Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.

3
SC-GCM-50 CM Issue 2 © Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Module 5.3
Control Loops and Dynamics

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.1

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Control Loops and Dynamics

This Module introduces discussion on complete control systems, made up of the valve, actuator,
sensor, controller and the dynamics of the process itself.

Control loops
An open loop control system
Open loop control simply means there is no direct feedback from the controlled condition; in
other words, no information is sent back from the process or system under control to advise the
controller that corrective action is required. The heating system shown in Figure 5.3.1 demonstrates
this by using a sensor outside of the room being heated. The system shown in Figure 5.3.1 is not
an example of a practical heating control system; it is simply being used to depict the principle
of open loop control.
Two port Outside sensor
valve Controller
Steam / water
heat exchanger Water

Balancing
Steam valve

Room

Condensate Radiators
Pump

Fig. 5.3.1 Open loop control

The system consists of a proportional controller with an outside sensor sensing ambient air
temperature. The controller might be set with a fairly large proportional band, such that at an
ambient temperature of -1°C the valve is full open, and at an ambient of 19°C the valve is fully
closed. As the ambient temperature will have an effect on the heat loss from the building, it is
hoped that the room temperature will be controlled.
However, there is no feedback regarding the room temperature and heating due to other factors.
In mild weather, although the flow of water is being controlled, other factors, such as high solar
gain, might cause the room to overheat. In other words, open control tends only to provide a
coarse control of the application.
Figure 5.3.2 depicts a slightly more sophisticated control system with two sensors.
Three port
mixing valve
Outside sensor

Steam /water Water Flow

heat exchanger sensor

Steam

Balancing Room
valve
Condensate Radiators
Pump

Fig. 5.3.2 Open loop control system with outside temperature sensor and water temperature sensor

5.3.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

The system uses a three port mixing valve with an actuator, controller and outside air sensor,
plus a temperature sensor in the water line.
The outside temperature sensor provides a remote set point input to the controller, which is used
to offset the water temperature set point. In this way, closed loop control applies to the water
temperature flowing through the radiators.
When it is cold outside, water flows through the radiator at its maximum temperature. As the
outside temperature rises, the controller automatically reduces the temperature of the water
flowing through the radiators.
However, this is still open loop control as far as the room temperature is concerned, as there is
no feedback from the building or space being heated. If radiators are oversized or design errors
have occurred, overheating will still occur.
Closed loop control
Quite simply, a closed loop control requires feedback; information sent back direct from the
process or system. Using the simple heating system shown in Figure 5.3.3, the addition of an
internal space temperature sensor will detect the room temperature and provide closed loop
control with respect to the room.
In Figure 5.3.3, the valve and actuator are controlled via a space temperature sensor in the
room, providing feedback from the actual room temperature.

Steam / water Water

heat exchanger

Steam Room with internal

space temperature
sensor
Balancing
valve
Condensate Radiators
Pump

Fig. 5.3.3 Closed loop control system with sensor for internal space temperature

Disturbances
Disturbances are factors, which enter the process or system to upset the value of the controlled
medium. These disturbances can be caused by changes in load or by outside influences.
For example; if in a simple heating system, a room was suddenly filled with people, this would
constitute a disturbance, since it would affect the temperature of the room and the amount of
heat required to maintain the desired space temperature.
Feedback control
This is another type of closed loop control. Feedback control takes account of disturbances and
feeds this information back to the controller, to allow corrective action to be taken. For example,
if a large number of people enter a room, the space temperature will increase, which will then
cause the control system to reduce the heat input to the room.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.3

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Feed-forward control
With feed-forward control, the effects of any disturbances are anticipated and allowed for before
the event actually takes place.
An example of this is bringing the boiler up to high fire before bringing a large steam-using
process plant on line. The sequence of events might be that the process plant is switched on. This
action, rather than opening the steam valve to the process, instructs the boiler burner to high fire.
Only when the high fire position is reached is the process steam valve allowed to open, and then
in a slow, controlled way.

Single loop control

This is the simplest control loop involving just one controlled variable, for instance, temperature.
To explain this, a steam-to-water heat exchanger is considered as shown in Figure 5.3.4.

2-port
control valve
Primary sensor

Hot water
Steam

Condensate
Cold water

Condensate
Fig. 5.3.4 Single loop control on a heating calorifier

The only one variable controlled in Figure 5.3.4 is the temperature of the water leaving the heat
exchanger. This is achieved by controlling the 2-port steam valve supplying steam to the heat
exchanger. The primary sensor may be a thermocouple or PT100 platinum resistance thermometer
sensing the water temperature.
The controller compares the signal from the sensor to the set point on the controller. If there is a
difference, the controller sends a signal to the actuator of the valve, which in turn moves the
valve to a new position. The controller may also include an output indicator, which shows the
percentage of valve opening.
Single control loops provide the vast majority of control for heating systems and industrial processes.
Other terms used for single control loops include:
o Set value control.
o Single closed loop control.
o Feedback control.

