Untitled

NEPAL LABOUR
MIGRATION REPORT 2022
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security
Kathmandu, Nepal
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Nepal Labour
Migration Report 2022
Copyright©2022
Published by:
Government of Nepal
Singhadarbar, Kathmandu
Tel.: 01-4211678, 4211791, 4211733
Fax: 01-4211877
Email: info@moless.gov.np
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MESSAGE
Labour Migration has been an integral aspect of the socio-economic status of our country. Nepali
economy has remained mostly on the foundation of remittances gained abroad by the Nepali youths.
In this context, the Government of Nepal is cognisant of both the avenues of creating and promoting
internal employment and ensuring foreign employment is safe, dignified and regular. Further, the
Government of Nepal is on the way to ensuring foreign employment as an informed choice.
The ministry has started its publication of the Labour Migration Report from the year 2015 and it is
the sixth iteration of the report that is likely to provide an operational framework for labour migration
governance and the related policy reforms. The report has outlined the government’s initiatives on
multi-level reform efforts at the local, provincial, national, bilateral, regional and global levels to realize
the goal of safe, dignified and systematic labour migration in Nepal. The swiftly-changing global
migration landscape has put the spotlight on migration issues, especially with adoption of the Global
Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) and the migration related indicators in
the Sustainable Development Goals 2030. In addition, within Nepal, federalisation has presented
immense opportunities to initiate worker-centred reform efforts that ensure safe foreign employment.
I believe that this report remains as the important document for the government of Nepal showing an
operational framework for mitigating the gaps and challenges of labour migration in Nepal. I expect
the way forward outlined to be applicable and result based.
I thank Eaknarayan Aryal, the Secretary of the Ministry, the steering committee members and the
working committee members for their leading role. My thanks also go to the research team members
for their commendable work. Also, I extend my thanks to the development partners- the International
Labour Organization, the International Organization for Migration and the SaMi Project- for their
technical support.
..........................................
Sher Bahadur Kunwar

Minister
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IV
Foreword
It is my pleasure to publish the Nepal Labour Migration Report 2022. The report presents the
migration status of three fiscal years 2019/2020, 2020/2021 and 2021/2022. The migration in Nepal
has heartened all the aspects of social livelihood of Nepalis though the COVID 19 pandemic had
adversely affected the foreign employment for the last two years. Labour migration has presented
opportunities for the economy of the country meanwhile there are challenges in making foreign
employment management an informed choice.
The statistics in the report portray a comprehensive and overarching picture of migration of Nepal.
It is a timely and valuable contribution to better understand where Nepal stands in terms of labour
migration. Similarly, it critically analyses the thematic gaps and challenges of labour migration
including Nepal-India Migration as well as returnees' disaggregated data and identifies the areas
of reform. The report has also presented the bilateral labour arrangements of our country with the
countries of destination including the changed migration policies. It is expected that this report fills
the gaps of data inconsistencies and unavailability of data on labour migration in Nepal. The report
has been prepared with a participatory approach by consulting with provincial and local government,
and concerned stakeholders.
Technology based service delivery is one of the key priorities of the Ministry. Pre-approval of job
demands, labour approval (new and renew) services and foreign employment services are online and
continuously on the way to being paperless, cashless and faceless. This has supported to enhance
transparency and efficiency in public service delivery.
I would like to thank the steering committee members, working committee members, Joint
Secretary Mr Rajiv Pokhrel, labour migration expert Dr Keshav Bashyal, Under Secretary
Mr Kabiraj Upreti and other government officials in the Ministry who were assigned to compile and
produce this report. They deserve appreciation for their hard work that has made the continuity of the
report possible. My thanks go to Dr Richard Howard, Country Director, ILO Nepal and his team,
Ms Lorena Lando, Chief of Mission, IOM, Nepal and her team and the Safer Migration Programme
for their technical support and continued collaboration. In addition, I would also like to exted my
thanks to all the agencies, organisations and individuals who provided creative inputs at various stages
of report preparation and completion.
I expect the report to be a useful and interesting read to academicians, policymakers, civil society, trade
unions, media persons and people working in the field of labour migration. I hope such initiation will
continue in the future and all stakeholders will support to promote safe migration.

..…………………….
Eaknarayan Aryal
Secretary
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Steering Committee, Working Committee & Research Team
Steering Committee
Secretary, Ministry of Labour, Employment and
Mr Eaknarayan Aryal Coordinator
Social Security
Joint Secretary, Ministry of Labour, Employment
Mr Rajiv Pokhrel Member Secretary
and Social Security
Dr Keshav Bashyal Expert, Labour Migration Member
Mr Harischandra Ghimire Joint Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Member
Director General, Department of Foreign
Mr Umakanta Acharya Member
Employment
Dr Dwarika Prasad Upreti Executive Director, Foreign Employment Board Member
Dr Richard Howard Country Director, ILO Nepal Member
Ms Lorena Lando Chief of Mission, IOM, Nepal Member
Working Committee
Joint Secretary, Ministry of Labour, Employment
Mr Rajiv Pokhrel Coordinator
and Social Security
Under Secretary, Ministry of Labour,
Mr Kabiraj Upreti Member Secretary
Employment and Social Security
Mr Tirtha Chaulagain Director, National Statistics Office Member
Mr Ramhari Regmi IT Director, Department of Foreign Employment Member
Mr Deepak Dhakal Director, Foreign Employment Board Member
Computer Engineer, Ministry of Labour,
Mr Raju Shrestha Member
Ms Neha Choudhary National Project Coordinator, ILO Nepal Member
Head of Labour Mobility and Human
Mr Prajwal Sharma Member
Development Department, IOM Nepal
Senior Programme Officer, Safer Migration
Mr Dev Chandra Rai Member
(SaMi) Programme
Mr Jhakka Prasad Acharya, Joint Secretary; Dr Thaneshwar Bhusal, Under-Secretary; Ms Shanti

Paudel, Mr Prem Pokhrel and Mr Benukraj Karki, Section Officers; and Mr Ramesh Nepal,
Computer Officer; at the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security provided invaluable
support.
Research & Report Writing Team

Dr Jeevan Baniya, Sadikshya Bhattarai, Sudeshna Thapa, Prajesh Aryal, Sanjit Shrestha, Bipin
Upadhyay, Dogendra Tumsa, Dr Arjun Kharel, Samiksha Neupane, Preshika Baskota, Apurwa
Baral and Angnima Lama, Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility (CESLAM), Social
Science Baha.
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Table of Contents
Message iii
Foreword v
Abbreviations and Acronyms xv
Executive Summary xvii
1. Overview 3
1.1 Background 3
1.2 Objectives 5
1.3 Methodology 5
1.4 Structure of the Report 8

2. Labour Migration Governance in Nepal 11
2.1 Institutional Arrangements 11
2.2 Regulation of Private Entities 21
2.3 Strengthening of Foreign Employment-Related Services 26
2.4 Laws and Policies for Protection and Welfare of Migrant Workers 34
2.5 Policy Changes in Major Countries of Destination 38
2.6 Labour Migration Agreements 44
2.7 Nepal’s Engagement in Regional and International Processes and Forums 48
2.8 Immigration into Nepal 50
3. Status of Labour Migration in Nepal 53

3.1 Current Trends in Labour Migration 53
3.2 Countries of Destination 60
3.3 Provinces and Districts of Origin 66
3.4 Mode of Obtaining Labour Approval 68
3.5 Skills Profile 77
3.6 Occupation 83
3.7 Labour Migration to South Korea via EPS 86
3.8 Returnees 91
3.9 Stock of Migrant Workers 94
3.10 Labour Migration from a Regional Perspective 98
4. Thematic Exploration 105

4.1 Fair and Ethical Recruitment 105
4.2 Health and Safety of Migrant Workers 107
4.3 Access to Justice 114
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4.4 Remittances 119
4.5 Return and Reintegration 124
4.6 Skilling, Skills Recognition and Certification 131
4.7 Labour Migration from Nepal to India 134
5. Reflections on Data Gaps 139
6. Way Forward 145
References 157
LIST OF ANNEXES
Annex 1: No-Objection Certificates 2020/21 (2077/78) (Number Issued and Destination) 171
Annex 2: Institutional Structure of Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security 172
Annex 3: Annual Policies, Programmes and Budget 2022/23 of the Ministry of Labour,
Employment and Social Security 173
Annex 4: Nepali Diplomatic Missions, Permanent Missions of Nepal to the UN and
Consulates General of Nepal in Countries of Destination 176
Annex 5: Coordination Committees 178
Annex 6: List of International Organizations, NGOs and CSOs Working in
Labour Migration Sector 179
Annex 7: International Conventions and Treaties Ratified by Nepal 184
Annex 8: Number of Migrant Workers Based on Labour Demand, by Sex
and Destination 186
Annex 9: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers Based on Labour Approvals, by Sex,
Countries of Destination and Mode of Labour Approval, 2019/20 (2076/77) 187
Annex 12: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers Based on Labour Approvals, by
Sex and District (2019/20-2021/22) 203
Annex 13: New Labour Approval Issued, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by sex, mode of obtaining
approval and occupation) 207
Annex 14: New Labour Approvals Issued, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by country of
destination and occupation) 210
Annex 15: New Labour Approvals Issued for Women, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by country
of destination and occupation) 213
Annex 16: Number of Returnee Nepali Migrant Workers, by Sex and Countries of
Destination 215
Annex 17: Number of Returnee Nepali Migrant Workers, by Sex, Province and District 221
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Stakeholders with Log-in Access to FEIMS 27

Figure 3.1: New Labour Approvals Issued 54
Figure 3.2: New and Renewed Labour Approvals Issued 54
Figure 3.3: Labour Demand Attested vs New Labour Approvals Issued (by sex) 55
Figure 3.4: Migrant Workers (2019/20–2021/22) (by age and sex) 57
Figure 3.5: New Labour Approvals Issued (by emerging countries of destination) 62
Figure 3.6: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province) 67
Figure 3.7: New Labour Approvals Issued to Women (by province) 67
Figure 3.8: Mode of Obtaining Labour Approvals 70
Figure 3.9: Number of Recruitment Agencies (by number of countries for which labour
approvals were granted) 71
Figure 3.10: Number of Recruitment Agencies (by number of countries for which labour
approvals were granted) 72
Figure 3.11: Number of Recruitment Agencies (by district covered) 74
Figure 3.12: New Individual Labour Approvals Issued (by sex) 75
Figure 3.13: Regularised Labour Approvals (by sex) 76
Figure 3.14: Applicants and Attendees for EPS-TOPIK 89
Figure 3.15: Number of Successful Applicants in EPS-TOPIK (by sex) 90
Figure 3.16: Migrants in South Korea under EPS (2008 to 15 November, 2022) (by sex) 90
Figure 3.17: Returnee Migrant Workers (by sex) 92
Figure 3.18: Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22) (by country of destination) 93
Figure 3.19: Women Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22) (by country of destination) 93
Figure 3.20: Distribution of Returnees (2020/21–2021/22) (by province) 94
Figure 3.21: Percentage Change in Absentee Population 97
Figure 3.22: Outflow of Migrant Workers from South Asia to Malaysia 100
Figure 3.23: Total Migrant Stock in Japan in 2019, by Nationality and sex 100
Figure 4.1: Families Receiving Financial Assistance for Migrant Workers’
Death in Countries of destination 108
Figure 4.2: Major Causes of Injury/Illness of Migrant Workers 111
Figure 4.3: Financial Assistance Provided to Deceased Migrant Workers’ Families 114
Figure 4.4: Number of Cases Settled by Foreign Employment Tribunal 116
Figure 4.5: Number of Migrant Workers in Jail in Countries of destination 118
Figure 4.6: Remittance received in Nepal (in billion NPR) 119
Figure 4.7: Remittance as Percentage Share of GDP 120
Figure 4.8: Number of Free Skills Training Provided by FEB 133
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Ministries in Seven Provinces with Responsibilities Related to Labour Migration 16
Table 2.2: Committees 17
Table 2.3: Supreme Court Decisions and Declarations Pertaining to Labour Migration
and Migrant Workers 20
Table 2.4: Particulars to be Submitted for Labour Approval 23
Table 2.5: Services that can be Availed through FEIMS 29
Table 2.6: Policy Changes in Key Countries of Destination 39
Table 2.7: Agreements with Countries of Destination 45
Table 2.8: List of Recent Joint Working Group/Committee Meetings 47
Table 3.1: Timeline Affecting Foreign Employment during COVID-19 56
Table 3.2: Number of New and Renewed Labour Approvals (by sex and key countries of
destination) 58
Table 3.3: Proportion of Women Migrant Workers Receiving New Labour Approvals
(by top 10 destinations) 63
Table 3.4: Women Migrant Workers Renewing Labour Approvals (by country of destination) 63
Table 3.5: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province and top 10 destinations) 64
Table 3.6: New Labour Approvals Issued (%) (by top 10 districts) 69
Table 3.7: New Labour Approvals Issued to Women (%) (by top 10 districts) 69
Table 3.8: Labour Approvals Issued Through Recruitment Agencies (by country of destination) 72
Table 3.9: Number of PRAs Facilitating Migration of Workers Abroad (by country of destination) 73
Table 3.10: New Individual Labour Approvals Issued (by country of destination) 75
Table 3.11: Regularised Labour Approvals (by country of destination) 77
Table 3.12: New Labour Approvals Issued (by skills profile) 78
Table 3.13: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province and skills profile) 79
Table 3.14: Labour Approvals Issued (by mode of obtaining approvals) 80
Table 3.15: Labour Approvals Issued (by mode of obtaining approvals and skills profile) 81
Table 3.16: Labour Approvals Issued (by skill profile and destination) 82
Table 3.17: Classification of Occupational Categories 84
Table 3.18: New Labour Approvals Issued (2021/22) (by sex, mode of obtaining approval
and occupation) 85
Table 3.19: New Labour Approvals Issued (2021/22) (by country of destination and occupation) 86
Table 3.20: New Labour Approvals Issued (2021/22) (by top five destinations and occupation) 87
Table 3.21: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers in South Korea (by sector) 91
Table 3.22: Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22) (by province and country of destination) 95
Table 3.23: Number of Mid- to Long-term Nepali Residents in Japan (by residence status) 98
Table 3.24: Migrant Workers in GCC Countries from South Asia (2019 and 2020) 99
Table 3.25: Mid- to Long-term Residents in Japan in 2020, by Status of Residence 101
Table 3.26: Skilled Worker and Temporary Workers Visa Issued by the UK 101
Table 4.1: Causes of Death 109
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Table 4.2: Sex of Deceased Migrant Workers 110
Table 4.3: Cause of Death in Major Countries of Destination (2019/20–2021/22) 110
Table 4.4: Migrant Workers’ Deaths (by province) 111
Table 4.5: Number of Migrant Workers in Coma (2019/20–2021/22) (by country of
destination and sex) 112
Table 4.6: Injury/Illness of Migrant Workers (by province) 113
Table 4.7: Cases Registered at Migrant Resource Centres (by sex) 117
Table 4.8: Remittance Inflow during the COVID-19 Pandemic 120
Table 4.9: Remittance Inflow by Country of Destination (First Four Months of FY 2019/20) 121
Table 4.10: Average Remittance Transfer Costs for South Asian Countries 122
Table 4.11: Costs of Average Remittance Transfer to Nepal 123
Table 4.12: Selected National Programmes Facilitating Reintegration of Returnees 128
Table 4.13: Selected Government Projects for Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers 129
Table 4.14: Programmes for Reintegration of Migrant Workers in National Budgets 129
Table 4.15: FEB’s Skills Training Occupations 132
LIST OF BOXES
Box 2.1: Migration Resource Centre: Key Figures (2019/20–2021/22) 14

Box 2.2: Support to Local Governments 36
Box 3.1: Calculating Number of Labour Approvals for Nawalparasi and Rukum 68
Box 4.1: Recent Reintegration Projects 126
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Nepal Labour Migration Report 2022
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADD Abu Dhabi Dialogue

BLA Bilateral Labour Agreement
BLMA Bilateral Labour Migration Agreement
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CDO Chief District Officer
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women
CESLAM Cetre for the Study of Labour and Mobility
CoD Countries of Destination
CP Colombo Process
CSO Civil Society Organisations
CTEVT Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training
DoFE Department of Foreign Employment
DoI Department of Immigration
DoLOS Department of Labour and Occupational Safety
EIC Employment Information System
EMIS Employment Management Information System
EPS Employment Permit System
ESC Employment Service Centre
FEB Foreign Employment Board
FEIMS Foreign Employment Information Management System
FET Foreign Employment Tribunal
FEWF Foreign Employment Welfare Fund
FEWIMS Foreign Employment Welfare Information Management System
FY Fiscal Year
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GCM Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GoN Government of Nepal
G2G Government-to-Government
ILO International Labour Organization
I/NGO International/ Non-Governmental Organization
IOM International Organisation for Migration
KOICA Korea International Cooperation Agency
MoEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
MoFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
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MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs

MoLESS Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MoWCSC Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens
MRC Migrant Resource Centre
NHRC National Human Rights Commission
NLFS Nepal Labour Force Survey
NOC No Objection Certificate
NPR Nepali Rupee
NRB Nepal Rastra Bank
NRNA Non-Resident Nepali Association
NSTB National Skill Testing Board
NVQS National Vocational Qualification System
NVQS-P Nepal Vocational Qualifications System Project
PAM Public Authority of Manpower
PDOT Pre-Departure Orientation Training
PMEP Prime Minister Employment Program
PNCC Pravasi Nepali Coordination Committee
PRA Private Recruitment Agency
ReMi Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers
RRT Rapid Response Team
RSP Remittance Service Provider
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SaMi Safer Migration
SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
TMIS Training Management Information System
TOPIK Test of Proficiency in Korean
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
USD United States Dollar
VSDTC Vocational and Skill Development Training Centre
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Executive Summary
The Nepal Labour Migration Report 2022 summarises the major trends and activities in labour
migration governance in the country. For analytical purposes, it focuses on quantitative database
retrieved from the Foreign Employment Information Management System (FEIMS) maintained
from 2019/2020 to 2021/22. Together with qualitative data, the report primarily features an assessment
of policies and programmes on temporary labour migration of Nepali citizens to several countries of
destination. The report is a continuation of earlier labour migration reports.
Temporary labour migration of Nepali human resources to several labour destinations has become a
common phenomenon. At the household level, financial support from family members overseas has
had a significant impact in advancing the family’s educational, financial, entrepreneurial, and social
life. Remittances are contributing to the social and economic development of hundreds of thousands
of migrant households. Despite severe disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the global
economy, hundreds of thousands of Nepalis continued to opt for foreign employment, resulting in a
remittance inflow of NPR 961.2 billion (ca. USD 7.5 billion) in 2020.
The labour migration sector in Nepal is governed by a host of institutions, starting with the Ministry
of Labour, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) as the apex body in setting policy on labour
migration. The Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE) has the task of regulating the sector,
the Foreign Employment Board (FEB) is involved in supporting migrant workers and their families’
welfare and reintegration while the Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET) is dedicated to adjudicating
legal cases related to labour migration. Provincial ministries and local level units also provide
supportive functions to the labour migration sector. Private recruitment agencies (PRAs) play an
important function in linking aspirant migrant workers with employers abroad while medical centres,
pre-departure orientation training providers, and insurance companies all provide their respective
services to ensure the smooth functioning of the labour migration process.
In recent years, MoLESS has been implementing a coordinated effort to strengthen labour migration
governance and enhance effective service delivery in Nepal and beyond. These include shifting labour
migration-related services such as application for and issuance of labour approval by DoFE and
application to the FEB for financial assistance onto online platforms. Similarly, policies related to
immigration—especially aimed at migrant workers—in the major countries of destination (CoDs)
have seen significant changes. In particular, policies aimed at imposing limits on labour migration or
reserving jobs and opportunities for their nationals were evident across all the major Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) countries. A wage protection system and development of accessible complaint
mechanisms have also been established in recent years.
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Nepal has continued to prioritise entering into and renewing bilateral labour migration agreements
(BLMAs) with various labour destinations to ensure safe, orderly and dignified migration of Nepali
migrant workers. So far, the government has established specific and formal bilateral labour relations
with 10 different countries, mostly in the GCC region. While labour relations with each country
have their own distinctive features, formalising agreements provide an important position for Nepal
to initiate conversations to ensure decent work for Nepali migrant workers. In recent years, the focus
of the Government of Nepal has been on renewing, if not upgrading, the agreement with the hope
of incorporating recent reforms in both Nepal and the countries of destination. The renewed labour
agreements with Malaysia in 2018 and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 2019 stand testimony
to Nepal’s continued efforts in this regard. Similarly, during their sixth joint committee meeting in
December 2021, Nepal and Qatar agreed to upgrade the bilateral labour agreement (BLA) signed in
2005 while the agreements with Israel in 2020 and the United Kingdom in 2022 provide important
insights into the government’s priority in finding new labour destinations for Nepali human resources.
Between 2019/20 and 2021/22, more than 1.1 million labour approvals were issued. While the number
of labour approvals issued saw a significant decline in the COVID-19 years of 2019/20 and 2020/21,
there was a revival in 2021/22 when the impacts of the pandemic gradually subsided. Nepal welcomed
back 203,934 returnees in 2020/21 and 470,978 in 2021/22. Although the lack of comprehensive data
does not permit asserting conclusively, most of these returnee migrants are likely to have migrated
again, especially in recent months.
Labour migration from Nepal is still a phenomenon dominated by men with women migrant workers
accounting for less than 10 per cent of the total labour approvals issued in 2021/22. Madhesh and
Province 1 account for the largest share of migrant workers, with each being home to more than a fifth
of the total labour approvals issued in 2021/22. In contrast, Bagmati accounts for the largest share of
women migrant workers in foreign employment.
While Nepali citizens migrated to 150 countries between 2019/20 and 2021/22 for employment, the
six GCC countries and Malaysia remain the preferred destinations for the overwhelming majority of
Nepali migrant workers in the reference period. Countries like Croatia, Cyprus, the Maldives, Malta,
Poland, Romania, Turkey, and the UK have also emerged as important employment destinations
in the last few years. Between 2019/20 and 2021/22, although most of the women Nepali migrant
workers went to the GCC countries, countries like Croatia, Cyprus, Jordan, Malta, Romania and
Turkey were the more prominent, and emerging destinations for women compared to men.
Migrant workers’ health and safety continue to be crucial issues. In 2021/22, 1395 Nepali migrant
workers (including 39 women) were reported to have died, with most deaths certified as having occurred
due to ‘natural causes’ in and by CoDs. More than 150 cases of deaths of Nepali migrant workers have
each been reported annually in Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the UAE in 2019/20–2021/22. In
addition, a significant number of Nepali migrant workers return home with mild to severe injuries
and illnesses. The health risks migrant workers face are linked to their exposure to occupational safety
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and health hazards, poor working and living conditions, lack of access to social protection, including
medical/health services, language and cultural barriers, and forced overtime labour, among others. The
FEB disbursed a total of NPR 769.95 million (ca. USD 5.9 million) as financial assistance to 1395
families of deceased migrant workers in 2020/21 through the Foreign Employment Welfare Fund
(FEWF).
Nepali migrant workers have been subjected to an exploitative recruitment process, employment
contract fraud and abuse by employers. Women migrant workers are especially vulnerable to violence
and face risks of abusive treatment in many countries of destination. More than 1300 new cases
related to such fraud, abuse and exploitation were filed at the FET between 2019/20 and 2021/22.
MoLESS has adopted and implemented a range of policies and legal instruments to address these
issues. These include a ban on the use of agents, conferring rights to the Chief District Officer (CDO)
to investigate and punish individual agents involved in fraud and cheating, and an ‘employer pays’
model for recruitment.
The government has also prioritised the reintegration of migrant workers through skill development
and certification, and also programmes dealing with financial literacy, vocational training, recognition
of prior learning, psychological support, and shelter. Through the Reintegration Programme (Operation
and Management) Directive for Returnee Migrant Workers, 2022, the government has stressed three
diverse yet inter-related dimensions of the reintegration efforts: social integration, employment, and
entrepreneurial development.
Recognising the conditions on the ground and in an attempt to redress any shortcomings, MoLESS
is considering working on the following areas in the immediate future:
Strengthening legal and policy framework: MoLESS is cognisant that forthcoming revisions of the
national labour migration legislation will have to address the issues of irregular migrant workers and
those in domestic work, and also deal with the issue of human trafficking and smuggling that are often
conflated with labour migration. The recruitment fees and related costs will also be elaborated upon in
the forthcoming amendments of the Foreign Employment Act to ensure strict implementation of the
principle of ‘employer pays’ and fair and ethical recruitment. MoLESS is also planning to incentivise
PRAs practising fair and ethical recruitment and is also re-evaluating the current policy that requires
the PRAs to send a certain number of migrant workers annually in order to get their licence renewed
since this has led to PRAs focusing on numbers than the service provided.
Enhanced e-governance of labour migration and services: MoLESS recognises the importance of
and need for raising awareness among migrant workers and their families using both traditional and
new forms of media about the online platforms and services that have been introduced for better and
faster service delivery as well as on issues such as their rights, compensation and grievance-registration
mechanisms to further enhance safe migration. It is also crucial to address various hindrances
constraining public’s access to these digital services.
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Decentralisation of services: MoLESS recognises the importance of collaborating with provincial

and local governments and other relevant agencies to decentralise various labour migration-related
services such as the regulation of PRAs and the pre-departure orientation training (PDOT) centres;
access to job opportunities abroad; health check-ups, biometric check-ups, grievance registration and
settlement; and insurance claims, financial assistances and scholarships.
Access to justice: MoLESS underscores the need to work closely with the CoDs and take up issues
related to wage theft, fair and ethical recruitment, migrants in irregular situations, forced labour,
exploitation and abuse during joint committee meetings and other bilateral discussions. MoLESS
has been underscoring the need to highlight the plight of irregular migrant workers during bilateral
discussions with the CoDs while also strengthening the PDOT curriculum in a manner that
adequately addresses these issues. Towards that end, MoLESS aims to provide free legal support
services to migrant workers, including through the implementation of the new directives, information
dissemination, documentation and translation related services, and by working with diaspora,
international organisations, bar councils and trade unions in the CoDs.
Health and safety of migrant workers: MoLESS recognises the need to carry out regular and effective
inspection of the workplace and living conditions of migrant workers. In line with this report’s
findings that a large number of Nepali migrant workers are employed in unsafe employment practices,
MoLESS notes the need to organise occupational safety and health training for migrant workers prior
to and after their arrival in the CoDs in coordination with Nepali diplomatic missions. MoLESS
also realises the importance of informed migration, sensitisation, greater awareness, and the need for
implementing country-specific PDOT curriculums as well as post-arrival orientation. MoLESS will
continue engaging with CoDs to ensure that employers implement standard occupational safety and
health protocols at the workplace.
Social protection: It has been recognised that the establishment of a bilateral social security mechanism
could enhance the protection of migrant workers. MoLESS will continue to explore ways by engaging
with employers’ and workers’ organisations on how this can be designed and implemented in a way
that is gender responsive and also sensitive to the condition of workers in the informal sector. Priority
will be given to the inclusion of migrant workers in the social security scheme in Nepal, namely the
Social Security Fund (SSF).
Labour diplomacy: In addition to analysing migration-related policy priorities of the CoDs and gathering
feedback on the meeting agenda in advance, MoLESS will continue collaborating with the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs (MoFA) and other relevant agencies and stakeholders before participating in bilateral
and multilateral meetings and events in order to successfully seek the support of the CoDs in its priority
areas. MoLESS will continue to engage with national, regional and international partners to protect and
promote the human rights of migrant workers. Further, Nepal will actively seek opportunities to play
leading roles in forums like the GCM and the UN Network on Migration, the Colombo Process, the
Abu Dhabi Dialogue, and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Technical
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Committee on Labour Migration, to ensure that the issues and concerns of Nepali migrant workers are
adequately raised and addressed. MoLESS will also institutionalise the practice of documenting the
discussions at preparatory phases and proceedings of such events.
Multi-stakeholder Collaboration: MoLESS is gearing up to improve dialogue at the national,

