PRINCIPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 441

442 PREDICTION OF PERFORMANCE-FURTHER TOPICS

that the thrust is constant (flat) at all temperatures below the rated
temperature; it is apparent that at the ISA temperature the engine is
thermodynamically capable of considerably higher thrust, referred to as
the thermodynamic rating. If the engine were controlled on the basis of
rotational speed, the maximum speed would only be used at the rated
temperature; on cooler days the required thrust could be obtained at a
reduced speed and turbine inlet temperature. The thermodynamic rating
may be 15-20 per cent higher than the flat rating. One version of the PT-6
turboprop was flat rated at 600 kW to 62·8°C; this very high temperature
was required to provide an engine capable of 600 kW at 12000 m for a
high-speed aircraft. The engine had a thermodynamic rating of 1000kW
but the control system limited the power to 600 kW and the gearbox was
designed to meet this lower rating, saving on weight and cost. It can be
seen that a high flat-rating temperature implies a significant derating of the
engine at ISA conditions.
Control system design is a specialized field which is changing rapidly and
the interested reader must turn to the current literature. The control
designer, in turn, must have a full understanding of the system to be
controlled which necessitates an appreciation of gas turbine performance.
 Appendix A
Some notes on gas dynamics

Owing to the increasing tendency towards specialization even at first degree and
diploma level, it may be that some readers will not have been exposed to a course
in gas dynamics. It is hoped that this Appendix will provide them with an adequate
summary of those aspects which are relevant to gas turbine theory, and that it will
serve others as useful revision material.

A.I Compressibility effects (qualitative treatment)

It is well known that when the relative velocity between a gas and a solid body
reaches a certain value, the flow behaves in a quite different manner to that
expected from a study of hydrodynamics. The effects produced, which manifest
themselves as additional loss of stagnation pressure in the stream, do not arise
when the fluid is a liquid. This suggests that the phenomena are due to the change
in density which accompanies a change in pressure of a gas. The idea is
strengthened by the fact that the phenomena only occur at high speeds when the
pressure changes set up by the relative motion, and therefore the density changes,
become considerable. In consequence, the phenomena here described are known as
compressibility effects.
When, in a mass of gas at rest. a small disturbance results in a slight local rise of
pressure, it can be shown that a pressure wave is propagated throughout the gas
with a velocity which depends upon the pressure and density of the gas. This
velocity is the speed of sound in the gas. or sonic \'elocity a. given by

In all processes related to the propagatIon ot pressure waves, the cnanges taKe
place so rapidly that there is no time for any heat transfer between adjacent layers
of fluid; the processes are therefore adiabatic. Also, when the amplitude of the
pressure wave is small and there is no material alteration in the pressure and
temperature of the gas, as is true of an ordinary sound wave, there is no increase of
entropy. The propagation of a sound wave is therefore not only adiabatic but
isentropic.
Now consider what happens when a similar disturbance occurs in a gas flowing in
one direction with a velocity C. The velocity of propagation of the pressure wave
relative to the gas will still be equal to the speed of sound, a. Relative to a fixed
point, however, say the walls of the passage confining the gas, the speed of
444 APPENDIX A SOME NOTES ON GAS DYNAMICS

propagation will be (a + C) downstream and (a - C) upstream. It follows that if

the velocity of the gas is greater than the sonic velocity, i.e. supersonic, there can
be no propagation of the pressure wave upstream at all. This is the usual physical
explanation given for the existence of a critical condition in nozzle flow. When
once the pressure drop across a nozzle is great enough to cause the gas velocity to
reach the local sonic value, no further decrease in outlet pressure will be
propagated upstream and no further increase in mass flow will be obtained.
Figure A I illustrates the effects just described, and a useful picture to have in mind
is that of the ever-widening circles of ripples formed by a stone thrown into a
pond. When a disturbance, such as an intermittent electric spark, is placed in a gas
stream moving with subsonic velocity (C < a), the radius of a spherical pressure
wave after time t will be at, while the centre of this wave will have moved
downstream a distance Ct. All waves emitted subsequently will lie within the
spherical wave front of this wave, as shown in Fig. AI(a). On the other hand, when
C> a as in Fig. AI(b), the spherical wave fronts will move downstream at a
greater rate than the radii of the waves increase. All the spherical waves will
therefore lie within a cone having its apex at the point of the disturbance.
The effect of a small solid particle placed in a stream of gas is that of a disturbance
emitting pressure waves continuously, so that the spherical wave fronts of
Fig. Al(b) appear as a single conical wave front of semi-angle is given
hv

So far we have been considering pressure impulses of very small amplitude, such
that there is no permanent change in the pressure and temperature of the gas as the
wave moves through it, and consequently such that there is no change in entropy.
In many practical cases of gas flow relative to a solid body these conditions are not
fulfilled; there is a marked pressure and temperature difference across the wave,
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS (QUALITATIVE TREATMENT) 445

and there is an increase in entropy indicating an irreversible dissipation of kinetic

energy which is manifested by a loss of stagnation pressure. The wave front
represents a discontinuity in the flow. and as the change of pressure is to all intents
and purposes instantaneous, the wave is termed a shock l\"Ql·e. The Mach wave
previously discussed can be regarded as the weakest possible form of shock wave.
The shock wave formed by a projectile travelling at supersonic speed. for example,
is analogous to the bow wave set up by a ship: the water. unable to escape rapidly
enough past the sides of the ship. piles up to form a vee-shaped wave which travels
along with the ship. In the case of the projectile. the air outside the region enclosed
by the conical wave front does not receive a signal warning it of the approach of
the solid object creating the disturbance. and hence the formation of the shock
wave at the nose of the projectile. It must be stressed that it is the relative motion
which is important; it does not matter whether the body or the fluid or both are
movmg.
We have said that there is a pressure difference across a shock wave. We must
now ask whether it is a pressure rise or pressure drop in the direction of gas
flow relative to the body; that is, through the shock wave. Both experiment and
theory indicate that a shock wave can only be formed when a supersonic flow is
decelerated. The velocities in the divergent part of a convergent-divergent nozzle
are supersonic, but if the nozzle is operating at the pressure ratio for which it is
designed no shock waves will be formed because the flow is accelerating under
the influence of the pressure drop. Consider, on the other hand, what happens
when the outlet pressure is appreciably above the value which would give just
the right amount of expansion to suit the outlet area of the nozzle. Under these
conditions the nozzle over-expands the gas so that before the gas can discharge
into the surroundings some recompression and deceleration of the gas must
occur. This recompression can only be brought about by a shock wave in the
divergent part of the nozzle, because a convergent duct is necessary for
isentropic diffusion of a supersonic stream. Figure A2 shows typical pressure
distributions along a nozzle when the outlet pressure is above the design value.
As the outlet pressure is reduced, the plane normal shock wave moves towards
the exit, and further reduction towards the design outlet pressure is
accompanied by a sudden change to a complex system of oblique shock waves
downstream of the exit.
BASIC EQUATIONS FOR STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL CO\tPRESSIBLE FLOW 447

the shock wave opposes the direction of flow and consequently. in the boundary
layer where the kinetic energy is small, the shock wave may arrest the motion
altogether. The boundary layer will thicken just in front of the shock waye. and
may break away from the surface at the rear of it. If this breakaway of the
boundary layer occurs, it will result in the initiation of a vortex trail involving
considerable dissipation of energy. This, then, is the reason for the large loss of
stagnation pressure in the wake of the aerofoil, and the reason why the Mach
number of the main stream should be kept below the value likely to cause the
formation of shock waves with this shape of aerofoil.
We may now turn to the mathematical analysis of compressible flow in a few simple.
classical, flow situations. Much of the algebra is too lengthy to be given here. but by
its omission we hope to enable the reader to see the wood: for the trees he or she can
turn to the many excellent standard texts on gas dynamics, e.g. Refs (3) and (4).

A.2 Basic equations for steady one-dimensional compressible

flow of a perfect gas in a duct

A flow can be regarded as one-dimensional if

(a) changes in flow area and curvature of the axis are gradual,
(b) all properties are uniform across planes normal to the axis,
(c) any heat transfer per unit mass flow (dQ), across the surface area of the duct
(dS), changes the properties uniformly over the cross-section,
(d) the effect of friction can be represented by a shear stress r at the wall.
The flow is steady if there is no change in the mass flowing per unit time at
successive planes along the duct, and if the properties of the gas at any plane do
not change with time.
Firstly, because we are dealing with a perfect gas we have the equation of state

Secondly, application of the conservation laws yields the following equations in

integral and differential form (see Fig. AS):
Conservation of mass (continuity equation)
FRICTIONLESS FLOW IN A CONSTANT AREA DUCT \\'lTH HEAT TRANSFER 451

A.4 Frictionless flow in a constant area duct with heat transfer

We have seen that when A is constant and T is zero, heat transfer to the gas causes
a subsonic flow to accelerate towards M = I and a supersonic flow to decelerate
towards M = 1. This idealized flow is referred to as Rayleigh flow. One important
effect, to which reference was made in Chapter 6, is that heat transfer to a subsonic
flow in a duct of constant area must be accompanied by a fall in pressure. The
pressure difference is necessary to provide the force required to accelerate the flow,
i.e. to satisfy the momentum equation.
The relevant equations for a Rayleigh flow from some arbitrary state M, T, etc., to
the state where M = I and quantities are denoted by asterisks, are as follows:
A.6 Plane normal shock waves

