UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

STEEL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Submitted by:
Name: Dy, Loyd Benz M.
Student No.: 20171110159

Submitted to:
Engr. Edwin S. Bautista
Faculty-In-Charge
 I. Introduction:

Steel production, from iron ores and/or recycled scrap, is a multi-stage process which
results in the production of a variety of products. Because of on-going movement to
decrease CO2 emissions, more and more processes are added in steelmaking.
Metallurgy is a huge industry in which the methods are becoming more complicated and
unexpected. The traditional process to produce steel is by Blast-Furnace using crushed
and milled coal called coke. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is becoming more popular
because of the use of electric arcs to melt the metals. One developing method is by the
use of heliostats that reflect to concentrate the sunlight in a receiver and create great
temperatures to melt metals. Recycling scrap steel is also done to cut costs, and carbon
and ecological footprint.

Steel is in between cast iron and wrought iron that have 2% and 0.08% carbon content.
Steel is more ductile than cast iron. On past ages, steel is produced using bloomeries
that is used on smaller scales. The expert blacksmiths of Japan can control the crystalline
structures of the steel to forge a perfect Katana. During the industrial revolution, blast
furnaces is introduced by James Beaumont Neilson that drastically increase the
production of iron. The production of steel also coincides with the progress of a nation.
More steel means more infrastructure is being built.

Steel is the most used metal on Earth that is made for building infrastructures,
automobiles, and even to the smallest bolts and nuts. It is a combination of iron and a
variety of other materials to give its significant and required characteristics for a particular
function. In this activity, we can learn the modern metallurgy practices that are used in
making a very essential part of building our civilizations, the steel.
 II. Manufacturing Process:

a) Raw Materials

Scrap steel/ferro-scraps can comprised 75% of the steel.

These are used iron-rich products that are collected in a
recycling facility. Scrap metals are upcycled into new
products to reduce ecological footprint. Using scrap steels
also reduces the need of other materials like iron ore, coal,
limestone and energy cutting the cost of producing steel.
Figure 2.1 Scrap metals
https://www.istockphoto.com/

Iron ores are rocks that contains iron and oxygen in

making iron and steel. The most abundant iron oxide is
the hematite. Limonite also called brown ore. Magnetite
or black ore is named because of its magnetic property
and great iron content. Taconite is named after the
Taconic Mountains in NE United states which contains
both magnetite and hematite.
Figure 2.2 Limonite
https://www.scmp.com/

Coal is the most used fossil fuel in the world. It is a solid

carbon-rich material usually black or brown, often occurs in
stratified sedimentary deposits. In steelmaking, it is
crushed and milled to be used as fuel to melt metals.

Figure 2.3 Coal

https://theconversation.com/
Limestone/Quicklime is a sedimentary rock made of
calcium carbonate or calcium oxide, usually in the form of
calcite or aragonite. It may contain considerable amounts
of magnesium carbonate (dolomite) as well. However,
minor constituents of clay, iron carbonate, feldspar, pyrite,
and quartz are also commonly present.
Figure 2.4 Limestone
https://www.azomining.com/

Additives are mixed with the alloy steel to give its certain
desired function such as strength, resistivity to corrosion
and hardness. Manganese, phosphorus and silicon are
the most common elements added to steel. Chromium
gives its property to resist corrosion.

Figure 2.5 Common Alloying

Elements
https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/
b) Process of Raw Materials

Separation. Ferro-scraps are from the mixture of metallic

materials to be reused in a recycling facility. Strong
magnets are used to separate ferro-scraps to non-ferro-
scraps.

Figure 2.6 Scrapyard

https://www.pinterest.ph/
Coking. Coke is made from a destructive distillation
process of coal by heating it with oil in the absence of air
to remove impurities and improve its carbon content. The
coal is baked in an airless kiln at temperatures as high as
2,000 °C that vaporizes or decomposes organic
substances in the coal, driving off volatile products.
Figure 2.7 Coke (Fuel)
https://energy.economictimes.in
diatimes.com/

Direct Reduction. Iron ore pellets and/or lump iron ores are reduced by a reducing gas
to produce direct reduced iron or hot briquetted iron. Gas-based Direct Reduction process
is often used in countries with abundant natural gas reserves. The reducing gas is
produced by chemically reforming a mixture of natural gas and off-gas from the reducing
furnace to produce a gas that is rich in hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Coal-based Direct
Reduction process uses hydrocarbons and sometimes oil to generate the reducing gas
in the reduction zone of the furnace commonly the rotary kiln. Different types of reactors
have been used in different variations of the process to achieve the metallization required.