provincial and local levels while also exploring possibilities for setting up an inter-ministerial committee
or a working group for better vertical and horizontal coherence among government institutions on
matters dealing with labour migration. In line with the GCM’s ‘Whole of the Government’ and
‘Whole of the Society’ principles, the Ministry will continue engagements and consultations with
organisations of returnee migrants, trade unions, CSOs, PRAs, academia and the media to improve
policies and practices in the labour migration sector and also before engaging with the CoDs in
pursuit of new agreements or review and amendment of existing ones.
Return and reintegration: As also directed by the recent directive on reintegration, MoLESS will
take into account local and community occupational and labour market contexts, skills profile, and the
capital and knowledge of returnee migrants in designing and implementing sustainable reintegration
programmes. Priority will be given to endogenous planning processes and capacity enhancement of
local governments, particularly of the employment service centres (ESCs). MoLESS will explore ways
to support the shelters set up to assist Nepali migrant workers and returnees.
Skilling, skill recognition and certification: MoLESS recognises the need to collaborate with the
CoDs and the private sector in identifying demands and implementing demand-driven country-
specific skill training programmes targeted at migrant workers. MoLESS will continue working closely
with institutions such as the FEB, the Vocational Skill Development and Training Centre (VSTDC),
the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT), and the National Skill
Testing Board (NSTB) to design and implement training programmes aimed at migrant workers. It
will also promote skills testing and its mutual recognition in CoDs.
Disaster/crisis response and recovery plan: MoLESS acknowledges the importance of developing
an emergency crisis preparedness, response and recovery plan and strategy for the protection and
support of migrant workers in CoDs and also after their return, particularly given how the COVID-19
pandemic caught the government, non-government and private sectors off-guard. MoLESS is
cognisant of the need to mobilise support from relevant stakeholders such as the PRAs, diplomatic
missions, international organisations, diaspora organisations, and migrant workers in this endeavour.
Remittances: While acknowledging the importance of policies and schemes to incentivise migrant
workers so that they remit through formal channels, efforts are also necessary for proactively curbing the
practice of using irregular channels for remittance. MoLESS will work with the concerned governmental
institutions, financial institutions and money transfer operators towards this end. Alongside, MoLESS
will continue working to expand the existing financial literacy programme for migrant workers and their
families besides raising awareness and facilitating access to financial services.
xxi
Communication and outreach: MoLESS will continue to strengthen efforts aimed at informed
migration through timely, accurate and easily accessible information made available to aspirants,
migrants and returnees about safe migration and the risks of irregular migration; their rights and
responsibilities; dos and don’ts; occupational safety and health (OSH); culture and language services
available to them including in seeking justice in CoDs and on utilising their remittances (social and
economic); welfare services; mental and psychosocial issues; access to justice-related services; and
opportunities for employment and enterprises after their return to Nepal. Apart from regular PDOTs,
such awareness-raising and information dissemination activities will also be carried out through both
traditional and new forms of communication.
Migration data and further knowledge: MoLESS will identify gaps and opportunities in labour
migration data and the information management system. MoLESS recognises the need to assess
existing information systems such as the Foreign Employment Information Management System
(FEIMS) and the Foreign Employment Welfare Information Management System (FEWIMS) to
resolve gaps and discrepancies in the data being recorded, particularly with regard to disaggregation
and standardising of data on skills and occupational categorisation, deaths and injuries, grievances
and case settlements, etc. While adhering to relevant legal provisions, priority will also be accorded to
making the data and information managed by various government agencies publicly accessible.
xxii
Chapter 1:
OVERVIEW
1
2
The crowds of migrant workers/aspirant migrant workers have disappeared from the Department of Foreign Employment with
the shift of foreign employment-related services online.
Chapter 1: Overview
1.1 Background
International migration has become an integral part of Nepali society and has touched almost every
Nepali family due to the large number of Nepalis being engaged in transnational migration, primarily
for work and education (IOM 2019a; Sharma et al 2014). According to the preliminary findings of
the 2021 Census, there are more than 2.1 million Nepali citizens living outside the country, a figure
that represents 7.4 per cent of the national population (CBS 2022). Men make up 81.3 per cent
(or 1.8 million) of this migrant group. There is also a significant number of Nepali students going
abroad for study. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) issued ‘no objection
certificates’ (NOCs) to 416,364 Nepalis to study abroad between 2008/09 and 2020/21.1
It is clear that labour migration2 and the inflow of international remittances have brought social and
economic benefits to the country and to the families of migrants (Sijapati et al 2017). Although the
tradition of migrating to other countries for work is long and varied in Nepal, the trend increasingly in
recent years has been of a rather substantial number of Nepalis migrating to various countries around
the globe for employment. The Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE) has issued over 4.7
million ‘new entry’3 labour approvals to Nepali workers for overseas employment since 2008/09 and
renewed over 1.8 million labour approvals since 2011/12.4
Labour migration from Nepal increased drastically with the liberalisation of migration policies in the
1990s (Sharma et al 2014), which also coincided with the growth and the shortage of labour in the
countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia
and the United Arab Emirates). Emigration from Nepal in general was further precipitated by the
decade-long conflict in Nepal from 1996 to 2006. The six GCC countries and Malaysia remain the
most popular destinations for Nepali labour migration, accounting for more than 85 per cent of the
workers leaving Nepal (MoLESS 2020a).
1 An NOC is a government document provided to Nepalis who want to study abroad. The number of NOC issued to Nepalis is presented
in Annex 1.
2 In this report, ‘labour migration’ refers to seasonal or temporary migration of a person to another country for the purpose of work while
‘migrant worker’ is a person engaged in labour migration.
3 The ‘new entry’ category of migrant workers refers to those going for a new job abroad. Process of migration of workers in this category is
carried out either at individual level or via recruitment agencies. Migrant workers returning to the same job on a renewed contract are placed
under the ‘re-entry’ category since they have to only renew their labour approvals and normally do it themselves or with minimal support
from intermediaries. Former migrant workers going for a new job need to get a new labour approval.
4 Ministry of Labour and Employment, Labour Migration for Employment: A Status Report of Nepal: 2015/2016 – 2016/17 (Kathmandu:
Government of Nepal, 2018); MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020; and data made available by DoFE. These figures do not
include those headed to India since labour approvals are not required for Nepalis to work in India.
3
A major migration route for Nepalis is the Nepal-India corridor.5 A large number of Nepalis migrate
to India in search of employment or for business purposes, taking advantage of the open border
between the two countries (Bashyal 2020a). Although the everyday flow of Nepali workers to and
from India is unrecorded, a national survey from 2017/18 estimated that almost a million Nepali
migrant workers were employed or seeking employment in India.6 However, the number of Nepalis
involved in this cross-border movement in search of jobs or other economic opportunities is believed
to be higher as the national census and surveys do not take into account seasonal migration to India
(Bashyal 2020c).
With the increase in the number of migrant workers, the country has also experienced an uptick in
the remittances, in absolute terms as well as relative to national GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
For example, in 2021, the receipt of USD 8.2 billion (ca. NPR 1.06 trillion) as remittances equalled
23.8 per cent of Nepal’s GDP (the tenth highest globally on that score) (Ratha et al 2022). However,
this has come at some cost. Problems of mortality and morbidity of migrant workers along with
issues relating to access to health services and to justice, and indebtedness, both in the countries of
destinations and in Nepal, are common (Vital Signs 2022; Bhattarai et al 2022a; Paoletti et al 2014).7
Studies show migrant workers also face challenges in terms of rehabilitation and reintegration after
their return to Nepal.8
Migrant workers are also one of the most vulnerable populations in the world, and that fact was
further reinforced by the COVID-19 pandemic, which made their situation even more precarious
(Baniya et al 2020a; IOM & NIDS 2020; WOREC 2020). Despite making huge contributions to the
economies of both home and country of destination, migrant workers have always been subjected to
various forms of human rights and labour rights abuses and also lack access to justice. The COVID-19
pandemic served to exacerbate these problems as various studies and media reports have shown that
migrant workers lost jobs, sometimes being terminated without notice, and faced reduced or non-
payment of wages and benefits, among others (Baniya et al 2020a; Bhattarai et al 2022a). The return
of a large number of Nepali migrant workers after the onset of the pandemic has also highlighted
the need for and importance of plans, policies and programmes for their sustainable economic and
psychosocial reintegration, including through appropriate utilisation of their remittances.
As a country of origin, Nepal needs to properly measure and understand the dominant trends in
labour migration to ensure that positive impacts are harnessed and negative ones minimised. The four
reports on labour migration published by the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security
(MoLESS), covering the fiscal years 2013/14 to 2018/19, have contributed to filling some of the
gaps in data and information on labour migration from Nepal.9 By providing a fairly comprehensive
5 According to the Foreign Employment Act, 2007, working in India is not recognized as foreign employment.
6 Based on calculation of raw data from the Nepal Labour Force Survey 2017/18.
7 Also, see ‘Labour Migration from Nepal-Factsheets for the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, Malaysia and South Korea,’
Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility (CESLAM) & Foreign Employment Board (FEB), https://www.ceslam.org/fact-sheets.
8 See, for instance, Sijapati et al (2019); Bhattarai et al (2022a) and Bhattarai et al (2022b), MoLESS and IOM 2022; Gupta et al 2022.
9 These reports are: MoLE (2014), MoLE (2016), MoLE (2018) and MoLESS (2020a).
4
picture of labour migration in Nepal, these reports have been instrumental in fostering evidence-
based discourse on migration issues while also generating knowledge for future efforts on migration
governance.10 In this regard, this report, which uses data from 2019/20 to 2021/22, is both timely and
relevant while also indicating potential future trends since the labour migration landscape in Nepal
within this period has witnessed significant changes due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
1.2 Objectives
The overall objective of the Nepal Labour Migration Report 2022 is to provide a comprehensive
overview of labour migration from Nepal with a focus on the fiscal years 2019/20, 2020/2021 and
2021/22.
More specifically, the report aims to provide:
i. updated information on the major trends of labour migration from Nepal, including:
a. districts and provinces of origin of migrant workers,
b. migrant workers’ sex, age and skills profile,
c. countries of destination, and
d. modes of obtaining labour approval, renewing labour approval, and return migration;
ii. an overview of Nepal’s labour migration governance, including institutional mechanisms and
policy frameworks governing the sector as well as Nepal’s commitments in regional and global
forums; and
iii. insights into other aspects of labour migration, namely:
a. the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on labour migration, migrant workers and
their families,
b. migrant workers’ health and safety,
c. situation of recruitment and access to justice for migrant workers,
d. skills training and labour migration,
e. reintegration of returnee migrant workers, and
f. cross-border migration between Nepal and India for work.
1.3 Methodology
This report is based on a review and analysis of secondary data, consultations with stakeholders, and
interviews. The following approach was adopted for data collection, feedback collection and validation.
1.3.1 Analysis of Secondary Data

The trend in labour migration was analysed through secondary data collected mainly by various agencies
of the Government of Nepal involved in the labour migration sector in Nepal as detailed below. The
10 See, for instance, MoLESS (2020a).
5
data from government agencies were validated by the working committee and representatives from
the respective agencies.
Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE): Data on labour approvals issued by DoFE to migrant
workers were disaggregated on the basis of sex, district and province of origin, country of destination,
and occupation. This data also allowed for an analysis of the mode of obtaining labour approval
(individual or via recruitment agency) as well as renewal of labour approvals. The data related to the
labour approvals and the data on returnees were drawn from the Foreign Employment Information
Management System (FEIMS).
Foreign Employment Board (FEB): Disaggregated data on the number of deaths and injuries of
migrant workers recorded by the FEB were analysed. In addition, the Board’s progress reports were
reviewed to take stock of welfare schemes available to migrant workers or their families under the
Foreign Employment Welfare Fund (FEWF) in the case of death of or injury sustained by the former.
The reports also contained information on pre-departure skills training for potential migrant workers,
skill certification of returnees being conducted in coordination with the National Skill Testing Board
(NSTB) in order to facilitate their reintegration, and the FEB’s efforts to reintegrate returnee migrant
workers, particularly after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET): Data from the quasi-judicial Foreign Employment Tribunal
was analysed to understand the situation of access to justice for migrant workers.
Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) and World Bank: The trend of remittance inflow into Nepal was studied
using figures available through the Nepal Rastra Bank and the World Bank.
1.3.2 Review of Government Reports and Grey Literature
The report has been further enriched from other data sources, primarily the Central Bureau of Statistics
(CBS)11 but also the National Human Rights Commission, Nepali diplomatic missions in migration
destinations, civil society groups, and national and international non-governmental organisations as
well as research institutions working in the sector of labour migration.
Annual reports and other documents produced by relevant government agencies in the labour
migration sector were reviewed to understand the latest progress on services provided to migrant
workers. Among these were government directives for providing welfare services to migrant workers
during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, a review of publications, including grey literature, from
research organisations and I/NGOs, such as ILO and IOM, working on the issues of migrants and
their rights were helpful in analysing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migrant workers, the
11 The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) which functioned under the National Planning Commission (NPC) has been renamed as National
Statistics Office (NSO) and currently functions under the Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (OPMCM). The name
change came into effect in 2022.
6
relief services provided by the state targeted at migrant workers or their families during the pandemic,
and tracing the barriers and challenges migrant workers faced in accessing those services.
1.3.3 Review of National and International Legal Framework

This report reviewed foreign employment-related policies, laws and guidelines, primarily the Foreign
Employment Act (FEA), 2007, including its amendments; the Foreign Employment Rules, 2008
and its amendments; and the Foreign Employment Policy, 2012 to understand the existing legal
provisions and mechanisms guiding labour migration from Nepal. Also examined were bilateral
labour migration agreements (BLMAs) with countries of destination, including recent ones such as
the Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) on sending Nepali workers with the status of Specified
Skilled Workers (SSW)12 to Japan and the Agreement Related to Temporary Employment of Nepali
Workers in the Labour Market of Israel.
Nepal’s experience of and lessons arising from its involvement in global and regional forums on
migration, such as the Colombo Process (CP) and the Abu Dhabi Dialogue (ADD), the Global Forum
on Migration and Development (GFMD) and its initiatives towards meeting commitments under
the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM)’s fair and ethical recruitment,
the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 8.7 and 10.7, and the Palermo
Protocol (Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and
Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime)
were also reviewed. As was the Bali Process, which focuses on the themes of human mobility, irregular
migration, combating human trafficking, migrant vulnerabilities and the human rights of migrants
(The Bali Process n.d.; Dhungana & Baniya 2022).
1.3.4 National and Province-Level Consultation

The preparation of the report followed an intensive consultative process from the very beginning.
A briefing session was organised on 11 April 2022 with the working committee at MoLESS to
discuss the scope of work and finalise the work plan. The report was validated through two levels
of stakeholder consultations that included representatives from all three tiers of government,
I/NGOs, trade unions, academics, and the private sector, among others. There were three province-
level consultations in Province 1, Madhesh and Gandaki; and a national consultation in Kathmandu.
The report was thoroughly revised based on comments and suggestions of the participants at the
consultations.
1.3.5 Key Informant Interviews

Interviews with representatives of government agencies (MoLESS, MoFA, FEB), PRAs and CSOs
were carried out to understand recent policy changes and developments related to labour migration
in Nepal.
12 Status of residence called ‘Specified Skilled Worker (SSW)’ was introduced in April 2019 by the Government of Japan. Under the SSW,
industries in Japan experiencing labour shortage are permitted to hire foreign nationals with specialized knowledge and skills. See: JITCO
(n.d.).
7
1.4 Structure of the Report

The Nepal Labour Migration Report 2022 is structured as follows:
Besides this introductory chapter, dealing with a brief background of labour migration in the context
of Nepal, the objectives of the report and the overall methodology used, it consists of five other
chapters.
Chapter 2 looks at the institutional framework and recent developments in laws and policies in Nepal
governing labour migration to foreign countries, including any recent amendments made, and the
roles and responsibilities accorded to provincial and local governments. The chapter also discusses the
programmes and activities of key international and national non-governmental organisations working
in the labour migration sector in Nepal. It provides an overview of recent developments in the digital
governance of labour migration in Nepal; bilateral labour migration agreements (BLMAs) between
Nepal and different countries of destination over the past two or three years; policy changes in the
key countries of destination, and Nepal’s engagement in participating in different international and
regional forums, processes and institutions.
Chapter 3 presents detailed data on the labour migration scenario in Nepal, including information
on returnee migrant workers. This chapter also looks at labour migration from a regional perspective
using data sourced from secondary sources.
Chapter 4 covers seven thematic topics, namely: i) the situation and practices of recruitment in
Nepal, including the implementation status of the ‘free-visa, free-ticket’ policy; ii) health and safety of
migrant workers, focusing on data on death and disability of migrant workers and financial assistance;
iii) migrant workers’ access to justice in Nepal; iv) remittance inflow into Nepal; v) reintegration
of returnee migrant workers, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic; vi) skills
development and certification of migrant workers; and vii) migration of Nepali workers to India.
Chapter 5 reflects on gaps and issues in data related to labour migration. In particular, this chapter
focuses on a review of data recorded and collected via FEIMS and FEWIMS.
A comprehensive list of areas for reform based on the findings of this report is presented in Chapter
6. The recommendations are discussed under broad categories: national legislation, e-governance, fair
and ethical recruitment and access to justice, labour diplomacy and role of Nepal’s diplomatic missions,
multi-stakeholder collaboration and regional and international cooperation, social protection, health
and safety of migrant workers, return and reintegration, skilling, skill recognition and certification,
disaster/crisis response and recovery plan, remittances, and migration data.
8
Chapter 2:
LABOUR MIGRATION
GOVERNANCE IN NEPAL
9
10
Aspirant migrant workers receiving information and counselling at the Migrant Resource Centre in Morang.
Chapter 2: Labour Migration

Governance in Nepal
Labour migration is a multidimensional and multi-structural phenomenon, requiring proper

cooperation and collaboration between different agencies and stakeholders at the national, regional
and global levels for safer, managed and beneficial migration (ESCAP 2020, 6). This chapter discusses
the institutional and legislative frameworks that govern labour migration for foreign employment in
the context of the federal governance system of Nepal.
2.1 Institutional Arrangements

The Constitution of Nepal, 2015 introduced a three-tier governing structure, consisting of federal,
provincial and local governments.13 The Constitution thereby gives the federal government the mandate
to make and enforce policies and bilateral agreements related to migration for foreign employment,
and the provincial governments and local governments the mandate to formulate and implement
policies and plans related to safe migration, skills and reintegration as well as to register and keep
records of migrants and returnees.14 Various other government and non-governmental institutions
and actors also deal with issues of labour migration.
2.1.1 Government Institutions
2.1.1.1 Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security

The Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) is the lead agency at the federal
level governing labour migration in Nepal to make it safe, respectful and well-managed. MoLESS
also prioritises the optimum utilisation of knowledge, skills and remittance gained through foreign
employment in creating employment opportunities for people within the country. The organisational
structure of MoLESS has been provided in Annex 2. This section only describes the responsibilities
of the various units related to labour migration within or under MoLESS.
Within MoLESS,
• the Employment Management Division is responsible for formulating laws and policies related
to foreign employment and for activities related to the regional and international processes and
13 There are seven provinces and 753 local governments containing 460 rural municipalities, 276 municipalities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities
and six metropolitan cities under the federal system of governance in Nepal.
14 Schedules 5-9 of the Constitution of Nepal, 2015 define distribution of state power among different levels of government.
11
platforms on labour migration as well as research on foreign employment,

• the Foreign Employment Management Section, which implements the laws, policies and standards
on foreign employment, engages in labour diplomacy, and provides support to other relevant
agencies to make foreign employment safe, decent and well-managed. It is also responsible for
liaising with the Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE) and the Foreign Employment
Board (FEB),
• the Employment Coordination and Information Section has the mandate to formulate and
implement strategies to utilise the skills of returnee migrant workers besides working with
national and international agencies and the private sector, and
• the Skill Development and Training Section is devoted to preparing skilled human resources,
including regulation of related national policies.
2.1.1.1.1 Department of Foreign Employment

DoFE is the key body responsible for managing and regulating labour migration. It contributes
to formulating and implementing policies relating to foreign employment; keeps track of labour
migration data and disseminates information; provides licences to recruitment agencies and private
sector institutions and monitors them; oversees the recruitment processes and practices; carries
out research to identify employment opportunities and new destinations for Nepalis; and receives,
investigates, and settles grievance cases of migrant workers.
The Complaints Registration and Investigation Section is a special unit within DoFE that investigates
all the complaints it receives. While DoFE deals with complaints against recruitment agencies,
complaints against individuals as well as institutions not resolved by DoFE are forwarded to the
Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET) (see Section 2.1.1.1.7) (Government of Nepal 2007a). DoFE
also has the authority to pass orders and impose penalties in certain cases brought against recruitment
agencies, and to refer other cases to the police or to the FET as required.
2.1.1.1.2 Foreign Employment Board

The Foreign Employment Board (FEB),15 an autonomous body under MoLESS, was formed as
per the Foreign Employment Act (FEA), 2007 to look after the welfare of migrant workers. The
25-member Board is chaired by the Minister of Labour, Employment and Social Security and
includes representatives from the government, private recruitment agencies (PRAs), trade unions,
foreign employment experts, and others working in the field of foreign employment. Among other
shared responsibilities, DoFE and the FEB work jointly in the management of the mandatory pre-
departure orientation training (PDOT). The FEB also manages the Foreign Employment Welfare
Fund (FEWF) (see Section 4.2 for information on FEWF). Among the other roles and responsibilities
of the FEB are:
i. Work for the welfare of migrant workers and their families, including providing financial support
to migrant workers and their families in the case of death or injuries sustained by workers,
15 Previously known as the Foreign Employment Promotion Board (FEPB), the name change came into effect in 2018.
12
repatriation of migrant workers and dead bodies, and providing scholarships to the children of
deceased migrant workers;
ii. Conduct social and economic reintegration programmes for returnee migrant workers;
iii. Carry out studies on different areas related to labour migration, including exploration of new
markets;
iv. Formulate, approve and monitor curricula and fees of pre-departure orientation training;
v. Determine curricula and fees for skills training and carry out activities related to skill test and
monitoring of skills training; and
vi. Publish and broadcast awareness programmes on foreign employment through the media
(Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 39; Government of Nepal 2008a, r. 29).
2.1.1.1.3 Foreign Employment Tribunal

The Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET) is a judicial body established as provided under the FEA
2007 (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 64). The FET has its office in Kathmandu and the tribunal
convenes only in Kathmandu. The FET has three members with a judge of an Appellate Court as
the chair. It takes preliminary action and disposes of cases except for those cases to be dealt with by
DoFE.
2.1.1.1.4 Vocational and Skill Development Training Centre and SaMi

Under MoLESS, there are two entities mainly involved in the delivery of technical and vocational
education and training: the Vocational and Skill Development Training Centre (VSDTC) and the
Safer Migration (SaMi) programme16 through Migrant Resource Centres (MRCs).
The VSDTC conducts various skills development trainings and similar initiatives to enhance the
capability and competitiveness of Nepali youths in both domestic and international labour markets. It
has the mandate to produce demand-based skilled human resources and develop curricula for all types
of vocational and skills training (MoEST 2018). While the trainings it provides are usually based on
market demand, it is also responsible for providing orientation and training to young people seeking
foreign employment and monitoring and evaluating skills training provided by institutions authorised
by DoFE.
2.1.1.1.5 Migrant Resource Centres

MRCs have been established under the SaMi Programme in 38 districts within the premises of the
district administration offices (DAOs) (and one in the Department of Passport in Kathmandu) and
18 sub-MRCs within the Area Administration Offices.17 In addition, local governments outside the
16 The SaMi programme, launched in 2011, is a bilateral initiative of the Government of Nepal and the Government of Switzerland, with
Helvetas Nepal providing technical assistance for its overall implementation and management. The programme is operated in collaboration
with all three tiers of governments under the strategic guidance of MoLESS. It supports migrant workers and their families through access
to reliable information, pre-departure skills training, financial literacy training, legal/paralegal support and psychosocial support.
17 Area Administration Unit is an independent administrative unit under the Ministry of Home Affairs that is authorized to issue documents
such as citizenships, passports, national identity card, etc.
13
working area of the SaMi programme have also established MRCs (one MRC and four sub-MRCs
so far)18 with technical support from the programme. These MRCs and sub-MRCs conduct and
coordinate various activities such as outreach and awareness raising, counselling and support services.
The operation and management of MRCs is guided by the Migrant Resource Centre (Operation and
Management) Directive, 2020.
Box 2.1: Migrant Resource Centre: Key Figures (2019/20–2021/22)

• Information, Counselling and Community Orientation on Safer Migration provided to 425,696 (237,946
men and 112,174 women) individuals.
• Pre-Departure Vocational Skills Training (one-month residential training) provided to 3768 potential
migrant workers (2941 men and 827 women).
• Legal Support and Access to Justice: 4228 cases handled in coordination with Pravasi Nepali
Coordination Committee (PNCC), legal support provided in 5630 cases through People Forum and
10,142 cases registered/reported at MRCs.
• Psychosocial Support provided to 569 men and 5451 women, including returnees and family members
of migrant workers.
• Financial Literacy training provided to 31,429 individuals from migrant workers’ families (453 men and
30,976 women).
Source: MRC, 2022.
2.1.1.1.6 Employment Information Centres

