CHAPTER 5: S H E E T - M E T A L W O R K I N G PROCESSES 307

Tube spinning is a form of power spinning in which the wall thickness of a tube
or vessel is reduced (Fig. 5-22c).

5-4-2 Bulging
Tensile deformation is typical of the bulging of tubes, containers, and similar
products, using rubber (polyurethane foam) plugs or hydraulic pressure (Fig.
5-22d). The technique also represents the first step in making metal bellows (Fig.
5-22e); the prebulged tube forms the bellows when axially compressed.
When axial compressive stresses are applied simultaneously with the expanding
pressure, very large deformations become possible. A special application is the
making of parts such as copper T-fittings (Fig. 5-22/). The tube, constrained in a
container, is compressed between two punches while a pressurized fluid is applied
internally. Thus a deep bulge, necessary for the T shape, is formed without danger
of fracture.

5-4-3 Peen Forming

We saw in Fig. 2-156 that unbalanced internal stresses cause distortion of the
part. The principle is exploited in peen forming by the judicious shot peening of
one of the surfaces. The impacting shot causes localized deformation, expansion
of the surface, and the part becomes convex. The technique is used for shaping
gently curved surfaces such as aircraft wing skins and also for correcting shape
defects in products such as rocket cases.

5-5 SHEET FORMING

Enormous quantities of sheet metal are formed into more or less deep, container-
like components of a great variety of shapes. In contrast to bent parts, they are
characterized by curvatures in two directions. They can be produced by stretch
forming, deep drawing, or their combination.

5-5-1 Stretch Forming

In pure stretch forming the sheet is completely clamped on its circumference and
the shape is developed entirely at the expense of sheet thickness. Physically this
can be achieved in a variety of ways:
1 The sheet may be clamped with a multitude of fixed or swiveling clamps
(Fig. 5-23a). The advantage is that only one die (male die or form punch) is
needed, but productivity is low; hence, such stretch forming is most suitable for
low-volume production as is typical of the aircraft industry. Very large parts
(fuselage skins, wing skins, boat hulls) can be formed. Springback can be
substantial when forming very gently curved shapes and then forming at elevated
1 308 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

^ Thinning Male die

(punch)

Clamping

I ^ F ^ f
Male
die

„ , „ Female
Before After dje Before After

(a) ib) (c)

FIGURE 5-23
The shape is developed entirely at the expense of wall thickness in (a) stretch forming, (b)
stretch drawing, and (c) embossing.

temperatures (sometimes by allowing creep or superplastic deformation over the

die) is helpful. Rolled and extruded sections may also be stretch formed.
2 For mass production, such as is typical of the automotive and appliance
industries, the blank is clamped with an independently movable blankholder
which retains the sheet with the aid of draw beads (Fig. 5-23b); the punch
cooperates with the female die to define the shape. One part is finished for each
press stroke; thus, productivity is high but die costs are higher too.
3 In the process of embossing (Fig. 5-23c) the sheet is restrained by the sheet
itself, through the multiple contact points with the die.
Stretch Formability The first limit is reached in stretching when a localized
neck becomes visible, and the ultimate limit is given by subsequent fracture. The
formability limit is a technological property and the limit strain depends on the
material, the strain state, and friction on the punch surface.
The influencing factors are clearly shown when a clamped sheet is stretched by
a hemispherical punch (Fig. 5-24a). Localized strain variations (the strain distri-
bution) can be revealed simply by applying a grid of small (typically, 2-6-mm-
diam) circles (or a square/circle grid) onto the sheet surface, usually by electro-
lytic etching or a photoresist technique. In the course of straining, thinning of the
material is accompanied by a growth of the circles, as required by constancy of
volume (Eq. (2-2)). When deformation is the same in all directions, as it would be
on blowing up a balloon (balanced biaxial strain), the circle expands into a circle
of larger diameter. When deformation is different in different directions, the circle
distorts into an ellipse: the major axis gives the major strain and, perpendicular to
it, the minor axis gives the minor strain.
When a sheet of a given material is stretched over the hemispherical punch,
strain distribution depends on a number of factors:
1 In the total absence of friction (which could in reality be achieved only in
bulging with hydraulic pressure), the sheet thins out gradually toward the apex
 CHAPTER 5: SHEET-METAL WORKING PROCESSES 309

Frictional
shear
stress

Clamping
beads
(a) (6)

FIGURE 5-24
( a ) F r i c t i o n o n t h e p u n c h s u r f a c e o p p o s e s t h i n n i n g a n d leads t o ( b ) c h a n g e s in s t r a i n
d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m p o l e t o f l a n g e . ( A d a p t e d from J. A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking:
Friction, Lubrication and Wear, American Society for Metals, 1983, p. 520. With permission.)

where fracture finally occurs (line A in Fig. 5-246). Thinning is more uniformly
distributed with a material of high n value, and a deeper dome can be obtained
before necking becomes localized (fine B). It will be recalled that in the tension
test localized necking occurs at e = n (Sec. 4-1-1). In balanced biaxial tension the
u

presence of the transverse strain prevents the formation of a localized neck.