When shock waves occur normal to the axis of flow, they are discontinuities which
occupy a finite but very short length of duct as depicted in Fig. A8(a). For this
reason they can be treated as adiabatic frictionless processes in a duct of constant
cross-sectional area. In general, shock waves are formed when the conditions are
such that the three conservation laws cannot be satisfied simultaneously with an
assumption of reversible flow. What has to be relinquished is the idealization of
reversibility, even though the flow is being regarded as frictionless. Then, if the
process is adiabatic, all that the Second Law of Thermodynamics requires is that
there should be an increase in entropy in the direction of flow.
The relevant equations relating properties on either side of a shock wave are
 can be obtained by ordinary subsonic diffusion in a divergent duct. Higher
efficiencies can only be obtained by designing supersonic intakes to operate with a
system of oblique shocks. This type of shock forms the subject of the next section.
The main features of Rayleigh flow, Fanno flow and flow through normal shocks
can be summarized neatly by drawing the processes on a T-s diagram as in
Fig. A II. Such a diagram is a useful mnemonic. The Fanno and normal shock
processes are shown as dotted lines because they are essentially irreversible
processes. The three lines are all drawn for the same value of mass flow per unit
area (i.e. pC) which we have seen is constant for all three types of flow. This is why
states I and 2 on either side of the normal shock coincide with the points of
intersection of the Fanno and Rayleigh lines. There are four features which
perhaps are not emphasized sufficiently by notes on the figure. (i) A Fanno process
can occur only from state 2 towards state 3 or from I towards 3. It cannot pass
through 3 without a decrease in entropy which would contravene the Second Law
of Thermodynamics. (ii) A Rayleigh process can occur between I and 4 in either
direction or between 2 and 4 in either direction, but it cannot proceed through state
4 in either direction. In practice, the picture is modified because friction is present
simultaneously with heating or cooling; but also it would be physically difficult to
suddenly change from heating to cooling at the point in the duct where the gas
attains state 4 and, without doing so, passage through state 4 would clearly
contravene the Second Law. (iii) It is interesting to note that when a subsonic flow
is heated, the maximum temperature is reached at state 5 (where it can be shown
that M = I/VY), although the stagnation temperature must continue to rise with
energy input until the gas attains state 4. In other words, between 5 and 4 the
density decreases, and hence the velocity increases, at such a rate that the static
458 APPENDIX A SOME NOTES ON GAS DYNAMICS

temperature falls. (iv) When point 3 on the Fanno line or point 4 on the Rayleigh
line is reached the flow is choked, and further friction (i.e. additional length of
pipe), or heating in the case of Rayleigh flow, causes the state to move on to
another Fanno line or another Rayleigh line respectively. M remains equal to
unity. These would be lines appropriate to a reduced mass flow per unit area, and
would lie to the right of those shown because of the increase in entropy due to
additional friction in one case and heating in the other.

A.7 Oblique shock waves

In certain types of supersonic flow, shock waves are formed at an inclination to the
direction of flow as in Fig. A12. Strictly speaking the analysis of such phenomena
involves a study of two-dimensional flow although, as will be made apparent, some
of the equations obtained for plane normal shock waves can be used with a little
modification. The analysis of plane oblique shock waves shows that for any given
incident Mach number,

Oblique shock waves are formed when a body is immersed in a supersonic stream.
If we consider the simple case of a wedge of semi-angle e, two types of flow are
found to occur as depicted in Fig. A13.
with y = I A03 as used in the tables.
Since a pressure ratio of I· 71 is obtainable from a weak plane oblique shock with
an efficiency of 98 per cent, it would appear that a supersonic intake designed to
make use of one or more such shocks might be more efficient than the simple type
of 'pi tot' intake referred to in section A.6; and this has been found to be the case.
In the Oswatitsch intake, which makes use of a conical centre body as shown in
Fig. A 15, the flow is decelerated to a low supersonic velocity by several successive
oblique shocks (two are shown) with the final transition to subsonic velocity taking
place via a normal shock. The main problems in the design of such supersonic
intakes are (a) the establishment of a stable shock pattern insensitive to minor
ISENTROPIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL SUPERSONIC EXPANSION & COMPRESSION 461

changes in the flow downstream (e.g. in the engine), and (b) the maintenance of a
good performance under off-design conditions. For aircraft engine intakes which
have to operate over a complete speed range from M, = 0 to M, » I, variable
geometry is essential. This is accomplished by incorporating an adjustable centre
body and/or cowl, and bleed slots. Figure AI6 illustrates a variable geometry
intake of the 'scoop' type, which is of rectangular cross-section: it may be slung
under the wing or run along the side of the fuselage.

A.8 Isentropic two-dimensional supersonic expansion and

compression

Perhaps the foregoing sections have left the reader with the impression that
isentropic expansion and compression of a supersonic stream is impossible in
principle. A moment's reflection on the existence of successful supersonic aircraft
wings, and efficient nozzles and diffusers for supersonic wind tunnels, should dispel
this illusion. Processes which would be isentropic apart from the effect of viscous
friction are possible if the duct walls, or immersed body as the case may be, are
correctly shaped. Certainly it is possible to avoid the large loss of stagnation
pressure due to breakdown of the flow which was illustrated in Fig. A4.
Consider supersonic flow that is initially parallel to a surface but which encounters a
small change of direction of the surface; it may be a convex or concave deflection as
in Fig. AI7(a) and (b). If the change in direction is infinitesimal, the corner is the
source of an infinitesimal disturbance which is communicated to the main flow
isentropically along a Mach wave. From section A. I we know that this wave will
make an angle J1 = sin-I (11M) with the direction of flow. And from the velocity
triangles of Fig. AI7 we see that the convex corner produces an increase in velocity,
dC, which must be accompanied by a pressure drop dp; while the concave corner
leads to a decrease in velocity, implying a compression.
 Any rounded convex corner giving a finite deflection can be regarded as the source
of a series of infinitesimal deflections as illustrated in Fig. AI8(a). The Mach
waves, or characteristic lines as they are often called, diverge and do not interfere
with each other, so permitting the flow to accelerate smoothly and isentropically to
the downstream pressure. In the limit the same thing can occur at a sharp finite
corner: in this case the flow expands smoothly through a fan of Mach waves as
shown in Fig. AI8(b). This is known as Prandtl-Meyer flow, and the evaluation of
finite changes of pressure and Mach number associated with a finite deflection is
possible with the aid of tabulations of Prandtl-Meyer 'expansion angles'. We shall
proceed no further with this topic, but say merely that the analysis of supersonic
flow patterns using a step-by-step method moving from one Mach line to the next,
is referred to as the method of characteristics. When it is realized that in most
situations the Mach waves will suffer reflections from neighbouring surfaces or jet
boundaries, or intersect and interact with Mach waves from an opposing surface, it
will be appreciated that the analysis is complex and beyond the scope of this
Appendix.
To conclude, let us consider briefly what happens in a finite concave corner. Ifit is
rounded as in Fig. AI9(a), the Mach waves will appear as shown. They must
converge because the Mach number is decreasing and hence the Mach angle Jl is
increasing. For a sharp concave corner there can be no compressive equivalent of
an expansion fan, because this would involve successive Mach lines marching
upstream of one another. What happens, since no corner is truly sharp, is that the
Mach lines converge to a point in the stream near the surface and coalesce to form
an oblique shock as in Fig. AI9(b). The compression process is then no longer
isentropic. In other words, an isentropic diffusion of a supersonic stream can only
occur in a passage bounded by gradual concave curves.
Appendix B
Problems
464 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS

and to let the LP turbine exhaust to atmosphere. Derive an expression for the ideal
cycle efficiency of this scheme in terms of c and t, and hence show that for all
values of c > I the efficiency is higher than that of the ordinary scheme.
Finally, by referring to sketches of the cycles on the T-s diagram, say in what
respects the normal scheme might be superior in spite of the lower ideal cycle
efficiency.

Assume that the working fluid is a perfect gas with constant specific heats, and that
pressure losses in the heater, reheater, and heat-exchanger are negligible.

2.5 A gas turbine plant has a compressor in which air is compressed from
atmospheric pressure and delivered to two turbines arranged in parallel, the
combustion gases expanding to atmospheric pressure in each turbine. One of the
turbines drives the compressor, to which it is mechanically coupled, while the other
develops the power output of the plant. Each turbine has its own combustion
chamber, the fuel supply to each being capable of control independently of the
other.
APPENDIX B PROBLEMS 465

(b) Derive corresponding expressions for the alternative method of control in

which the fuel supply to the combustion chambers is reduced in such a way
that the inlet temperatures to both turbines are always equal.
(c) Calculate the percentage of full power developed under each of the foregoing
methods of control when the pressure ratio of the compressor has fallen to
30, on a plant designed to give full power under the following conditions:
pressure ratio of the compressor 4·0
inlet temperature to the compressor 288 K
inlet temperature to both turbines 1100K

2.6 A compressor has an isentropic efficiency of 0·85 at a pressure ratio of 4·0.

Calculate the corresponding polytropic efficiency, and thence plot the variation of
isentropic efficiency over a range of pressure ratio from 2·0 to 10·0.
[0·876; 0·863 at 2·0 and 0·828 at 10·0]