Figure 2.8 Direct reduced iron Figure 2.8 Sponge iron

https://www.dhatu.com/ https://www.alibaba.com/
Steel making

1. Firstly, the iron ore, coke and limestone are smelted in the blast furnace. The heat
decomposes limestone or calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide will oxidize the coke to form carbon monoxide. The
carbon monoxide is used to reduce the oxygen in iron oxide ores to obtain the iron
metal. The molten iron subsides on the bottom and impurities called slags float
and are released through the slag pipe. The molten iron is then released in molds
to form pig iron.
2. Scrap steel is added in the molten iron. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) blasts
high purity oxygen in a lance to the furnace at about twice the speed of sound. The
oxygen combines with impurities that will produce heat. The oxidize carbon
monoxide can be collected and cleaned to be used as fuel. Electric Arc Furnace
uses a rod that circulate 115 MW to melt the scrap in 3000°F in about an hour.
3. The molten steel is then goes to the Ladle Metallurgy Furnace for refining and
other processes like desulfurization and deoxidation. The temperature are
adjusted with carbon electrodes. The chemistry of the steel will be change by
reducing and introducing alloy elements.
4. The molten steel is brought to the Casters where it solidifies and rolled into slabs
or molded for other application.
(a) Steel Making with Flowchart
 III. Equipment:
Blast furnace is a large structure in which iron ore is heated under pressure so that it melts and separates out
iron metal and can be collected as pig iron. Blast furnaces operate on the principle of chemical reduction whereby
carbon monoxide, having a stronger affinity for the oxygen in iron ore than iron does, reduces the iron to its
elemental form.

Figure 3.1 Blast Furnace

https://sites.google.com/site/pgst
eelcompany/blastfurnace

A tuyere or tuyère is made predominantly of cast copper, with water-

cooled channels. It is a tube, nozzle or pipe through which air is blown
into a furnace or hearth. Oxygen is injected into the blast furnace
under pressure from a blowing engine.

Figure 3.2 Cast Copper Tuyere

https://www.ispatguru.com/
Torpedo ladle cars are used to transfer molten iron from the iron-
making section of the plant to the steel-making section and can also
be used as a refining vessel.

Figure 3.3 Torpedo Ladle

https://www.ametek-land.com/
Slag door is part of a blast furnace where tapping of the slag happens
by tilting the furnace.

Figure 3.4 Blast Furnace

https://tragate.com/

Pig Mold is where smelting iron ore with a high-carbon fuel and
reductant such as coke, usually with limestone as a flux is collected and
cooled to solidify.

Figure 3.5 Pig Mold

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOS) is a vessel used to convert pig iron, of about 94% iron and 6% combined
impurities such as carbon, manganese, and silicon, into steel with as little as 1 percent combined impurities.

Figure 3.6 BOS

https://www.123rf.com/
Thermal Lance is a tool that heats and melts steel in the presence of
pressurized oxygen to create very high temperatures for cutting. It
consists of a long steel tube packed with alloy steel rods, sometimes
mixed with aluminum rods to increase the heat output.

Figure 3.7 Thermal Lance

https://www.dreamstime.com/

Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is a squat, cylindrical vessel made of heavy steel plates. It has a dish-shaped
refractory hearth and three vertical electrodes that reach down through a dome-shaped, removable roof. Heat is
generated from an electric arc with power up to 15MW between electrodes.

Figure 3.8 Electric Arc Furnace

https://graphite-network.com/2019/08/22/

Graphite Electrodes is used as a consumable for conducting high current at

low voltage which is necessary for melting and / or alloying processes.
Electrodes are made of graphite because of its ability to withstand high
temperatures.

Figure 3.9 Graphite Electrode from EAF

https://www.okorder.com/
Ladle Metallurgy Furnace (LMF) is used to refine molten steel into specialty grades while remaining in the
ladle. It consists primarily of an electric ladle arc furnace and an alloy additive system.