Straining can continue until a local neck develops at or close to the apex, at some
point where there is some inhomogeneity in the material or the sheet was
originally thinner. In stretching over a punch, the depth of stretch never reaches
that obtained in frictionless, hydraulic bulging but, as long as friction is very low,
failure still occurs at the apex.
2 Friction on the punch surface hinders free thinning at the apex, and with
increasing friction the position of maximum strain moves toward the die radius
(lines C and D in Fig. 5-246) and strain becomes more localized.
3 Under otherwise identical conditions, a thicker sheet gives a deeper stretch,
because bending superimposed on stretching improves ductility.
4 The depth of stretch increases with all material variables that delay necking
(high n value, transformations), or increase the post-necking strain (high m
value). Indeed, a good empirical correlation is found between total elongation in
the tension test and limiting dome height.

Forming Limit Diagram A comparison of various materials is possible with

the aid of the forming limit diagram (FLD). Gridded sheet metal strips of
different widths are tested with a very good lubricant (e.g., oiled polyethylene
1 310 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Jc
N

MAJOR
STRAIN

Compressive | Tensile

PLANE
* STRAIN

F I G U R E 5-25
T h e f o r m i n g limit d i a g r a m t y p i c a l of l o w - c a r b o n steel g i v e s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e d e f o r m a t i o n s at
v a r i o u s strain ratios. ( L e f t - h a n d side typically after G. M. Goodwin, SAE paper 680092, 1968;
right-hand side after S. P. Keeler, SAE paper 650535, 1965.)

film) on the punch. A sheet wide enough to be clamped all around gives the
balanced biaxial tension point (Fig. 5-25). As the strip width diminishes, the
minor strain decreases too until, at some characteristic strip width, it becomes
zero. By definition, this is a condition of plane strain (Fig. 4-12). The FLD is
usually constructed for localized necking (another curve could be constructed for
fracture). The FLD moves higher for thicker sheet and is, obviously, lower for a
material of lower ductility (lower n value).
The FLD is a system characteristic and the FLDs of two materials can be
compared only if determined under identical conditions. With decreasing circle
size, the FLD moves higher and changes its shape, because more of a small circle
falls into the necked zone where strain is high.
The FLD was introduced in the 1960s and quickly became an important tool
in diagnosing production problems. When parts are found to split in production,
gridded sheets are placed into the production die and are stretched. Distortion of
the circles is measured (sometimes with the aid of an instrument called an optical
grid analyzer). The circle nearest to the fracture line gives the strain ratio at the
critical point and defines, say, point A in Fig. 5-25. Several remedies, some of
them not intuitively evident, may then be explored to bring strains within
 CHAPTER 5: S H E E T - M E T A L W O R K I N G PROCESSES 311

allowable limits:
1 Increase the minor strain by clamping more firmly in that direction.
2 If fracture occurred away from the apex, improve lubrication to redistribute
strains (as in Fig. 5-246).
3 If all else fails, the part will have to be redesigned to reduce the major strain,
or some material must be allowed to flow into the die, changing the process into
combined stretching-drawing (Sec. 5-5-3).
The FLD of Fig. 5-25 is typical of steel and some aluminum alloys. Some other
materials, such as austenitic stainless steels and brass, show no improvement in
the forming limit with increasing biaxiality of strains. Nevertheless, some of them
have a high n value (Tables 4-2 and 4-3) and are then eminently suitable for
stretching.

Example 5-8
Complex shapes such as automotive hub caps are often made of mild steel (chromium plated),
stainless steel, or aluminum alloy. If the caps are to be made by stretching, which of these alloys
allows the deepest stretch?
A first approximation can be obtained by comparing the n values. From Tables 4-2 and 4-3,
austenitic stainless steels are best (n = 0.3), followed by low-carbon steel (0.25), 5052 A1 (0.13), and
martensitic stainless steel (0.1). If deep details are to be made in aluminum alloy or martensitic
stainless steel, draw-in of the metal must be encouraged (see Sec. 5-5-3).