Employment information centres (EICs) have been established to provide information about
opportunities at home and abroad, on skilled workers available at a place, and the needs of employer(s)
in a given context. The EICs are focused on collecting data on job demands locally and posting them
on their websites. Previously established under MoLESS’s Department of Labour and Occupational
Safety (DoLOS), there were 14 EICs. At present, there are seven EICs, one under each of the seven
provincial governments.
2.1.1.1.7 Labour and Employment Offices

Labour and employment offices have been established in all the provinces to provide services to
workers working inside Nepal and employers as well as to aspirant migrant workers. These offices
have the responsibility of issuing and renewing labour approvals. There are 11 labour and employment
offices throughout the country with Department of Labour and Occupational Safety (DoLOS)
serving as the central coordinating body.
2.1.1.1.8 Employment Service Centres

Employment service centres (ESCs) are established under the Prime Minister Employment Program
(PMEP) of MoLESS at all 753 local levels as per the provision in the Right to Employment Act, 2018.
The Act has provided for the establishment of ESCs at all local levels to collect data on unemployed
persons, identify employment opportunities and disseminate information, provide information on the
18 Resunga Municipality, Gulmi; Barahathawa Municipality, Sarlahi; Simraungadh Municipality, Bara; Rangeli Municipality, Morang and
Lamahi Municipality, Dang.
14
availability of workers to employers and provide other services related to employment (Government
of Nepal 2018, s. 2 & 10).
2.1.1.2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) is responsible for protecting the rights, interests and security
of Nepalis, including migrant workers, living abroad (MoFA n.d.-a). With regard to Nepali migrant
workers, diplomatic missions in countries of destination provide support to migrant workers while also
coordinating between migrant workers and employers as well as between migration-related agencies
in both the country of destination and Nepal. As of 2022, Nepal’s diplomatic network covers all
the major labour countries of destination—the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Japan,
Malaysia and South Korea (MoFA n.d.-b).
As per the FEA 2007, MoLESS also appoints19 labour attachés or labour counsellors to the missions
in countries with 5000 or more Nepali migrant workers.20 The government is also required to
appoint a woman labour attaché in countries where there are 1000 or more women migrant workers
(Government of Nepal 2008a, s. 43). Accordingly, the government has appointed labour attachés in
seven countries of destinations: Bahrain, Kuwait, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia ( Jeddah) and
the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Labour counsellors have been appointed in five countries, namely,
South Korea, the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (Riyadh) and Malaysia.
Among the responsibilities of labour attachés and labour counsellors include: keeping track
of the labour and employment situation of the country they are posted in; assisting in resolving
problems arising out of disputes between workers and employers or recruitment agencies; exploring
opportunities to conclude bilateral agreements for employment; and providing counselling to workers
while discouraging them from working outside of their contract (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 68).
The Department of Passport under MoFA works with diplomatic missions abroad to provide passports
to Nepali migrants who need to renew or reapply for their passports while the Department of Consular
Services (DoCS) under the Ministry assists in search and rescue, repatriation of dead bodies, financial
assistance to families of deceased migrant workers, document attestation, disability and grievance
handling, and handling of insurance-specific issues for Nepali migrant workers living outside of the
country (MoFA n.d.-c).21
2.1.1.3 Department of Immigration

The Department of Immigration (DoI) under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) tracks the
exit from and arrival into the country of all individuals, including Nepali migrant workers, and is
involved in curbing cross-border crimes such as trafficking in persons. DoI requires Nepalis travelling
19 Appointment is made as per the Directive and Standard on Selection and Appointment of Counsellor (Labour) and Labour Attachés,
2016.
20 Section officers and under-secretary level officials of MoLESS are appointed as labour attachés and labour counsellors respectively.
21 Interview with representative from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
15
for foreign employment to have a valid passport and visa along with a labour approval issued by the
Government of Nepal while exiting the country.
DoI has recently started collecting and recording data on returnee migrant workers at the Tribhuvan
International Airport. The collected data is linked to the Foreign Employment Information
Management System (FEIMS) (see section 2.3.1 for more information on FEIMS).
2.1.1.4 Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT)

Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) is the main government body
responsible for the overall management and supervision of vocational education and skills training
in the country. With offices in all the seven provinces, it functions under the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology (MoEST). It is the sole agency to run technical and long-term vocational
programmes at the Technical School Leaving Certificate (TSLC) and diploma levels.
According to the CTEVT, as of the end of 2020/21, there were 1100 technical and vocational education
training institutions (CTEVT 2021). These institutions play an important role in supporting skills
development and upskilling of aspirants, migrant workers and returnees, thereby helping them to find
better income opportunities in Nepal and abroad.
2.1.1.5 Provincial Ministries with Responsibilities on Labour Migration

With the Constitution of Nepal, 2015 mandating the seven provinces to undertake social development
activities and following the Provincial Government (Work Division) Regulations, 2017 (promulgated
by each of the seven provinces), the provinces have the responsibility of overseeing matters related
to labour and employment. While the names of the concerned ministries are different in the seven
provinces (Table 2.1), their mandates with regard to this issue are similar: formulation of plans,
programmes and policies for employment generation and human resource development in coordination
with local governments, and research, study and exploration of labour markets (MoSD n.d.).
Table 2.1: Ministries in Seven Provinces with Responsibilities Related to Labour Migration
Province Ministry
Province 1 Ministry of Industry, Labour and Employment
Madhesh Ministry of Social Development
Bagmati Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security
Gandaki Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Technology and Social Development as well as
Ministry of Tourism, Industry, Commerce and Supplies
Lumbini Ministry of Labour, Employment and Transportation Management
Karnali Ministry of Social Development
Sudurpaschim Ministry of Social Development
2.1.1.6 Local Governments

The Constitution of Nepal, 2015 has granted local governments the authority to formulate and
16
implement local development plans and projects, and manage local markets and maintain records,
including related to labour migration, migrants and returnees (Government of Nepal 2015, s. 8).
Accordingly, the Local Government Operation Act (LGOA), 2017 requires the local governments to:
• collect and process data on employed and unemployed individuals, Nepali and foreign workers at
the local level, and migrant workers;
• develop an information system;
• conduct financial literacy and skills development training for people going for foreign employment;
• ensure social reintegration of returnee migrant workers;
• utilise knowledge and skills gained by returnee migrant workers; and
• operate and manage ESCs (Government of Nepal 2017a, s. 2).
The Foreign Employment Policy, 2012 also envisions the development of foreign employment-
related information systems and special programmes to raise awareness at the village level. Further,
the Fifteenth Five-Year Plan of the government of Nepal (2019/2020–2023/24) calls for effective
coordination among the three levels of government for the creation of employment opportunities and
management of labour. Accordingly, the government is planning to establish a knowledge exchange
centre to benefit from best practices observed in the field of employment at home and abroad. The
Plan also mentions arrangements to be made for workers going to India for employment to register at
the local level, receive identity cards, and join an insurance/welfare fund (NPC 2019, 435).
According to the Reintegration Programme (Operation and Management) Directive for Returnee
Migrant Workers, 2022 issued by MoLESS (MoLESS 2022a), proposals are sought from the local
governments to operate reintegration programmes for returnee migrants (see section 2.6.1 and 4.5
for details on the Directive). Local government representatives are also included as members of the
Programme Implementation Committee to be established in the respective local level as per the Directive.
2.1.1.7 Coordination Mechanism and Committees

The FEA, 2007, the Foreign Employment Rules, 2008, and the Foreign Employment Policy, 2012
have provisions for establishing various committees to ensure effective coordination between agencies
working to strengthen labour migration governance (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Committees

Committee Purpose
Foreign Employment Steering • To make the process of selecting workers for foreign employment
(Directive) Committee by the Government of Nepal more organised, competitive and
transparent while sending workers abroad to a country Nepal has
diplomatic relations with and has signed bilateral agreements or
treaties with
Planning Programme and Budget • To formulate short-term as well as long-term plans, programmes
Formulation Committee and budgetary provisions of the FEB
17
Expert Committee • To determine whether the health reports submitted by migrant

workers are authentic
• If the worker has to come back home by virtue of being given a
false health report knowingly due to negligence or with ill-intention,
the institution performing such a health check-up is considered
responsible and must bear all the travelling costs related to such
foreign employment
Note: See Annex 5 for more information on the structure of the committees.
2.1.1.8 Other Regulatory Mechanisms
2.1.1.8.1 Nepal Rastra Bank

As the central bank of the country, the Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) regulates all financial and monetary
matters, including finances related to foreign employment. The NRB manages and regulates the
remittance industry while keeping records and conducting research on various aspects of remittance
such as the socio-economic impact of remittance on different groups of people (NRB 2022).
The role of the NRB extends to encouraging migrant workers to remit funds through formal means
and cooperating with other government entities to address any transgressions in this regard such
as transfers through hundi,22 which is considered money laundering under the Money Laundering
Prevention Act, 2008 (Government of Nepal 2008b, s. 4). The NRB has published guidelines for
Suspicious Transaction Reporting (STR) to assist in the identification of illegal activities pertaining to
financial transactions (NRB 2020a). Such suspicious transactions are then reported to law enforcement
agencies.
The Public Debt Department of the NRB oversees the Foreign Employment Savings Bond scheme
(NRB 2012). The NRB also looks after foreign investments from migrant workers, analyses the
relationship between remittances and economic factors such as poverty and purchasing power parity,
and formulates financial laws and policies based on findings.
The NRB also coordinates with government bodies like DoFE and local governments to provide
financial services to returnee migrant workers through different schemes.
2.1.1.8.2 Parliamentary Committees

The Parliamentary Committee on Industry, Commerce, Labour and Consumer Interest provides
direction and guidance to the government on various matters, including on labour migration (House
of Representative, Nepal n.d.-a). The Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Supplies, MoLESS
and institutions working on consumer interests lie under the jurisdiction of the Committee. The
Committee discusses parliamentary bills related to labour migration (House of Representative, Nepal
n.d.-b).
22 The hawala/hundi system operates with a broker delivering cash money at the request of another broker servicing a client in a different
country. A client in Country A provides a sum of money to a broker in Country A with a correspondent broker in Country B delivering the
same amount to the recipient in Country B. The brokers earn by levying a transaction cost to the client.
18
The Parliamentary Committee on International Relations has jurisdiction over the MoFA and the
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation and is charged with monitoring, evaluating and giving
necessary directives on works carried out by the concerned ministries, departments and other bodies
under them. The Committee has the mandate to carry out evaluation of policies and programmes and
resource allocation, among others. The Committee, formerly known as the International Relations and
Labour Committee, in March 2017 instructed MoLESS to temporarily ban the migration of Nepali
migrant workers for domestic work (McCarthy 2021). This ban was not applicable for migration to
countries with which Nepal has signed bilateral labour migration agreements (BLMAs).
2.1.1.8.3 National Human Right Commission

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) has been working on the protection of the rights
of Nepali migrant workers and has drawn the attention of the Government of Nepal. For instance, the
Commission formed a multi-stakeholder task force to assist the Nepali government in dealing with
problems migrant workers faced during the COVID-19 pandemic and with their safe repatriation
(Nepal, Baniya and Chhetri 2020).
One of the significant initiatives of the NHRC has been cooperation with the national human
rights institutions of different countries. The signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
with the National Human Rights Commission of South Korea in 2010 was a major step towards
institutionalising such cooperation. Likewise, an MoU was signed with the national human rights
institution of Qatar in November 2015 and another with the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia
in November 2019 (NHRC 2019). These MoUs have been signed with the objective of protecting
migrant workers in countries of destination, to jointly provide assistance for their safety, security and
welfare as well as to facilitate bilateral relations between human rights institutions. Signing of such
agreements is also significant because they can assist in the development of legislation and national
mechanisms to protect workers’ rights in countries of destination.
2.1.1.8.4 Supreme Court Decisions and Declarations Pertaining to Labour Migration

Petitions against the verdict of the FET on labour migration-related cases can be filed at the
Supreme Court (SC) of Nepal. The SC’s verdict thereafter becomes final. Writ petitions are used as
19
a method by which violations of the rights of migrant workers are brought to the attention of the
concerned authorities (People Forum 2019). These petitions filed by activists, civil society, human
rights lawyers and other bodies have used the prerogative of the courts of Nepal to attempt to correct
any transgressions on the fundamental rights of migrant workers. Some of the orders, decisions and
declarations pertaining to labour migration and workers made by the supreme court of Nepal are
listed below.
Table 2.3: Supreme Court Decisions and Declarations Pertaining to Labour Migration and
Migrant Workers
S. N. Date Issue Order / Decision / Declaration Order / Decision
/ Declaration
type
1 17 June Repatriation of The SC ordered the government to use Interim order
2022 migrant workers the Foreign Employment Welfare Fund
affected by COVID-19 to repatriate Nepali workers stranded
abroad.
2 16 April Repatriation of The SC ordered the government to Interim order
2022 migrant workers take care of the health needs of Nepali
affected by COVID-19 migrant workers living in foreign
countries and to repatriate vulnerable
Nepali workers from foreign countries.
3 7 April Repatriation of The SC ordered the government to Interim order

2022 migrant workers at bring all Nepali citizens stranded at the
the Indian border Indian border willing to come home and
affected by COVID-19 quarantine them
4 21 March Migrant workers’ right The SC issued a directive instructing the Directive
2018 to vote government to formulate a law ensuring
migrants’ right to vote.
5 11 Appointment of The SC, referring to the FEA, issued a Directive
November labour attachés directive order to the government to
2010 deploy labour attachés in countries
of destination with more than 5000
workers.
6 15 March Enhancing The SC issued a show cause notice in Show cause
2017 complaint handling the name of the government and the order
and investigative concerned ministries, as well as DoFE
capabilities on foreign and the FEB, to develop a mechanism to
employment-related handle complaints and investigate crimes
cases related to foreign employment at the
provincial and local levels
20
S. N. Date Issue Order / Decision / Declaration Order / Decision

/ Declaration
type
7 4 January Free-Visa, Free-Ticket The SC issued a directive to the Directive
2019 Policy government to effectively implement the
‘free-visa, free-ticket’ policy.
2.2 Regulation of Private Entities

Private agencies involved in the foreign employment-related business operate under the FEA, 2007,
the Foreign Employment Rules, 2008 and a number of directives and operational guidelines. The
FEA, 2007 is the main legislation that governs foreign employment in Nepal and explains the roles of
government bodies and state institutions in regulating the foreign employment sector. The 2008 Rules
include provisions to make foreign employment more procedural and secure. There are a number
of private actors—such as medical centres, banks, insurance agencies, recruitment agencies and
orientation centres—involved in the migration process. At present, DoFE maintains a record of 1481
recruitment agencies (of which 860 have an active status), 122 training and orientation institutions, 14
insurance companies, 18 banks, and 222 medical institutions registered with it (DoFE n.d.-a; n.d.-b;
n.d.-c; n.d.-d; n.d.-e).
The following sections discuss the services provided by and the management and regulation of private
agencies such as PRAs, PDOT centres, health institutions, insurance companies and skill development
and training centres in the context of the current federal governance system in Nepal.
2.2.1 Private Recruitment Agencies

Individuals going abroad for employment are required to obtain a labour approval from DoFE to
legalise their migration process and to be included in the government’s welfare scheme for migrant
workers, namely, the FEWF. There are two ways in which workers can obtain labour approvals required
for them to leave for foreign employment: on an individual basis or through recruitment agencies.
PRAs are licensed by DoFE under the FEA, 2007. In order to get a PRA licence, an application has
to be lodged with DoFE along with a cash deposit and a bank guarantee. In 2019, an amendment
to the FEA, 2007 revised the guarantee amounts and increased the cash deposit23 as listed below
(Government of Nepal 2019a).
• PRAs that send more than 5000 workers must deposit NPR 60 million (ca. USD 480,000)—
NPR 20 million (ca. USD 160,000) in cash and another NPR 40 million (ca. USD 320,000) as
bank guarantee.
• PRAs that send more than 3000 and upto 5000 workers must deposit NPR 40 million (ca. USD
320,000)— NPR 10 million (ca. USD 80,000) in cash and NPR 30 million (ca. USD 240,000)
as bank guarantee.
23 Prior to this revision, private recruitment agencies were required to pay NPR 3 million as guarantee money —700,000 as cash deposit and
2.3 million as bank guarantee to run their business. 21
• PRAs that send up to 3000 workers abroad annually must deposit NPR 20 million (ca. USD
160,000)— NPR 5 million (ca. USD 40,000) as cash and NPR 15 million (ca. USD 120,000) as
bank guarantee.
The FEA, 2007 also has provisions related to punishment for recruitment agencies in case of fraudulent
activities and deception of migrant workers. The use of individual agents (both formal and informal)
by PRAs was also prohibited through the same amendment.
PRA licences are valid for one year and they are required to renew their licence every fiscal year
(Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 10). The amendment also allowed for the cancellation of the licence
of PRAs if they fail to send 100 workers annually for two consecutive years, if they send workers
abroad by submitting fake details and documents, or transfer ownership of the agency without
permission from DoFE (Government of Nepal 2019a). MoLESS, however, temporarily suspended
the requirement for PRAs to send 100 workers abroad annually, in 2020, 2021 and 2022, by issuing an
order in view of the COVID-19 pandemic that prevented the mobility of migrant workers.24 Further,
in line with the Act Made to Amend Various Acts, 2019, the government amended the FEA, 2007
prohibiting PRAs from opening branch offices and using agents and sub-agents to recruit potential
migrant workers (Government of Nepal 2019a). In September 2022, however, DoFE announced
that branch offices can only be opened after receiving its approval (DoFE 2022a). As per this new
provision, recruitment agencies aiming to send up to 3000, up to 5000 and more than 5000 workers
abroad annually can open up to three, five and six branches, respectively.
The Foreign Employment Related Demand Letter Enquiry Directive, 2018 has made it mandatory for
foreign companies seeking to hire Nepali migrant workers to get their job demand letters25 approved
by Nepali missions (embassies, consulates, permanent missions, special missions, and other diplomatic
missions) in the country of destination. As per the directive, MoFA is mandated to set the fees for
verification of such a demand letter. In the GCC countries, the rate is around USD 250 (ca. NPR
32,000) for up to 25 workers and around USD 340 (ca. NPR 43,000) for more than 100 workers
(Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers 2019).
PRAs are also regulated by the Directive for Monitoring Team Mobilisation, 2019, which allows
DoFE and other related agencies to monitor whether they are following the prescribed laws. The
Procedure on the Monitoring of Recruitment Agencies and Training Institutions, 2017 also provides
guidelines for the regulation and monitoring of the PRAs by DoFE and other agencies. Likewise, a
Rapid Response Team (RRT) was formed under DoFE in December 2021 to combat cases of fraud
and check possible irregularities in the foreign employment sector (DoFE 2022b). In this regard, the
team can carry out investigations on any activity suspected to be unlawful in the foreign employment
sector, whether by institutions or individuals (agents or sub-agents), and subsequently issue necessary
directives to the responsible organisations and recommend further action.
24 See for instance: Government of Nepal Council of Ministers (2020, 2021).
25 A demand letter is a letter sent by an employer to a PRA, indicating the number, type, qualification of workers required, remuneration and
facilities to which workers are entitled, and other terms of service.
22
Aspirant migrant workers going for foreign employment on an individual basis need to simply submit
an online application to DoFE for further processing. PRAs, on the other hand, are required to follow
the following steps to select and send the workers for foreign employment:
• Obtain prior approval from DoFE to recruit workers for foreign employment;
• Publish an advertisement in a national daily newspaper in the Nepali language calling for
applications, mentioning a time limit of at least seven days and disclosing all the specifications
relating to the employment opportunity;
• Receive and review applications and select workers on the basis of qualifications and experience
of applicants and as required by the employer, prepare a list of the selected workers and submit a
copy of the list to DoFE;
• Obtain permission from DoFE if it has to take the passports of the selected applicants outside
Nepal for the purpose of getting a visa;
• Obtain a labour approval sticker from the Department; and
• Send selected workers for foreign employment within the specified time period mentioned for
their entry into the concerned country, if not within three months after obtaining the labour
approval.
In order to obtain a labour approval, recruitment agencies are required to submit a number of
documents to DoFE on behalf of outbound migrant workers (Table 2.4). Those applying for a labour
approval on an individual basis, too, need to submit the following particulars to DoFE.
Table 2.4: Particulars to be Submitted for Labour Approval

Recruitment agencies Individual Basis
a. Certificate of training (if work requires skills a. Name of the country of destination
training) b. Nature of work to be performed in the country of
b. Certificate of pre-departure orientation training destination
c. Certificate of sound health c. Letter of approval issued by the employment-
d. Certificate of insurance providing institution
e. Contract between the recruitment agency and d. Agreement clearly mentioning the terms and
the worker conditions of employment
f. Contract between employment providing e. Certificate of pre-departure orientation training
institution and worker f. Certificate of sound health
g. Receipt or bank voucher of the amount the g. Certificate of insurance
worker paid to the recruitment agency
2.2.2 Health Institutions

Aspirant migrant workers are required to obtain a health certificate from a government-approved
medical institution as a prerequisite for getting a labour approval. These health institutions need to
be registered with the government as mandated in the FEA, 2007 and the Foreign Employment
23
Rules, 2008, and are regulated by these and other complementary directives and procedures such as
the Directive for Monitoring Team Mobilisation, 2019 and the Standard on the Enlisting Process of
the Health Examination Institution for Workers Going for Foreign Employment, 2013.
In 2018, Malaysia-bound workers were found to be paying additional charges for pre-departure
services including biometric and medical tests conducted by the One Stop Centre (OSC) operated
by the Malaysia Visa Luar Negara (VLN or Overseas Visa System) Nepal appointed by the
Malaysian government to provide visa processing services in Nepal (Mandal 2019). There were
only 36 health institutions authorised unilaterally by the Government of Malaysia to provide
medical certificates to workers planning to go to Malaysia although the Government of Nepal has
authorised 222 health institutions to conduct health check-ups. Consequently, the Government of
Nepal decided to scrap all unauthorised fees (more than NPR 18,000 or ca. USD 135) charged to
migrant workers going to Malaysia. Later, in 2018, a bilateral agreement was signed with Malaysia
to allow other health institutions as well to conduct medical check-ups if they met the standards of
both the governments.
2.2.2.1 Country of Destination’s Initiatives Regarding Medical Check-up

The Qatar Visa Centre (QVC) was established by the Government of Qatar in Nepal in 2019 to
facilitate and streamline the process of migration. The establishment of the visa centre, in addition,
aimed to speed up the process of acquiring a visa and submitting biometric details, and provide
health check-ups to Nepali migrant workers going to Qatar. In addition to the mandatory health
certificate from the 222 authorised health institutions, outbound migrant workers need to undergo
additional medical tests. In the past, this test was done after the arrival of migrant workers in Qatar.
Now, the QVC conducts such medical tests in Nepal. This provision has eliminated occurrences
whereby migrant workers who fail medical tests in Qatar have to return while also reducing the cost
for both employers and migrant workers. However, having to undergo health check-ups twice entail
additional costs and time for migrant workers. Further, these new institutions are yet to be regulated
and governed under the FEA, 2007.
2.2.3 Pre-departure Orientation Training Centres

Another requirement to obtain a labour approval is the pre-departure orientation training (PDOT).
According to the FEA, 2007, any institution wishing to operate as a PDOT centre has to receive
permission from DoFE. Prior to DoFE granting the permit, the FEB verifies that an institution
desirous of conducting orientation programmes has sufficient resources, including infrastructure
and human resource. The operation, registration and renewal of PDOT centres are guided by the
Orientation Centre Operation Working Procedure, 2019 (Government of Nepal 2019b).
The FEA, 2007 as well as the Working Procedure requires orientation centres to deposit a cash
guarantee for registration. In 2021, the government increased the guarantee amount to NPR 500,000
(ca. USD 3800) from the earlier NPR 300,000 (ca. USD 2300) (DoFE n.d.-f ). The FEB also updated
the curriculum of the PDOT in 2021 making it country specific and adding a chapter on physical
and mental health. However, it has not come into effect yet due to the reluctance among PDOT
24
centres to implement these new measures (Kharel et al 2022a). According to the PDOT centres, the
implementation of the country specific PDOTs would result in added financial liabilities and the
current fees they receive from migrant workers is not enough to cover these costs.
PDOTs are responsible for providing orientation training to outbound migrant workers on the
following subjects:
• Foreign employment laws of Nepal;

• Geographical situation, culture, lifestyle, economic, social and political situation of the country
of destination;
• Language of the country of destination;
• Labour and immigration laws and traffic rules of the country of destination;
• HIV/AIDS, communicable diseases, sexual and reproductive health;
• Occupational safety and health;
• Easy and safe travel;
• Conduct, treatment and security of workers; and
• Repatriation of earnings to Nepal.
Like the PRAs, the PDOTs are also regulated and monitored by the Directive for Monitoring Team
Mobilisation, 2019 and the Procedure on the Monitoring of Recruitment Agencies and Training
Institutions, 2017. In order to curb malpractices of the orientation training centres, DoFE has issued
a notice that migrant workers whose biometric details do not match the official database at the labour
desk at the two international airports would not be allowed to leave (DoFE 2021a).
2.2.4 Insurance Companies

The FEA, 2007 requires migrant workers going for employment abroad to be covered by an insurance
policy valid for the term of their employment contract. With the most recent revision of the FEA,
2007, outbound Nepali migrant workers are required to procure a term life insurance policy of at
least NPR 1 million (ca. USD 8200) valid for the term of their work contract and an additional six
months (three months before departure and three months after the expiry of labour approval) through
DOFE-authorised insurance companies (NPC 2020; Insurance Board 2020).
The Foreign Employment (Term) Life Insurance Directives, 2016 has specified the premium and the
extent of coverage required. The premium for a two-year period ranges from NPR 3308 (ca. USD
27) to NPR 9063 (ca. USD 74), depending on the age of the worker (Government of Nepal 2016).
An additional NPR 400 (ca. USD 3) is to be paid for a package that covers critical illnesses. Migrant
workers and their families are entitled to an insurance pay-out of a minimum of NPR 1 million
(ca. USD 8200) and an additional NPR 500,000 (ca. USD 4100) for 15 different types of illnesses
defined as critical by the government.26 Insurance companies are also regulated and monitored by
26 These include cancer, kidney failure, primary pulmonary arterial hypertension, multiple sclerosis, major organ transplant, coronary artery
bypass grafts, aorta graft surgery, heart valve surgery, stroke, myocardial infarction (first heart attack), coma, total blindness, paralysis, benign
brain tumour, and mental illness resulting from an accident (traumatic).
25
the FEA, 2007 and other supplementing legislation such as the Directives for Monitoring Team
Mobilisation, 2019.
2.2.5 Engagement and Roles of Non-State Actors