2.7 A peak-load generator is to be powered by a simple gas turbine with free

power turbine delivering 20 MW of shaft power. The following data are applicable:
Compressor pressure ratio 11·0
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0·82
Combustion pressure loss 0·4 bar
Combustion efficiency 0·99
Turbine inlet temperature 1150K
Gas-generator turbine isentropic efficiency 0·87
Power turbine isentropic efficiency 0·89
Mechanical efficiency (each shaft) 0·98
Ambient conditions Pa, Ta I bar, 288 K
Calculate the air mass flow required and the SFC.
[119·4kgjs,0·307kgjkWh]

and that this result is independent of the compressor and turbine efficiencies.
Assumptions:
(I) No pressure loss in combustion chamber or heat-exchanger.
(2) The working fluid is air throughout and the specific heats are constant.
(3) The air bled for cooling purposes does no work in the turbine.
(4) The temperature of the air entering the combustion chamber is equal to that
of the turbine exhaust.
A plant of this kind operates with an inlet temperature of 288 K, a pressure ratio of
6·0, a turbine isentropic efficiency of 90 per cent and a compressor isentropic
466 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS

efficiency of 87 per cent. Heat transfer calculations indicate that if 5 per cent of the
compressor delivery is bled off for cooling purposes, the maximum temperature of
the cycle can be raised from 1000 to 1250K. Find the percentage increase in (a)
efficiency, and (b) specific work output, which is achieved by the combined bleeding
and cooling process. Make the same assumptions as before and take
throughout.
What results would you expect if these calculations were repeated for the plant
with the heat-exchanger omitted?
[25·1 per cent, 47·8 per cent]
2.9 An auxiliary gas turbine for use on a large airliner uses a single-shaft
configuration with air bled from the compressor discharge for aircraft services. The
unit must provide 1·5kg/s bleed air and a shaft power of 200 kW. Calculate (a) the
total compressor air mass flow and (b) the power available with no bleed flow,
assuming the following:
Compressor pressure ratio 3·80
Compressor isentropic efficiency 0·85
Combustion pressure loss 0·12 bar
Turbine inlet temperature 1050K
Turbine isentropic efficiency 0·88
Mechanical efficiency (compressor rotor) 0·99
Mechanical efficiency (driven load) 0·98
Ambient conditions I bar, 288 K
[4·78 kg/s, 633 kW]
2.10 A closed-cycle gas turbine is to be used in conjunction with a gas-cooled
nuclear reactor. The working fluid is helium (cp = 5·19 kJ/kg K and y = 1·66).
The layout of the plant consists of two-stage compression with intercooling
followed by a heat-exchanger; after leaving the cold side of the heat-exchanger
the helium passes through the reactor channels and on to the turbine; from the
turbine it passes through the hot side of the heat-exchanger and then a pre-
cooler before returning to the compressor inlet. The following data are
applicable:
Compressor and turbine polytropic efficiencies 0·88
Temperature at LP compressor inlet 310 K
Pressure at LP compressor inlet 14·0bar
Compressor pressure ratios (LP and HP) 2·0
Temperature at HP compressor inlet 300 K
Mass flow of helium 180kg/s
Reactor thermal output (heat input to gas turbine) 500 MW
Pressure loss in pre-cooler and intercooler (each) 0·34 bar
Pressure loss in heat-exchanger (each side) 0·27 bar
Pressure loss in reactor channels 1·03bar
Helium temperature at entry to reactor channels 700 K
Calculate the power output and thermal efficiency, and the heat-exchanger
effectiveness implied by the data.
[214·5MW, 0·429, 0·782]
3.1 A simple turbojet is operating with a compressor pressure ratio of 8·0, a
turbine inlet temperature of 1200K and a mass flow of 15kg/s, when the aircraft is
flying at 260 m/s at an altitude of 7000 m. Assuming the following component
efficiencies, and ISA conditions, calculate the propelling nozzle area required, the
net thrust developed and the SFe.
 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS 467

Polytropic efficienciesof compressor and 0·87

turbine
Isentropic efficiencyof intake 0·95
Isentropic efficiencyof propelling nozzle 0·95
Mechanical efficiency 0.99
Combustion chamber pressure loss 6 per cent compodeliv. press.
Combustion efficiency 0·97
[0·0713m2, 7896N, 0·126kg/hN]

3.2 The gases in the jet pipe of the engine considered in problem 3.1 are reheated
to 2000K, and the combustion pressure loss incurred is 3 per cent of the pressure
at outlet from the turbine. Calculate the percentage increase in nozzle area required
if the mass flow is to be unchanged, and also the percentage increase in net thrust.
[48·3 per cent, 64·5 per cent]

3.3 A naval aircraft is powered by a turbojet engine, with provision for flap
blowing. When landing at 55m s. 15 per cent of the compressor delivery air is
bled off for flap blowing and it can be assumed to be discharged perpendicularly
to the direction of flight. If a propelling nozzle area of 0·13 m2 is used, calculate
the net thrust during landing given that the engine operating conditions are as
follows.

Compressor pressure ratio 9·0

Compressor isentropic efficiency 0·82
Turbine inlet temperature 1275K
Turbine isentropic efficiency 0·87
Combustion pressure loss 045 bar
Nozzle isentropic efficiency 0-95
Mechanical efficiency 0·98
Ambient conditions 1bar. 288 K
The ram pressure and temperature rise can be regarded as negligible.
[18·77kN]

3.4 Under take-off conditions when the ambient pressure and temperature are
1·0I bar and 288K, the stagnation pressure and temperature in the jet pipe of a
turbojet engine are 2·4 bar and 1000K, and the mass flow is 23 k.gsoAssuming that
the expansion in the converging propelling nozzle is isentropic. calculate the exit
area required and the thrust produced.
For a new version of the engine the thrust is to be increased by the addition
of an aft fan which provides a separate cold exhaust stream. The fan has a
bypass ratio of 2·0 and a pressure ratio of 1·75, the isentropic efficiencies of
the fan and fan-turbine sections being 0·88 and 0·90 respectively. Calculate the
take-off thrust assuming that the expansion in the cold nozzle is also
isentropic, and that the hot nozzle area is adjusted so that the hot mass flow
remains at 23 kg/so
[0·0763m2, 15·35kN; 24·9kN]
3.5 Extending the example on the turbofan in Chapter 3, with the additional
information that the combustion efficiency is 0·99, determine the SFC. Also,
calculate the thrust and SFC when a combustion chamber is incorporated in the
bypass duct and the 'cold' stream is heated to 1000K. The combustion efficiency
and pressure loss for this process may be assumed to be 0·97 and 0·05 bar
respectively.
[0·0429kg/h N; 55·95kN, 0·128kg/hN]
468 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS

4.1 The following data refer to the eye of a single-sided impeller.

Inner radius 6·5 cm
Outer radius 15·0cm
Mass flow 8 kg/s
Ambient conditions 1·00bar, 288 K
Speed 270rev/s
Assuming no pre-whirl and no losses in the intake duct, calculate the blade inlet
angle at root and tip of the eye, and the Mach number at the tip of the eye.
[48.20°,25-43°,0.843]
4.2 An aircraft engine is fitted with a single-sided centrifugal compressor. The
aircraft flies with a speed of 230m/s at an altitude where the pressure is 0·23 bar
and the temperature 217 K. The intake duct of the impeller eye contains fixed vanes
which give the air pre-whirl of 25° at all radii. The inner and outer diameters of the
eye are 18 and 33cm respectively, the diameter of the impeller periphery is 54cm
and the rotational speed 270 revIs. Estimate the stagnation pressure at the
compressor outlet when the mass flow is 3·60 kg/so
Neglect losses in the inlet duct and fixed vanes, and assume that the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 0·80. Take the slip factor as 0·9 and the power input
factor as 1·04.
[1·75 bar]
4.3 The following results were obtained from a test on a small single-sided
centrifugal compressor:
Compressor delivery stagnation pressure 2·97 bar
Compressor delivery stagnation temperature 429 K
Static pressure at impeller tip 1·92bar
Mass flow 0·60 kg/s
Rotational speed 766 rev/s
Ambient conditions 0·99 bar and 288 K
Calculate the overall isentropic efficiency of the compressor.
The diameter of the impeller is 16·5cm, the axial depth of the vaneless diffuser is
1·0cm and the number of impeller vanes (n) is 17. Making use of the Stanitz equation
for slip factor, namely (J = 1 - (0·63n/n), calculate the stagnation pressure at the
impeller tip and hence find the fraction of the overall loss which occurs in the impeller.
[0·75; 3·35 bar, 0·60]
4.4 The following design data apply to a double-sided centrifugal compressor:
Outer diameter of impeller 50 cm
Speed 270 rev/s
Mass flow 16·0kg/s
Inlet temperature 288 K
Inlet pressure 1·0I bar
Isentropic efficiency of impeller only 0·90
Radial gap of vaneless space 4·0 cm
Axial depth of vaneless space 5·0 cm
Slip factor 0·9
Power input factor 1·04
(a) Calculate the stagnation pressure and temperature at the outlet of the
impeller, assuming no pre-whirl.
(b) Show that the radial outlet velocity at the impeller tip is about 96m/s and
hence find the Mach number and air leaving angle at the impeller tip. (In
APPENDIX B PROBLEMS 469

calculating the circumferential area at the tip, the thickness of the impeller
disc may be neglected.)
(c) Assuming isentropic diffusion in the vaneless space, find the correct angle of
the leading edges of the diffuser vanes, and also find the Mach number at this
radius.
[(a) 4-40 bar, 455K, (b) 1·01, 14.08°, (c) 12.40°,0.842]

4.5 A single-sided centrifugal compressor is to deliver 14kg/s of air when

operating at a pressure ratio of 4: I and a speed of 200 revIs. The inlet stagnation
conditions may be taken as 288 K and 1·0bar. Assuming a slip factor of 0·9, a
power input factor of 1·04 and an overall isentropic efficiency of 0·80, estimate the
overall diameter of the impeller.
If the Mach number is not to exceed unity at the impeller tip, and 50 per cent of
the losses are assumed to occur in the impeller, find the minimum possible axial
depth of the diffuser.
[68·9cm,5·26cm]
5.1 An axial flow compressor stage has blade root, mean and tip velocities of 150,
200 and 250 m/s. The stage is to be designed for a stagnation temperature rise of
20 K and an axial velocity of 150mis, both constant from root to tip. The work
done factor is 0·93. Assuming 50 per cent reaction at mean radius, calculate the
stage air angles at root, mean and tip and the degree of reaction at root and tip for
a free vortex design.