5-5-2 Deep Drawing

The difference between stretching and deep drawing is substantial: In the former,
the blank is clamped and depth attained at the expense of sheet thickness; in the
latter, the blank is allowed—and even encouraged—to draw into the die, and
thickness is nominally unchanged.
In the simplest case of pure deep drawing or cupping, a circular blank of
diameter d is converted into a flat-bottomed cup by drawing it through a draw
Q

die with the aid of a punch of diameter D (Fig. 5-26). Both the die and punch
must have well-rounded edges, otherwise the blank might be sheared. The finished
cup is stripped from the punch—for example, by machining a slight recess (a
ledge) into the underside of the draw die. After the cup has been pushed through
the die, its top edge springs out because of springback, gets caught in the ledge on
the return stroke of the punch, and the ledge strips the cup. A central hole is often
provided in the punch to prevent the formation of a vacuum and thus aid
stripping.
The stress state prevailing in the part during drawing is shown in Fig. 5-21a
about halfway through the draw. The base is in balanced biaxial tension; the side
wall is in plane-strain tension because the punch does not allow circumferential
contraction; material in the transition between wall and flange is subjected to
bending and rebending (straightening out); and the flange is in circumferential
compression, because the circumference of the blank is reduced while it is forced
1 312 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Blankholder
force

Punch
Blankholder
(hold-down)
(binder)
-Die

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-26
Containers may be formed by drawing (a) without or (b) with a blankholder.

Flange

Draw
force

Flange

FIGURE 5-27
(a) The stress state varies greatly in different parts of a partly drawn cup. (b) Yielding is
affected by anisotropy of the sheet material, as shown by the experimental data for Ti-4AI
sheet. (After W. A. Backofen, Deformation Processing, Addison-Wesley, 1972, p. 54.)

to conform to the smaller diameter of the die opening. The force required to
perform all this deformation must be borne by the base of the cup. This limits the
attainable deformation, expressed as reduction (d - D )/d or as drawing ratio
0 p 0

d / D . The maximum diameter of the circle that can be drawn under ideal
0 p

conditions is expressed as the limiting draw ratio (LDR)

LDR = % ^ (5-12)
 CHAPTER 5: SHEET-METAL WORKING PROCESSES 313

I
Wrinkling
Tractrix die
Conical die
Qa
l-radius die
I
QDC Good

100

(1/vW).
FIGURE 5-28
The limiting draw ratio in cupping low-carbon steel without a blankholder is a function of die
geometry and of blank diameter-to-sheet thickness ratio. (After G. S. A. Shawki, Werkstatts-
technik, 53:12- 16 1963. With permission of Springer-Verlag, New York.)

The circumferential compressive stresses cause the blank to thicken, and the
punch-to-die clearance is usually some 10% larger than the sheet thickness to
accommodate this thickening without the need for reducing (ironing) the wall.
Compression can also lead to wrinkling (equivalent to buckling in upsetting, Fig.
4-21 a) in the flange. Thus, both forces and wrinkling set limits. In practice, two
methods of operation are feasible:
1 In drawing without a blankholder (Fig. 5-26a), wrinkling can be avoided only
when the sheet is sufficiently stiff. This is always the case for very shallow draws,
when the drawing ratio d /D < 1.2. Relatively thick blanks give higher drawing
0 p

ratios (Fig. 5-28); wrinkling depends also on the die profile, which determines the
rate of circumferential compression. Most favorable is the tractrix die; it will be
noted from Fig. 5-28 that exceptionally high LDF.s can be obtained with it.
2 When the blank is relatively thin, and the draw ratio is beyond the limits
indicated in Fig. 5-28, deformation must be conducted by drawing with a

FIGURE 5-29
Deep drawing of low-carbon steel cups from (a) a round blank, with (b) insufficient, (c)
optimum, and (d) excessive blankholder pressure. Note in (c) the typical earing due to planar
a n i s o t r o p y . ( F r o m J. A. Schey, as Fig. 5-24, p. 527.)