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and civil society organisations (CSOs), human rights
organisations, activists, and International Non-Governmental Organisations (I/NGOs) also play an
important role in empowering migrant workers and protecting and promoting their rights throughout
the labour migration cycle. Further, in countries of destination, the role of institutions such as the Non-
Resident Nepali Association (NRNA) is pivotal in providing support to migrant workers. As such,
the NRNA country chapters are engaged in fundraising, emergency support, rescue and repatriation,
and providing legal support to migrant workers.27 In addition, trade unions, workers’ associations,
and diaspora organisations have also been working actively to support migrant workers and protect
and promote their rights and interests. Academia are also important stakeholders that support in
the creation and dissemination of labour migration-related knowledge that can support evidence-
based policy formulation. National and international media also play a vital role in raising awareness
regarding migrants’ rights and issues surrounding labour migration and foreign employment. They also
help create a safe space for migrant workers and their families and serve to alert concerned authorities
regarding the needs of migrant workers at times of crisis. A list of NGOs and CSOs working in the
labour migration sector has been provided in Annex 6.
2.3 Strengthening of Foreign Employment-Related Services

Over the years, the government has undertaken various measures to improve foreign employment-
related services in line with the federal governance system, including by making use of information
and communication technology (ICT). This section discusses the progress made in digitalisation
of labour migration services, steps taken toward controlling human trafficking and smuggling, and
regulation of international remittances.
2.3.1 Progress in Digital Governance

There has been growing recognition of the significance of technology in fulfilling commitments
to sustainable development as well as enhancing the migration experience of migrant workers.
Instruments such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Global Compact for
Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) highlight the significance of the use of technology in
making labour migration efficient and effective while also ensuring decent work (UN 2015; 2018). The
GCM also references the use of technology to achieve its objectives related to access to information,
documentation, management of border, screening and assessment of the migration procedure, skills
development and recognition of skills, remittances and dignified return, readmission and sustainable
reintegration.
Digitalisation of labour migration governance can have multifaceted implications—social, economic

and political—on how labour migration is managed and governed (ILO 2021a). Nepal is swiftly
27 See: https://nrna.org/who-we-are/.
26
transitioning to digital platforms for sharing information and managing migration data. Digitalisation
is expected to help improve migration governance and provide new opportunities for delivering
migration-related services. At the same time, this can also create new challenges with regard to data
protection, confidentiality, and the resources and capacities required for maintaining and updating the
system.
In line with the Digital Nepal Framework, 2019,28 MoLESS formulated a ‘Three Years Work Plan for
the Use of Information Technology’ in 2021 (MoLESS 2021a). In relation to foreign employment, the
Plan included going online for all the procedures related to labour approval issuance and registration
of organisations; integrating the FEIMS and the PMEP to include returnee migrant workers in the
employment programme; and developing a system, i.e., the Foreign Employment Welfare Information
now clear immigration at international airports after presenting the printout of the sticker or
Management System (FEWIMS) to facilitate compensation registration and disbursement, search
showing it on their electronic devices. This development replaced the labour desk at the
and rescue and
Tribhuvan other welfare
International services;
Airport and established
(TIA) integrating the welfarethesystem
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necessary DoCS tosuch
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repatriation andofsearch.
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prior to departure,
March 2022, as provisioned in theFEA,
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issuing
Nepali migrant workers abroad and within Nepal can now register their complaints and
electronic
grievances stickers (e-stickers) or
via telephone, accessible on cell phones
via internet-based or emails to outbound
communications Nepali
including migrant
email, workers.
Facebook
Migrant workers can now clear immigration at international airports after presenting the printout
Messenger, Viber and Imo through the call centre. 29
The call centre was established in May
2019 and has been operating from the FEB secretariat as per the Call Centre (Operation and
ofManagement)
the sticker orDirective,
showing it2018
on their electronic devices. This development replaced the labour desk
(FEB 2019a).
at the Tribhuvan International Airport (TIA) established to check the necessary documents such
DoFE launched FEIMS for the purpose of record-keeping of all statistics related to foreign
asemployment
labour approvals and certificates of PDOT prior to departure, as provisioned in the FEA, 2007.
services in the country and the monitoring of the activities of entities involved in
Nepali
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register their complaints
of reducing and grievances
challenges being
faced as a result of contract substitution, travelling without labour approval, recruitment-related
via telephone, or via internet-based communications including email, Facebook Messenger, Viber and
fraud, and general labour migration risks and abuses throughout the migration cycle as well as
Imo through transparency
of ensuring the call centre.and
29
The call centre was
accountability established
in the migration inprocess.
May 2019 andbe
It can hasaccessed
been operating
by all
from the FEB secretariat
government as per the Call Centrebodies
and government-accredited (Operation and Management)
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services related (FEB
foreign
employment, including MoLESS, the Department of Passport, the DoI, DoCS, Nepali
2019a).
diplomatic missions abroad, services providers such as recruitment agencies, medical
institutes, PDOT centres, insurance companies, and migrant workers themselves (Figure 2.1).
Figure
Figure 2.1: Stakeholders 2.1:Log-in
with Stakeholders
Accesswith Log-in Access
to FEIMS to FEIMS
Individuals Government Agency Private Agency

•Aspirant migrant workers •Department of Foreign •Private Recruitment Agencies
•Migrant workers Employment •Pre-Departure Orientation
•Foreign Employment Office Training Centre
•Labour and Employment •Medical Institutions
Office •Insurance
•Nepali Embassy/Mission Company/Branches
•Commercial Bank/Branches
Note: Foreign Employment Board, Department of Consular Services, Department of Immigration, Department of
Note: Foreign
Passport Employment
and E-PaymentBoard,
ServiceDepartment
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integrated withDepartment
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not have log-in access.of Passport and
E-Payment Service Providers are integrated with FEIMS but do not have log-in access.
28 The Digital Nepal Framework (DNF) was implemented in 2019 as an approach by the government of Nepal to support the advancement
of 29
ICT in Nepal
Call Centrethrough
Email:Digital Connectivity, Digital Skills,
callcenter@feb.gov.np; Toll and Digital
free Governance.
number: 16600150005, 1141; IMO Number: +977-
29 Call Centre Email:
9801800013 callcenter@feb.gov.np;
and Viber Toll free number: 16600150005, 1141; IMO Number: +977-9801800013 and Viber Number:
Number: +977-9801800013.
+977-9801800013. 41 27
DoFE launched FEIMS for the purpose of record-keeping of all statistics related to foreign
employment services in the country and the monitoring of the activities of entities involved in
labour migration. The system was developed with the objective of reducing challenges being faced
as a result of contract substitution, travelling without labour approval, recruitment-related fraud,
and general labour migration risks and abuses throughout the migration cycle as well as of ensuring
transparency and accountability in the migration process. It can be accessed by all government and
government-accredited bodies providing services related to foreign employment, including MoLESS,
the Department of Passport, the DoI, DoCS, Nepali diplomatic missions abroad, services providers
such as recruitment agencies, medical institutes, PDOT centres, insurance companies, and migrant
workers themselves (Figure 2.1).
In order to support the operation and use of FEIMS, the government has implemented the Working
Procedure for the Implementation of Foreign Employment Information Management System,
2020 (MoLESS 2020b). The Working Procedure has given the responsibility of making necessary
policy arrangements related to FEIMS to MoLESS and provides for the formation of a committee
to ensure systematic operation of the information system. In addition to data on outgoing migrants
and returnee migrants, including information related to PDOT, health check-up and insurance, the
system also integrates information on labour demand attestation by diplomatic missions and the
details of employers and recruitment agencies involved. Its integration with Nepali Port has also
allowed for the capturing of data on returnee migrant workers. Since its development, FEIMS has
also undergone various changes. The most recent upgrade has added aspirant migrant workers to the
list of those that can avail of its services. The functions migrant workers and other stakeholders can
avail of through this system is shown in Table 2.5.
In line with its policy of digitising services, DoFE has initiated online applications for new labour
approvals as well as renewals. Renewal of labour approvals was shifted to the online system from
January 2021 while online issuance of institutional approvals began in April 2022 and individual
labour approvals in May 2022 (DoFE 2022c). This development followed the provision introduced
in 2019 via an amendment to the FEA, 2007 that allowed labour approvals to be renewed (up to two
times) through diplomatic missions in country of destination. With these developments, migrant
workers do not need to be present at the Foreign Employment Offices/Labour and Employment
Office to apply for and receive labour approvals. Further, the government has scrapped the provision
of issuing labour approvals under the ‘regularisation category’ (see Chapter 3.4 for more details on
mode of labour approvals) and begun issuing such approvals under the individual category. This,
coupled with the provision of the online labour approval application, has meant that migrant workers
working in various countries of destination without a valid labour approval can now apply for one
under the individual category from the countries of destination as well. Likewise, the PDOT centres
and PRAs have been able to apply online for licence renewals starting in fiscal year 2022/23 (DoFE
2022d). Despite these advancements, providing effective and efficient services through FEIMS has
been facing some bottlenecks, including in reviewing the online applications for labour approvals and
reaching decisions on re-applications, rejections or approvals mainly due to lack of adequate officials
and technical capacities of concerned officials.
28
Table 2.5: Services that can be Availed through FEIMS

Individuals/Organisations Foreign Employment Information Management System
Migrant Workers/Aspirant • Search and apply for foreign jobs, including viewing details on country,
Migrant Workers company, salary, quota, etc.
• Apply for new labour approval (both individual and institutional) and
renewal of labour approval.
• Register individual complaints or complaints against recruitment
agencies.
• Track progress of applications for labour approvals as well as
complaints.
• View, download and print labour approval e-stickers.
• Access and view or download archives of their previous labour
approvals and other documents such as employment contract, visa,
medical report, passport, insurance documents, etc.
• Apply to add new companies not listed in the system.
Diplomatic Missions • Attest labour demand and enter details into the system.
• Search and view details on migrant workers and companies.
• Add and/or blacklist company.
• Reset password for migrant workers.
Private Recruitment • View the attested labour demand as soon as it is attested by a
Agencies diplomatic mission.
• Submit and track status of application to DoFE for pre-approval and
final approval.
• Request for approval to publish the demand notice in newspaper.
• Enter information of interested migrant workers, insert and update
migrant worker’s interview details, and update the status of successful
migrant workers.
• Enter visa information of selected workers.
• Apply to add new companies not listed in the system.
• Apply for registration and renewal of licence as well as update agency
details.*
• Request for cancellation of approved labour approvals in case a migrant
worker does not go abroad even after receiving the approval.
Foreign Employment • View and verify application of attested labour demand, pre-approval
Office, Kathmandu/Labour and final approval.
and Employment Offices in • View and approve new labour approvals (both individual and via
seven provinces recruitment agencies) and renewal of labour approval.
• View and monitor details of migrant workers, companies, labour
demand, interview date, venue and other details.
• Add and/or blacklist company.
• Reset password for migrant workers.
• Insert biometric details of new migrant workers.
29
Individuals/Organisations Foreign Employment Information Management System

Department of Foreign • Enter, view, monitor and update status of the cases of individual and
Employment (Complaints institutional complaints registered.
Registration and • View, verify and approve applications for new licences and renewal of
Investigation Section) licence of PRAs and PDOT centres.
• Activate or deactivate/block PRAs and PDOT centres.
• List and delist medical institutions, banks, insurance companies and
e-payment service providers.
• View details of PRAs and PDOT centres such as during monitoring and
also when assessing complaints registered against PRAs or PDOTs.
Pre-Departure Orientation • Apply for registration and renewal of licence as well as update agency
Training Centres details.
• Integrate biometric attendance details of migrant workers in the
system.
Medical Institutions • Insert medical reports and other related details of (aspirant) migrant
workers.
Banks • Enter payment details of migrant workers.
Insurance companies/
• Enter insurance details of migrant workers.†
branches
* Private recruitment agencies need to visit Foreign Employment Office/Labour Employment Office to register and get the log-in
details for FEIMS.
† If the insurance is bought online through e-payment services, all information is automatically recorded in the FEIMS. For insurance
bought in-person, insurance companies themselves upload/record insurance policy documents of migrant workers in the FEIMS.
Migrant workers and their families can apply for financial support as per the provision in the FEA,
2007 through local governments if a migrant worker dies, becomes handicapped or has an accident
while in foreign employment (FEB 2022a). The local bodies have access to FEWIMS, a web-based
system that has been developed to provide welfare services, including scholarships and healthcare
support, to migrant workers’ families. The FEB is also working to integrate the system with insurance
companies so that migrant workers and their families can apply for insurance claims through the
system. The FEB also manages the Training Information Management System (TMIS), which
records information on potential and returnee migrants who receive free skills training provided by
the FEB in coordination with CTEVT and affiliated institutions.
The complaint registration mechanism under DoFE has been digitised since July 2022, allowing
distressed migrant workers or their representatives to register individual complaints or file a complaint
against PRAs as well as make a request for rescue and relief through FEIMS or DoFE’s website.30
Similarly, the RRT (see Section 2.2.1 for information on RRT) makes use of technology to seek
justice for victimised migrant workers by assisting DoFE in investigating and following up on cases
related to fraud, especially those involving unscrupulous activities (DoFE 2022b).
30 See: http://202.45.146.35/register.
30
Starting September 2019, DoFE has made it mandatory for all migrant workers to have a bank account
before leaving for work abroad (DoFE 2019). The recent directive from the NRB allows migrant workers
to send remittances through digital channels, including mobile banking, internet banking, electronic
card and digital wallet services (UNCDF 2021a). NRB has also asked remittance companies within the
country to provide services in association with digital wallet operators and has doubled the ceiling of
e-payments made by user via pre-paid card, mobile banking and internet banking to NPR 200,000 (ca.
USD 1,500) (ibid). Meanwhile, DoFE has signed agreements with various online payment gateways
such as eSewa, Khalti and Connect IPS. Migrant workers can now pay for life insurance and contribute
to the FEWF through digital platforms as well as via banks (FEB 2022b).
Migrant workers can access information related to foreign employment before and after their migration
through the mobile app Baideshik Rojgari. This app provides information on recruitment agencies,
PDOT centres, insurance companies, details and the contact information of the foreign diplomatic
missions, labour attachés or counsellors and Nepali embassies abroad. Migrant workers can also assess
the status of their labour approval application and complaints registered at DoFE and other public
information.
With the proliferation of online job search and matching portals, DoFE and the FEB are also
adopting online technology for job matching and recruitment. Potential migrant workers, including
returnees, can search for jobs abroad as well as in Nepal through platforms like Foreign Job Search,31
Employment Exchange Market32 and Foreign Employment Recruitment Management System.33
Employment Management Information System (EMIS), operating under the PMEP,34 seeks to
record unemployed individuals at the local level, including returnee migrant workers and progress in
providing temporary employment to target groups. Specifically, EMIS supports PMEP in releasing
instalments of the budget to local governments, following up with employment coordinators at ESCs,
and providing the necessary support. EMIS is a part of a big picture of establishing the National
Employment Management Information System (NEMIS), an information exchange hub between
the demand side such as governmental agencies, private business houses, industries, entrepreneurs,
educational institutes, and the supply side, namely, professionals, formal and informal sector workers
and individuals seeking employment. While these systems are yet to be fully operational and made user
friendly, access to them is also limited due to lack of awareness among the general public about these
services. Another hindering factor is absence of digital literacy, access to digital tools and the internet.
2.3.2 Governing Human Trafficking and Smuggling

Incidents of human trafficking from Nepal are also sometimes linked with labour migration, wherein
foreign employment is used by traffickers as a pretence to lure and transport aspirant workers to
destinations where they become victims of debt bondage and forced labour (Kharel et al 2022b). The
31 See https://foreignjob.dofe.gov.np/.
32 See http://jobs.feb.gov.np/.
33 See https://ferms.dofe.gov.np/auth/login.
34 The PMEP aims to provide public sector employment for 100 days to those currently unemployed, across a dozen different sectors, including
irrigation, commercial agriculture, drinking water, river control, forestry, tourism, transport infrastructure and other public works across the
country through employment service centres (ESCs) set up in the 753 local administrative units to those registered as unemployed.
31
cross-border movement of people across the open border with India has remained a longstanding
challenge for Nepal in curbing instances of trafficking (The Asia Foundation 2022). Trafficking
for labour and sex trafficking remain the most notable forms of trafficking from Nepal, and India
continues to remain the most popular trafficking transit and destination. Newer destinations as well
as trafficking routes have also emerged in recent years (Kharel et al 2022b). Labour intermediaries
that facilitate irregular migration are increasingly associated with human trafficking incidents in the
guise of labour migration.
The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2007 and the Human Trafficking
and Transportation (Control) Rules, 2008 prohibit trafficking and transportation of any person
(Government of Nepal 2007b, s. 3 & 4).35 The Act to Amend Some Nepal Acts to Ensure Gender
Equality and Elimination of Gender Based Violence, 2015 added the provision of mutual legal
assistance when rescue or legal action is taken in a third country; of the establishment and mobilisation
of a rehabilitation fund by the Government of Nepal to operate rehabilitation centres; and of
rehabilitation support to the victims while also giving power to the courts to order the government to
provide compensation to the victim if the perpetrator is unable to do so (OHCHR n.d.).
As mandated by the Act, the National Committee on Controlling Human Trafficking (NCCHT)
under the Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens (MoWCSC) is working to combat
human trafficking in the country as well as on rescue and repatriation. Similarly, provincial and local
governments have been given the right to establish rehabilitation centres in coordination with the
federal government and a rehabilitation fund for the management and operation of the shelters (PPR
2020). Likewise, the Government of Nepal established a dedicated unit, the Anti-Human Trafficking
Bureau (AHTB) under the Nepal Police in 2019 to investigate and prevent cases of human trafficking
in Nepal. An MoU was signed between DoFE and Nepal Police on 12 January 202036 with the
aim of making the foreign employment sector more organised, dignified and exploitation free by
preventing human trafficking that occurs in the guise of foreign employment; as well as protecting
the victims of trafficking and rehabilitating them within the society. The MoU was signed with the
major objective of forging collaboration and coordination between the two institutions in order to
curb human trafficking; undertake legal proceedings against the perpetrators; and monitor as well
as regulate individuals/institutions operating in the labour employment sector without a license. For
the purpose of eradicating human trafficking, the institutions are required to disseminate timely and
35 According to the Act, ‘human trafficking’ is the selling and buying of a person; using someone in prostitution; extracting human organs
besides what is determined by law; and engaging in prostitution as a client; while ‘human transportation’ is defined as: taking someone out
of the country for the purpose of buying and selling; and using various means to take someone away for the purpose of prostitution and
exploitation.
36 Baideshik rojgaarilai thap byawasthit, maryaadit ra soshanrahit banauna tathaa baideshik rojgaariko naam ma huna sakne maanav bechbikhan
tathaa osaarpasaar garne kaaryalaai niyantran garna, tyasto kaaryabaata pidit byaktiko samrakshan tathaa punarsthaapan garna, Nepal sarkaar
shram, rojgaar tathaaa saamaajik suraksha mantraalaya, Baideshik rojgaar bibhaag ra Nepal sarkaar, griha mantraalya, Nepal prahari bich gariyeko
paarasparik samajhdaari patra (MoU between the Department of Foreign Employment, Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social
Security, Nepal Government and the Nepal Police, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal to make the foreign employment
sector more organised, dignified and exploitation free; curb human trafficking that occurs in the guise of foreign employment; and protect
the victims of trafficking and rehabilitate them).
32
accurate information among key stakeholders and mobilise resources effectively at the national and
international levels to reduce transnational crimes. The MoU further seeks to identify risk zones vis-
à-vis human trafficking occurring in the guise of foreign employment, and empower and mobilise
employees of both institutions to eradicate such risks. The institutions are also required to support
each other in conducting relevant research and studies towards that end.
Nepal ratified the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Person Especially Women
and Children (Palermo Protocol) in 2020, a major international instrument to combat human
trafficking. Further, the MoWCSC is formulating a standard operating procedure (SOP) for victim
identification.37 It is also working on an integrated database to incorporate data of human trafficking
and gender-related violence including data from local governments.38
2.3.3 Regulating Remittance

Knowing the quantum of remittance inflow into the country is necessary to allow the development of
an appropriate institutional and regulatory regime to govern remittance (IMF 2009). In Nepal, data on
the flow of remittance is sourced from various banks and other formal financial institutions working on
remittance transfer and amalgamated by NRB.39 The central bank also reports the informal remittance
amount, particularly from India, based on an estimation that takes into account the different variables
at play vis-à-vis remittances.
In Nepal, the governance of remittances begins with the identification of the various players and
channels involved in the process of sending and receiving remittance. The Nepal Rastra Bank
Remittance Bylaw, 2010 defines remittance, remitter, remittance transaction, principle, agent and
subagent, and elucidates information on licence, functional requirements and responsibilities of
organisations that collect inward remittance.
The formality or informality of the remittance transfer is defined by the legal structure of a country
(IMF 2009). Nepal’s Foreign Exchange Act, 1962 mandates any individual, firm, company or
organisation seeking to make foreign exchange transactions, including remittance transfer, to obtain
a licence from NRB. The Bank and Financial Institutions Act, 2017 allows Class ‘A’ banks to remit or
transmit money within and outside Nepal through instruments like bills of exchange, cheques or other
financial instruments.40 Class ‘B’ banks can carry on transactions of remittance with prior approval of
NRB (Government of Nepal 2017b, s. 2). The Asset (Money) Laundering Prevention Act, 2008 governs
Nepal’s Anti-Money Laundering/Combating the Financing of Terrorism (AML/CFT) regime and
criminalises money-laundering which includes informal remittance mechanisms like hundi.41
37 Interview with a representative from the Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens (MoWCSC).
38 Interview with a representative from the Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens (MoWCSC).
39 Interaction with an official from NRB that took place on 21 June 2022 at the Economic Research Department, NRB Office, Baluwatar.
40 According to Bank or Financial Institution Act, 2017, banks or financial institutions are classified into classes ‘A’ or commercial banks, ‘B’
or development banks, ‘C’ or finance companies, and ‘D’ or micro-finance companies based on the minimum paid-up capital of a bank or
financial institution and working areas.
41 The hawala/hundi system operates with a broker delivering cash money at the request of another broker servicing a client in a different
country. A client in Country A provides a sum of money to a broker in Country A with a correspondent broker in Country B delivering
the same amount to the recipient in Country B. The brokers earn by levying a transaction cost to the client.
33
There has been a strong focus recently on the expansion of the existing infrastructure of formal
remittance inflow from migrant workers into the country mainly because of the significance of
remittance for the maintenance of a healthy balance of payment situation. In 2019, the government
introduced a new policy that required migrant workers to have a bank account or one in the name
of their nominee in order to formalise their monetary transactions, including sending money from
abroad. Following NRB’s Monetary Policy of 2021/2022, an additional interest rate of one per
cent is paid on remittance deposits (NRB 2021). This policy is meant to encourage Nepalis to send
remittances through formal channels and also encourage savings. The federal budget for the fiscal year
2022/23 also mentions the arrangement of a fee/tariff exemption of 50 per cent during renewal of
labour approvals and passports, and consular services for Nepali migrant workers who remit money
through formal channels but is yet to be implemented (MoF 2022, s. 58). MoLESS has also formed a
taskforce with the mandate to study and make recommendations to the ministry measures to enhance
the flow of remittance through formal channels.
Bilateral Agreements also provide a governance mechanism that assists in the formalisation of
remittance. Remittance transfers from Saudi Arabia are clear cases in point. The introduction of
formal transfer mechanisms between the two countries resulted in an increment of remittance inflows
by 15 times from 2012 to 2013 (Gurung 2019).
Another important aspect is the channelling of remittances into productive sectors. The Foreign
Employment Policy, 2012 mentions mobilising remittances for human development and in the
manufacturing sector and calls for training financial institutions involved in remittance. The
Fifteenth Periodic Plan (2019/20-2023/23) recognises the significance of remittances and strategises
formulating policy and institutions for domestic capital formation through savings from remittance
income channelled through the formal banking system.
The supervision and inspection of the remittance regime is done through the recently formulated
Nepal Rastra Bank Remittance Transaction Supervision and Inspection Regulations, 2022 (NRB
2022). The aim of this framework is to make remittance transactions safe and reliable. This includes
collection and analysis of data of remitters, identifying and managing existing risks associated with
remittance transfer, and undergirding the quality of the supervision regime of remittance throughout
the country.
2.4 Laws and Policies for Protection and Welfare of Migrant Workers
The FEA, 2007, the Foreign Employment Ruels, 2008 and the Foreign Employment Policy, 2012
list various provisions to ensure safe and orderly migration and protect the rights and interests of
34
migrant workers. The Fifteenth Five-Year Plan of Nepal (2019/2020–2023/24) has outlined strategies
to make labour migration safe, free of exploitation and dignified while maximising the benefits of
foreign employment. The proposed action plans in that regard include, but are not limited to, signing
labour agreements with major countries of destination and pursuing labour diplomacy, effective
coordination with relevant stakeholders, and establishment of a foreign employment council. This
sub-chapter discusses the laws and policies and new developments in the legislations and institutional
framework for the protection and welfare of migrant workers.
2.4.1 Legislative and Policy Framework: New Developments

Recent developments in the legislative and policy framework aimed at protecting migrant workers are
listed below.
• The Directive on the Management of Sending Domestic Workers for Foreign Employment, 2015
was adopted to regulate the recruitment of domestic workers for foreign employment (MoLESS
2015). The Directive has prescribed the age limit for women going for domestic work to various
countries, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the
United Arab Emirates. It also stipulates that domestic workers may only be recruited in countries
that have a bilateral agreement with Nepal, and that recruitment agencies involved in sending
domestic workers abroad must be separately registered with DoFE. It requires prospective
workers to take 30 days’ training related to domestic work from a licenced training institution
and the employer to bear all the migration costs, including being responsible for repatriation.
• The Foreign Employment Management Service Delivery Working Procedure, 2022 has detailed
guidelines on the responsibilities and tasks to be carried out by DoFE’s internal units (MoLESS
2022b). The key tasks include policy-related work, issuance, renewal and cancellation of licences
of businesses involved in foreign employment and their overall supervision, registration and
supervision of organisations involved in providing training during orientation of workers,
handling of complaints, and other tasks related to workers’ welfare, information management
and conducting awareness campaigns and promotional activities related to foreign employment.
• DoFE amended the Directive Related to the Process of Obtaining an Individual Labour approval
for Foreign Employment, 2012 in April 2022 to add Albania, Belarus, Croatia, Hungary, Moldova,
Poland, Romania and Slovakia to the list of countries where Nepali workers willing to travel with
individual labour approvals need to complete a separate authentication process (DoFE 2022e).
Prior to this amendment, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates were the
only countries in the list. The authentication process requires outgoing workers travelling under
the individual category to present a self-declaration forms stating their understanding of the
process of migration, nature of employment and remuneration, as well as their awareness of the
country of destination to which they are migrating. This measure is meant to prevent migrant
workers from being defrauded.
35
Box 2.2: Support to Local Governments