5.3.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Multi-loop control
The following example considers an application for a slow moving timber-based product, which
must be controlled to a specific humidity level (see Figures 5.3.5 and 5.3.6).

Water

Furnace
Burner
gas
Flow direction Humidity
of the conveyor Spray sensor

Fig. 5.3.5 Single humidity sensor

In Figure 5.3.5, the single humidity sensor at the end of the conveyor controls the amount of
heat added by the furnace. But if the water spray rate changes due, for instance, to fluctuations
in the water supply pressure, it may take perhaps 10 minutes before the product reaches the far
end of the conveyor and the humidity sensor reacts. This will cause variations in product quality.
To improve the control, a second humidity sensor on another control loop can be installed
immediately after the water spray, as shown in Figure 5.3.6. This humidity sensor provides a
remote set point input to the controller which is used to offset the local set point. The local set
point is set at the required humidity after the furnace. This, in a simple form, illustrates
multi-loop control.
This humidity control system consists of two control loops:
o Loop 1 controls the addition of water.
o Loop 2 controls the removal of water.
Within this process, factors will influence both loops. Some factors such as water pressure will
affect both loops. Loop 1 will try to correct for this, but any resulting error will have an impact on
Loop 2.
Water

Loop 1 (controls the addition of water)

Furnace Loop 2
(controls the
Burner removal of
gas water)
Humidity
Flow direction Humidity
sensor
of the conveyor Spray sensor

Fig. 5.3.6 Dual humidity sensors

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Cascade control
Where two independent variables need to be controlled with one valve, a cascade control system
may be used.
Figure 5.3.7 shows a steam jacketed vessel full of liquid product. The essential aspects of the
process are quite rigorous:
o The product in the vessel must be heated to a certain temperature.
o The steam must not exceed a certain temperature or the product may be spoiled.
o The product temperature must not increase faster than a certain rate or the product may be
spoiled.
If a normal, single loop control was used with the sensor in the liquid, at the start of the process
the sensor would detect a low temperature, and the controller would signal the valve to move to
the fully open position. This would result in a problem caused by an excessive steam temperature
in the jacket.
Controller 2 Controller 1

Sensor 2 Sensor 1

Steam
Product

Condensate
Fig. 5.3.7 Jacketed vessel
The solution is to use a cascade control using two controllers and two sensors:
o A slave controller (Controller 2) and sensor monitoring the steam temperature in the jacket,
and outputting a signal to the control valve.
o A master controller (Controller 1) and sensor monitoring the product temperature with
the controller output directed to the slave controller.
o The output signal from the master controller is used to vary the set point in the slave controller,
ensuring that the steam temperature is not exceeded.

Example 5.3.1 An example of cascade control applied to a process vessel

The liquid temperature is to be heated from 15°C to 80°C and maintained at 80°C for two hours.
The steam temperature cannot exceed 120°C under any circumstances.
The product temperature must not increase faster than 1°C /minute.
The master controller can be ramped so that the rate of increase in water temperature is not
higher than that specified.
The master controller is set in reverse acting mode, so that its output signal to the slave controller
is 20 mA at low temperature and 4 mA at high temperature.
The remote set point on the slave controller is set so that its output signal to the valve is 4 mA
when the steam temperature is 80°C, and 20 mA when the steam temperature is 120°C.
In this way, the temperature of the steam cannot be higher than that tolerated by the system,
and the steam pressure in the jacket cannot be higher than the, 1 bar g, saturation pressure
at 120°C.

5.3.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Dynamics of the process

This is a very complex subject but this part of the text will cover the most basic considerations.
The term ‘time constant’, which deals with the definition of the time taken for actuator movement,
has already been outlined in Module 5.1; but to reiterate, it is the time taken for a control system
to reach approximately two-thirds of its total movement as a result of a given step change in
temperature, or other variable.
Other parts of the control system will have similar time based responses - the controller and its
components and the sensor itself. All instruments have a time lag between the input to the
instrument and its subsequent output. Even the transmission system will have a time lag - not a
problem with electric /electronic systems but a factor that may need to be taken into account
with pneumatic transmission systems.
Figures 5.3.8 and 5.3.9 show some typical response lags for a thermocouple that has been
installed into a pocket for sensing water temperature.

Actual water temperature Actual water temperature

Temperature

Temperature
Indicated water temperature Indicated
water temperature

Fig. 5.3.8 Step change 5°C Fig. 5.3.9 Ramp change 5°C

Apart from the delays in sensor response, other parts of the control system also affect the response
time. With pneumatic and self-acting systems, the valve /actuator movement tends to be smooth
and, in a proportional controller, directly proportional to the temperature deviation at the sensor.
With an electric actuator there is a delay due to the time it takes for the motor to move the
control linkage. Because the control signal is a series of pulses, the motor provides bursts of
movement followed by periods where the actuator is stationary. The response diagram
(Figure 5.3.10) depicts this. However, because of delays in the process response, the final
controlled temperature can still be smooth.