(a) (b) [c) Id)

1 314 INTRODUCTION TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

Wrinkling

i
FIGURE 5-30
Draw force curves typical of
drawing with optimum (line A),
excessive (line B), and insuffi-
cient (line C ) blankholder pres-
sure. Press stroke

hold-down or blankholder (Fig. 5-26b). The blankholder must exert sufficient

pressure to prevent wrinkling (Fig. 5-29b), but excessive blankholder pressure
would restrict free movement of the material in the draw ring and thus cause
excessi\se thinning and finally fracture in the partly formed cup wall (Fig. 5-29d).
To produce a sound cup (Fig. 5-29c), the blankholder pressure may be taken, as a
first approximation, as 1.5% of the yield strength o02 of the material.
When the optimum blankholder pressure is applied, draw force rises as the
part-drawn flange strain hardens; as the flange diameter decreases, force drops
until the thickened edge of the blank is ironed (Fig. 5-30, line A). Excessive
pressure causes early fracture (line B). Too low pressure allows wrinkling (line C)
and, if the wrinkles cannot be ironed out, the cup fails near the end of the draw
(Fig. 5-29b).
A very approximate estimate of the drawing force may be obtained from the
formula
(5-13)

Example 5-9
A low-carbon steel container of 4.125-in height and 2.375-in internal diameter is to be made of
0.067-in-thick strip material. The bottom radius is 0.375 in. Assuming that the average wall
thickness of the container is equal to the sheet thickness, (a) calculate the starting blank diameter,
(b) determine the draw sequence, assuming that the first draw is made with a blankholder, and (c)
estimate the press force for the first draw.
(a) The volume consists of the volumes of the (1) side wall = H(OD - I D ) w / 4 = 1.893 in ;
2 2 3

(2) one-quarter of a hollow toroid (from the theorem of Pappus-Guldin, this is equal to the area
A BCD in the illustration multiplied by the circumference of the circular path described by its
centroid = 2wr(area) = 0.29 in ); (3) volume of disk = /?(J w/4) = 0.139 in . Thus total volume is
3 2 3

1.893 + 0.29 + 0.139 = 2.322 in . This is equal to h((l%ir/4). Thus J = 6.643 in.
3
u
 CHAPTER 5: S H E E T - M E T A L W O R K I N G PROCESSES 315

(b) From Fig. 5-33, LDR = 2.4; hence, in the first draw Dp = 6.643/2.4 = 2.77 in. This leaves a
(2.77 - 2.375)/2.77 = 14% reduction for the redrawing operation. In practice it would be prefer-
able to make the first draw less critical, say DR = 2.2. Then Dp = 3.0 in and the reduction in
redrawing is 20.8%, which is still acceptable.
(c) From Table 4-2, for 1008 steel, TS = 320 MPa = 46.5 kpsi. From Eq. (5-13) Pd =
ir(3)(0.067)(46.5)[(6.643/3) - 0.7] = 44.4 klbf = 22 ton.

Limiting Draw Ratio When the LDR is reached, the draw force just exceeds
the force that the cup wall can support. We have seen that the draw force is
composed of the forces required to: compress the sheet in the flange circumferen-
tially; overcome friction between blank and blankholder and die surfaces; bend
and unbend the sheet around the draw radius; and overcome friction around the
draw radius. Therefore, the LDR is not simply a material constant but depends
on all variables that affect the draw force and the strength of the cup wall.
1 A high n strengthens the cup wall but also increases the draw force; hence, it
is fairly neutral. A slight improvement in LDR is often found with higher n
because of a later development of the force maximum.
2 A high m strengthens an incipient neck in the wall while barely affecting the
draw force; thus, it is slightly positive in its effect.
3 The most powerful material variable is the r value. We saw in Fig. 5-4b that
a material of high r value resists thinning while voluntarily reducing its width.
This helps the blank to conform to the reduced diameter of the cup and is thus a
positive factor. Furthermore, a high r value causes the yield ellipse (Fig. 4-11) to
change (an example of experimentally determined yield loci is given in Fig.
5-276). The partly drawn cup wall is in plane-strain tension, in which a high
/•-value material is stronger, whereas the flange is subjected to combined tension
and compression, in which it is slightly weaker than an isotropic one. The
combined result is that the LDR increases with increasing r (or more precisely, /")
value (Fig. 5-31). The effect is more powerful than it appears from Fig. 5-31,
because an LDR of 2.0 gives a cup of approximately 0.8D depth, whereas an
LDR of 3.0 gives a depth over 2.0D . p

4 Tight punch and die radii impose severe bending strain and thus increase the
draw force without affecting the strength of the wall; therefore they decrease the
LDR. However, very large radii would leave much of the blank unsupported and
puckering (wrinkling between punch and die) could occur. Hence radii are
1 316 INTRODUCTION TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