5.2 Recalculate the stage air angles for the same data as in the previous question
for a stage with 50 per cent reaction at all radii, and compare the results with those
for the free vortex design.

5.3 The first stage of an axial compressor is designed on free vortex principles,
with no inlet guide vanes. The rotational speed is 6000 rev/min and the stagnation
temperature rise is 20 K. The hub-tip ratio is 0·60, the work-done factor is 0·93
and the isentropic efficiency of the stage is 0·89. Assuming an inlet velocity of
140m/s and ambient conditions of 1·01bar and 288K, calculate:

5.4 An axial flow compressor has an overall pressure ratio of 4·0 and mass flow
of 3 kg/so If the polytropic efficiency is 88 per cent and the stagnation temperature
rise per stage must not exceed 25 K, calculate the number of stages required and
the pressure ratio of the first and last stages. Assume equal temperature rise in all
stages. If the absolute velocity approaching the last rotor is 165m/s at an angle of
20° from the axial direction, the work-done factor is 0·83, the velocity diagram is
symmetrical, and the mean diameter of the last stage rotor is 18cm, calculate the
rotational speed and the length of the last stage rotor blade at inlet to the stage.
Ambient conditions are 1·01 bar and 288 K.
[7,1·273,1·178; 414rev/s, 1·325cm]
470 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS

5.5 A helicopter gas turbine requires an overall compressor pressure ratio of

10: 1. This is to be obtained using a two-spool layout consisting of a four-stage
axial compressor followed by a single-stage centrifugal compressor. The polytropic
efficiency of the axial compressor is 92 per cent and that of the centrifugal is 83 per
cent.
The axial compressor has a stage temperature rise of 30 K, using a 50 per cent
reaction design with a stator outlet angle of 20 If the mean diameter of each
0
•

stage is 25·0 cm and each stage is identical, calculate the required rotational
speed. Assume a work-done factor of 0·86 and a constant axial velocity of 150 m/
s.
Assuming an axial velocity at the eye of the impeller, an impeller tip diameter of
33·0 cm, a slip factor of 0·90 and a power input factor of 1·04, calculate the
rotational speed required for the centrifugal compressor.
Ambient conditions are 1·01 bar and 288 K.
[Axial compressor 318 revis, centrifugal compressor 454 rev/s]

6.2 (Chapter 2 also refers) A gas turbine combustion chamber is supplied with
liquid fuel at 325 K and air at 450 K. The fuel approximates to CIOH 12, and five
times the quantity of air required for stoichiometric combustion is supplied.
Calculate the fuel/air ratio, and estimate the fuel products' temperature assuming
the combustion to be adiabatic and complete.
In addition to the following data, use appropriate values of cp from p. 17 of the
abridged tables of Ref. (8) in Chapter 2: the combustion temperature rise curves of
Fig. 2.17 may be used to obtain an initial approximate value of the products'
temperature.
Data:

6.3 The overall pressure loss factor of a combustion chamber may be assumed to
vary with the temperature ratio according to the law

For a particular chamber having an inlet area of 0·0389 m2 and a maximum cross-
sectional area Am of 0·0975m2, cold loss tests show that K] has the value 19·0.
When tested under design conditions the following readings were obtained.
Estimate the pressure loss at a part-load condition for which m is 740kg/s, Tal is
439 K, Tal is 900 K and PI is 3·52 bar.
Also, for these two operating conditions compare the values of (a) the velocity at
inlet to the chamber and (b) the pressure loss as a fraction of the inlet stagnation
(i.e. compressor delivery) pressure, and comment on the result.
[0·213 bar; 70·2m/s, 67·7m s; 0·0593. 0·0597]
7.1 A mean-diameter design of a turbine stage having equal inlet and outlet
velocities leads to the following data.

7.2 The following particulars relate to a single-stage turbine of free vortex design.

7.3 The following data apply to a single-stage turbine designed on free vortex theory.
472 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS
APPENDIX B PROBLEMS 473

The combustion pressure loss is 5 per cent of the compressor delivery pressure and
the ambient conditions are 1·01bar and 288 K. Mechanical losses can be neglected.
The 'non-dimensional' flows are based on m in kg/s, p in bar and T in K, all
pressures and temperatures being stagnation values.
Calculate the power output when operating at a turbine inlet temperature of
1100K. Comment briefly on the variation in thermal efficiency as the load is
reduced at constant speed.
[264kW]
8.2 The following data refer to a gas turbine with a free power turbine, operating
at design speed.

l---compressor inlet
2---compressor delivery
3-gas-generator turbine inlet
4-power turbine inlet.
[5·1O,1170K]
8.3 When running at a low power condition a gas turbine with free power turbine
operates at a compressor pressure ratio of 2·60. The combustion chamber pressure
loss is 4 per cent of the compressor delivery pressure and the exhaust pressure loss
can be ignored.
The turbine characteristics are given below:

The 'non-dimensional' flows are based on m in kg/s, p in bar and T in K, all

pressures and temperatures being stagnation values.
Calculate the gas-generator turbine pressure ratio at this condition. Assuming the
compressor characteristic to be known, indicate briefly how you would calculate
the turbine inlet temperature.
[1·61]
474 APPENDIX B PROBLEMS

8.4 A gas turbine with a free power turbine gives the following results when
tested at ambient conditions of 1·0bar and 288 K.

The 'non-dimensional' flows are based on m in kg/s, p in bar and T in K, all

pressures and temperatures being stagnation values.
The power turbine remains choked for all of these conditions. The gas-generator
turbine inlet temperature at 95 per cent design mechanical speed was found to be
1075K. Assuming single-line turbine flow characteristics, constant turbine
efficiency, and constant mechanical efficiency of the gas-generator rotor, calculate
(a) the gas-generator turbine inlet temperature at design mechanical speed with
the same ambient conditions;
(b) the compressor power absorbed when running at 95 per cent design
mechanical speed with ambient conditions of 0·76 bar and 273 K.
Sketch the operating line on the compressor characteristic, and discuss the effect of
ambient temperature on net power output for a fixed gas-generator mechanical
speed.
[1215K,33l8kW]
8.5 A simple gas turbine is to be used as a source of compressed air. The turbine
produces just enough work to drive the compressor which delivers an airflow, me.
greater than that required for the turbine by an amount mb' The design point
operating conditions are

A rough estimate of the equilibrium running line is required on the compressor

characteristic for the conditions where T3/T, is maintained constant and the
amount of air bled off, mb, is varied. For this purpose the efficiencies of the
compressor and turbine can be assumed to be constant, the mechanical
transmission loss and the combustion pressure loss can be neglected, and the
turbine 'non-dimensional' mass flow can be assumed independent of speed and
related to the pressure ratio r by the expression
 Appendix C
References

Chapter 1

(1) CARCHEDI, F., GALLIMORE, S., SIEMIERNIK. A. F. and GOODMAN,

D. A. Development and early field experience of the Typhoon gas turbine,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. paper 91-GT-382. 1991.
(2) MORRIS, R. E. The Pratt and Whitney PWlOO--evolution of the design
concept, Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal, 28, 1982. 2l1-2l.
(3) BRANDT, D. E. The design and development of an advanced heavy-duty gas
turbine, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 110,
1988,243-50.
(4) SCALZO, A. J., BANNISTER, R. L., de CORSO, M. and HOWARD, G. S.
Evolution of heavy-duty power generation and industrial combustion turbines
in the United States, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 94-GT-
488, 1994.
(5) ROCHA, G. and ETHERIDGE, C. J. Evolution of the Solar Titan 130
industrial gas turbine, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 98-
GT-590, 1998.
(6) PICKERELL, D. J. Rolls-Royce RB211-535 power plant, Journal of Aircraft,
20, 1983, 15-20.
(7) RUFFLES, P. C. Innovation in aero engines, Aeronautical Journal. Royal
Aeronautical Society, 1996,473-83.

Chapter 2

(1) ROGERS, G. F. C. and MAYHEW, Y. R. Engineering Thermodynamics.

Work and Heat Transfer, 5th edition (Longman, 1994).
(2) McDONALD, C. F. Emergence of recuperated gas turbines for power
generation, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-GT-67. 1999.
(3) BANES, B., McINTYRE, R. W. and SIMS, J. A Properties of Air and
Combustion Products with Kerosene and Hydrogen Fuels (AGARD. 1967).
(4) FIELDING, D. and TOPPS, J. E. C. Thermodynamic data for the calculation
of gas turbine performance, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M No. 3099
(HMSO, 1959).
 476 APPENDIX C REFERENCES

(5) LITTLE, D. A., BANNISTER, R. L. and WIANT, B. C. Development of

advanced gas turbine systems, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Cogen Turbo Power, 93, 1993,271-80.
(6) LUGAND, P. and PARIETTI, C. Combined cycle plants with Frame 9F gas
turbines, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 113,
1991,475-8l.
(7) CATINA, J. L., FORTUNE, H. J. and SOROKA, G. E. Repowering
Chesterfield 1 and 2 with combined cycle, Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 110, 1988,214-99.
(8) ROGERS, G. F. C. and MAYHEW, Y. R. Thermodynamic and Transport
Properties of Fluids (Blackwell, 1995).
(9) McDONALD, C. F. Enabling technologies for nuclear gas turbine power
conversion systems, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 94-GT-
415, 1994.