MoLESS through the SaMi programme has been providing technical support to several local governments
in developing their capacity and helping to make labour migration part of their institutional set-up. It has,
accordingly, supported the formulation of safer migration guidelines, development of migration profiles,
incorporation of foreign employment in periodic plans, and the establishment and expansion of labour
and employment sections within the organisational structure of local governments. At the province level,
the programme has facilitated the development of provincial labour and employment policies.
Activities where technical support was provided till 2021/22

Local Level Development of migration profile 75 local governments
Development of safer migration 76 local governments
guidelines
Incorporation of foreign employment 27 local governments
issues in periodic plans
Establishment/expansion of labour and Five local governments (for addressing domestic
employment sections and foreign employment related issues)
Province Development of provincial labour and Four provinces: policy finalised and under the
Level migration policies process of approval in Bagmati and Madhesh;
under discussion/drafting in Lumbini, and
approved in Gandaki.
Source: SaMi Programme, 2022.
• The Directive for the Rescue and Repatriation of Nepali Migrant Workers Stranded due to
COVID-19, 2020 provides for using the FEWF to repatriate Nepali migrant workers who left
with due process but were stranded in various countries of destination due to the pandemic
(MoLESS 2020c). The Directive tasked Nepali missions abroad and recruitment agencies to
verify that migrant workers have received air tickets, salary and other benefits they were entitled
to from their employers.
• The Disaster Victim Rescue and Relief (Seventh Amendment) Criteria, 2020 guides and directs
the government authority to provide the necessary support to victims of natural calamities and
their families (Government of Nepal 2020). One of the provisions in the criteria relates to foreign
employment whereby a member from the victim’s family, upon the referral and decision of the
District Disaster Management Committee, can go for foreign employment through MoLESS
(ibid, s. 3).
Nepal has commitments to various international conventions and treaties as well. The Sixth Periodic
Review of Nepal at the 71st session of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW) committee in 2018 explicitly mentions the commitment as well as
progress made by Nepal since ratifying CEDAW in institutionalising women’s rights, including the
rights of migrant women.42 However, the parallel shadow report from civil society highlighted the
42 Statement delivered at the Sixth Periodic Review of Nepal at 71st session of CEDAW committee by the Leader of Nepali Delegation
Hon’ble Minister for Women, Children and Senior Citizens Mrs. Tham Maya Thapa.
36
need for a nuanced gender-responsive policy making by the government keeping gender aspects at the
forefront and aborting any discriminatory and patronising policies and introducing more supportive
practices like the deployment of more labour attachés in countries of destination. Likewise, MoLESS
has prepared a working procedure for enrolling Nepali migrant workers in the national social security
scheme.
2.4.2 Skills Development, Recognitions and Certifications

The Fifteenth Periodic Plan has sector-specific goals and thematic areas with targets relevant to skills
development and creation of employment opportunities in Nepal. The Plan envisions the use of skilled
returnee migrant workers as a source of knowledge and skills within the country. Through institutions
affiliated with CTEVT,43 the FEB has been providing free skills training to unskilled youths who are
likely to join the domestic labour market or migrate to various countries of destination. The FEB, in
collaboration with the National Skill Testing Board (NSTB), also provides free skill tests to returnee
migrant workers.
The Directive on Grant Schemes for Encouraging Foreign Educated and Trained Youth in Agriculture,
2015 aims to encourage youths to enter the agricultural sector. It targets those trained and educated in
agriculture education outside Nepal and youths returning from foreign employment and encourages
them to apply their capital, knowledge and skills to the development of the domestic agricultural sector.
Likewise, an apprenticeship programme has been started under the Ministry of Industry, Commerce
and Supplies to support unemployed youths, including those returning from foreign employment
(MoF 2020). Under this scheme, a Workplace-based (Apprenticeship) Training Operation Working
Procedure, 2020 has been developed. Furthermore, skills development of migrant workers is also guided
by other legal instruments such as the Employment-oriented Skill Development Training Operation
Procedure, 2019 while the Reintegration Programme (Operation and Management) Directives for
Returnee Migrant Workers, 2022 has provisions for preparing a profile of returnee migrant workers.
2.4.3 Access to Justice

There have also been efforts to minimise incidents of fraud and deception in labour migration as well
as improve mechanisms enabling access to justice. The FEA, 2007 provisions for the establishment
of the FET to provide justice to victims of fraudulent migration practices by addressing cases and
complaints made by individuals against the employer or recruitment agencies with the exception of
those dealt with by DoFE. The Foreign Employment Tribunal Rules, 2012 outlines the approaches
and methods to be adopted by the tribunal along with its jurisdiction. An amendment to the FEA,
2007 in 2019 added the provision for complaint registration at the DAO (Government of Nepal
2007a, s. 21). Following the amendment, the Chief District Officer (CDO) can mediate cases against
individuals while complaints registered against institutions (recruitment agencies) have to be sent to
the DoFE within seven days of filing of the complaint. In order to minimise cases of fraud by PRAs,
43 The CTEVT was established under the Technical Education and Vocational Training Council Act, 1988 which aims to accredit the
standards of skills, for the generation of proficient human resources and to manage technical education and vocational training in the
country.
37
the amendment to the Act in 2019 also mandated that the demand letter be attested by a Nepali
diplomatic mission.
An alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanism was instituted at DoFE, aimed at facilitating
disputes between migrant workers and employers and/or agents. Likewise, DoFE has also put in place
a new rule to allow administrative staff to investigate cases of fraud filed. Whereas previously such
cases were under the purview of government attorneys, others can also be involved in identifying and
investigating cases of fraud now. This has expedited the justice process. Furthermore, the Directive
for the Legal Defence of Nepali Workers in Foreign Employment, 2019 sets out provisions for
supporting migrant workers facing legal difficulties in countries of destination by mobilising lawyers
for their defence and paying them. The Directive provides guidelines for providing legal defence
and advocacy for migrant workers with valid labour approvals who face prosecution for criminal
offences during their contract period. The FEB can provide legal assistance worth a maximum of
NPR 1.5 million (ca. USD 11,500). Under this Directive, Nepali diplomatic missions receive and
review applications from migrant workers or their families; scrutinise the case against the laws of
the country of destination; forward valid applications to MoFA, and through MoFA to FEB; solicit
funds from the FEB; appoint legal practitioners at the country of destination; and maintain records
of all such applications (FEB 2019b).
2.5 Policy Changes in Major Countries of Destination

As a country of origin, it is crucial for Nepal to keep track of and understand the policy landscape
in countries of destination that impact labour migration and the rights of migrants. Over the past
three years, including during the COVID-19 pandemic, laws and policies related to migrants and
their employment in the countries of destination have changed. Among the new provisions are those
that reserve (high-skilled) jobs and opportunities for their own nationals and discourage the inflow
of migrant workers (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE); are aimed at ensuring
better labour standards and rights through the establishment of a wage protection system, standard
contracts, insurance for migrant workers, online/accessible complaints mechanisms, granting migrant
workers the right to change their employer, and introduction of non-discriminatory provisions,
especially in domestic and care work (Bahrain, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the
UAE); introduced short-term/seasonal work visa policies (South Korea and the UK) or policies to
attract high/specialised skilled migrants and (Bahrain, Japan and the UK); or have simplified and
made access to visa and employment more accessible (Bahrain, Israel, Japan, Kuwait Oman, South
Korea and the UK). The key changes are presented in Table 2.6.
The changes in labour migration and employment-related laws and policies in the major countries
of destination discussed above have wide-ranging implications for both Nepal and Nepali migrant
workers. For instance, the policies to prioritise own nationals instituted in the GCC countries are
expected to reduce employment opportunities for aspirant and current migrant workers in these
countries. These developments indicate a trend where labour-receiving countries are gradually
tightening their migration policies. These policy changes also have implications for the kinds of skill
training initiatives in place in Nepal. The potential for employment opportunities abroad dwindling
38
Table 2.6: Policy Changes in Key Countries of destination

Changes in Policy
Policies Bahrain
prioritising National Labour Market Plan 2021-2023 discourages the entry of irregular migrants by
nationals over strengthening labour institutions, and regulates the residency of expats through strict
migrant workers security requirements.
Policies Kuwait
prioritising Blanket ban enforced on hiring migrant workers in the public sector since 2016.
nationals over New occupational standards introduced in 2015 to limit and regulate the entry of
migrant workers unqualified migrants into the country.
Oman
Decision No. 235/2022 issued in July 2022 adds 207 more professions to the list of
professions reserved for Omani nationals only.
Saudi Arabia
Ban on employment of migrant workers in sectors such as secretarial, translation,
storekeeping and data entry jobs comes into effect in May 2022.
UAE
Private sector businesses to recruit Emirati nationals to comply with the policy adopted
in 2022 to increase percentage of Emiratis in skilled jobs by 2 per cent annually in
establishments with more than 50 employees.
Policies Bahrain
concerning ‘Flexi permit’ system introduced in 2017, allowing self-sponsorship by migrants
employment in irregular status, ends in October 2022. Multiple entry e-visa valid for six months
permits and visas introduced for trainees or trainers working in the government or the private sector.
Japan
Since 2018, higher skilled workers in the ‘Specified Skill Worker’ category allowed to
apply for residency, whereby non-Japanese workers are allowed to work in 14 new
occupational fields. Technical intern trainees who complete their training can also now
switch to the status of Specified Skilled Workers in the same field without having to
undergo occupational skills exams and Japanese language proficiency test.
Kuwait
Digitisation of immigration process initiated in January 2021 making it possible to apply
online for work permits.
Oman
Provisions in the Foreigners’ Residence Law amended in May 2021 to allow conversion
of visit visas into work permits.
South Korea
Introduction of medium-term seasonal work programme for the agriculture and
fisheries sectors in 2019 allowed hiring of migrant workers for a short period of time of
up to five months. The new E8 visa, which allows for stay for at least five months, is an
extension of the C4, which allowed up to 90 days of stay.
39
Changes in Policy
United Kingdom
From 2019 to 2021, the UK government initiates pilot immigration programme to
provide temporary visas for seasonal work in the horticulture sector. In 2022, the
‘seasonal worker visa’ introduced with migrant workers being allowed to work in the
UK for up to six months.
Policies Bahrain
concerning Wage Protection System (WPS) launched in May 2021, allowing for supervision of
decent work payment schedule of private companies by the Labour Market Regulatory Authority.
Article 25 of Law No. 19 amended in 2021, requiring migrants to work with an employer
for a minimum of three years before seeking a sponsorship transfer. Previously, workers
could change employment after a single year of employment. In January 2020, a digital
apparatus introduced to streamline complaints which provides translation services,
assistance in compiling and initiating cases as well as allows migrants to digitally retrieve
all documents for filing a lawsuit. Migrant workers can now electronically submit
appeals before higher courts, and the Labour Market Regulatory Authority collaborates
with the Ministry of Justice to provide administrative support to the migrant workers.
Israel
Minimum wage increased to USD 2,165 from USD 1,542 in June 2022.
Japan
Technical Intern Training Act, 2016 enacted by the Japanese government to allow
technical intern trainees to switch employers and a mechanism built for reporting
human rights violations by employers.
Jordan
Following the 2019-2022 National Anti-Trafficking Strategy, anti-trafficking hotline
number stickers placed on the passports of all migrant workers entering the country.
Kuwait
Circular issued in 2021 permitting workers to change sponsorship after only a year of
employment instead of three years previously.
Oman
Following an amendment to the law, Residence of Foreigners, 1995, migrant workers
allowed to transfer sponsorship without permission after the completion of a two-year
contract if the criteria under the Ministry of Labour is met.
Formation of a Reconciliation Committee under the Ministry of Manpower in 2019 with
the objective of encouraging registration of labour disputes and amicable settlement.
Qatar
In March 2021, minimum monthly wage set at QAR 1,000 (ca. USD 275) with allowances
of at least QAR 300 and QAR 500 for food and housing, respectively.
In 2018, workers’ support and insurance fund established to ensure and provide care
for migrant workers, guarantee their rights and provide a healthy and safe working
environment.
40
Changes in Policy
Saudi Arabia
WPS initiated in 2020, whereby employers mandated to register with the system.
After March 2021, migrant workers allowed to change jobs within the first year under
three conditions: if the workers’ work permit expires, if the worker is not paid for three
consecutive months, or if a labour dispute arises and the employer fails to attend two
litigation hearings. Further, this reform has removed the need of migrant workers to
seek permission of their employers to exit or re-enter the country and has also allowed
migrant workers to seek a job with a new employer upon the expiration of their
employment contract without the consent of their original employer.
UAE
New labour law enacted in February 2022, introducing family leave entitlements and
ending unilateral termination of contract by employer and other employee benefits
provisions.
Ministerial decree passed in 2016, abolishing the requirement for migrant workers
to seek permission from their employers to switch jobs and the introduction of the
possibility of workers terminating their contracts unilaterally.
Policies Bahrain
concerning In 2018, Bahrain becomes the first and only country in the region to incorporate
domestic domestic workers into its labour laws through which it accorded full protection to
workers, domestic workers against discrimination.
caregivers and In 2020, Bahrain made a commitment towards pay parity by prohibiting gender-based
women migrant wage discrimination.
workers Israel
In 2016, caregivers provided entitlement to a day’s rest per week with no more than 25
hours of continued work.
Jordan
In 2020, Jordan issues regulation supporting social protection of women during
maternity.
Oman
Unclear whether domestic workers are excluded from the amendment to the pre-
existing law on the Residence of Foreigners, 1995 by the Royal Oman Police with the
enactment of Decision No. 157/2020 that amends Article 24 of Decision No. 63/1996
in 2020, which allowed for the transfer of sponsorship without permission after
completion of a two-year contract if the criteria under the Ministry of Labour is met.
Qatar
Standard employment contract introduced in 2017 for domestic workers whereby
working hours, weekly leave, maximum overtime of two hours, compensation for
overtime, sick leave, liabilities of the employer and terms for termination need to be
stated.
41
Changes in Policy
Saudi Arabia
Domestic workers not eligible without conditions for reforms issued with the Labour
Reform Initiative by the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development
in November 2020 and enforced in March 2021 of not needing to get employers’
permission to exit or re-enter the country and not having to get the consent of their
employer for new employment on the expiry of their current contract. However, when
employers transfer workers to another employer without their consent, employer
terminates contract during the probation period, in the event of a delay in payment of
wages in three consecutive months, failure of employer to pick up worker at the port
of arrival and the existence of official complaint by the worker against the employer
for mistreatment and violation of human rights, domestic workers are allowed to
change jobs.
UAE
Law enacted in 2017 makes it illegal to charge recruitment fees to domestic workers
whether prior to or after employment. Further, the law prescribes that domestic
workers can work for a maximum of 12 hours per day and up to 72 hours per week and
are entitled to at least eight consecutive hours of rest per day and a rest period of one
day per week.
COVID-19- Bahrain
induced changes Following the onset of COVID-19, employers required to house a reduced number of
persons per room, maintain physical separation and comply with hygiene and sanitary
standards. Short-term free health coverage introduced for migrant workers, with
COVID-19-related medical fees being suspended in April 2020.
In June 2021, vaccination programme extends to cover irregular migrants.
Israel
Israel imposes a blanket ban on caregivers’ ability to physically leave their place of
employment (nursing homes) after COVID-19. Health of migrant workers in the care
sector working in nursing homes monitored on a daily basis and additionally required
the group to wear personal protective kits at all times.
Japan
USD 915 cash handout for all residents, including foreigners listed on the Basic Resident
Register in 2020. In 2021, foreign businesses also made eligible to apply for the Subsidy
Program for Sustaining Business if their monthly income dropped more than 50 percent
compared to the same month of the previous year.
In May 2021, Temporary Loan Emergency Fund established, whereby foreigners
struggling financially could take loans amounting to USD 1825 with a repayment
deadline of two years.
42
Changes in Policy
Kuwait
Amnesty programme announced for irregular migrants in April 2020, whereby the
Kuwaiti government took steps to repatriate irregular migrant workers at no cost to the
migrant workers. (Nepali migrants could enrol in the programme from 26 to 30 April).
Malaysia
In March 2020, Malaysia suspends admission of less-skilled workers holding temporary
employment passes as well as domestic workers and workers in agricultural,
manufacturing and service sectors.
COVID-19 screening costs borne by the Social Security Organization (SOCSO) for those
migrant workers who contribute to SOCSO.
New regulation introduced by the Malaysian government in August 2020 against the
cramped and congested living conditions for foreign workers.
The Ministry of Human Resources (MoHR) required employers to pay their workers full-
time salary even if they were unable to provide full-time work between 18 March and 3
May 2020 due to Movement Control Order (MCO) issued in March 2020.
Amnesty scheme launched in 2021 for undocumented migrant workers in the face
of the growing COVID-19 pandemic to regularise illegal immigrants in four sectors:
construction, manufacturing, plantation and agriculture. Only irregular migrants
without criminal charges could benefit from the scheme.
Saudi Arabia
Royal Order expands irregular migrants’ access to COVID-19 related health assistance
without significantly exposing them to civil, criminal or economic liability. The amnesty
also ensures free coronavirus testing for its irregular migrant population. Decision taken
to leave wage negotiations up to the private sector. Given power asymmetries between
employers and employees, it becomes illegal for employers availing of government
subsidies to terminate a worker’s contract.
UAE
Employers who could not provide work during the COVID-19 pandemic asked to
register their workers in a virtual labour market (online registry system) to facilitate
their re-employment with other employers and refrain from altering provisions in
the employment contracts without the consent of both parties. Methods devised to
monitor and register such changes. Temporary repatriation for employed migrant
workers provided by allowing employers and employees to reach an agreement on
temporary repatriation, requiring employers to pay for return flights. Visas for workers
automatically renewed through 31 December 2020, to ensure no one was pushed into
irregular status due to the pandemic. Amnesty also announced for foreigners who had
overstayed their visas with additional three months given to return home.
43
over time for both current and aspirant Nepali migrant workers means that the focus of skills training
currently offered in Nepal may need to be reassessed and geared towards such occupations where the
impact of these policies is likely to be felt less severely. These developments also call for the need to
further diversify countries where Nepali migrant workers can seek employment. Among the steps
necessary to achieve this is constant vigilance of the global labour market to take advantage whenever
opportunities arise.
Policy changes are also directly linked to the issue of migrant workers’ welfare such as wage protection,
fair recruitment, access to decent work, portability of social security entitlements, and mitigation of
possible discrimination. The Government of Nepal is thus faced with new challenges to be addressed
for ensuring safe, regular and dignified employment of Nepali migrant workers, and to optimise the
outcomes from labour migration which continue to remain the mainstay of the Nepali economy.
2.6 Labour Migration Agreements

Bilateral dialogues and agreements between the countries of origin and countries of destinations are
viewed as authoritative tools to regulate labour migration (People Forum 2021, 3). Sound BLMAs,
standard employment contracts, and understanding between countries of origin and destination
are instrumental in making labour migration safe, orderly and regular. In particular, bilateral labour
agreements and memoranda of understanding are significant in terms of establishing norms and
obligations that guide the overall procedures for labour migration as well as for the protection of
migrant workers in countries of destination.
The FEA, 2007 empowers and encourages the Government of Nepal to enter into bilateral agreements
with countries where Nepali workers migrate or are likely to migrate for employment (Government
of Nepal 2007a, s. 4). The Act also assigns power to the government to send workers on its own
or through a governmental agency by signing a treaty or agreement with countries that Nepal has
diplomatic relations with. This is commonly referred to as the government-to-government (G2G)
model of migration (ibid, s. 6). International agreements such as the GCM calls upon signatories
to enter into bilateral labour agreements (BLAs) to facilitate exchange of labour and enhance the
availability and flexibility of pathways for regular migration.44
In line with such obligations and commitments, Nepal has entered into agreement with various
countries on the issue of labour migration (Table 2.7). There was remarkable progress in the number
of agreements signed or renewed in the period between 2017 and 2019 (Government of Nepal 2021).
Based on the provisions therein regarding the process of sending workers, the agreements can be
categorised as:
i. Agreements in which the employment process is determined through the G2G model (Israel,
44 Develop human rights-based and gender-responsive bilateral, regional and multilateral labour mobility agreements with sector-specific
standard terms of employment in cooperation with relevant stakeholders, drawing on relevant ILO standards, guidelines and principles,
in compliance with international human rights and labour law (Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, 2018,
Objective 5 (21)).
44
Table 2.7: Agreements with Countries of Destination

Country of Date of Agreement/
Title of Agreement
Destination Renewal
United 2022 Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of
Kingdom Nepal and the Government of United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland on the Recruitment of Healthcare Professionals
Israel 2020 Agreement between the Government of the State of Israel and the
Government of Nepal on the Temporary Employment of Nepali
Workers in Specific Labour Market Sectors in the State of Israel
UAE 2007/2019 Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of
Nepal and the Government of the United Arab Emirates in the
Recruitment, Employment and Repatriation of Workers
Mauritius 2019 Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of
Nepal and the Government of the Republic of Mauritius on the
Recruitment and Employment of Workers from Nepal
Japan 2019 Memorandum of Cooperation between the Ministry of Justice,
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare and the National Police Agency of Japan and the Ministry
of Labour, Employment and Social Security of the Government of
Nepal on a Basic Framework for Information Partnership for Proper
Operation of the System Pertaining to Foreign Human Resources
with the Status of Residence of Specified Skilled Worker
Malaysia 2018 Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of
Nepal and the Government of Malaysia on the Recruitment,
Employment and Repatriation of Workers
Jordan 2017 General Agreement in the Field of Manpower Between the
Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the
Government of Nepal
Japan 2009 Directive for Sending Nepalese Technical Interns to Japan
Bahrain 2008 Memorandum of Understanding in the Areas of Labour and
Occupational Training between the Government of Nepal and the
Government of the Kingdom of Bahrain
Republic of 2007 Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Labour
Korea and Transport Management, Government of Nepal and the
Ministry of Labour of the Republic of Korea on the Sending of
Workers to the Republic of Korea under the Employment Permit
System
Qatar 2005 Agreement between His Majesty’s Government of Nepal and the
Government of the State of Qatar concerning Nepalese Manpower
Employment in the State of Qatar
45
Japan and South Korea), and

ii. Agreements in which the employment process is managed through private recruitment agencies
(Bahrain, Jordan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Qatar and the UAE).
These documents include mutually agreed upon provisions on issues such as recruitment, service
charges, employment and repatriation of workers, two-way airfare, visa fee, health check-up, security
screening and charges levied, among others. They also include provisions related to accommodation,
health check-up and security of the workers during the contract period. Nepal has also been closely
engaging with the countries of destination, through joint working committee mechanisms, to negotiate
with the governments of country of destination to effectively enforce the provisions laid out in these
agreements, and explore newer areas of cooperation and dialogue to enhance the safety and security
of migrant workers.
Although there are differences, the recently signed agreements have many common provisions that
are informed by global discourses such as the International Labour Organisation (ILO) General
Principles and Operational Guidelines for Fair Recruitment (GPOG), International Organisation for
Migration (IOM)’s International Recruitment Integrity System (IRIS) and principles and objectives
laid out in the GCM. For example, in the agreements with Jordan, Mauritius, the UAE and the UK,
the Government of Nepal has strongly advocated for the ‘employer pays’ principle to ensure that
workers do not have to bear any costs and fees associated with their recruitment process. The BLMAs
with most of the countries (Bahrain, Japan, Jordan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Qatar, South Korea, and
the UAE) also include provisions for Standard Employment Contracts that clearly spell out the
terms and conditions of work and ensure that these contracts align with the minimum standards set
by the Government of Nepal. Further, the agreements also stipulate the roles and responsibilities
of the governments of the country of destination, recruitment agencies and in some cases, those of
employers. Provisions on dispute settlement using amicable means and formal arbitration by the
concerned judicial authorities are also common across all agreements. The agreement with Mauritius
also includes provisions on free legal services including representation and translation services and
the agreement with the UAE provides for granting no-cost access to the labour court to aggrieved
Nepali workers. Further, the agreements with Bahrain, Jordan, Mauritius and the UAE prioritise
investing in skills development of migrant workers in Nepal and ensuring programmes related to
skills development are relevant to the country of destination.
Apart from that, the agreements signed with all the countries have provisions that encourage fair
treatment of workers and non-discrimination on the grounds of wage and non-wage benefits, legal
remedies and freedom of movement, among others. The agreements also allow migrants to switch or
change employers in certain cases such as the closure of the employer’s business or mistreatment of
the worker by the employer.
The agreements have also tried to provide guarantees of international human rights and labour rights
of migrant workers. For instance, workers are allowed special leave to visit Nepal in the event of the
death of a family member. They also emphasise the safety, security and welfare of the women workers,
46
with due regard to their special needs. Likewise, employers are required to pay for health and accidental
insurance and medical fees of the worker. Priority has also been accorded to ensuring cooperation in
setting mutually recognised medical examination standards and procedures. In line with Objective
4 of the GCM, the agreements require that all migrants have proof of legal identity and adequate
documentation. Occupational health and safety measures are also emphasised with the recognition
of the fact that many Nepali migrant workers are employed in hazardous works. In case of death of
a worker, the agreements make employers responsible for the dignified repatriation of the remains of
the worker along with timely settlement of salary, allowances, overtime pay and other benefits.
Lastly, the agreements also have a provision of establishing a joint working group (or joint committee)
with representatives from the two countries to ensure proper implementation and monitoring of
the agreement and to recommend amendments as needed. The Government of Nepal has strongly
prioritised convening joint working group meetings with the government of countries of destination.
Table 2.8 presents a list of such meetings Nepal has held with different countries in recent times.
Table 2.8: List of Recent Joint Working Group/Committee Meetings