3.0

2.8

2.6

I"
CE
O 2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6
0 2 3 4 5 6
r
FIGURE 5-31
High normal anisotropy is a powerful factor in increasing the limiting draw ratio.

optimized, usually within the limits of R > 4h for thick (> 5-mm) and R > 8h for
thin (< 1-mm) sheet.
5 Friction between blankholder, die, and flange surfaces adds to the draw
force and is thus harmful. Contact pressures are below a and, therefore, Eq.
f

(2-18) holds. The friction stress can be reduced by reducing the normal stress (the
blankholder pressure), but this is limited by wrinkling. Therefore, a good lubri-
cant must be applied that reduces /x and thus the friction force.
6 In drawing relatively thin sheet, of d /h ratios over 50, the frictional force
0

becomes a larger part of the total drawing force; hence, the LDR drops with
increasing d /h ratio.
0

7 Friction on the punch is helpful because it transfers the draw force from the
cup to the punch. Thus a rough punch, or a blank that is lubricated only over the
flange area, gives a higher LDR.
There is still no international standard for LDR determination, and only data
obtained under identical conditions are comparable.
The LDR does not necessarily give the usable cup depth. A material with
planar anisotropy (Sec. 5-1-3) shows different properties in the rolling, transverse,
and 45° directions (r 4- r^ + r ). This leads to earing, a periodic variation of the
0 45

cup height (Fig. 5-29c); the ears reflect the crystal symmetry and come in pairs (4,
6, or 8).

Further Drawing Cups of a depth greater than permitted by the LDR are
made by further forming after initial cupping.
 CHAPTER 5: SHEET-METAL WORKING PROCESSES 317

Blankholder
force

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 5-32
Cups are further deformed by (a) redrawing, (b) ironing, or ( c ) reverse redrawing.

1 Redrawing (Fig. 5-32a) leaves the wall thickness essentially unchanged.

2 Ironing (Fig. 5-32b) leaves the inner diameter virtually unchanged and
achieves greater depth by reducing the wall thickness. It will be recognized that
ironing is similar to drawing a tube on a bar (Sec. 4-7-1).
3 A basic phenomenon, not mentioned hitherto, is that a cold-worked material
exhibits greater ductility when the deformation direction is reversed in successive
operations (strain softening)-, this is exploited in the reverse redrawing of cups
(Fig. 5-32c).
Redrawing is extensively used for food containers, fountain-pen caps, oil-filter
housings, shock-absorber pistons, etc. Ironing is used in the mass production of
drawn-and-ironed beverage cans and ammunition cartridges.
There is, of course, wide opportunity, but often combined with greater difficulty,
to change the basic shape of the drawn part. In drawing square or rectangular
containers the degree of difficulty increases with increasing part depth-to-corner
radius ratio; earing in the corners is helpful. A punch with a curved or hemi-
spherical end imposes a different, combined deformation state, to be discussed
next.

5-5-3 Combined Stretching-Drawing

In many practical applications, most notably in the production of automotive
body and chassis parts, the drawing process is neither pure stretching nor pure
drawing. The sheet is not entirely clamped (therefore it is not pure stretching),
neither is it allowed to draw in entirely freely (thus it is not pure drawing).
Instead, the complex shapes are developed by controlling the draw-in of the sheet,
1 318 INTRODUCTION T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

retarding it where necessary with draw beads inserted into the die and blank-
holder surfaces (Figs. 5-236 and 5-24a). To prevent die pickup and regulate
draw-in, a lubricant is applied and the roughness and directionality of sheet
surface finish is specified (sheet finish-rolled with shot-blasted rolls is widely
used).
The shape of the part is often represented by a "sculptured" surface, one that
can be described only with cubic patches or point-by-point in spatial coordinates.
The application of CAD/CAM to such shapes has greatly reduced the time and
effort involved in the design and analysis of parts and in programming NC
machine tools for making the dies. Curvatures can be gentle and nonsymmetrical,
resulting in problems of springback and distortion after release from the die,
especially with materials of high o /E ratio. In other instances, forming is taken
0 2

close to the limits allowed by the material, and fracture could easily occur in the
absence of tight controls.