Figure 3.10 Ladle Metallurgy Furnace

https://www.eafabcorp.com/secondary-metallurgy

Continuous Slab Casting Machine is for casting molten steel into semi-finished products(slabs) by
continuously cooling, solidifying molten steel and cutting them into desired lengths.

Figure 3.11 Caster

http://fzgeilimachinery.blogspot.com/2016/01/
Rolling mills are tools that have steel rollers that you can feed your metal through to either change the shape
and thickness or to impart intricate textures. Roller mills are mills that use cylindrical rollers, either in opposing
pairs or against flat plates, to crush or grind steel.

Figure 3.12 Roller Machine

https://www.indiamart.com/steel-atharva/products.html

Infrared Optical Pyrometers specifically measures the energy being

radiated from an object. These devices can measure temperatures from
radiation in a distance.

Figure 3.13 Infrared Pyrometer

https://www.metalworkingworldmagazine.com
Steel Pickling Bath Tanks are containers where metal surface treatment finishing process happens. It used to
remove surface impurities such as rust and carbon scale from hot rolled carbon steel. The steel is submersed in
a bath of pickle liquor, a solution of Hydrogen Chloride acid, to remove the impurities from the surface of the
steel.

Figure 3.14 Acid Bath Tank

https://www.interempresas.net/Deformacion-y-chapa/

IV. Products:

Blast furnace slag is a calcium-silicate-based product

removed from the top of molten iron during its
extraction from ore in a blast furnace. Usually, it is
rapidly cooled to a glassy state and ground for use in
construction materials.

Figure 4.1 Slag powder

https://www.jfe-mineral.co.jp/

Carbon steel is a special type of steel that has a higher

concentration of carbon than other types of steel. Most types of
steel have a relatively low carbon content of about 0.05% to 0.3%.
In comparison, carbon steel has a carbon content of up to 2.5%.
High carbon steel has a much better tensile strength, used to make
cutting tools, blades, punches, dies, springs and high-strength wire.

Figure 4.2 Carbon steel

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=16787
Nickel-Steel alloy is the most important among all the steel
alloys due to its use in various places all around the world. It is
formed when some percentage of nickel is added to the steel. It
contains 0.35% carbon and 3.5% nickel in its composition.
Nickel steel alloy is used for heavy forgings, turbine blades,
highly stressed screws, bolts, and nuts. It is used for making
shafts, gears, propeller shafts, and other low temperature
applications.

Figure 4.3 Nickel steel

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail

Nichrome is a family of alloys of nickel, chromium, and often

iron commonly used as resistance wire, heating elements in
things like toasters and space heaters, in some dental
restorations (fillings) and in a few other applications.

Figure 4.4 Nichrome wire

https://www.lancopipes.com/
Chromium-molybdenum alloy steel (or chrome moly), is an
alloy used for high pressure and temperature use. It is used in
oil and gas, energy, construction and the automotive industries
because of its corrosion resistance and high-temperature and
tensile strength.

Figure 4.5 Cr-Mo Alloy

https://alitools.io/en/showcase/
Chromium steels are types of steel, with which iron can be
alloyed with chromium. Colloquially the term is often used
interchangeably with the word stainless steel. Chromium is one of
the key elements used to increase the resistance to corrosion.

Figure 4.6 Stainless Steel

https://www.pinterest.ph/
Chromium-vanadium steel is a group of steel alloys
incorporating carbon, manganese, silicon, chromium, and
vanadium. Some forms can be used as high-speed steel.
Chromium and vanadium both make the steel more harden-
able. Chromium and carbon can both improve elasticity. It
has better strength and toughness than carbon steel.
Commonly used for wrenches, screwdrivers, manual
sleeves and other high-stress applications.

Figure 4.7 Vanadium alloy Drill bit

http://www.stmarysspring.com/

Tungsten steel is any steel that has tungsten as its alloying

element with characteristics derived mostly from the
presence of this element. Tungsten is one of the oldest
elements used for alloying steel. It forms a very hard carbide
and iron tungstite. Tungsten steel is widely used as turning
tool, milling cutter, drill bit, and boring cutter.