Joint Working
Group/Committee Date Location Major Issue(s) Discussed
Meeting
Nepal–UAE Joint 15 March Abu Dhabi Social security of Nepali workers in the UAE, their
Working Committee 2022 safety in the workplace, arrangement of health
service and insurance, skills development, increase in
salary, and resolving problems of Nepalis who are in
the UAE on tourist visas and stranded there.
Nepal–Qatar Joint 3 Kathmandu Revising labour agreement signed in 2005, providing
Working Committee December employment to Nepali domestic and agricultural
2021 workers in Qatar, extending the QVC in Kathmandu
to provinces, introducing initiatives to minimise
the impact of COVID-19 on labour migration, and
supporting the reintegration of returning migrant
workers.
Nepal–South Korea 9 Kathmandu Renewal of the MoU on the Employment Permit
Bilateral Consultation November System (EPS), increasing quotas provided to Nepal
Mechanism 2021 under EPS, and making way for Nepali workers who
passed the Korean language proficiency test to travel
to South Korea.
The government has also begun prioritising expansion to newer destinations. In this process, it
has reached out to European labour markets to expand the destination choices for Nepali migrant
workers. The Five-Year Strategy (2019/20–2023/24) of MoLESS aims to negotiate agreements with
more countries of destination. In accordance with this, the Ministry had initiated talks to enter into
a G2G agreement with Poland, Romania and Seychelles. A deal was reached with the government
of Seychelles in March 2022 to conclude an agreement between the two countries (Onlinekhabar
47
2022). The new agreement with Mauritius, as well as increases in the number of labour approvals for
countries such as Cyprus, Japan, Macau SAR of China, Malta, Romania, and Turkey, (see Chapter
3 on data related to labour approvals), also indicate the government’s interest in this regard (ILO
2021b). A pilot G2G programme with Israel was initiated in 2015 in the hopes of expanding work
opportunities for Nepali citizens (Embassy of Nepal in Tel Aviv n.d.). Additionally, in 2020, Nepal
signed an agreement with Israel to send Nepalis to Israel’s specific labour market sectors. It was
also agreed that separate implementation protocols for each sector would be formulated to set out
procedures for the recruitment of Nepali nationals in such sectors in accordance with the agreement.
Following the agreement, an implementation protocol was signed to send auxiliary workers in the
caregiving sector in Israel in January 2021, with the possibility of extension to other sectors. A
taskforce has been set up at MoLESS to draft implementation protocols that would enable Nepalis
to work in Israel’s agriculture and construction sectors (MoLESS 2022c). A bilateral agreement on
health partnership was signed in August 2022 to send Nepali nurses to the UK. Nurses under the age
of 45 with at least two years of professional experience and who have cleared the UK’s Nursing and
Midwifery Council exam qualify under the agreement. As of publication of this report, the guideline
to send Nepali nurses to the UK was being finalised.
2.7 Nepal’s Engagement in Regional and International Processes and Forums

Nepal has ratified a number of international human rights instruments45 which have been key in
shaping migration governance nationally and globally. Besides having the standing of national laws
as per the Nepal Treaty Act, 1990, these documents act as guiding frameworks for the management
and regulation of national and global labour migration. The ratification of such instruments and policy
framework is also relevant for the protection of the rights and interests of workers and their families
and acceptance of basic principles concerning their treatment when employed in countries other than
their own. Alongside these treaties and conventions, Nepal has expressed its commitments in various
international, regional and national fora such as the GCM, the Abu Dhabi Dialogue (ADD), the
Colombo Process (CP), and the 2014 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
Declaration on Migration.
As a member state of the ADD, Nepal has focussed on improving access to justice for migrant workers
by increasing the use of digital technology, analysing the skills demands and identifying the key actors
in skills development, and developing guidelines to meet the priorities of the ADD member states,
addressing the challenges of COVID-19, promoting employability, mobility and labour participation
of women migrants and strengthening regional and international cooperation in the coming years
(Dhungana and Baniya 2022).
The Sixth Ministerial Consultation of the CP, held in Nepal in 2018, adopted the 27-point
45 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) are major treaties that impinge on migration through the proliferation
of fundamental rights.
48
Kathmandu Declaration which focused on five thematic areas for Nepal to work on, including
skills and qualification recognition processes, fostering ethical recruitment practices, pre-departure
orientation and empowerment, promoting cheaper, faster and safer transfer of remittances and labour
market analysis (Colombo Process 2018). Likewise, the First SAARC-level Regional Consultation
on Labour Migration hosted by Nepal in 2016 resulted in the endorsement of the SAARC Plan of
Action for Cooperation on Labour Migration. The Plan seeks to set up an institutional mechanism
at the regional level that would facilitate collaboration and cooperation on management of key labour
migration issues, facilitate the development of a SAARC Declaration on Labour Migration, identify
priority thematic areas for regional cooperation on labour migration and facilitate information
exchange and knowledge building on labour migration (SARTUC n.d.).
Nepal’s commitment to the SDGs has been reaffirmed in key policy documents, such as the current
Fifteenth Periodic Plan and the Long-Term Vision 2100. Nepal is also a champion country of
Objective 6 of the GCM to ‘facilitate fair and ethical recruitment and safeguard conditions that
ensure decent work’. Nepal has committed to achieving Target 8.7 of the SDGs which is to promote
sustainable and inclusive economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.
The country is also one of the pathfinder countries for Alliance 8.7,46 a global partnership committed
to achieving the Target 8.7. The government’s priority is to revise the FEA, 2007 and other related
Acts to eliminate loopholes that leave room for abuse, have BLAs with countries of destination,
mainstream forced labour and human trafficking into regular data collection and integrate databases,
establish labour committees and ensure its functionality, identify, map and monitor high-risk groups,
promote economic empowerment of families vulnerable to forced labour and human trafficking and
create decent jobs in the country and strengthen employment promotion centres (Alliance87 n.d.-b).
The preparation of a National Strategy Paper for the implementation of the commitments made by
Nepal on labour migration in international and regional forums and institutions, including the UN,
is currently underway at MoLESS.
As envisioned in the GCM, the first International Migration Review Forum (IMRF), an
intergovernmental global platform to discuss and share progress on the implementation of all aspects
of the Compact, was held in 2022. In the Review Forum, Nepal reaffirmed its commitment to fair
and ethical recruitment and making necessary reforms on migration governance to ensure labour
migration is safe, orderly and dignified (United Nations Network on Migration 2022). Specifically,
issues such as protection of migrant workers at home, ensuring safe migration pathways to tackle
human trafficking, facilitation of safe and dignified return and sustainable reintegration of migrant
workers and creation of employment, self-employment and entrepreneurship opportunities within
the country to remove drivers and structural factors leading to migration were mentioned and the
need ‘to strengthen cooperation between countries of origin, transit, and destination for the effective
implementation’ of the GCM was highlighted in the forum.
46 ‘Pathfinder countries go further and faster to achieve Target 8.7. They accelerate efforts, try new approaches and collaborate with others’
(Alliance87 n.d.-a).
49
MoLESS had held several consultation meetings with government agencies and other stakeholders
before Joint Committee meetings and before participating in the ADD and the regional and
international review of GCM. There has also been a realisation that there are huge benefits to MoLESS
proactively engaging in regional and international forums as well as their Technical Working Groups
(TGWs) and drafting committees, and leveraging the interests of Nepal and Nepali migrant workers.
Sustainable and effective engagement and preparation, however, is constrained by frequent transfers
of officials in charge of these activities and lack of institutionalisation of these processes and practices.
Concomitantly, the failure of proper and timely assessments of relevant laws and policies of countries
of destinations have sometimes undercut the government’s efforts for bilateral labour agreements with
countries of destination.
2.8 Immigration into Nepal

The Immigration Act, 1992 together with the Immigration Rules, 1994 and the Immigration
Procedures, 2008 govern issues of admission, residence and departure of foreign nationals in Nepal,
along with the scope, privileges and obligations associated with immigration. In an effort to protect
the rights of immigrant workers, the National Employment Policy, 2015 introduced a special
measure whereby Nepal commits to ratifying international conventions that ensure the rights of
immigrant workers (MoLE 2015). As a complement, the policy also attempts to revitalise the process
of documentation and information collection system on immigrants. In this regard, Nepali Port,
functioning under DoI, captures arrival and departure of foreign nationals in/from Nepal via the
international airports.
With regard to employment of foreign nationals in Nepal, the Labour Act, 2017 stipulates that no
international hiring can be done without obtaining appropriate permits (Government of Nepal 2017c,
s. 21). In protecting opportunities for its own nationals, the law states foreign personnel can only be
retained in skilled labour positions in the absence of qualified individuals from the national talent
pool (ibid, s. 22). Meanwhile, the Labour Rules, 2018 and the Foreign Citizen Labour Permission
Directive, 2018 define in detail the scope and procedure for obtaining work permits in Nepal. Scattered
across numerous legislations such as the Industrial Enterprises Act, 2020, the Company Act, 2006,
the Association Registration Act, 1977, the Registration of Association Rules, 1978 and the Foreign
Investment and Technology Act (FITTA), 2019 are other corollary provisions on immigration.
DoI has led the initiative on digitising immigration data. It has traded the IMMI (Immigration)
system in favour of an interface-friendly software named Nepali Port (Poudel 2020). DoI has also
introduced a renovated data centre along with new biometric equipment.
50
Chapter 3:
STATUS OF LABOUR
MIGRATION IN NEPAL
52
A step up of service delivery towards digital transformation.

Chapter 3: Status of Labour

Migration in Nepal
The migration landscape of Nepal has changed rapidly with the scale of transnational migration
for employment having grown tremendously over the last three decades. The large-scale labour
migration of Nepali citizens has been driven by a multiplicity of factors: poverty, lack of employment
opportunities at home, conflict and other social, environmental and political factors, and the demand
of skilled and low-skilled migrant workers coupled with the offer of higher wages in the countries of
destination. For women, it has also been fuelled by patriarchal social norms, gender inequality, stigma
surrounding women’s work and mobility, and escape from violence, including sexual and gender-based
violence (SGBV) from husbands and others in the family (McCarthy 2021).
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the current labour migration scenario in Nepal.
The information presented here has been disaggregated by sex, age, place of origin, destination, skill
category, and occupation in countries of destination. It does not include migrant workers going to
India for work since there is no data that captures the scale of Nepali migration to the southern
neighbour as is the case for those who have migrated through irregular channels. Also missing are the
significant number of migrant workers who have left on ‘tourist visas’ with the objective of converting
such visas into work visas after finding employment in the countries of destination (DoFE 2020a).
The chapter ends with a look at labour migration from a regional perspective in order to situate the
migration of Nepali workers in a wider context.
3.1 Current Trends in Labour Migration

Between 2008/09 and 2021/22, more than 4.7 million new labour approvals were issued to Nepali
migrants wanting to work abroad.47 These numbers increased consistently, reaching a peak in 2013/14,
when more than half a million new approvals were issued (Figure 3.1).
The years thereafter saw a decline in the number of workers seeking new approvals. Overall, though, the
number of workers who received labour approvals remained more or less comparable at the 500,000-
600,000 range per year (Figure 3.2). This is because starting in 2011, instead of issuing new approvals to
them, the government allowed those workers who wished to return to the same country of employment and
same job after the expiration of their approvals by renewing their approvals.48 This enabled these migrant
47 Nepalis employed as white-collar professionals in foreign countries such as doctors, nurses and technicians do not carry labour approvals
even though the law requires it. (Sijapati et al 2017).
48 This provision was introduced after migrant workers were found using the expired labour approval to return to the same country and job.
As a result, migrant workers who returned to the country of destination could not avail to the insurance and Foreign Employment Welfare
Fund as they only cover the period as mentioned in the labour approval.
53
Figure 3.1: New Labour Approvals Issued
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Total Men Women
Source: Data from 2008/09 to 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from FEIMS.
workers to enrol in the insurance and Foreign Employment Welfare Fund for the period of extended
contract. Over 1.8 million migrant workers have renewed their labour approvals since 2011/12, indicating
the desire of Nepali migrant workers to continue with their jobs abroad after their contracts end, and
suggests either satisfaction with their jobs, paucity of opportunities at home or both.
Figure 3.2: New and Renewed Labour Approvals Issued
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Total Men Women
Source: Data for 2011/12 from Ministry of Labour and Employment, Labour Migration for Employment: A Status Report of Nepal:
2015/2016 – 2016/17 (Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, 2018); Data for 2012/13 to 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration
Report 2020; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from FEIMS.
54
In 2019/20 and 2020/21, however, Nepal’s labour migration sector was hit badly by the COVID-19
pandemic. As the virus spread across the globe, countries implemented lockdowns, cancelled or halted
flights, and restricted the entry of foreign citizens, resulting in an almost complete halt in mobility
for months. Starting February 2020, migrant workers were prevented from entering a number of
countries of destination (Table 3.1). On 12 March 2020, the Government of Nepal also stopped
issuing labour approvals, resuming fully only in the last week of August 2020. It was reported that
115,000 aspiring migrant workers could not go abroad despite having received labour approvals,
and the pre-approval of more than 325,000 workers remained suspended (Mandal 2020). With the
removal of travel restrictions and labour demand rising from overseas from June 2020 onwards, there
was an uptick in the number of labour approvals issued. As a result, from a low of 166,689 (72,072
new approvals and 94,617 renewals) in 2020/21, the number of labour approvals issued in 2021/22
rose to reach 630,089, nearly matching the record numbers of 2012/13 and 2013/14 (Figure 3.2).
One highly unremarked factor is the huge gap in the number of worker positions attested by the
Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE) as per the labour demand submitted by the private
recruitment agencies (PRAs) and the actual number of approvals issued. Going by the figures for
the reference period (2019/20–2021/22), the demand for both men and women migrant workers is
around two times the number of labour approvals issued, a figure that was actually even higher in
2020/21 (Figure 3.3). This indicates that Nepal has consistently not been able to meet the demand
for its workers abroad.
In the discussion that follows in this chapter, unless otherwise stated, the figures provided are only of
Figure 3.3: Labour Demand Attested vs New Labour Approvals Issued (by sex)
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
-
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Men Labour Appprovals 172,191 64,894 315,805
Men Labour Demand (Attested) 294,131 142,627 545,909
Women Labour Appprovals 18,202 7,178 33,062
Women Labour Demand (Attested) 34,550 13,366 77,932
Source: FEIMS, 2022.
55
Table 3.1: Timeline Affecting Foreign Employment during COVID-19

23 February 2020 Departure of Nepali workers to South Korea halted as the country became a
COVID-19 hotspot.
9 March 2020 Qatar temporarily bans entry of foreign nationals from 14 countries, including Nepal.
12 March 2020 Nepal temporarily suspends issuance of labour approvals for foreign employment.
13 March 2020 Kuwait halts all inbound and outbound flights.
15 March 2020 Saudi Arabia suspends all international flights.
18 March 2020 Malaysia implements Movement Control Order, restricting movement nationwide and
prohibiting entry of foreign nationals.
22 March 2020 The UAE suspends all incoming and outgoing flights.
22 and 23 March Nepal suspends all domestic and international flights and halts long-distance
2020 transport services.
24 March 2020 Nationwide lockdown implemented in Nepal.
29 March 2020 Oman suspends domestic and international flights.
June 2020 Malaysia bans hiring of foreign workers to ensure more employment opportunities
for its citizens.
29 June 2020 Nepal resumes issuance of re-entry labour approvals for outbound migrant workers.
1 August 2020 Kuwait lifts travel ban, except for citizens of seven countries, including Nepal.
30 August 2020 Nepal resumes issuance of new labour approvals for migrant workers.
23 September Saudi Arabia eases travel restrictions for foreign nationals with valid exit and re-entry
2020 visas, work permits, resident permits or visit visas.
6 May 2021 Nepal halts international flights to and from Nepal as second wave of COVID-19 hits
Nepal and other countries.
7 May 2021 Nepal halts in-person issuance of labour approvals.
13 May 2021 The UAE bans international flights from Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
amid increasing cases of COVID-19 in the region.
9 June 2021 Nepal resumes in-person issuance of labour approvals.
22 June 2021 Nepal eases international travel restrictions
1 August 2021 Kuwait allows entry of vaccinated foreign nationals.
3 August 2021 The UAE lifts ban on entry of people from Nepal.
22 October 2021 Malaysia announces lifting of ban on hiring of foreign workers for essential sectors
like the plantation sector.
1 April 2022 Malaysia reopens its international border.
56
new labour approvals issued. Not including the data on renewals is not likely to change the analysis
much since those going on renewed labour approvals would have been captured earlier in the data
on new approvals. Some variation is possible though between the two migration stints in terms of
occupation, the level of skills, or mode of obtaining labour approvals, but that is likely to be true for
only a small proportion of the migrant worker population.
3.1.1 Sex and Age

Labour migration is a phenomenon dominated by men with women accounting for less than 6 per
cent of the total number of new labour approvals issued between 2008/09 and 2021/22. However,
perhaps indicating what the trend is likely to be in the future, in the three years, 2019/20–2021/22,
the proportion of women has consistently been close to 10 per cent. That, of course, does not take
into account a significant number of migrant workers who would have migrated through irregular
channels and thus remain undocumented. As a result, a substantial proportion of migrant workers,
particularly women migrant workers, are not included in the Department of Foreign Employment
(DoFE) data.
Nearly all migrant workers from Nepal are young adults and from the economically most productive
age group of 18 to 44 with half between the ages of 25 and 34 years in the three reference years (Figure
3.4). The median age of migrant workers was just 28.49
Figure 3.4: Migrant Workers (2019/20–2021/22) (by age and sex)

120
1.5 0.5 2.5 1 1.9 0.8

100
14 14.6
16.7
19 19.4 20.8
80
60
40 50.8 52.3
49.1 53.8
51.4 50.3
20
30.5 34.6 26.7 28.6 27.1 32.3

0
Men Women Men Women Men Women
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
18-24 Years 25-34 Years 35-44 Years 45+ Years
Note: This figure only includes new labour approvals.

49 Median represents the midpoint of the dataset. The mean hasn’t been included due to the possibility of data skewness due to errors in self-
reported forms by the migrant workers.
57
58
Table 3.2: Number of New and Renewed Labour Approvals
(by sex and key countries of destination)
Destination 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
M W T M W T M W T M W T M W T
New labour Qatar 99,315 3,864 103,179 71,322 3,702 75,024 27,453 2,383 29,836 21,076 1,054 22,130 72,475 4,348 76,823
approvals
only UAE 53,680 6,564 60,244 55,444 7,332 62,776 44,698 7,359 52,057 9,257 2,352 11,609 40,916 12,928 53,844
Saudi Arabia 39,938 1,024 40,962 44,493 1,587 46,080 39,012 248 39,260 23,234 85 23,319 125,160 208 125,368
Kuwait 15,929 1,626 17,555 14,417 1,578 15,995 7,764 1,207 8,971 2 - 2 19,054 3,732 22,786
Bahrain 4,530 332 4,862 4,198 435 4,633 2,892 412 3,304 2,972 174 3,146 6,954 638 7,592
Oman 2,692 367 3,059 2,401 321 2,722 1,705 291 1,996 1,401 155 1,556 3,004 622 3,626
GCC Total 216,084 13,777 229,861 192,275 14,955 207,230 123,524 11,900 135,424 57,942 3,820 61,762 267,563 22,476 290,039
Malaysia 101,172 3,037 104,209 9,828 171 9,999 38,759 400 39,159 103 4 107 24,833 1,258 26,091
Poland 3,197 424 3,621 981 127 1,108 141 43 184 402 51 453 1,295 207 1,502
Maldives 1,235 554 1,789 1,484 490 1,974 614 272 886 579 428 1,007 1,833 902 2,735
Cyprus 155 1,419 1,574 194 1,536 1,730 156 1,302 1,458 98 914 1,012 395 2,827 3,222
Japan 716 45 761 870 89 959 808 131 939 468 85 553 1,897 581 2,478
Malta 372 228 600 1,060 657 1,717 1,118 550 1,668 60 4 64 953 315 1,268
Romania 273 43 316 1,084 94 1,178 1,751 179 1,930 1,743 211 1,954 5,580 838 6,418
UK 34 31 65 42 18 60 25 13 38 207 108 315 2,262 546 2,808
Croatia 3 2 5 6 1 7 579 66 645 949 138 1,087 4,114 1,092 5,206
Others 8,424 2,857 11,281 7,809 2,440 10,249 4,716 3,346 8,062 2,343 1,415 3,758 5,080 2,020 7,100
Total 331,665 22,417 354,082 215,633 20,578 236,211 172,191 18,202 190,393 64,894 7,178 72,072 315,805 33,062 348,867
Destination 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
M W T M W T M W T M W T M W T
New and Qatar 178,649 4,893 183,542 156,328 4,887 161,215 78,015 3,563 81,578 53,474 1,443 54,917 177,788 7,138 184,926
renewed
labour UAE 102,815 12,126 114,941 106,383 13,472 119,855 80,955 12,440 93,395 35,399 5,076 40,475 101,496 21,139 122,635
approvals Saudi Arabia 107,073 1,341 108,414 115,871 2,033 117,904 82,515 623 83,138 46,744 208 46,952 187,965 726 188,691
Kuwait 24,615 2,534 27,149 23,729 2,267 25,996 14,610 2,247 16,857 846 168 1,014 30,176 5,365 35,541
Bahrain 7,832 622 8,454 7,927 747 8,674 5,525 663 6,188 4,631 309 4,940 11,055 1,007 12,062
Oman 5,186 527 5,713 4,972 465 5,437 3,667 472 4,139 2,866 267 3,133 5,964 885 6,849
GCC Total 426,170 22,043 448,213 415,210 23,871 439,081 265,287 20,008 285,295 143,960 7,471 151,431 514,444 36,260 550,704
Malaysia 133,278 4,033 137,311 40,897 1,249 42,146 58,582 1,123 59,705 1,119 16 1,135 35,180 1,464 36,644
Poland 3,220 426 3,646 1,060 135 1,195 377 71 448 633 72 705 1,606 249 1,855
Maldives 1,751 699 2,450 2,108 696 2,804 1,103 432 1,535 1,089 539 1,628 2,691 1,165 3,856
Cyprus 179 1,887 2,066 228 2,112 2,340 207 1,799 2,006 123 1,132 1,255 528 3,653 4,181
Japan 3,383 93 3,476 4,122 142 4,264 3,547 181 3,728 1,963 116 2,079 5,003 653 5,656
Malta 374 228 602 1,078 671 1,749 1,237 613 1,850 228 87 315 1,402 513 1,915
Romania 278 55 333 1,120 119 1,239 1,821 207 2,028 1,921 226 2,147 6,574 901 7,475
UK 41 35 76 44 19 63 25 13 38 209 108 317 2,267 547 2,814
Croatia 5 2 7 7 1 8 580 66 646 956 138 1,094 4,241 1,103 5,344
Others 11,042 3,463 14,505 10,831 3,108 13,939 7,178 3,916 11,094 3,032 1,551 4,583 7,025 2,620 9,645
Total 579,721 32,964 612,685 476,705 32,123 508,828 339,944 28,429 368,373 155,233 11,456 166,689 580,961 49,128 630,089
Source: Data for 2017/18 and 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020: 124-31; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from FEIMS.
59
3.2 Countries of Destination

Nepalis have been migrating to several countries for employment. The Government of Nepal has
approved 111 countries for labour migration through recruitment agencies albeit with temporary
restrictions applicable in the case of Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya (DoFE n.d.-g). Nepalis are also
allowed to go to other countries after obtaining individual labour approvals. In 2019/20–2021/22,
Nepalis migrated to 150 countries with approval from DoFE.50
The six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries—Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia
and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)—and Malaysia host the vast majority of Nepali migrant
workers. These seven countries have consistently been providing employment to more than 80 per
cent of Nepali migrant workers since 2013/14, and are also the countries from where Nepali workers
receive the highest demand (See Annex 8 for number of labour demands by countries of destination
and sex).
The number of Nepali migrant workers going to the GCC countries has fluctuated over the years. This
number peaked in 2015/16 with 336,614 new labour approvals issued to the GCC countries (MoLESS
2020a, 14). The number of new approvals for those countries declined to 272,018 in 2016/17 (MoLE
2018) and further in 2017/18 and 2018/19 (Table 3.2). Those figures, however, are misleading since
they do not take into account the labour approvals renewed for the same destinations. Including the
latter brings the total number of labour approvals to above the 400,000 range in both 2017/18 and
2018/19 as well.
The number of Nepali migrant workers going to GCC countries declined significantly in 2019/20
and 2020/2151 but picked up in 2021/22. Labour approvals for those going to Kuwait saw a drastic
decline in 2020/21 compared to other GCC countries as a result of the 16-month-long break in
Nepali migration to Kuwait due to the pandemic (Table 3.1).
The number of Nepali migrant workers to Malaysia, another prominent destination for Nepalis, has
fluctuated over the years. The number was the highest in 2013/14 (with 210,099 Nepalis receiving
new approvals for Malaysia) (MoLE 2018) but declined in subsequent years, reaching the lowest
number of 9999 in 2018/19 (Table 3.2). The decrease in 2015/16 (127,903 new labour approvals)
(MoLE 2018) could have resulted from the temporary ban on hiring of new foreign migrant workers
by the Government of Malaysia in March 2016 as an effort to encourage hiring of its own citizens
(The Kathmandu Post 2016). Also, the Government of Nepal halted issuance of labour approvals
to Malaysia in May 2018 to begin discussions on reducing recruitment fees and other related costs
paid by Nepali migrant workers (Mandal 2019). These pre-departure fees included payment for
online registration with the MiGRANT Management System (MiGRAM), biometric medical
50 These include both individual labour approvals and approvals received via recruitment agencies, which is discussed in more detail in
section 3.4.
51 Do note the numbers for these years could be more than officially issued as many aspiring migrant workers travelled on visit visas and ended
up staying for employment instead.
60
test, services of One Stop Centres (OSCs),52 and visa fees. That eventually led to the signing of a
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the two countries in October of the same year.
However, despite the MoU, it took another year to restart sending migrant workers to Malaysia
because of issues regarding the provision of pre-visa services for Malaysia-bound workers. The next
two years did see a small increment before declining drastically, with the number of approvals issued
for Malaysia dropping from 59,705 (including 39,159 new approvals) in 2019/20 to a meagre 1135
(107 new approvals) in 2020/21. That was a direct result of the disruptions caused by the COVID-19
pandemic, with bans imposed by Malaysia on migrant workers (Mandal 2021). In response to the
rapidly spreading coronavirus, Malaysia implemented its Movement Control Order starting 18
March 2020, which restricted movement nationwide and prohibited the entry of foreigners (Baniya
et al 2020a). Malaysia banned the entry of foreign workers in June 2020 in order to provide more
employment opportunities for its citizens affected by the pandemic. After a 16-month hiatus, the
Government of Malaysia announced phase-wise lifting of the entry ban on migrant workers in
November 2021, starting with opening of the plantation sector (Lee and David 2022).
Several countries have more recently emerged as prominent destinations for Nepali migrant workers.
Among these are countries from Central and Eastern Europe—Albania, Croatia, Poland, and
Romania—and Cyprus and Turkey in West Asia (Figure 3.5). The number of labour approvals issued
for the Maldives increased from 2450 (including 1789 new approvals) in 2017/18 to 6591 (2735 new
approvals) in 2021/22. Jordan and Malta have also seen a significant increase in the number of Nepali
migrant workers going there. The rising popularity of these destinations could be due to the policy
introduced by DoFE in 2022 to provide individual labour approvals to workers seeking to migrate to
countries like Albania, Croatia, Poland and Romania, among others, so long as they provided a self-
declaration that both the country and employment is safe (DoFE 2022e).
The number of labour approvals for Nepalis going to the United Kingdom (UK) increased by 95
per cent in 2021/22 compared to 2017/18. The increase is due to the UK’s exit from the European
Union, causing labour shortages and resulting in the introduction of various temporary visas by
the UK government for migrant workers for seasonal work.53 UK government data shows that 559
Nepali citizens were given temporary visas (including extension of stay) in 2021 and 415 in the first
quarter of 2022 (see Section 3.10 for data on visa issuance to Nepalis for skilled and temporary work)
(Government of the UK n.d.). Information collected in 2022 by The Guardian newspaper and the
Bureau of Investigative Journalism, UK, reveals that between January and March of 2022, Nepal
ranked the fourth highest among the list of source countries for seasonal workers, while the Migration
Observatory at the University of Oxford, placed Nepal ninth on the list the previous year (Macgregor
2022). The increase in the number of labour approvals for the UK could be due to the introduction of
seasonal work visas, although, most likely, not everyone receiving labour approvals for the UK is part
of the seasonal work scheme.
52 The OSC is operated by Malaysia VLN Nepal Pvt Ltd, ISC.