Forming Limits In the last few years, there has been a remarkably swift
acceptance of formability concepts for production control purposes. The forming
limit diagram is useful for analyzing the causes of failures; gridded sheets reveal
the local strain distribution and allow the identification of corrective measures, as
discussed in connection with Fig. 5-25. Ellipses next to the fracture location give
the critical position on the FLD. Then various corrective measures can be taken:
The minor strain may be increased (line 1 in Fig. 5-25) by increasing the restraint
of the sheet in that direction (by inserting a draw bead or increasing the number
of draw beads); the major strain may be reduced (vertical arrow in Fig. 5-25) by
reducing the depth of stretch or by allowing more material to draw in (by
reducing the number of or completely eliminating draw beads); localized thinning
in a deep part of the drawing can be reduced by increasing friction on that part of
the male tool.

Shape Analysis The overall severity of the operation is better judged by shape
analysis which takes the contributions of stretching and drawing into account.
For this, combined stretch-draw charts (forming lines) are determined in the
laboratory. For one endpoint, the LDR is determined. The other endpoint is
found in pure stretching, by pressing a steel ball into a clamped sheet until a
localized neck is observed. The ball is of 20-mm diameter for sheet of 1.5-mm and
lesser thickness, and of 50-mm diameter for up to 3.5-mm sheet thickness (f-in
ball for < -^-in sheet or 2-in ball for up to |-in sheet). The stretching limit SL is
the height of stretch h divided by the diameter of the die D . The stretch-draw
s s

limit is obtained by connecting these two endpoints (Fig. 5-33).

When a part is found to fail during drawing (as in Fig. 5-34a), a gridded sheet
is pressed. The recommended pattern consists of 2.5-mm-diam circles inside
6.4-mm squares (0.1-in diameter inside 0.25-in squares). Analysis begins by
drawing an analysis line (a vertical cut) through the fracture zone (Fig. 5-346).
 CHAPTER 5: SHEET-METAL WORKING PROCESSES 319

< Stretch, %
100 80 60 40 20 0
2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0 Qa
Q
« 1.5 -*— d 0m 3 X —
E
1.0 I
o
0.5

0 20 40 60 80 100
Pure Draw, % » Pure
stretch draw

F I G U R E 5-33
C o m b i n e d s t r e t c h - d r a w limit d i a g r a m u s e d for j u d g i n g t h e severity of c o m b i n e d o p e r a t i o n s .
(After A. S. Kasper, Metal Progress, 99:57-60 (1971). Copyright 1971, American Society for
Metals.)

The analysis is based on separating the contributions of stretching and drawing

to total deformation. To this end, the following steps are taken:
1 The line separating the stretched from the drawn portion of the workpiece is
found: This is the line where the die touches the blank at the beginning of draw
and is usually visible (the die impact line, IL).
2 The entire base of the part is not necessarily stretched; measuring the circles
along the analysis line reveals the inner terminal (IT) where no deformation had
taken place.
3 Similarly, it may be found that the circles are not deformed toward the edge
of the remaining flange; thus, the outer terminal (OT) is defined.
4 With a flexible ruler, the stretched length L' (from IL to IT) and drawn s

length L (from IL to OT) are measured. The sum of these is the deformed length
d

L' = L' + L' .

S d

5 The original lengths L and L (Fig. 5-34c) are obtained by counting the
s d

number of circles (or squares). The sum of the two gives the starting length of the
analysis line: L = L + L . 0 s d

6 The total elongation of the line is L' — L . The contribution of the stretched 0

portion is

(5-14a)
1 320 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

Die impact
line

LDR
OT caic ^ ^
Fl=,

Jrf
Bj A

M
11 \ 1
^—i
ii
i
5=1
(c) (CO
FIGURE 5-34
The relative contributions of stretching and drawing are obtained by shape analysis, (a) Cross
section through die, (fc>) drawn part, (c) characteristic dimensions, and (d) severity analysis.

and the contribution of the drawn portion is

8 = L'-Lr (5-14 b)

(note that A + 5 = 1).