Figure 4.8 Tungsten carbide

https://www.refractorymetal.org/
/
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Alloy Steel is a tough, shock
resisting, oil hardening steel. It has the highest combination of
tensile and endurance strengths along with ductility. It also
offers exceptional resistance to reducing acids such as
hydrochloric and sulfuric.

Figure 4.9 Nickel Chromium

Molybdenum Alloy Wire
https://wisdom-sh2015.en.made-in-
china.com/product/
Silicon Manganese Steel is an alloy of manganese, silicon
and iron. It is a cost- effective blend of manganese and
silicon and is normally the product of choice for steel
manufacturers. It is consumed in all steel products and
used in higher quantities in 200 series stainless steel, alloy
steel and manganese steel. Because of its self-hardening
properties, it has been used in the mining industry for many
years – cement mixers, rock crushers, crawler treads for
tractors, elevator and shovel buckets – as well as in the rail
industry (switches and crossings) and other high impact
environments.

Figure 4.9 Silicon Manganese Steel

https://trade-metal.com/silicon-
manganese-steel-s6505.html

Tinplate is a thin steel sheet with a coating of tin applied

either by dipping in molten metal or by electrolytic
deposition; almost all tinplate is now produced by the latter
process. Tinplate made by this process is essentially a
sandwich in which the central core is strip steel.

Figure 4.10 Tinplate

https://sesteelpipe.com/tinplate/
V. V. Testing

Material Strength Test evaluates the mechanical properties of steel such as the yield
point, tensile strength and elongation percentage. The yield point is the elastic limit of
the steel in which maximum stress is applied before it changes form. The tensile
strength is the resistance of the steel to break. Load is applied and evaluated until the
steel split into two parts. Elongation is the percentage of stretch from the original length
of the steel to the point of failure, showing how ductile the steel is. Ductility is the
capability of the steel to be stretched out without becoming more brittle or weaker in
the process.

Figure 5.1 Universal Testing

Machine
https://commons.wikimedia.org/
Charpy V-Notch Test measures a material's ability to absorb energy within a given
temperature range. It pits a small piece of test material against a heavy pendulum
hammer. The test piece has a V-shaped notch carved in the middle, which gives the
test its name. The pendulum swings into the test piece (often bending, if not snapping
the piece), and the absorbed energy is measured.

Figure 5.2 Charpy Impact

Machine
https://www.ecplaza.net/

Brinell Hardness Test uses a small steel indenter and applied force to
dent a material. The size of the dent is used to calculate the Brinell hardness
number (BHN), which is a standard unit of hardness. Hardness is important for
applications that require abrasion resistance instead of strength or toughness.

Figure 5.3 Brinell

Hardness Tester
https://www.leebtest.com/

The Rockwell Hardness Test measures the permanent depth of indentation

produced by a force/load on an indenter. A preliminary test force is applied to a
sample using a diamond or ball indenter, then the baseline depth of indentation
is measured. The major load is added and held for a predetermined amount of
time to allow for elastic recovery, then the final depth of indentation is measured.

Figure 5.4 Rockwell

Hardness Tester
https://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Rockwell_scale
Torsion Test involves the twisting of a sample along an axis and is
a useful test for acquiring information like torsional shear stress,
maximum torque, shear modulus, and breaking angle of a material
or the interface between two materials.

Figure 5.5 Torsion Testing

https://www.admet.com/

Ultrasonic Test uses high-frequency soundwaves to detect

laminations in the body of steel material. A probe sends a
sound wave into the material. When the sound hits a barrier, it
will bounce back towards the probe. The probe's ultrasonic
transponder converts those sound waves into electrical energy,
which can be read on a test machine screen. UT is highly
accurate, with accuracies between +/-0.025 mm and +/-0.001
mm.

Figure 5.6 Ultrasonic Testing

https://www.jsdndt.com/

Magnetic Particle Inspection is used for detecting defects in

ferromagnetic materials. By magnetization of the inspected
area there is created a magnetic field. Magnetic flux does not
change its direction in the defect-free area of the tested item.

Figure 5.7 Magnetic Particle Inspection

https://www.qualitymag.com/

Industrial Radiographic Testing (RT) makes use of X-ray or

gamma radiation to create images that can show defects
hidden inside the material. This technology is widely used to
ascertain material integrity of welds, castings, piping,
machined parts, pressure vessels and other objects.