Chapter 3

(1) HILL, P. G. and PETERSON, C. R. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of

Propulsion, 2nd edition (Addison-Wesley, 1992).
(2) Relationships between some common intake parameters, Royal Aeronautical
Society, data sheet 66028, 1966.
(3) SEDDON, J. and GOLDSMITH, E. L. Intake Aerodynamics (AIAA
Education Series, 1985).
(4) ASHWOOD, P. F. A review of the performance of exhaust systems for gas
turbine aero-engines, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
171,1957,129-58.
(5) YOUNG, P. H. Propulsion controls on the Concorde, Journal of the Royal
Aeronautical Society, 70, 1966,863-81.
(6) ROGERS, G. F. C. and MAYHEW, Y. R. One-dimensional irreversible gas
flow in nozzles, Engineering, London, 175, 1953,355-8.
(7) FROST, T. H. Practical bypass mixing systems for fan jet aero-engines,
Aeronautical Quarterly, 17, 1966, 141-60.
(8) LEWIS, G. M. The next European engine for combat aircraft, Aeronautical
Journal, Royal Aeronautical Society, Feb. 1984.
(9) STEVENSON, J. D. and SARA VANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. Simulating
indirect thrust measurement methods for high bypass turbofans,
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 117, 1995,
38-46.
(10) SARA VANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. Modern turboprop engines, Progress in
Aerospace Sciences, 24, 1987,225-48.

Chapter 4

(1) WHITTLE, F. The early history of Whittle jet propulsion gas turbines,
of Mechanical Engineers, 152, 1945, 419-35.
Proceedings of the Institution
(2) CHESHIRE, L. J. The design and development of centrifugal compressors for
aircraft gas turbines, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
153, 1945, 426-40.
(3) WRONG, C. B. An introduction to the JT 15D engine, Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 69-GT-119, 1969.
APPENDIX C REFERENCES 477

(4) STANITZ, J. D. Some theoretical aerodynamic investigations of impellers in

radial and mixed-flow centrifugal compressors, Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 74, 1952,473-97.
(5) KENNY, D. P. A novel low-cost diffuser for high-performance centrifugal
compressors, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Series A, 91, 1969,37-46.
(6) FERGUSON, T. B. The Centrifugal Compressor Stage (Butterworth. 1963).
(7) HANKINS, G. A. and COPE, W. F. Discussion on The flow of gases at
sonic and supersonic speeds', Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, 155, 1947,401-16.
(8) ENGINEERING SCIENCES DATA UNIT: Fluid Mechanics-internal flow,
4---Duct expansions and duct contractions, Data Sheets 73024, 74015, 76027.
(9) CAME, P. M. The development, application and experimental evaluation of a
design procedure for centrifugal compressors, Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. 192. No.5. 1978,49-67.
(10) HERBERT, M. V. A method of performance prediction for centrifugal
compressors, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M No. 3843 (HMSO.
1980).
(11) CAME, P. M. and ROBINSON, C. J. Centrifugal compressor design,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 213, Part C, 1999.

Chapter 5
(I) CONSTANT, H. The early history of the axial type of gas turbine engine,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 153, W.E.P. No. 12,
1945.
(2) HOWELL, A. R. Fluid dynamics of axial compressors, and Design of axial
compressors, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 153,
W.E.P. No. 12, 1945.
(3) HOWELL, A. R. The present basis of axial compressor design. Part 1-
Cascade Theory, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M No. 2095 (HMSO,
1942).
(4) JOHNSEN, I. A. and BULLOCK, R. O. Aerodynamic Design of Axial-flow
Compressors, NASA SP-36, 1965.
(5) HORLOCK, J. H. Axial Flow Compressors (Butterworth, 1958).
(6) LIEBLEIN, S. and JOHNSEN, I. A. Resume of transonic compressor
research at NACA Lewis Laboratory, Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Engineering for Power, 83, 1961,219-34.
(7) TODD, K. W. Practical aspects of cascade wind tunnel research, Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 157, W.E.P. No. 36,1947.
(8) GOSTELOW, J. P. Cascade Aerodynamics (Pergamon Press, 1984).
(9) CARTER, A. D. S. Blade profiles for axial flow fans, pumps, compressors.
etc., Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 175, No. 16. 1961.
775-88.
(10) MILLER, G. R., LEWIS, G. W. and HARTMAN, M. J. Shock losses in
transonic blade rows, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Journal of Engineering for Power, 83, 1961,235-42.
(II) SCHWENK, F. c., LEWIS, G. W. and HARTMAN, M. J. A preliminary
analysis of the magnitude of shock losses in transonic compressors. NACA
RM E57A30, 1957.
(12) KERREBROCK, J. L. Flow in transonic compressors. American Institute for
Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal, 19, 1981,4-19.
 478 APPENDIX C REFERENCES

(13) GREITZER, E. M. Review-axial compressor stall phenomena, Transactions

of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Fluids
Engineering, 102, 1980, 134-51.
(14) STONE, A. Effects of stage characteristics and matching on axial-flow-
compressor performance, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 80, 1958, 1273-93.
(15) CARCHEDI, F. and WOOD, G. R. Design and development of a 12:1
pressure ratio compressor for the Ruston 6 MW gas turbine, Transactions of
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Engineering for
Power, 104, 1982,823-31.
(16) WADIA, A. R., WOLF, D. P. and HAASER, F. G. Aerodynamic design and
testing of an axial-flow compressor with pressure ratio of 23·3 for the
LM2500 + gas turbine, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-
GT-21O, 1999.
(17) DAVIS, W. R. and MILLAR, D. A. J. A comparison of the matrix and
streamline curvature methods of axial flow turbomachinery analysis, from a
user's point of view, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 97, 1975, 549-60.
(18) DENTON, J. D. An improved time marching method for turbo machinery
flow calculation, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Paper 82-GT-239,
1982.
(19) McNALLY, W. D. and SOCKOL, P. M. Review-Computational methods
for internal flows with emphasis on turbomachinery, Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Fluids Engineering, 107,
1985,6-22.
(20) FREEMAN, C. and STOW, P. The application of computational fluid
mechanics to aero gas turbine compressor design and development, Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, Conference Publications (1984--3) C70j84.
(21) DUNHAM, J. A.R. Howell; father of the British axial compressor, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 2000-GT-8, 2000.

Chapter 6

(I) SOTHERAN, A. The Rolls-Royce annular vaporizer combustor, American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 83-GT-49, 1983.
(2) Technical Advances in Gas Turbine Design, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers Symposium, 1969.
(3) SPALDING, D. B. Some Fundamentals of Combustion (Butterworths Scientific
Publications, 1955).
(4) ROGERS, G. F. C. and MAYHEW, Y. R. Engineering Thermodynamics,
Work and Heat Transfer, 4th edition (Longman, 1994).
(5) LIPFERT, F. W. Correlation of gas turbine emissions data, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, paper 72-GT-60, 1972.
(6) LEONARD, G. and STEGMAIER, J. Development of an aeroderivative gas
turbine dry low emissions combustion system, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, paper 93-GT-288, 1993.
(7) DA VIS, L. B. and WASHAM, R. M. Development of a dry low NO~
combustor, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 89-GT-255,
1989.
(8) MAGHON, H., BERENBRINK, P., TERMUEHLEN, H. and
GARTNER, G. Progress in NO, and CO emission reduction of gas turbines,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 90-JPGCjGT-4, 1990.
 APPENDIX C REFERENCES 479

(9) SATTELMEYER, T., FELCHLIN, M. P., HAUMANN, J. and STYNER, D.

Second generation low-emission combustors for ABB gas turbines: burner
development and tests at atmospheric pressure, Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 114, 1992, 118-24.
(10) ETHERIDGE, C. J. Mars SoLoNOx-lean pre-mix combustion technology in
production, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 94-GT-255, 1994.
(11) BAHR, D. W. Aircraft engine NOx emissions-abatement progress and
prospects, International Societyfor Air Breathing Engines, paper 91-7022,1991.
(12) SEGALMAN, I., McKINNEY, R. G., STURGESS, G. J. and HUANG,
L. M. Reduction of NO, by fuel-staging in gas turbine engines, AGARD
Conference Proceedings 485, 1993.
(13) SUMMERFIELD, A. H., PRITCHARD, D., TUSON, D. W. and OWEN,
D. A. Mechanical design and development of the RB211 dry low emissions
engine, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 93-GT-245, 1993.
(14) CORBETT, N. C. and LINES, N. P. Control requirements for the RB211 low
emission combustion system, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper
93-GT-12, 1993.
(15) SCARINCI, T. and HALPIN, J. L. Industrial Trent combustor-{;ombustion
noise characteristics, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-GT-
9,1999.
(16) BAMMERT, K. Operating experiences and measurements on turbo sets of
CCGT-cogeneration plants in Germany, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, paper 86-GT-lOl, 1986.