7 The stretched portion is now regarded as a case of pure stretch. The
horizontal distance between IT and IL is the equivalent of a half die diameter
DJ2; the vertical distance is the equivalent of the height of stretch h . The stretch s

forming ratio FR^ is then

(5-15a)

8 The drawn portion is regarded as a case of pure draw. The equivalent blank
diameter is d = 2L ; the equivalent punch diameter D is twice the horizontal
0 0 p
 CHAPTER 5: S H E E T - M E T A L W O R K I N G PROCESSES 321

distance between IT and the die radius (Fig. 5-34c). Then the draw ratio FR^

FR,= ^ S (5-156)

9 Since Eq. (5-14) defines the contributions of stretching and drawing, the part
can be located on the abscissa of the stretch-draw chart (Fig. 5-34d). The sum of
Eqs. (5-15a) and (5-156) gives the calculated forming ratio
F R ^ F R ^ + FR* ( " ) 5 1 5 c

which can be plotted (Fig. 5-34d). Evidently the part falls into the "fail" zone. A
"safe" condition can be established by allowing more draw-in, either by removing
draw-bead restraint, or by eliminating excess flange material (in Fig. 8-34,
clipping the corner of the blank). If this does not suffice, the part configuration
has to be changed to reduce F R or a different material, of higher F R , must
ca]c linc

be used.
The severity of draw Sev may be quantified by expressing the calculated
forming ratio as a fraction of the forming ratio of the material. It must be
remembered that LDR = 1 signifies no deformation; hence, only the forming
ratio above the F R line is of significance
zer0

since F R zcro = 5,
pn ^
S C T =S(LDR-str+SL-a ( 5 - , 6 6 )

The really important application is, of course, to the prediction of success or

failure before the expensive tools are built, so that modifications can be made in
time. It is still difficult to predict from purely theoretical considerations the
relative contributions of draw and stretch, but analyses of new part designs can
be made by reference to similar parts for which experience exists. In the most
advanced applications, the data base established by CAD is used for preliminary
analysis. This is a rapidly developing field which can already boast some successes
and should, ultimately, allow fitting of the process to the material (or vice versa)
before a production die is finalized. The magnitude of challenge may be sensed
from Fig. 5-35, showing a part of complex shape.

5-5-4 Press Forming

In industrial usage, the term press forming serves to describe all sheet-metal-
working operations performed on power presses with the use of mostly permanent
1 322 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

FIGURE 5-35
A severely formed part (an automotive wheel housing) made in a single operation by a
combination of stretching and drawing. Note the etched circle grid, the draw beads, and the
line marking the boundary between the stretched nose and the drawn-in sides. (Courtesy A. S.
Kasper, Chrysler Corporation. Detroit.)

(steel) dies. It incorporates all steps required to complete a part of any complexity
from the sheet, whether it be blanking, punching, bending, drawing, stretching,
ironing, redrawing, embossing, flanging, trimming, and so forth. The die sets used
depend on production quantities, required production rates, and the number of
operations necessary to complete the part.
1 Minimum complexity is gained if each operation is performed separately, in
individual, single-operation dies and presses. Die costs still add up and labor and
handling costs can be high. Nevertheless, this is the only option when total
production quantities are insufficient to justify more complex dies, or when the
part is very large. This latter situation prevails in the production of automotive
body parts. For increased productivity, presses are lined up behind each other,
and the part is moved from press to press with mechanical arms. In-process
inventory is reduced and greater flexibility secured if quick-die-change schemes are
adopted and mechanical arms are replaced with programmable robots.
2 Compound dies (Fig. 5-10) perform two or more operations in a single stage
and assure the greatest accuracy of the product, but are limited to relatively
simple processes such as blanking, punching, and flanging, perhaps combined
with bending or a single draw. Special dies are made for multiple draws.
3 Many parts are of a geometry that cannot be directly formed, either because
the depth-to-diameter ratio is too large or because the shape has steps, conical
portions, etc., requiring several" successive draws for which a compound die is
often inadequate. The part can still be made in a single press with the aid of
 CHAPTER 5: SHEET-METAL WORKING PROCESSES 323

multistation dies that contain, within one die set, all the die elements needed to
complete the part, so that one finished part is obtained for each press stroke. Coil
stock is fed at preset increments, and parts are transferred by one of two
techniques:
a Progressive dies are fed with strip; the blank is only partially cut so as to
remain attached with connecting tabs to the remnant of the strip, and this
skeleton is used to move the part through the forming stages, with the final
separation reserved for the last stage (Fig. 5-36).
b Transfer dies are constructed on the same principle, but the blank is cut out
first and the scrap bridge is chopped up and disposed of. The blank is moved
through successive stages of the die with indexing transfer mechanisms, usually in
a straight line, but sometimes along a circular path.
Presses for both progressive and transfer dies have to be large enough to
accommodate all die.stages on the press bed and to provide the force for all
simultaneous operations. Very high die costs are counterbalanced in mass produc-
tion by low labor costs and high production rates.