53 Refer to Chapter 2 for more details.
61
Figure 3.5: New Labour Approvals Issued (by emerging countries of destination)
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
-
Romania Croatia Cyprus Maldives United Poland Malta Turkey Seychelles Albania Jordan
Kingdom
2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Source: Data for 2017/18 and 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020: 124-31; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from
FEIMS.
In newer destinations, there is variation in the pattern between men and women migrant workers.
Data for the reference period (2019/20–2021/22) show that although Nepali women migrant workers
go mostly to the GCC countries, countries like Cyprus, Jordan, Turkey, Romania, Croatia and Malta
are more prominent destinations for women compared to men (Table 3.3). Cyprus and Jordan in
particular are countries where women are dominant. For example, 7.2, 12.7 and 8.6 per cent of women
migrant workers in 2019/20, 2020/21 and 2021/22, respectively, went to Cyprus compared to less
than 1 per cent in case of men migrant workers.
The data on renewals by country of destination shows the majority of renewals were for migrant
workers to the GCC countries and Malaysia (Table 3.5). This is not surprising as the renewals
correspond to labour approvals issued in preceding years. As labour approvals were issued mostly for
the GCC countries and Malaysia over the previous decade, the renewal data also correlates with that
trend. Recent years have seen the emergence of countries like Cyprus, Poland and Malta rising in the
number of labour approval renewals for those countries.
The renewal trend for women migrant workers shows the prominence of the UAE, with the country
accounting for about half of labour approval renewals of women migrant workers from 2017/18 to
2021/22 (Table 3.4). The data also highlights the importance of countries like Cyprus as a country of
destination for women migrant workers.
62
Table 3.3: Proportion of Women Migrant Workers Receiving New Labour Approvals
(by top 10 destinations)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
UAE 40.4 UAE 32.8 UAE 39.1
Qatar 13.1 Qatar 14.7 Qatar 13.2
Jordan 12.7 Jordan 12.8 Kuwait 11.3
Cyprus 7.2 Cyprus 12.7 Cyprus 8.6
Kuwait 6.6 Maldives 6.0 Malaysia 3.8
Malta 3.0 Turkey 5.8 Croatia 3.3
Turkey 2.9 Romania 2.9 Maldives 2.7
Bahrain 2.3 Bahrain 2.4 Romania 2.5
Malaysia 2.2 Oman 2.2 Jordan 2.3
Oman 1.6 Croatia 1.9 Bahrain 1.9
Others 8.0 Others 5.8 Others 11.3
Total % 100 100 100
Total number 18,202 7,178 33,062
Table 3.4: Women Migrant Workers Renewing Labour Approvals

(by country of destination)
2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
UAE 5,562 6,140 5,081 2,724 8,211
Qatar 1,029 1,185 1,180 389 2,790
Kuwait 908 689 1,040 168 1,633
Malaysia 996 1,078 723 12 206
Cyprus 468 576 497 218 826
Saudi Arabia 317 446 375 123 518
Bahrain 290 312 251 135 369
Israel 388 367 230 21 214
Maldives 145 206 160 111 263
Oman 160 144 181 112 263
Other Countries 284 402 509 265 773
Total 10,547 11,545 10,227 4,278 16,066
Source: Data for 2017/18 and 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from FEIMS.
63
Table 3.5: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province and top 10 destinations)
Year
Province
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
UAE 13,789 Saudi Arabia 4,343 Saudi Arabia 22,931
Malaysia 9,333 Qatar 4,317 Qatar 14,146
Saudi Arabia 8,869 UAE 2,750 UAE 12,881
Qatar 7,201 Bahrain 726 Kuwait 5,282
Kuwait 1,979 Romania 500 Malaysia 5,191
Bahrain 945 Cyprus 357 Romania 1,911
Province 1
Jordan 747 Oman 297 Bahrain 1,729
Cyprus 510 Jordan 266 Cyprus 1,094
Romania 469 Maldives 255 Croatia 978
Oman 446 Afghanistan 210 Oman 945
Other 1,827 Other 749 Other 3,535
Total 46,115 Total 14,770 Total 70,623
Malaysia 11,883 Qatar 11,007 Saudi Arabia 37,822
Qatar 10,306 Saudi Arabia 6,339 Qatar 36,358
UAE 9,038 Bahrain 642 Malaysia 8,351
Kuwait 2,407 Oman 290 Kuwait 5,013
Bahrain 440 Romania 109 Bahrain 1,788
Madhesh
Oman 223 Maldives 80 Oman 496
Jordan 107 Turkey 56 Romania 277
Romania 101 Croatia 32 Croatia 251
Turkey 64 Cyprus 25 Maldives 178
Other 356 Other 138 Other 776
Malaysia 4,073 Qatar 1,637 Qatar 6,621
Qatar 3,642 Romania 535 Kuwait 4,400
Bagmati Kuwait 1,434 Jordan 480 Malaysia 3,282
Jordan 1,095 Bahrain 466 Romania 1,687
Romania 672 Cyprus 391 Croatia 1,548
Bahrain 552 Maldives 348 Cyprus 1,260
Cyprus 546 Turkey 326 Bahrain 1,047
64
Turkey 471 Croatia 282 Maldives 746

Qatar 3,351 Qatar 1,598 Qatar 6,802
Malaysia 2,920 Afghanistan 542 Kuwait 2,897
Kuwait 1,057 Bahrain 444 Malaysia 1,967
Bahrain 618 Romania 417 Croatia 1,249
Gandaki
Afghanistan 473 Croatia 300 Romania 1,229
Malta 454 Oman 290 Bahrain 1,174
Oman 421 Japan 202 United Kingdom 963
Romania 377 Cyprus 158 Japan 750
Saudi Arabia 7,294 Qatar 2,750 Qatar 10,079
Malaysia 6,819 UAE 1,975 UAE 8,434
Qatar 4,020 Bahrain 654 Malaysia 4,510
Kuwait 1,476 Oman 366 Kuwait 3,413
Bahrain 558 Romania 244 Bahrain 1,331
Lumbini
Oman 426 Croatia 188 Romania 887
Malta 353 Japan 138 Croatia 849
Jordan 219 Afghanistan 128 Oman 782
Romania 208 Maldives 124 Japan 467
Malaysia 2,534 Saudi Arabia 1,081 Saudi Arabia 6,156
UAE 1,604 Qatar 593 Qatar 1,790
Saudi Arabia 1,593 UAE 422 UAE 1,659
Qatar 814 Bahrain 180 Malaysia 1,592
Karnali Kuwait 452 Oman 69 Kuwait 978
Bahrain 97 Romania 50 Bahrain 370
Oman 58 Afghanistan 36 Romania 186
Jordan 41 Maldives 29 Croatia 137
Romania 37 Croatia 20 Oman 118
65
Afghanistan 30 Jordan 13 United Kingdom 75

UAE 1,681 Saudi Arabia 562 Saudi Arabia 3,471
Malaysia 1,597 UAE 399 UAE 1,769
Saudi Arabia 1,230 Qatar 228 Malaysia 1,198
Qatar 502 Romania 99 Qatar 1,027
Kuwait 166 Croatia 65 Kuwait 803
Bahrain 94 Oman 42 Romania 241
Sudurpashcim
Romania 66 Bahrain 34 Croatia 194
Oman 45 Maldives 29 Bahrain 153
Maldives 30 Poland 19 Oman 118
Malta 24 Japan 15 Japan 93
Grand Total 190,393 72,072 348,867
3.3 Provinces and Districts of Origin

As in the previous years (MoLESS 2020a), the data on labour approvals disaggregated by province
and district for the years 2019/20–2021/22 shows that the highest number of migrant workers hailed
from Province 1 and Madhesh, with each accounting for more than one-fifth of the total (Figure 3.6).
The number of labour approvals issued for migrant workers from Karnali and Sudurpaschim is quite
low. This corresponds with national surveys which have shown that the majority of migrant workers
from Karnali and Sudurpaschim migrate to India, a migration corridor not included in the data on
labour approvals.54
Women labour migration paints a different picture though with the highest number of women
migrant workers coming from Bagmati followed by Province 1 (Figure 3.7). The share of women from
Madhesh is only around 4 per cent. This is likely the result of strict gendered norms among Madhesis,
less access to socio-economic capital, and feminisation of agricultural work with so many men having
migrated (Sijapati et al 2017; Bennett et al 2013; Doss et al 2022; Gupta et al 2022).
In 2019/20, the UAE was the top destination for migrant workers from Province 1, Bagmati, Gandaki,
Lumbini and Sudurpaschim, while for those from Madhesh and Karnali it was Malaysia (Table 3.5).
54 Analysis based on the raw data set of the Nepal Labour Force Survey 2017/18 shows that more 65.7 per cent of ‘absentees’ from Karnali
province are in India while the proportion is 88.6 per cent for Sudurpaschim province. Migration from Nepal to India is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 4.
66
Figure 3.6: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
100,066
70,623
58,683
54,017
46,115
44,118
42,536
31,234
31,006
24,881
20,645
14,770
13,426
11,916
11,412
9,516
9,195
7,405
5,634
2,555
1,579
PROVINCE 1 MADHES BAGMATI GANDAKI LUMBINI KARNALI SUDURPASCHIM
Figure 3.7: New Labour Approvals Issued to Women

(by province)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22

13,670
10,109
7,639
5,952
3,552
3,094
3,013
2,254
1,741
1,694
1,619
785
737
620
569
455
284
276
190
110
79
PROVINCE 1 MADHESH BAGMATI GANDAKI LUMBINI KARNALI SUDURPASCHIM
In 2020/21, Saudi Arabia became the top destination for migrant workers from all the provinces
except Madhesh, from where more of them went to Qatar. The year after, 2021/22, Saudi Arabia was
the topmost destination for migrant workers from all the provinces.
The proportion of migrant workers going to the GCC countries and Malaysia is the highest for
67
Box 3.1: Calculating Number of Labour Approvals for Nawalparasi and Rukum
Following the promulgation of the 2015 Constitution and the institution of a federal system of governance
in the country, Nepal was divided into seven provinces and 77 districts. Earlier, Nepal had 75 districts.
Two new districts had been formed by splitting Nawalparasi into Nawalparasi Bardaghat Susta East and
Nawalparasi Bardaghat Susta West, and Rukum into Rukum East and Rukum West. Though the Foreign
Employment Information Management System (FEIMS) has been updated to reflect these changes, the
system still records the erstwhile districts i.e. Nawalparasi and Rukum. This is because, the data on districts
are based on the passport issued and these changes are not reflected in older passports issued prior to
federalisation. Hence, the data on labour approvals for these four districts are extrapolations based on
the proportion of absentee and total population for the respective districts as per the 2021 census. The
same figures were used to calculate the province-level data for Lumbini, Gandaki and Karnali, where these
districts are located.
Madhesh province, above 98 per cent for all three years. This proportion is particularly lower for
Bagmati and Gandaki with these two provinces showing higher diversity in terms of countries of
destination. The impact of COVID-19 on the foreign employment sector can be clearly seen with a
decline in the number of labour approvals to all countries of destinations for migrant workers from
the seven provinces with those going to Malaysia seeing the steepest drop.
Dhanusha, Jhapa, Siraha, Morang and Mahottari are the top five districts from where Nepali migrant
workers originated in 2019/20 and 2020/21 with Sarlahi replacing Morang in 2021/22 (Table 3.6).
These five districts accounted for more than a fifth of the migrant workers in the three years. This
heavy concentration of migrant workers from the region, as was emphasised during consultations,55
points to the need for decentralised and effective services related to labour migration. (Detailed data
on labour approvals for the 77 districts disaggregated by sex and mode of migration is presented in
Annex 12.)
The stark contrast between men and women at the province level extends to the districts as well.
In all the three years, the highest proportion of women migrant workers was from Jhapa with
Sindhupalchowk, Morang, Makawanpur and Kavrepalanchowk ranking among the top five (Table
3.7). Thus, more men migrant workers originate from the Tarai district compared to the hills, it is the
reverse in the case of women migrant workers.
3.4 Mode of Obtaining Labour Approval

As described in Chapter 2, migrant workers can obtain labour approvals from DoFE, either by applying
for one individually or through a private recruitment agency (PRA). Although the vast majority of
migrant workers get their labour approvals through PRAs, there has always been a number of migrant
workers getting it on an individual basis.56
55 As mentioned by stakeholders who participated in the province level consultation programmes in Biratnagar and Janakpur on 29 August
2022 and 5 September 2022 respectively.
56 This figure represents new individual approvals and excludes regularisation. Regularisation has been dealt below. This figure does not
68
Table 3.6: New Labour Approvals Issued (%) (by top 10 districts)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Dhanusha 5.4 Dhanusha 7.5 Dhanusha 6.6
Jhapa 5.0 Siraha 6.4 Siraha 5.1
Siraha 4.5 Mahottari 5.0 Mahottari 4.8
Morang 4.3 Jhapa 4.2 Jhapa 3.9
Mahottari 3.7 Morang 3.6 Sarlahi 3.8
Sunsari 3.1 Sarlahi 3.3 Morang 3.6
Sarlahi 3.0 Sunsari 3.2 Saptari 3.2
Saptari 2.9 Dang 2.7 Sunsari 3.1
Rupandehi 2.4 Saptari 2.5 Rupandehi 2.7
Dang 2.4 Rupandehi 2.1 Rautahat 2.5
Other 63.3 Other 59.5 Other 60.8
Total % 100 100 100
Total number 190,393 72,072 348,867
Table 3.7: New Labour Approvals Issued to Women (%) (by top 10 districts)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Jhapa 9.1 Jhapa 9.1 Jhapa 8.1
Sindhupalchowk 7.8 Sindhupalchowk 8.5 Sindhupalchok 6.1
Morang 5.7 Morang 5.6 Makwanpur 5.6
Makawanpur 5.2 Makawanpur 4.8 Morang 5.3
Kavrepalanchowk 4.6 Kavrepalanchowk 4.5 Kavrepalanchok 5.0
Kathmandu 4.4 Nuwakot 4.0 Nuwakot 4.3
Nuwakot 4.1 Kathmandu 3.9 Kathmandu 3.8
Sunsari 3.6 Chitwan 3.4 Sunsari 3.2
Chitwan 3.1 Sunsari 3.1 Chitawan 3.1
Ilam 3.0 Ilam 2.8 Dhading 3.1
Others 49.4 Others 50.3 Others 52.4
Total % 100 100 100
Total number 18,202 7,178 33,062
69
Figure 3.8: Mode of Obtaining Labour Approvals
500,000
450,000
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Individual Recruitment Agency
Source: Data for 2011/12 to 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from FEIMS.
The most recent figure of 26,740 individual approvals issued in 2021/22 (i.e., 7.9 per cent of the total)
is the highest since 2013/14. While there could be other extraneous reasons, this sharp increase is
most likely due to the fact that in May 2022 the government merged the individual labour approval
category with the ‘regularisation’ category (see discussion on regularisation below) (FEB 2022c).
3.4.1 Labour Migration through Recruitment Agencies

PRAs, generally known as ‘manpower companies’ in Nepal, connect job-seekers with employers abroad
and support them in the overall process of migration such as documentation, obtaining visas, and
acquiring labour approvals, among other services (ILO 2021b; Kern and Müller-Böker 2015). The
foreign labour market is extremely competitive and PRAs often reach out to recruitment agencies in
countries of destination or the employers/companies to procure the demand for labour instead of it being
the other way around (Kharel et al 2022a). PRAs are able to help aspiring migrant workers expedite the
complicated and time-consuming labour migration process (Kern and Müller-Böker 2015).
There are currently 860 PRAs active in Nepal (DoFE n.d.-a), and in 2021/22, 92.1 per cent of new
labour approvals were issued through these companies. There are only two PRAs registered to send
more than 5000 workers abroad annually. Three others can send over 3000 upto 5000 workers while
the rest are all registered to send only up to 3000 (DoFE 2020b). The number of PRAs has gone down
in recent years. This may have resulted from the provision the government introduced in 2019 hiking
the cash deposit and bank guarantee for acquiring a licence to operate, requiring PRAs to send at
least 100 workers abroad every year for two consecutive years while also at the same time encouraging
merger of agencies (see Section 2.2.1 for details about this provision) (FEA 2007, s. 13).57 PRAs
include workers going to South Korea under the EPS system.
57 Provision added in 2019.
70
unable to meet the criterion on minimum workers for two consecutive years forfeit their licence.58
The objective behind the new provision was to reduce the number of PRAs through mergers so that
they could be more effectively regulated, to make the recruitment practices fair, and to make them
accountable for the protection of migrants and their rights in countries of destination.
The COVID-19 pandemic had a clear impact on the ability of the PRAs to recruit workers for foreign
employment (ILO 2021b). The number of PRAs that could facilitate migration of more than 2000
migrant workers in 2020/21 was just two compared to 14 in 2021/22 (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9: Number of Recruitment Agencies

(by number of migrant workers facilitated)
400
Number of Recruitment Agencies
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
<49 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-249 250-299 300-399 400-499 500-999 1000-1999 2000+
Number of labour approvals
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
The number of countries for which PRAs recruited workers also saw a sharp decline due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. While in 2018/19, there were 94 PRAs that recruited workers for five or more
destinations (MoLESS 2020a), in 2020/21 that number was just three (Figure 3.10). The industry,
however, recovered in 2021/22, with the number of PRAs facilitating migration to five or more
destinations increasing to 123.
Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Qatar are the three countries that have consistently figured among the
top five destinations for migration through PRAs. Table 3.8 presents the number of labour approvals
for different countries issued in the three reference years.
58 Do note the government suspended this provision temporarily due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
71
Figure 3.10: Number of Recruitment Agencies

(by number of countries for which labour approvals were granted)
400
Number of Recruitment Agencies
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5+
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Table 3.8: Labour Approvals Issued Through Recruitment Agencies (by country of destination)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
UAE 46,518 Saudi Arabia 23,298 Saudi Arabia 1,25,237
Saudi Arabia 39,217 Qatar 21,279 Qatar 72,417
Malaysia 38,972 UAE 8,566 UAE 44,650
Qatar 27,517 Bahrain 2,995 Malaysia 25,842
Kuwait 8,397 Romania 1,428 Kuwait 22,047
Bahrain 3,047 Oman 1,317 Bahrain 7,088
Jordan 2,372 Cyprus 996 Romania 5,166
Oman 1,616 Jordan 919 Cyprus 3,211
Romania 1,442 Turkey 331 Oman 2,717
Cyprus 1,442 Afghanistan 149 Croatia 1,437
Turkey 502 Japan 49 Jordan 913
Macau SAR, China 232 Mauritius 46 Japan 523
Japan 189 United Kingdom 30 Israel 297
Malta 158 Poland 16 Mauritius 248
Others 589 Others 2 Other 622
Total number 172,210 61,421 312,415
Note: This figure does not include labour approval issued to those who sought on individual basis and under the regularization
category.
72
Table 3.9: Number of PRAs Facilitating Migration of Workers Abroad (by country of destination)
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Qatar 557 283 536
UAE 427 75 369
Saudi Arabia 475 382 535
Malaysia 447 0 301
Bahrain 142 92 162
Kuwait 154 0 203
Oman 79 55 117
Poland 5 2 0
Cyprus 39 30 32
Japan 20 8 27
Turkey 18 11 5
Romania 19 23 53
Jordan 15 12 15
Malta 9 0 1
Portugal 3 1 0
Macau SAR, China 5 0 0
Maldives 3 0 1
Afghanistan 3 2 0
Mauritius 2 1 3
Russia 0 0 1
Panama 1 0 0
Brunei Darussalam 2 0 2
Hong Kong Sar, China 1 0 0
Israel 0 0 1
United Kingdom 0 1 1
Croatia 0 0 16
Albania 0 0 3
Republic of Seychelles 0 0 1
The number of PRAs sending workers to particular destinations also gives an indication of the
effects of COVID-19. For example, in 2018/19, there were 747 PRAs that had sent workers to Qatar
(MoLESS 2020a). This number went down for the next two years to reach 283 in 2020/21 before
rising to 536 in 2021/22. This was the case for all the six GCC countries and Malaysia with the figures
for Malaysia and Kuwait falling to zero in 2020/21. The decline in the case of emerging destinations
73
does not appear to be too stark. That could be due to small numbers to begin with. The only country
to see an increase in this regard, Romania, is also an emerging destination which saw the number of
PRAs facilitating migration increase from 14 in 2018/19 (ibid) to 53 in 2021/22.
PRAs have been providing services to people from most of the districts despite the fact that only 32
of 860 recruitment agencies have branches outside Kathmandu Valley (Figure 3.11) (DoFE 2021b).
Figure 3.11: Number of Recruitment Agencies (by district covered)
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
<=5 6-15 16-25 26-35 36-45 45+
3.4.2 Individual Labour Approvals

The number of migrant workers opting for individual labour approvals began decreasing in 2012/13,
following a government directive in 2012 regulating the process of obtaining individual labour
approvals as a means of ensuring protection of migrant workers going abroad (MoLESS 2012). The
new regulation barred individual labour approvals for those seeking employment as domestic workers
and instead made it compulsory to use PRAs for such work (Ministry of Labour and Employment
2018). Hence, while 40,986 migrant workers went abroad on an individual basis in 2011/12, only
17,152 did so in 2012/13 (MoLE 2018). Since then, numbers have remained consistent for men
migrant workers while those for women migrant workers have seen a lot of fluctuation year-on-year.
From 7,903 women migrant workers obtaining individual labour approvals in 2013/14, the number
declined to 898 the following year (Figure 3.12).
This huge decline could also have resulted from the government instituting a ‘temporary’ total ban
on migration for domestic work in September 2014, irrespective of destination (McCarthy 2021).
The ban was lifted with the introduction of the Directive on the Management of Sending Domestic
Workers for Foreign Employment, 2015, which had a number of requirements for sending migrants
for domestic work abroad.
From 2013/14 onwards, the number of women getting approvals on an individual basis remained
static in the range of 1000–2000, rising to 5513 only in 2021/22. As mentioned above, a policy change
merging individual and regularisation categories is likely to have contributed to the increase in the
number of individual labour approvals issued in 2021/22.
74
Figure 3.12: New Individual Labour Approvals Issued (by sex)
Men Women
21,227
10,063
9,149
8,806
7,903
7,472
7,341
7,234
7,180
5,513
4,168
2,199
1,810
1,726
1,341
1,301
1,149
898
2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Table 3.10: New Individual Labour Approvals Issued (by country of destination)
2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Poland 1,662 Maldives 1,817 Malta 1,503 Croatia 1,073 Croatia 3,723
Maldives 1,643 Malta 1,150 Qatar 1,106 Maldives 971 UAE 3,081
Qatar 1,038 Qatar 1,149 UAE 1,028 Romania 522 Qatar 3,053
UAE 740 UAE 888 Maldives 828 Japan 444 United 2,666
Kingdom
Malta 466 Kuwait 566 Croatia 639 Poland 424 Maldives 2,657
Czech 379 Japan 399 Japan 597 Turkey 377 Japan 1,860
Republic
Japan 350 Czech 375 Portugal 519 United 248 Poland 1,491
Republic Kingdom
Republic of 347 Republic of 329 Romania 486 Qatar 164 Romania 1,245
Seychelles Seychelles
Germany 290 Oman 322 Turkey 482 UAE 154 Malta 1,229
Kuwait 277 Macau Sar, 269 Kuwait 462 Oman 144 Turkey 758
China
Others 1,714 Others 1,887 Others 2,021 Others 796 Others 4,977
Total 8,906 9,151 9,671 5,317 26,740
Source: Data for 2017/18 and 2018/19 from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020: 124-31; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from
FEIMS.
75
Migrant workers obtaining labour approvals on an individual basis show them headed to a more
diverse range of countries compared to those migrating via PRAs (Table 3.10). In the year 2018/19,
before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, in addition to the GCC countries of Qatar, the UAE,
Oman and Kuwait, prominent destinations for migrant workers with individual labour approvals
included the Maldives, Seychelles, Malta, Japan and the Czech Republic while Croatia, Portugal,
Romania and Turkey also featured prominently. In 2020/21 and 2021/22, countries from Eastern and
Central Europe, Turkey as well as the UK were among the top destinations.
Before the merger of individual and regularisation categories, 18,232 individual labour approvals and
9712 regularisation labour approvals had been issued till 24 May 2022 in 2021/22. Thereafter, in just
less than two months till the end of the fiscal year 2021/22,59 8363 labour approvals were issued in
this category.
3.4.3 Regularisation
Labour approvals provided to migrants who travelled to countries of destination as tourists or students
but wished to return to the same country as migrant workers after getting employment used to be
recorded under the regularisation category. The number of such labour approvals issued declined
in 2019/20 and 2020/21 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 3.13). In May 2022, the
government decided to merge the individual and the regularisation categories. Thus, starting from 24
May 2022, labour approvals previously categorised under regularisation are now counted in the data
for individual labour approvals.
Figure 3.13: Regularised Labour Approvals (by sex)
Men Women
55,285
36,672
34,866
22,699
19,916
18,249
17,265
8,401
7,634
6,527
4,854
3,863
3,209
2,656
2,176
1,443
1,384
1,311
878
480
2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 2018/19 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
59 The Nepali fiscal year ends in mid-July.
76
Table 3.11 illustrates the pattern of regularisation vis-à-vis countries of destination. The highest
numbers are for the GCC countries with the UAE and Qatar at the top in all three reference years.
Another important country under this category includes Afghanistan. Since the Government of
Nepal has conditional restriction for labour migration to Afghanistan via recruitment agencies, most
workers go there through irregular channels. However, labour approvals are being issued to those who
return with a demand letter after working in Afghanistan (Coburn 2016).
Table 3.11: Regularised Labour Approvals (by country of destination)