Chapter 7

(1) HAWTHORNE, W. R. ed. Aerodynamics of Turbines and Compressors

(Oxford University Press, 1964).
(2) HORLOCK, J. H. Axial Flow Turbines (Butterworth, 1966).
(3) AINLEY, D. G. and MATHIESON, G. C. R. An examination of the flow
and pressure losses in blade rows of axial flow turbines, Aeronautical Research
Council, R&M 2891 (HMSO, 1955).
(4) JOHNSTON, I. H. and KNIGHT, L. R. Tests on a single-stage turbine
comparing the performance of twisted with untwisted rotor blades,
Aeronautical Research Council, R&M 2927 (HMSO, 1953).
(5) ANDREWS, S. J. and OGDEN, H. A detailed experimental comparison of
(compressor) blades for free vortex flow and equivalent untwisted constant
section blades, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M 2928 (HMSO, 1953).
(6) ISLAM, A. M. T. and SJOLANDER, S. A. Deviation in axial turbines at
subsonic conditions, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-GT-
26, 1999.
(7) SAWYER, J. W. ed. Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (Turbomachinery
International Publications, 1985).
(8) SMITH, D. J. L. Turbulent boundary layer theory and its application to
blade profile design, Aeronautical Research Council c.P. 868 (HMSO, 1966).
(9) AINLEY, D. G. and MATHIESON, G. C. R. A method of performance
estimation for axial-flow turbines, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M 2974
(HMSO, 1951).
(10) DUNHAM, J. and CAME, P. M. Improvements to the Ainley-Mathieson
method of turbine performance prediction, Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Engineering for POI\·er. 92. 1970.
252-6.
480 APPENDIX C REFERENCES

(II) KACKER, S. C. and OKAPUU, U. A mean line prediction method for axial
flow turbine efficiency, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Journal of Engineering for Power, 104, 1982, 111-19.
(12) BENNER, M. W., SJOLANDER, S. A. and MOUSTAPHA, S. H. Influence
of leading-edge geometry on profile losses in turbines at off-design conditions:
experimental results and an improved correlation, Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Turbomachinery, 119,
1999, 193-200.
(13) AINLEY, D. G. Internal air-cooling for turbine blades-a general design
survey, Aeronautical Research Council, R&M 3013 (HMSO, 1957).
(14) HAWTHORNE, W. R. Thermodynamics of cooled turbines, Parts I and II,
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 78, 1956, 1765-81.
(15) BARNES, J. F. and FRAY, D. E. An experimental high-temperature turbine
(No. 126), Aeronautical Research Council, R&M 3405 (HMSO, 1965).
(16) Technical Advances in Gas Turbine Design, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers Symposium, 1969.
(17) PRICE, J. R., JIMENEZ, 0., PARTHASARATHY, V. J. and MIRIYALA,
N. Ceramic stationary gas turbine development program; 6th annual
summary, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 99-GT-351, 1999.
(18) MOWILL, J. and STROM, S. An advanced radial-component industrial gas
turbine, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal
of Engineering for Power, 105, 1983,947-52.
(19) DIXON, S. L. Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery
(Pergamon Press, 1975).
(20) Aerodynamic Performance of Radial Inflow Turbines. First (1963) and Second
(1964) Reports, Motor Industry Research Association. (Alternatively, the
work is summarized in: HIETT, G. F. and JOHNSTON, I. H. Experiments
concerning the aerodynamic performance of inward radial flow turbines,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 178, Part 31(ii), 1964.)
(21) BENSON, R. S. A review of methods for assessing loss coefficients in radial
gas turbines, International Journal of Mechanical Science, 12, 1970, 905-32.
(22) BRIDLE, E. A. and BOULTER, R. A. A simple theory for the prediction of
losses in the rotors of inward radial flow turbines, Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 182, Part 3H, 1968.
(23) BENSON, R. S. Prediction of performance of radial gas turbines in
automotive turbochargers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper
71-GT-66, 1971.

Chapter 8

(I) EBELING, J. E. Thermal energy storage and inlet-air cooling for combined
cycle, American Society o{Mechanical Engineers, paper 94-GT-310, 1994.
(2) MEHER-HOMJI, C. B. and MEE, T. R. Inlet fogging of gas turbine engines,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, papers 2000-GT-307/8, 2000.

Chapter 9

(I) MALLINSON, D. H. and LEWIS, W. G. E. The part-load performance of

various gas-turbine engine schemes, Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, 159,1948,198-219.
APPENDIX C REFERENCES 481

(2) TREWBY, G. F. A. British naval gas turbines, Transactions of the Institution

of Marine Engineers, 66, 1954, 125-67.
(3) SWATMAN, I. M. and MALOHN, D. A. An advanced automotive gas
turbine concept, Transactions of the Society of Automotive Engineers, 69, ]96],
219-27.
(4) COX, J. c., HUTCHINSON, D. and OSWALD, J. I. The Westinghouse/
Rolls-Royce WR-21 gas turbine variable area power turbine design, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 95-GT-54, 1995.
(5) KA YS, W. M. and LONDON, A. L. Compact Heat Exchangers (McGraw-
Hill, ]964).
(6) RAHNKE, C. J. The variable-geometry power turbine, Transactions of the
Society of Automothe Engineers, 78 [i], ]969,2]3-23.
(7) MAYER, A. and van der LINDEN, S. GT 24/26 advanced cycle system
power plant progress for the new millennium, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, paper 99-GT-404, ]999.
(8) YOUNG, P. H. Propulsion controls on the Concorde, Journal of the Royal
Aeronautical Society. 70. ]966, 863-8].
(9) SARAVANAMUTIOO, H. I. H. and FAWKE, A. J. Simulation of gas
turbine dynamic performance, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
paper 70-GT-23. 1970.
(10) FAWKE. A. J. and SARAVANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. Experimental
investigation of methods for improving the dynamic response of a twin-spool
turbojet engine, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
93, series A, 1971, 418-24.
(1]) FAWKE, A. J. and SARAVANAMUTIOO. H. I. H. Digital computer
methods for prediction of gas turbine dynamic response. Transactions of the
Society of Automotive Engineers. 80 [iii]. ]971. ]805-]3.
(]2) SARA VANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. and MacISAAC. B. D. An overview of
engine dynamic response and mathematical modelling concepts, AGARD
Conference Proceedings No. 324 'Engine Handling', ]982.
(13) MEHER-HOMJI, C. B. Gas turbine axial compressor fouling: a unified
treatment of its effects, detection and control, International Journal of Turbo
and Jet Engines, 9, ]992, 3] ]-34.
(14) DIAKUNCHAK, I. S. Performance deterioration in industrial gas turbines,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, paper 9]-GT-228, ]991.
(15) SARAVANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. and LAKSHMIRANASIMHA, A. N.
A preliminary assessment of compressor fouling, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, paper 85-GT-153, 1985.
(16) SJOLANDER, S. A., ISAACS, D. and KLEIN, W. A. Aerodynamics of
turbine blades with trailing edge damage: measurements and computations,
Proceedings, 11th International Symposium on Air Breathing Engines, 2, 1993,
1327-34.
(17) AKER, G. F. and SARA VANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. Predicting gas turbine
performance degradation due to compressor fouling using computer
simulation techniques, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Journal of Engineering for Power, 111, 1989, 343-50.
(18) SARAVANAMUTTOO, H. I. H. and MacISAAC, B. D. Thermodynamic
models for pipeline gas turbine diagnostics, Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 105, Series A, 1983, 875-84.
(19) MUIR, D. E., RUDNITSKI, D. M. and CUE, R. W. CF-18 Engine
performance monitoring, AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 448, 'Engine
Condition M onitoring- Technology and Experience', 1988.
482 APPENDIX C REFERENCES

Appendix A

(1) HOUGHTON, E. L. and BROCK, A. E. Tables for the Compressible Flow of

Dry Air (Arnold, 1970).
(2) KEENAN, J. H. and KA YE, J. Gas Tables (Wiley, 1948).
(3) SHAPIRO, A. H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Flow
(Ronald, 1954).
(4) LIEPMANN, H. W. and ROSHKO, A. Elements of Gas Dynamics (Wiley,
1957).

Supplementary texts

BATHIE, W. W. Fundamentals of Gas Turbines, 2nd edition (Wiley, 1995).

CUMPSTY, N. A. Compressor Aerodynamics (Longman, 1989).
CUMPSTY, N. A. Jet Propulsion (Cambridge University Press, 1997).
JAPIKSE, D. and BAINES, N. C. Introduction to Turbomachinery (Concepts ETI
Inc.jOxford University Press, 1994).
LAKSHMIRANY ANA, B. Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery
(Wiley, 1996).
LEFEBVRE, A. H. Gas Turbine Combustion (McGraw-Hill, 1983).
MATTINGLEY, J. D., HEISER, W. H. and DALEY, D. H. Aircraft Engine
Design (AIAA Education Series, 1987).
McKENZIE, A. B. Axial Flow Fans and Compressors (Ashgate, 1997).
SAWYER, J. W. and JAPIKSE, D. (eds) Gas Turbine Handbook, 4th edition
(Turbomachinery International Publications, 1990).
SMITH, M. J. T. Aircraft Noise (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
WALSH, P. P. and FLETCHER, P. Gas Turbine Performance (Blackwell Science,
1998).
WILSON, D. G. and KORAKIANITIS, T. The Design of High-Efficiency
Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines, 2nd edition (Prentice Hall, 1998).
 Index

Abrasive cleaning, 437 Axial flow turbine, cont.