FIGURE 5-36
A typical example of progressive die work: forming of two seat-frame parts at a time, by a
sequence of blanking, flanging, piercing, flattening of flange and, in the final stage, cutting off
a n d b e n d i n g . ( C o u r t e s y General Seating Products Division, Lear-Siegler Industries Ltd.,
Kitchener, Ont.)
 1 324 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

Rubber pad Hydraulic j^ Controlled

fluid pressure

Diaphragm

Retainer

Wear
sheet

Punch
Counter
force Before After Blankholder

(a) (to)
FIGURE 5-37
Deep parts may be drawn with relatively inexpensive tooling using (a) rubber pad or (to)
hydraulic forming methods.

4 A great variety of shapes can be produced at high rates in special-purpose

machines, some of which are the so-called four-slide machines, originally devel-
oped for complex wire-bending operations, but now increasingly also used for
sheet metalworking.

5-5-5 Special Operations

There are a great number of specialized drawing processes designed to give
greater depth of draw, more complex shapes, lower die costs, or a combination of
any of these features.
1 Drawing over a male punch (often made of a resin or a zinc alloy) with a
rubber cushion (rubber forming, Fig. 5-37'a) eliminates the need for the more
expensive, mating steel dies.
2 Better control of the process is ensured when, instead of the rubber cushion,
a liquid—contained by a rubber diaphragm—is used (hydroforming, Fig. 5-376).
Hydraulic pressure is programmed throughout the stroke, often with the aid of a
computer, to press the sheet onto the punch and thus obtain parts of great depth
and complexity.
3 A single die (male or female) is used and the press dispensed with in the
various high-energy-rate forming (HERF) processes. The energy required for
deformation is derived from various sources such as an explosive mat placed over
the sheet, a magnetic field applied by a coil surrounding the part, or the pressure
 CHAPTER 5: S H E E T - M E T A L W O R K I N G PROCESSES 325

shock created in water by the sudden evaporation of a wire. In all these processes
the pressure application is very sudden but the rate at which the material deforms
is usually not much higher than in a fast mechanical press. Of the many possible
applications, drawing-in of necks and internal expansion of tubular and con-
tainer-like parts is frequently encountered. The latter serves as an alternative to
expansion with a rubber plug or hydraulic fluid, and can be used for field repair
of condensors and similar tube/header structures.

5-6 SHEET-METALWORKING DIES AND EQUIPMENT

Tool materials are chosen mostly on the basis of the expected size of the
production run. Blanking tools are subjected to severe wear and are made from
the various cold-working die steels (Table 4-6). Bending and drawing dies are
made of similar materials, although cast iron and even hard zinc alloys or plastics
are suitable for short production runs or softer workpiece materials.
In contrast to bulk deformation, die pressures seldom limit sheet-metalworking
processes. The problem is, more likely, that of finding an economical die material
and die-making method. Surface coating of tools exposed to severe wear is
gaining in popularity, and lubricants are always chosen to give control of the
process as well as reduce die wear.
Dies—their design, manufacture, maintenance, and modification—represent a
substantial part of production costs. CAD/CAM techniques minimize the design
and tryout effort and allow faster response at lower cost, especially for the design
of progressive dies and dies of complex (sculptured) configurations.
Apart from special-purpose equipment, most press forming makes use of
mechanically driven and, less frequently, hydraulic presses. Suitable clutches
permit operation of mechanical presses in single strokes (initiated by the oper-
ator) or continuously, at rates of 30-600 strokes per minute. The principle of
construction is similar to presses used in bulk deformation (Fig. 4-42 and Table
4-7) but special features and, for the same rated tonnage, much larger beds make
them more adaptable to the working of sheet metal.
Smaller presses often have inclinable press frames which facilitate removal of
the stamped part by gravity. Larger presses may have two or even three indepen-
dently movable rams, one moving inside the other. Such double- and triple-acting
presses provide built-in facilities for blank holding or clamping and for ejection,
and allow more complex operations. Spring-, air-, or hydraulic-powered cushions
provide blankholder pressure on single-acting presses and add flexibility to the
operation. Mechanical feeding and part removal speeds up production. Die
change and alignment are time-consuming but can b$ greatly speeded up by
quick-die-change techniques, moving prealigned dies in and out of the press
through side or front openings in the press frame.

5-7 SUMMARY
Well over one-half of the total metal production ends up in the form of
sheet-metal parts. The variety of products is immense, from aircraft skins and