires additional overhead like task scheduling, task synchronization &
communication
Example: Seat Belt Warning System

▪ Tasks can be split into:

1. timer task for waiting 10 secs Wait_timer_task
2. tasks for checking the ignition key status
Ignition_status_monitoring task
3. tasks for checking the seat belt status
seat_belt_status_monitoring task
4. task for starting & stopping of alarm alarm_control_task
5. alarm timer task for waiting 5 sec alarm_timer_task
 Object Oriented Model:
▪ Complex overall program/software requirement is divided into simple well defined
pieces called objects.
▪ A class is abstract description of a set of objects & can be considered as blueprint of
objects.

▪ Private= ->accessible only within the class

▪ Public-> accessible within as well as outside the class
▪ Protected-> external access is prohibited
 What is UML?
• The Unified Modeling Language is a family of graphical notations, based by a single meta-
model, that help in describing and designing software systems, particularly software systems
built using the object-oriented style.
• UML is a language for documenting design
• Provides a record of what has been built.
• Useful for bringing new programmers up to speed.
• UML is primarily a graphical language that follows a precise syntax.
• UML 2.5.1 is the most recent version.
• Things, relationships and diagrams are the fundamental building blocks of UML.
• Building Blocks
• 1.Things(abstractions of the model)
• 2.Relationships(tie things together)
• 3.Diagrams–contain UML things connected using relationships
Things
• Thing is an abstraction of an UML model.
• Things are the most important building blocks of UML.
• Things can be −
• 1. Behavioral
• 2. Grouping
• 3. Structural
• 4. Annotational

• Behavioural Things
• A behavioral thing consists of the dynamic parts of UML models. Following are the behavioral things
• Interaction − Interaction is defined as a behavior that consists of a group of messages exchanged
among elements to accomplish a specific task.
• State machine − It defines the sequence of states an object goes through in response to events.
• Events are external factors responsible for state change.
Grouping Things:
• It can be defined as a mechanism to group elements of a UML model together.
• There is only one grouping thing available −
• Package − Package is the only one grouping thing available for gathering
structural and behavioral things.
 Structural Things
• Structural things define the static part of the model.
• They represent the physical and conceptual elements.
• Following are the brief descriptions of the structural things
• Class − Class represents a set of objects having similar responsibilities.
• Interface − Interface defines a set of operations, which specify the responsibility
of a class.
• Collaboration −Collaboration defines an interaction between elements.
• Use case −Use case represents a set of actions performed by a system for a
specific goal.
• Component −Component describes the physical part of a system.
• Node − A node can be defined as a physical element that exists at run time.
Annotational Things
• It can be defined as a mechanism to capture remarks, descriptions, and comments of UML
model elements.
• Note - It is the only one Annotational thing available. A note is used to render comments,
constraints, etc. of an UML element.
 Relationship
• It is another most important building block of UML.
• It shows how the elements are associated with each other and this association describes the functionality of an application.
• There are four kinds of relationships available.
1. Dependency 3.Generalization
2. Association 4.Relization
• Dependency :
• Dependency is a relationship between two things in which change in one element also affects the other.
• Association :
• Association is basically a set of links that connects the elements of a UML model.
• It also describes how many objects are taking part in that relationship.
• Generalization :
• Generalization can be defined as a relationship which connects a specialized element with a generalized element.
• It basically describes the inheritance relationship in the real world of objects.
• Realization
• Realization can be defined as a relationship in which two elements are connected.
• One element describes some responsibility, which is not implemented and the other one implements them.
• This relationship exists in case of interfaces
UML Diagrams
• All the elements, relationships are used to make a complete UML diagram and the
diagram represents a system.
• The visual effect of the UML diagram is the most important part of the entire
process.
• All the other elements are used to make it complete.

• UML includes the following static (structural) diagrams.

• 1.Class diagram
• 2. Object diagram
• 3. Deployment diagram
• 4.Package diagram
• 5. Component diagram
Behavioural Diagrams (Dynamic)
• UML has the following five types of behavioral diagrams −
• Use case diagram
• Sequence diagram
• Collaboration diagram
• Statechart diagram
• Activity diagram