Aerodynamic coupling, 260, 417, 421 blade profile, 329, 339
Aft-fan, 135 characteristics, 355, 377, 386
Afterburning, 108, 142 choking, 356, 386, 388
pressure loss, 144 cooling, 356
Air angles, 187,212,219,228 free power, 7, 76, 431
Air cooling, 54,283,337,356 multi-stage, 305, 315, 358
Air/fuel ration, see Fuel/air ratio stage, 306
Air seperation unit, 302 stage efficiency, 308, 313, 353
Aircraft variable-area stators, 414
gas turbines, 12, 99
propulsion cycles, 99 Backswept vanes, 154, 161
Altitude, effect on performance 117, Biconvex blading, 184,236,248
119,265,401,404 Binary cycle: see Combined power
Ambient conditions, effect of, 375, plant
403 Blade, aspect ratio, 234, 332
Annular combustion chamber, 14, camber, 230, 235, 335
267, 275 cascade, 228
Annulus, contraction, 218 chord, 191,230,332
drag, 240 efficiency, 242
loss, 328, 350 fan, 236
radius ratio, 188, 198, 208, 320 loading coefficient, 308, 360
Applications, industrial, 18 loss coefficient, 236, 240, 247,
Aspect ratio, 234, 332 312,328,348,352
Atomization, 284 pitch, 191,230, 332, 338
Auxillary power unit, 140 pressure distribution, 340
Axial compressor, 10, 181 profile, 235, 248, 329, 339
blading, 182, 228, 235 relative temperature, 359
characteristics, 255, 376, 406 root, 338
stage, 182, 185 stagger, 231, 236
surging in, 252, 257, 259 stresses, 188, 333, 337. 346
variable stators, 183,260 taper, 189, 334
vortex flow in, 198 tip clearance, 241, 329, 350
Axial flow turbine, 305 velocity distribution, 191,342
484 INDEX

Blading design Characteristics, cont.

constant nozzle angle, 326 power turbine, 377, 386
constant reaction, 206, 223, 226 propelling nozzle, 397, 406
exponential, 205, 224, 226 torque, 393
first power, 205 turbine, 355, 377, 387
free vortex, 201, 219, 226, 323 Chilling of flame, 271, 273
Bleed valve, 141 Choking, in axial compressor, 257,
Bleeds, cooling 53, 71, 358 259
Blisk, 262 in centrifugal compressor, 177
Blow-off, 259, 381,406 in duct, 449
Boundary layer, 230, 328 in propelling nozzle, 111,397,401
separation, 320, 340, 446 in turbine, 356, 386, 417
transition, 340, 364 Chord, 191,230,332
Burner Circular arc blading, 184, 236, 248
double-cone, 298 Climb rating, 403
dual-fuel, 285, 298 Closed cycle, 4, 10, 93, 301
duplex, 285 Coal gasification, 37,290,301
hybrid, 297 Coefficient, annulus drag, 240
simplex, 285 blade loading, 308, 360
spill, 285 blade loss, 238, 240, 247, 312,
Bypass 328, 348, 352
engine: see Turbofan flow, 253, 309, 360
ratio, 122, 129 heat transfer, 95, 361
lift, 238, 240
Camber nozzle loss, 312, 349, 351, 369
angle, 230, 235, 335 overall drag, 242
line, 235 profile drag, 238, 349
Carbon formation, 269 profile loss, 328, 349, 353
Cascade, notation, 231 rotor loss, 369
of blades, 229 secondary loss, 241, 351
pressure los, 231 temperature drop, 308, 360
test results, 232 Cogeneration plant (CHP), 27, 89, 92
tunnel, 229 Combined cycle plant, 4, 25, 37, 89
Centrifugal bending stress, 334, 336 Combustion
Centrifugal compressor, 14, 151 efficiency, 68, 276
characteristics, 175 emissions, 290
surging, 176 fluidized bed, 36
Centrifugal tensile stress, 188, 333, intensity, 281
346 mixing in, 270, 274
Ceramic, rotor, 365 noise, 301
combustor lining, 35, 270 pressure loss, 61, 273, 275
Characteristics, axial compressor, process, 270
255, 377, 407 sequential (see Reheat), 8, 38, 78,
centrifugal compressor, 175 416
load, 380 stability, 271, 280
INDEX 485

Combustor (combustion chamber), Cooled turbine, 356

annular, 14,267,275 Core, 145
can (or tubular), 14,266,275 Critical, pressure ratio, 109, Ill,
cannular (or tubo-annular), 266. 315.318.398
275 Mach number in cascade, 247
dry low-NO" 296 Cruise rating. 403
emissions, 290 Cycle. aircraft propulsion. 99, 104,
flame tube, 271, 283 113. 116. 119
industrial, 268, 276, 297 closed, 4. 10. 93
reverse flow, 14, 267 complex, 8. 88. 412
silo, 268 constant pressure, 3. 46
Common core, 145 constant volume, 3
Complex cycles, 8, 88, 412 efficiency, 47,53,71,81
Compressed air storage, 38 heat-exchange, 48, 51, 73, 84
Compressibility effects, 443 ideal, 45
in axial compressors, 190, 246 intercooled, 52, 86
in centrifugal compressors, 167 Joule, 46
in turbines, 315, 346 open, 4, 46
Compressor, axial, 10, 181 reheat, 50, 78, 86
fouling, 436 simple, 45, 83
centrifugal, 14, 151 shaft power, 45
characteristics, 175,255,376,407 turbofan, 14, 121, 129
cleaning, 437 turbojet, 12, 100, 113, 116
supersonic and transonic, 181, turboprop, 14, 136
184,248 turboshaft, 14, 139
test rigs, 257
twin-spool, 9, 259 Dampers, part span, 251
variable stators, 183,260 de Haller number, 191,211-216,
washing, 437 237
Concurrent engineering, 40 Deflection, 191,228,231,233
Conservation equations, 447 nominal, 233
Constant mass flow design, 327 Degree of reaction: see Reaction
Constant nozzle angle design, 326 Design point performance, 73, 374
Constant pressure cycle, 3, 46 heat-exchange cycle, 74, 84
intercooling, 8, 52, 86 intercooled cycle, 86
reheating, 8, 50, 78, 86 reheat cycle, 78, 86
with heat exchange, 6,48, 74, 84 turbofan cycle, 123, 129
Constant reaction blading, 205, turbojet cycle, 113, 116
223,226 Deviation angle, 231, 235
Constant volume cycle, 3 Diffuser, 152, 160, 162, 164
Control systems, 292, 438 vanes, 165, 177
Convective air cooling, 283, 337, volute, 167
356 Diffusion factor, 191. 192.237
Convergent-divergent nozzle, 109, Dilution zone, 271
315, 445 Dimensional analysis. 173
486 INDEX

Drag, momentum, 100, 117, 119, Equilibrium, cont.

132, 144 turbojet unit, 400
pod, 132 twin-spool unit, 422
Drag coefficient, 238, 241 Equilibrium running line, 374, 381,
annulus, 241 386, 406, 422
profile, 238 Equivalent, flow, 179
secondary loss, 241 power, 137
Duplex burner, 285 speed, 179
Dynamic head, 62, 274 Evaporative cooling, 397
temperature, 54, 279 Exponential blading, 205, 224, 226
Eye of impeller, 154, 156, 168
Effectiveness of heat-exchanger, 63,
85, 96 Fan, blade, 251
Efficiency pressure ratio, 123, 129-131
blade, 242 Fanno flow, 452, 457
combustion, 68, 276 Fir tree root, 338
compressor and turbine, 56, 57 First power designs, 205
compressor blade row, 242 Flame, chilling of, 271, 273
cycle, 47,53,71,81 stabilization, 271
Froude, 101 temperature, 293, 304
intake, 106 tube, 267, 283
isentropic, 56, 57 Flat rating, 440
mechanical transmission, 66 Flow
nozzle, III coefficient, 253, 309, 360
overall, 102 steady one-dimensional, 447
part-load, 5, 375, 391,411 Fluidized bed combustor, 36
polytropic, 58, 78, 246, 355 Fog cooling, 397
propelling nozzle, III Foreign object damage, 234, 252
propulsion, 100 Free turbine, 7, 76, 376, 386, 392,431
stage, 243, 244, 308, 314, 353 Free vortex blading, 201, 219, 226,
total-to-static, 308, 368 323
total-to-total, 308 Froude efficiency, 101
Effusion cooling: see Transpiration Fuel/air ratio, 68, 269, 277, 280, 381
cooling Fuel, atomization, 284
Electrical power generation, 24, 89, burner, 284, 297
375,392,396,431 consumption, non-dimensional,
Emissions, 290 404
End bend blading, 262 injection, 284
Engine braking, 416 staging, 296 299
Engine health monitoring, 440 Fuels, 288
Erosion, 436 Fundamental pressure loss, 273,
Equilibrium running diagram, 374 276, 451
gas generator, 383
shaft power unit, 381, 386 Gas
turbofan unit, 425 angles, 306
 INDEX 487

Gas, cont. Intake, cont.