Self-acting and pneumatic Steady state

Valve
movement
Electric

Time
Fig. 5.3.10 Comparison of response by different actuators

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.7

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

The control systems covered in this Module have only considered steady state conditions. However
the process or plant under control may be subject to variations following a certain behaviour
pattern. The control system is required to make the process behave in a predictable manner. If
the process is one which changes rapidly, then the control system must be able to react quickly.
If the process undergoes slow change, the demands on the operating speed of the control system
are not so stringent.
Much is documented about the static and dynamic behaviour of controllers and control systems
- sensitivity, response time and so on. Possibly the most important factor of consideration is the
time lag of the complete control loop.
The dynamics of the process need consideration to select the right type of controller, sensor and
actuator.
Process reactions
These dynamic characteristics are defined by the reaction of the process to a sudden change in
the control settings, known as a step input. This might include an immediate change in set
temperature, as shown in Figure 5.3.11.
The response of the system is depicted in Figure 5.3.12, which shows a certain amount of dead
time before the process temperature starts to increase. This dead time is due to the control lag
caused by such things as an electrical actuator moving to its new position. The time constant will
differ according to the dynamic response of the system, affected by such things as whether or not
the sensor is housed in a pocket.
Temperature

Instant change in set temperature

Time
Fig. 5.3.11 Step input

Tc Steady state
Time constant
Temperature

Dt
Dead time

On Time
Fig. 5.3.12 Components of process response to step changes

The response of any two processes can have different characteristics because of the system. The
effects of dead time and the time constant on the system response to a sudden input change are
shown graphically in Figure 5.3.12.

5.3.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Systems that have a quick initial rate of response to input changes are generally referred to as
possessing a first order response.
Systems that have a slow initial rate of response to input changes are generally referred to as
possessing a second order response.
An overview of the basic types of process response (effects of dead time, first order response,
and second order response) is shown in Figure 5.3.13.

Step change

First order response with no dead time

Response

In basic terms, the rate of response is at a maximum at the

start and gradually decreases from that point onwards.
Process reaction

Time

Step change

Second order response with no dead time

Response

In basic terms, the maximum rate of response does not

occur at the very beginning (when the step change
happened) but some time later.
Process reaction

Time

Step change

Dead time
The process response may be such that, with any of the
Step response
types so far discussed, there is no immediate dynamic
with dead time
response at first.
Response

In other words, there is a period of dead time.

Dead time In basic terms, if the time constant is greater than the dead
time, control should not be difficult. If, however, the dead
First order response time is greater than the time constant, satisfactory control
with dead time may be difficult to achieve.

Second order
with dead time

Time

Fig. 5.3.13 Response curves

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.9

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

Questions

1. What factors affect the response of a process to any input change?

a| P + I + D ¨
b| Time constant and actuator voltage ¨
c| Size of valve and actuator ¨
d| Time constant and dead time ¨
2. What is meant by the term ‘time constant’?
a| It is the time for the valve to move from its fully open to fully closed position ¨
b| It is the time for the valve to move 63.2% of its full movement due to a sudden
change in process load ¨
c| It is the time taken for a controller output to change by 63.2% of its total due to a
sudden change in process load ¨
d| It is the time taken for a controller output to achieve 63.2% of the time required to
reach set point ¨
3. What is meant by cascade control?
a| The control of water flowing over a weir ¨
b| Two valves are used to control two independent variables ¨
c| Two independent variables are controlled by one valve ¨
d| Two controllers are used to average the output from one sensor ¨
4. What is meant by feedback control on a steam jacketed vessel?
a| When the controller of the vessel contents feeds back a signal to a controller
of the steam temperature in the jacket ¨
b| It is a control in which a sensor in the steam jacket only indirectly controls the
temperature of the vessel contents ¨
c| It is another name for a multi-loop control in which one controller loop will maintain
the temperature of the vessel contents and another will maintain the steam jacket
pressure / temperature ¨
d| It is a closed loop control system in which the condition of the vessel contents is fed
back to a controller operating on a valve in the steam supply to the jacket ¨
5. What is the disadvantage of an open loop control system?
a| Only one variable can be controlled ¨
b| It tends to provide a coarse control as there is no feedback from the plant being heated ¨
c| It is proportional control only ¨
d| It can only be used with a thermostat ¨

5.3.10 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

6. What can be derived from the process response shown below, in response
to a step change signal change?

Step change

Response
Process reaction

Time

a| It is a second order response, the maximum response not occurring at the time
of the step change but sometime later ¨
b| It indicates the use of an open loop control system ¨
c| There is a significant delay in the whole system responding to a step change and
a quick opening valve is being used with a P + D controller ¨
d| It is a first order response following a dead time and the rate of response starts at the
maximum and then gradually decreases ¨

Answers
1: d, 2: c, 3: c, 4: d, 5: b, 6: d

The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.3.11

Block 5 Basic Control Theory Control Loops and Dynamics Module 5.3

5.3.12 The Steam and Condensate Loop