Figure 5.8 Radiographic Testing

https://www.ndt.net/
 VI. Defects

Friction scratches may be caused by an encounter with an abrasive

surface.

Figure 6.1 Steel scratches

https://www.wallpaperflare.com/

Transverse cracks are cracks that extends along the cross-section of

a material or object, usually perpendicular to its centerline. It is typically
the result of axial loading from external forces or shrinkage due to
temperature changes. Cracks not only reduce the strength of the weld
through the reduction in the cross-section thickness but also can readily
propagate through stress concentration at the tip, especially under
impact loading or during service at low temperature.

Figure 6.2 Chevron cracks

https://www.twi-global.com/

Internal cracks are local discontinuity produced by a fracture which

can arise from the stresses generated on cooling or acting on the
structure. Internal cracks require ultrasonic or radiographic
examination techniques.

Figure 6.3 Hydrogen cracks in steel

https://www.twi-global.com/
Built-up edge (BUE) is an accumulation of material against the
rake face, that seizes to the tool tip, separating it from the chip. The
build-up of material changes the geometry of the cutting tool.

Figure 6.4 Built-up Edge

https://blog.enerpac.com/
Seams are longitudinal crevices that are tight or even closed at the
surface, but are not welded shut. They are close to radial in
orientation and can originate in steelmaking, primary rolling, or on
the bar or rod mill.

Figure 6.5 Seam crack

https://www.osapublishing.org/

Porosity occurs when air is trapped into the metal by the die casting machinery, often leaving gaps at the top of
the die or filling a mold too slowly and having some solidification occur too soon.

Figure 6.6 Porosity

https://www.researchgate.net/

A shrinkage cavity is a depression in a casting which occurs during the solidification process. Shrinkage
porosity appears with angular edges, compared to the round surfaces of gas porosity. Cavities might also be
paired with dendritic fractures or cracks. Pipes are open shrinkage defects that form at the surface and burrow
into the casting. Closed shrinkage defects usually appear at the top of hot spots, or isolated pools of hot liquid.

Figure 6.7 (a) shrinkage cavity, (b) shrinkage porosity, (c) centerline shrinkage, (d) corner
shrinkage and (e) surface sink
https://www.researchgate.net/
Slivers are segments of steel that have been torn from the
steel and rolled onto the surface of the metal. This defect is
most common in low strength steel which can easily tear due
to incorrect or high-speed rolling processes. Slivers can also
start from defects that were not previously removed by
conditioning.

Figure 6.8 Slivers on rolled steel

https://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/

Inclusion defects of castings are defects such as slag of oxides

and other substances generated in the ladle by the reaction and
sand of molds and the cores that flake away and are included in
molten metal, flowing into products and appearing on the
surfaces of parts as non-metallic inclusions.

Figure 6.9 Oxide inclusions

https://www.researchgate.net/

Chemical segregation is a separation of impurities and alloying elements in different regions of solidified alloy.
It develops on three scales. Macrosegregations are the most important ones since it is the type of segregation
that is far more difficult to reduce subsequently by thermo-mechanical post-treatments. Microsegregation is the
pattern of composition variation that remains in a solidified alloy. Mesosegregations develop on the scale of
primary grains.

Figure 6.10 Macrosegregation in ingots Figure 6.11 Oxide inclusions

https://www.substech.com/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/
References
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Britannica, T. E. (1988, July 20). limestone. Retrieved from Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/science/limestone

Britannica, T. E. (1998, July 20). Basic oxygen process. Retrieved from Britannica:
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Britannica, T. E. (1998, July 20). scrap metal. Retrieved from Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/science/scrap-metal

C.Crelling, J. (2008). Coal Carbonization. In J. C.Crelling, Applied Coal Petrology (pp. 173-192).
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Kopp, O. C. (1998, August 23). coal. Retrieved from Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/science/coal-fossil-fuel

Solid fuel types for energy generation: Coal and fossil carbon-derivative solid fuels. (2016). In P.
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TORPEDO LADLE CAR. (2021). Retrieved from Harbison Walker International:

https://thinkhwi.com/industries/iron-steel/torpedo-ladle-car/

Wente, E. F. (1999, July 20). Steel. Retrieved from Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/technology/steel