bending stress, 335, 337, 346 Oswatitsch, 460
dynamics, 443 pitot, 456
generator, 7, 376, 383 pressure recovery factor, 107
Gas and steam cycle, 5, 25, 89 variable geometry, 461
Gasification plant, 37, 301 Integrally bladed rotor, 252
Greenhouse gases, 34, 291 Intercooling, 8, 52, 86
International Standard
Heat-exchanger, 6, 8, 18,48,63, 73, Atmosphere, 103, 150,424
84, 94 Isentropic
effectiveness, 63, 84, 94 efficiency, 56, 57
pressure loss, 62, 94 flow, 449, 461
Heat
rate, 71 Jet pipe, 108, 112
release, 281 temperature, 280, 438
transfer coefficient, 95, 361 Joule cycle, 46
Helium working fluid, 11,93
Heat recovery steam generator, 4, Lift coefficient, 239, 240
65, 89, 92, 262 Load characteristic, 380
Hub-tip ratio, 188, 190, 198,208,320 Load compressor, 141
Humming, 301 Locomotive gas turbine, 28
Low emission systems, 294
Ice harvesting, 397
Ideal cycle, 45 Mach angle, 444
heat-exchange, 48 Mach number, 103, 444, 448
intercooling, 52 before and after heat release, 452
reheat, 50 change through shock wave, 455
reheat and heat-exchange, 51 in axial compressors, 189, 210,
simple constant pressure, 46 226, 246
turbojet, 104 in diffuser, 171
Ignition, 286 in impeller, 168
Impeller, 152 in turbine, 315, 321, 346, 353
centrifugal stresses, 157 Mach wave, 444, 461
eye, 151, 159 Marine gas turbine, 76, 88,412
loss, 160 Matrix through flow method, 262
vane inlet angle, 154, 157, 168 Mechanical losses, 66
vibration, 172, 176 Method of characteristics, 462
Incidence, 231, 233, 247, 330 Microturbine, 28, 65
Indication of thrust, 120, 134 Mixing, in combustion, 270. 274
Industrial gas turbine, 18 in nozzles, 127
Inlet guide vanes, 134, 168, 183, Momentum
190,235,416 drag, 100, 117, 119. 126. 132.144
Intake, efficiency, 106 thrust, 100, 109
momentum drag, 100, 117, 119, Multi-spool, 9
132, 144 Multi-stage turbine. 355
488 INDEX

Nacelle, 132 Pod drag, 132

Noise, 109, 133, 138, 141, 145, 183 Pollution, 33, 264, 290, 292
Nominal deflection, 233 Polytropic efficiency, 58, 78, 246, 355
Non-dimensional quantities, 172 Power input factor, 155
fuel consumption, 404 Power turbine: see Free turbine
pressure loss, 62, 274, 275 Prandtl-Meyer flow, 462
thrust, 401 Pressure loss
Normal shock, 445, 454, 456 in cascade, 231
Nozzle in combustion system, 61, 273,
characteristics, 397, 407 275
convergent-divergent, 109,315, in cycle calculations, 61, 409
445 factor, 275
efficiency, III fundamental, 273, 452
loss coefficient, 312, 349, 351, 369 Pressure
turbine, 305, 312, 316, 358 coefficient, 254
(see also Propelling nozzle) ratio, critical, 109, 112,318,398
Nusselt number, 95, 362 recovery factor, 107
thrust, 100, 109
Oblique shock wave, 445, 458 Prewhirl, 168, 170
Off-design performance, 252, 374 Primary zone, 270
free turbine engine, 386, 390 Profile, blade, 236, 248, 329, 339
single-shaft engine, 378 drag coefficient, 238
turbofan, 425 loss coefficient, 328, 349, 353
turbojet, 397 Propeller turbine engine, 14, 136431
twin-spool engine, 416, 421, 432 Propelling nozzle, 108
Open cycle, 3,46 characteristics, 397, 406
Oswatitsch intake, 460 choking, Ill, 398, 400
Overall efficiency, 102 convergent v. conv.-div., 109
efficiency, III
Part-load mixing in, 127
efficiency, 5, 375, 391,411 trimmer, 112
performance, 375, 389, 401, 411, variable area, 109, 144,406,418,
414 422
Part-span dampers, 251 Propulsion efficiency, 100
Peak-load generation, 5, 22, 38
Performance deterioration, 435 Radial
Pipelines, 22, 64, 264 equilibrium, 199,200,206, 323
Pitch, 191,230, 332, 338 flow compressor: see Centrifugal
Pitch/chord ratio, 233, 240, 332,. compressor
338 flow turbine, 366
Pitot intake, 456 Radius ratio of annulus, 188, 198,
Plane normal shock wave, 445, 454, 208, 320
456 Ram
efficiency,456 compression, 106, 119
pressure ratio, 455 efficiency, 106
INDEX 489

Rayleigh flow, 451, 457 Sonic velocity, 105,443

Reaction, degree of Specific
in compressor, 195,202,214 fuel consumption, 53, 83, 103,
in turbine, 308, 316, 323 116.381. 390,403,412
Regenerative cycle: see Cycle. heat- heat. yariation of. 67
exchange thrust. 103. 115. 119
Regenerator, 8, 38 work output. 47
Reheating, 8, 50, 78, 86 Spill burner. 285
Repowering,93 Spray cooling. 357
Residence time, 293 Spray intercooling. 424
Response rate, 427, 430 Stability of combustion. 270. 280
Reynolds number effect, 173, 257, Stage
354, 362 axial compressor, 182. 185
Rig testing, 257, 268 characteristics, 253
Rotating stall, 177,229 efficiency, 244, 245, 308, 314, 353
Rotor repeating, 306
blade loss coefficient, 313, 348, stacking, 255
352 turbine, 306
loss coefficient, 369 Stagger angle, 231, 236
Stagnation
Sauter mean diameter, 284 enthalpy, 54
Secondary pressure, 55, 448
losses, 241, 328, 350 temperature, 54, 277, 448
zone, 271 thermocouple, 279
Selective catalytic reduction, 295 Stalling, 177, 182, 231, 254, 259
Seperation of boundary layer, 320, Starting, 286, 431
340, 446 Stator blades, 182, 305
Sequential combustion (see Reheat), Steady one-dimensional flow, 447
8, 38, 78, 416 Steam cooling, 358
Single-shaft engine, 6, 378, 392, 431 Steam injection, 34, 295
Shaft power cycles, 45 Streamline curvature method, 262
Shock losses, 168, 172,248 Stresses, blade, 188,333, 338, 346
Shock wave, 168, 445 disc, 339
diffusion by, 456, 460 impeller, 157
efficiency, 456, 460 Supersonic
in centrifugal compressor, 168, compressor, 181
172 diffusion, 105, 248, 449
in turbine, 315, 321 expansion, 315, 449
oblique, 445, 448 Surface discharge igniter. 287
on aerofoil, 446 Surge line, 177,257, 374.381
plane normal, 445, 454 Surging, 176, 257, 259. 374. 381.
Simplex burner, 285 430
Site rating, 92 Swirl, angle, 306. 311
Slip factor, 155 in combustion. 271
Solidarity, 156, 193, 248 Symmetrical blading. 197
490 INDEX

Take-off rating, 403 Turbofan, 14, 121, 129, 135

Temperature, dynamic, 54, 279 design point performance, 121, 129
measurement, 277 off-design performance, 425
stagnation, 54, 277, 448 mixing in nozzle, 127
static, 54 Turbojet, 12, 100, 113, 116
weighted mean, 277 design point performance, 113,
Temperature coefficient, 253 116
Temperature drop coefficient, 253 equilibrium running diagram, 400
Thermal choking, 114,452 off-design performance, 401, 404
Thermal-ratio: see Effectiveness surging, 405, 423
Thermocouple, 279, 439 Turboprop, 14, 136,431
Thickness/chord ratio, 329, 348 Turboshaft, 14, 139
Thrust, augmentation, 142 Twin-shaft engine, 6
indication of, 120, 134 (see also Free turbine)
momentum, 100, 109 Twin-spool engine, 9, 259, 416, 421,
net, 100, 119, 122,401 432
non-dimensional, 401
power, 137 Unducted fan, 138
pressure, 100, 109
specific, 103, 115, 119 Vanes, diffuser, 165, 177
spoiler, 109 impeller, 152, 161, 164
Tilt rotor, 140 inlet guide, 134, 168, 188, 190,235
Time marching method, 262 Vaneless space, 163, 172
Tip clearance, compressor, 240 Vaporizer system, 272, 284
turbine, 329, 350, 360 Variable
Tip speed area propelling nozzle, 109, 144,
axial compressor, 188 406,418,422
centrifugal compressor, 154, 157 area power turbine stators, 414
Torch igniter, 288 compressor stators, 260
Torque characteristics, 393 cycle engine, 118
Torque, net, 428, 431 geometry compressor, 10, 183,
Total: see Stagnation 260, 292
Total-energy: see Cogeneration geometry intake, 461
plant geometry turbine, 414
Total-to-static efficiency, 308, 368 inlet guide vanes, 183
Total-to-total efficiency, 308 pitch fan, 138
Transient performance, 427 Vectored thrust, 146
Transient running line, 430, 432 Vehicular gas turbine, 28, 394,412
Transonic compressor, 181, 184, Velocity diagram, axial compressor,
248 186, 191
Transpiration cooling, 283, 357 turbine, 306, 307
Tubular combustion chamber, 14, Vibration, compressor blade, 234
266, 275 fan blade, 251
Turbine: see Axial flow turbine; impeller vane, 172, 176
Radial flow turbine turbine blade, 320, 333
INDEX 491

Volute, 167 Water injection. 34. 295

Vortex energy equation, 201 Weighted mean temperature, 277
Vortex flow in compressor, 198 Windage loss, 66, 155
in turbine, 322 Work done factor. 194

Waste heat boiler, 4 Yawmeter,230

See also Heat recovery steam
generator Zero stage, 261