2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Country of destination % Country of destination % Country of destination %
UAE 53.0 UAE 54.2 UAE 62.9
Qatar 14.3 Afghanistan 17.3 Qatar 13.9
Afghanistan 9.2 Qatar 12.9 USA 3.4
USA 3.0 Oman 1.8 Kuwait 2.3
Malaysia 2.1 Malaysia 1.7 Bahrain 2.0
Oman 2.0 USA 1.5 Malaysia 1.8
Japan 1.8 Japan 1.1 Oman 1.6
Bahrain 1.6 Bahrain 1.1 Afghanistan 1.3
Kuwait 1.3 Egypt 0.7 Saudi Arabia 1.1
China 1.2 United Kingdom 0.7 Japan 1.0
Other countries 10.6 Other countries 7.1 Other countries 8.7
Total % 100 100 100
Total number 8,512 5,334 9,712
3.5 Skills Profile

The skill of migrant workers is an important determinant for better opportunities, higher salaries and
benefits, and stronger bargaining power in the international labour market. In contrast, low levels of
skills are associated with lower pay and vulnerable working conditions (MoLE 2018). The relevance
of skills is not limited to aspirant migrant workers but also to returnees (MoLESS and IOM 2022).
Skilled migrant workers who return to their home country after exposure in countries of destination
can provide impetus to the local economy through the introduction of new skills and even business
models.
The International Standard Classification of Occupations defines skill as ‘the ability to carry out the
tasks and duties of a given job’ (ILO n.d.-a). Education, training and qualifications, also soft skills
like communication, teamwork and other-interpersonal skills are usually used to measure skill levels
(Taylor et al 2012). These skills may be acquired through formal means such as the education system,
vocational training or via informal channels like the labour market where a tremendous amount of on-
the-job learning takes place. Nepal classifies its labour migrant workforce into ‘unskilled’, ‘semi-skilled’,
77
‘skilled’, ‘professional’ and ‘highly skilled’ categories on the basis of the categorisation mentioned in
the demand letter. However, this classification does not align with any international system of skills
classification (MoLE 2018).
Data on the skills profile of Nepali migrant workers shows that the number of unskilled migrant
workers is the highest and has remained so throughout the last decade. That proportion, which was
64 per cent of all the migrant worker population in 2017/18 (MoLESS 2020a) has, however, shown a
downward trend, going down just over half in 2021/22 (Table 3.12). On the other hand, the proportion
of skilled workers increased from 27.8 per cent to 38.3 per cent from 2017/18 to 2021/22. This could
signify an evolution of labour migration from Nepal towards skilled labour markets in countries of
destination. The situation of the highly skilled and professionals did not see much of a change though.
Table 3.12: New Labour Approvals Issued (by skills profile)

Type of skill 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Professional 0.09 0.1 0.06

Highly Skilled 0.01 0.02 0.01
Skilled 32.6 36.4 38.3
Semi - skilled 9.5 7.3 7.4
Unskilled 57.8 56.2 54.2
Total % 100 100 100
Total N 190,393 72,072 348,867
Province-wise disaggregation of skills level shows a higher proportion of unskilled workers from
Madhesh (Table 3.13). Likewise, the proportion of highly skilled and professional categories is the
highest for Bagmati.60
An analysis of the skills profile of migrant workers based on the mode of obtaining labour approvals
shows that a higher proportion of the professionals and the highly skilled obtained individual labour
approvals (Table 3.14). In contrast, labour approvals for skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled categories
were mostly issued through recruitment agencies, with higher levels of skills correlating inversely
to the use of PRAs. This is illustrative of the fact that more migrant workers applying for highly
skilled positions are better equipped to handle the complex recruitment procedures on their own than
migrant workers applying for less skilled jobs. It is also important to note that a comparatively higher
proportion of labour approvals under the regularisation category were issued to unskilled and skilled
workers.
60 A comparison of the Human Development Index (HDI) of the seven provinces shows the HDI for Bagmati is highest with 0.661 and
Madhesh is the lowest at 0.51. Clearly there are stark differences in the instrumentally important Human Development parameters like
Education and Health that are impinging on the opportunities garnered by the population of the respective provinces for labour migration.
78
Table 3.13: New Labour Approvals Issued (by province and skills profile)
Province 1 Madhesh Bagmati Gandaki Lumbini Karnali Sudurpashcim Total
Professional 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
Highly Skilled 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Skilled 33.4 24.4 38.0 39.0 32.3 30.6 38.5 32.6
2019/20 Semi-skilled 9.2 9.0 10.4 10.0 9.6 7.6 8.6 9.5
Unskilled 57.3 66.6 51.4 50.9 57.9 61.8 52.8 57.8
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 46,115 44,118 31,006 24,904 31,192 7,424 5,634 190,393
Professional 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1
Highly Skilled 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Skilled 37.8 27.8 43.8 45.8 36.3 30.9 38.8 36.4
2020/21 Semi-skilled 7.3 5.4 8.7 9.2 7.4 6.9 9.4 7.3
Unskilled 54.9 66.7 47.2 44.9 56.2 62.2 51.6 56.2
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 14,770 20,645 11,412 9,204 11,898 2,564 1,579 72,072
Professional 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.06
Highly Skilled 0.01 0.0 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.0 0.01
Skilled 40.2 30.8 47.0 44.9 37.2 32 40.1 38.3
2021/22 Semi-Skilled 7.6 5.9 8.3 8.5 7.8 7.0 9.5 7.4
Unskilled 52.1 63.2 44.6 46.5 54.9 60.9 50.3 54.2
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 70,623 100,066 54,017 42,537 58,681 13,427 9,516 348,867
79
Table 3.14: Labour Approvals Issued (by mode of obtaining approvals)

Recruitment Total
Year Skill Individual Regularisation
Agency N %
Professional 30.9 16.3 52.8 178 100
Highly skilled 45.0 45.0 10.0 20 100
Skilled 7.2 6.8 86.0 62,152 100
2019/20
Semi-skilled 10.8 8.5 80.7 18,003 100
Unskilled 2.9 2.5 94.6 110,040 100
Total 5.1 4.5 90.4 190,393 100
Professional 48.4 17.2 34.4 93 100
Highly skilled 64.7 35.3 0.0 17 100
Skilled 10.9 12.2 76.9 26,239 100
2020/21
Semi-skilled 18.3 16.8 64.8 5,233 100
Unskilled 3.6 3.0 93.4 40,490 100
Total 7.4 7.4 85.2 72,072 100
Professional 40.3 13.8 45.9 196 100
Highly skilled 55.6 27.8 16.7 36 100
Skilled 13.2 4.7 82.1 133,663 100
2021/22
Semi-skilled 15.7 5.2 79.1 25,845 100
Unskilled 2.6 1.1 96.3 189,127 100
Total 7.7 2.8 89.6 348,867 100
Total 6.8 3.9 89.3 611,332 100
A large proportion of labour approvals for major countries of destination, i.e., GCC countries, are for
unskilled work and this figure remained consistent over the three reference years (Table 3.16). In the
case of Malaysia, in 2019/20, more than half of the labour approvals issued were under the unskilled
category but in 2020/21 (although the total number was only 107 that year) and in 2021/22, more
than half were for skilled workers. Figures for labour approvals to Eastern and Central European
countries, Cyprus, Malta and Turkey, on the other hand, show fluctuations in the skills profile of
migrant workers.
Nepal has also begun receiving demands in certain sectors from new/emerging countries of destination.
For example, after the launch of Seasonal Workers Pilot Scheme by the UK government in March
2019, Nepal has received demands for seasonal migrant workers in the horticulture sector (Wallis
2022). An increasing number of Nepali aspirant migrant workers are moving into hospitality, sales
and service, and driving/machine operation along with the construction sector.
80
Table 3.15: Labour Approvals Issued
(by mode of obtaining approvals and skills profile)
Individual Regularisation Recruitment Agency Renewal
Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total
Professional 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Highly Skilled 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.02 0.02
Skilled 36.0 49.4 46.4 54.1 49.0 49.5 22.4 31.9 31.0 35.4 39.2 38.9
2019/20 Semi-skilled 21.3 19.7 20.0 22.3 17.6 18.1 7.7 8.5 8.4 14.2 10.0 10.2
Unskilled 42.2 30.2 32.9 22.7 33.0 32.0 69.8 59.6 60.5 50.3 50.7 50.7
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 2,199 7,472 9,671 878 7,634 8,512 15,125 157,085 172,210 10,227 167,753 177,980
Professional 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2
Highly Skilled 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.05 0.05
Skilled 40.6 57.4 53.8 63.8 59.7 60.1 32.1 32.9 32.8 46.8 46.7 46.7
2020/21 Semi-skilled 19.1 17.8 18.1 16.5 16.5 16.5 4.7 5.6 5.5 14.0 10.8 10.9
Unskilled 39.3 23.8 27.1 19.6 23.3 23.0 63.2 61.4 61.6 38.9 42.3 42.2
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 1,149 4,168 5,317 480 4,854 5,334 5,549 55,872 61,421 4,278 90,339 94,617
Professional 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.01 0.03 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.2
Highly Skilled 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03 0.03 0.03
Skilled 68.7 65.5 66.2 76.5 62.7 64.6 37.1 34.9 35.1 55.5 56.3 56.3
2021/22 Semi-skilled 14.6 15.3 15.2 12.3 14.0 13.8 5.7 6.6 6.5 11.3 10.1 10.1
Unskilled 16.3 18.8 18.3 10.8 22.9 21.2 57.3 58.4 58.3 33.0 33.4 33.4
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 5,513 21,227 26,740 1,311 8,401 9,712 26,238 286,177 312,415 16,066 265,156 281,222
81
Table 3.16: Labour Approvals Issued (by skills profile and destination)
Fiscal Professional Highly Skilled Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled Total
Destination
Year % % % % % N
GCC countries 0.08 0.004 29.2 9.6 61.2 135,424
Malaysia 0.0 0.0 39.5 7.1 53.4 39,159
Jordan 0.0 0.0 52.4 0.4 47.3 2,374
South Korea 0.0 0.0 68.0 8.0 24.0 50
Japan 0.01 0.002 65.7 25.0 7.4 939
Cyprus 0.0 0.0 9.8 3.0 87.2 1,458
2019/20 Malta 0.0 0.0 22.1 15.7 62.1 1,668
Romania 0.0 0.0 45.8 12.6 41.5 1,930
Turkey 0.0 0.0 18.9 16.6 64.5 1,000
UK 0.0 0.0 57.9 34.2 7.9 38
Poland 0.0 0.0 36.4 36.4 26.1 184
Maldives 0.01 0.001 51.0 26.5 21.3 886
Croatia 0.0 0.0 40.6 37.1 22.3 645
Albania 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 2
Seychelles 0.0 0.0 69.6 17.58 12.09 273
GCC countries 0.03 0.001 33.7 6.2 60.1 61,762
Malaysia 0.0 0.001 56.1 31.8 10.3 107
Jordan 0.0 0.0 87.1 1.0 11.9 930
South Korea 0.0 0.0 93.8 0.0 6.3 16
Japan 0.0 0.001 78.5 17.0 3.6 553
Cyprus 0.0 0.0 10.1 2.9 87.1 1,012
Malta 0.0 0.0 46.9 31.3 21.9 64
2020/21 Romania 0.0 0.0 33.1 16.3 50.6 1,954
Turkey 0.0 0.0 21.3 15.9 62.8 710
UK 0.0 0.0 81.6 8.3 9.8 315
Poland 0.0 0.0 38.2 18.5 43.1 453
Maldives 0.02 0.005 45.6 20.4 30.7 1,007
Croatia 0.0 0.0 62.5 14.7 22.7 1,087
Albania 0.0 0.0 38.9 0.0 61.1 18
Seychelles 0.0 0.0 58.0 28.0 14.0 50
82
Fiscal Professional Highly Skilled Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled Total

Destination
Year % % % % % N
GCC countries 0.08 0.006 35.5 6.9 57.6 290,039
Malaysia 0.0 0.002 53.2 7.0 39.8 26,091
Jordan 0.0 0.0 41.4 0.4 58.1 927
South Korea 0.0 0.0 57.2 11.6 30.1 173
Japan 0.0 0.003 76.4 15.7 7.6 2,478
Cyprus 0.0 0.001 6.2 3.3 90.4 3,222
Malta 0.0 0.001 76.2 7.3 16.3 1,268
2021/22 Romania 0.01 0.0 33.3 8.1 58.4 6,418
Turkey 0.0 0.0 40.7 9.7 49.5 852
UK 0.0 0.0 68.7 18.7 12.6 2,808
Poland 0.0 0.0 65.1 11.9 22.7 1,502
Maldives 0.03 0.006 57.9 28.2 12.1 2,735
Croatia 0.0 0.0 61.7 9.1 29.2 5,206
Albania 0.0 0.0 47.7 4.5 47.7 199
Seychelles 0.0 0.001 68.0 19.7 12.1 594
3.6 Occupation
This section presents the occupational profile of migrant workers in countries of destination for
2021/22. Although FEIMS does not follow any standard classification system while recording the
occupation of migrant workers,61 since the Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020 had reclassified the
occupation data for 2018/19, in order to allow comparability, this successor report also follows the
same system and divides the data on occupation into 12 broad categories (Table 3.17).62
The majority of Nepali migrant workers, both men and women, were working in elementary
occupations in 2021/22, with a higher share of men working as labourers and women in cleaning
and laundry (Table 3.18 and Annex 13). The occupational profile of Nepali migrant workers has
remained similar to that of 2018/19, when 54.8 per cent of the migrant workers were in elementary
occupations with nearly half the women (48.3 per cent) engaged in cleaning and laundry, and 12 per
cent as caregivers, au pairs or nursing aides (MoLESS 2020a). Men, on the other hand, were engaged
in a higher diversity of jobs.
61 National surveys such as the Nepal Labour Force Survey 2017/18 uses the Nepal Standard Industrial Classification (NSIC). There are also
international standards such as the ILO’s International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISC), which classifies jobs into a clearly
defined set of groups.
62 Please note that the categorisation of occupations is susceptible to inaccuracies due to imperfect correspondence with the standard categories
and due to the manual data entry in the FEIMS.
83
Table 3.17: Classification of Occupational Categories

1 Agriculture
2 Aviation and cruise worker
3 Construction
(carpenter, mason, painter, scaffolder, steel fixer, others)
4 Driver/Machine operator
5 Electrical and mechanical technician
(A/C technician, automotive technician, electrician, plumber/pipe fitter, welder, others)
6 Elementary occupations
(Cleaning and laundry, packaging/loading/shipping/delivery, unspecified labour, specified labour)
7 Manufacturing
8 Office/Administrative/Associate professionals
9 Others
10 Professionals and Managers
11 Service & Sales
(baker/dessert maker, barista/coffee maker, beautician & fitness worker, caregiver/au pair/nursing
aide, housekeeper, security guard, tailor, waiter/waitress, retail worker, others)
12 Supervisor and Foreman
Source: MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020.
As with skill levels, the mode of obtaining labour approvals varied based on the occupational profile of
migrant workers. Workers who got their approvals under the individual and regularisation categories
were engaged in a variety of occupations, including those requiring higher skills, compared to those
going via PRAs. Hence, workers migrating for occupations such as office, administrative or associate
professionals, and professionals and managers, were much more likely to have obtained their labour
approvals individually or through the regularisation process. Concurrently, a higher share of migrant
workers who got their approvals through PRAs went for elementary jobs.
Destination-wise disaggregation of the occupational profile of migrant workers shows variation in their
job types. Most migrant workers in Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait were engaged as labourers, and
in the cleaning and laundry sectors. In contrast, those going to Malaysia were primarily concentrated
in the manufacturing sector. In the emerging destinations like Cyprus, Romania, Croatia and Turkey,
a higher proportion of migrant workers were engaged in elementary occupations as in the GCC
countries, followed by the sales and service sectors. It is also noteworthy that compared to other
destinations, a higher percentage of migrant workers were employed in agriculture, fishery, poultry,
animal husbandry and gardening sectors in the emerging countries of destination.
84
Table 3.18: New Labour Approvals Issued (2021/22)

(by sex, mode of obtaining approval and occupation)
Recruitment Agency Individual Regularisation Total
M W T M W T M W T M W T
Agriculture, Fishery, 1.5 0.8 1.5 6.2 7.4 6.5 0.6 0.0 0.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
Poultry, Animal and
Gardener
Aviation and Cruise 0.6 0.9 0.6 3.1 1.2 2.7 2.0 1.3 1.9 0.8 1.0 0.8
Construction 6.1 0.0 5.6 5.9 0.3 4.7 3.9 0.0 3.4 6.1 0.1 5.5
Driver/Machine 8.4 0.3 7.7 3.4 1.1 2.9 5.3 0.6 4.7 8.0 0.4 7.2
Operator
Electrical and 3.0 0.1 2.7 3.8 0.8 3.2 2.9 0.0 2.5 3.0 0.2 2.8
Mechanical Technician
Elementary 59.1 64.0 59.5 37.6 32.7 36.6 29.8 27.2 29.4 56.9 57.3 56.9
Occupations
Manufacturing 9.4 6.7 9.2 4.3 2.4 3.9 1.7 0.2 1.5 8.9 5.7 8.6
Office/Administrative/ 1.6 3.9 1.8 5.9 12.3 7.2 10.6 24.7 12.5 2.1 6.1 2.5
Associate Professionals
Professionals and 0.1 0.2 0.1 2.9 4.0 3.1 3.3 5.1 3.6 0.4 1.0 0.4
Managers
Service & Sales 9.8 22.7 10.8 24.5 36.6 27.0 37.6 37.6 37.6 11.5 25.6 12.8
Supervisor and 0.3 0.3 0.3 2.0 0.9 1.8 1.8 2.6 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.5
Foreman
Others 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total Number 286,177 26,238 312,415 21,227 5,513 26,740 8,401 1,311 9,712 315,805 33,062 348,867
Note: See Annex 13 for disaggregated data on occupation.
Most of the top five countries of destination for some occupational categories for 2021/22 were the
same as in 2018/19 (Table 3.20). In 2021/22, most migrant workers in manufacturing and agricultural
occupations were in Malaysia. Japan was the destination with the highest number of professionals in
2021/22, as it was in 2018/19, and it also replaced Cyprus for taking in more caregivers and nursing
aides in 2021/22.
85

(by country of destination and occupation)
Saudi
Qatar UAE Malaysia Kuwait Cyprus Romania Croatia Turkey UK Others
Arabia
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry, Animal
0.7 0.8 1.6 5.1 1.3 3.6 3.7 6.6 2.7 20.7 3.8
and Gardener
Aviation and Cruise 0.5 0.1 2.3 0.3 0.9 0.0 0.5 0.5 2.8 0.8 2.2
Construction 10.8 3.8 4.7 0.0 2.5 0.03 4.9 18.6 0.2 0.04 6.5
Driver/Machine Operator 7.6 11.9 4.2 1.9 4.4 0.0 0.3 2.7 4.5 0.04 2.4
Electrical and Mechanical
7.4 1.6 1.1 0.07 0.6 0.03 2.2 5.8 0.0 0.6 2.7
Technician
Elementary Occupations 57.0 68.9 55.9 14.9 57.8 85.7 59.7 35.2 34.4 56.3 43.0
Manufacturing 0.05 7.7 0.8 66.6 1.5 0.0 4.5 12.5 19.9 2.1 3.5
Office/Administrative/
5.1 0.1 4.8 0.4 3.0 0.03 2.7 0.7 5.9 0.6 3.7
Others 0.01 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.04 0.5 0.04 0.4
Professionals and Managers 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.03 0.02 0.2 5.0 1.6 3.0
Service & Sales 9.2 4.6 23.3 10.5 27.4 10.6 21.2 17.0 23.9 16.9 28.1
Supervisor and Foreman 1.5 0.04 0.4 0.05 0.06 0 0.03 0.06 0.1 0.4 0.7
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 76,823 125,368 53,844 26,091 22,786 3,222 6,418 5,206 852 2,808 25,449
Note: See Annex 14 and 15 for disaggregated data on country of destination and occupation.
3.7 Labour Migration to South Korea via EPS

Labour migration to South Korea takes place under a different institutional arrangement, a
government-to-government (G2G) programme called the Employment Permit System (EPS).63
Every year, South Korea announces an annual employment quota under the EPS programme for
workers from 15 countries, including Nepal, to work in agriculture and manufacturing. For Nepal, the
annual quota has remained in the range of 5,000–10,000. Potential migrant workers need to pass the
Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK), a Korean language test for non-native speakers, in order to
be eligible for the EPS scheme (Rai et al 2019). Since 2020, potential migrant workers have also been
required to pass a skills test.
63 Migration to South Korea under the EPS is guided by the Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Labour and Transport
Management, Government of Nepal and the Ministry of Labour of the Republic of Korea on the Sending of Workers to the Republic of
Korea under the Employment Permit System. The EPS data is recorded separately and not included in the general DoFE data on labour
approvals issued. The information is also recorded according to calendar year unlike the DoFE data, which is based on fiscal years.
86

(by top five destinations and occupation)
Agriculture Aviation and Cruise Carpenter Construction - Others
Malaysia 1,335 UAE 1,220 Qatar 2,360 Kuwait 30
Saudi Arabia 1,037 Qatar 416 Saudi Arabia 1,198 Croatia 17
UAE 882 Kuwait 212 UAE 608 UAE 12
UK 581 Saudi Arabia 152 Croatia 302 Saudi Arabia 8
Qatar 516 Malta 95 Kuwait 225 Poland 6
Total 6,335 Total 2,761 Total 5,042 Total 80
Mason Painting Scaffolding Steel fixture
Qatar 3,976 Qatar 968 Saudi Arabia 1,713 Qatar 1,017
Saudi Arabia 900 Saudi Arabia 434 Bahrain 666 Saudi Arabia 537
UAE 874 UAE 182 UAE 445 UAE 397
Croatia 365 Romania 59 Japan 126 Croatia 257
Romania 104 Kuwait 33 Kuwait 122 Kuwait 105
Total 6,614 Total 1,777 Total 3,245 Total 2,380
Driver Machine Operator A/C Technician Automotive Technicians
Saudi Arabia 12,848 Saudi Arabia 2,067 Qatar 385 Saudi Arabia 434
Qatar 5,359 Malaysia 495 UAE 42 UAE 31
UAE 2,039 Qatar 458 Saudi Arabia 19 Oman 24
Kuwait 994 UAE 209 Bahrain 3 Kuwait 15
Bahrain 137 Oman 117 Romania 3 Poland 10
Total 21,530 Total 3,756 Total 460 Total 541
Electrician Electro/Mechanical Other Plumbing/Pipe fitter Welding
Qatar 1,490 Saudi Arabia 276 Qatar 3,155 Qatar 388
Saudi Arabia 515 Qatar 247 Saudi Arabia 550 Saudi Arabia 267
UAE 233 Poland 169 UAE 92 Croatia 155
Poland 99 UAE 125 Romania 26 UAE 56
Kuwait 52 Croatia 106 Malta 21 Romania 50
Cleaning and Laundry Packaging, Loading & Manufacturing Office/Administrative/
Shipping Associate Professionals
UAE 21,680 Saudi Arabia 3,219 Malaysia 17,372 Qatar 3,900
Qatar 8,419 UAE 940 Saudi Arabia 9,641 UAE 2,587
Kuwait 7,445 Kuwait 520 Croatia 649 Kuwait 689
Saudi Arabia 3,173 Croatia 290 Jordan 575 Bahrain 286
87
Bahrain 1,800 Poland 284 UAE 452 Japan 193

Managers Professionals Baker/Dessert maker Barista/Coffee maker
UAE 201 Japan 227 Saudi Arabia 213 Saudi Arabia 1,105
Saudi Arabia 86 USA 135 Croatia 182 UAE 170
Papua New 59 Maldives 111 UAE 123 Kuwait 114
Guinea
Qatar 49 UAE 92 Qatar 122 Maldives 66
Japan 29 Saudi Arabia 56 Romania 64 Mauritius 56
Total 574 Total 878 Total 856 Total 1,699
Beauty & Fitness Caregiver/Au pair/ Chef/Cook Hospitality (Others)
Nursing aide
UAE 555 Japan 261 Saudi Arabia 1,468 UAE 421
Kuwait 468 UK 214 UAE 1,063 Saudi Arabia 297
Qatar 225 Cyprus 143 Kuwait 906 Qatar 240
Oman 140 Saudi Arabia 110 Qatar 904 Kuwait 184
Bahrain 135 UAE 108 Japan 826 Oman 87
Housekeeping Retail Security Tailor
Romania 372 UAE 1,978 UAE 5,615 Saudi Arabia 345
Croatia 314 Qatar 1,267 Malaysia 2,414 Qatar 227
UAE 252 Kuwait 294 Qatar 2,395 UAE 104
Jordan 251 Saudi Arabia 190 Kuwait 1,670 Croatia 56
Kuwait 157 Maldives 98 Bahrain 761 Kuwait 40
Total 1,777 Total 4,078 Total 14,089 Total 828
Waiter/Waitress Foreman Supervisor Others
Kuwait 2,238 Qatar 564 Qatar 628 Saudi Arabia 272
UAE 2,152 Bahrain 7 UAE 223 UAE 217
Saudi Arabia 1,869 UAE 4 Saudi Arabia 42 Kuwait 69
Qatar 1,593 Saudi Arabia 3 Oman 24 Japan 29
Oman 360 Kuwait 1 Maldives 24 Romania 12
Total 9,629 Total 584 Total 1,110 Total 687
88
Figure 3.14: Applicants and Attendees for EPS-TOPIK
Total Applicants Total Attendees in Exam
92,356
84,308
82,235
75,580
74,862
68,383
62,223
60,626
58,746
57,120
51,137
50,043
50,043
47,690
44,833
44,122
43,459
37,218
36,203
36,203
31,525
31,525
2008 2010 2011 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022
Note: Note: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the EPS-TOPIK test was not conducted in 2020 and 2021. Also, there was no test taken
in 2009 and 2012.
Source: EPS Section, DoFE, 2022.
South Korea has emerged as a favoured labour destination as a result of the higher salary on offer
there (Baniya et al 2022a). The proliferation of Korean language institutes in Kathmandu Valley as
well as the increase in the number of Nepalis applying for TOPIK exams also attests to its popularity
as a destination. In 2008, there were 31,525 applicants for TOPIK, a figure that had trebled to 92,356
in 2019 (Figure 3.14). Simultaneously, the number of applicants who successfully pass the TOPIK
exam is significantly lower than the number of test takers (Figure 3.15). Between 2019 and 2022, of
those who passed the TOPIK exam and applied for jobs in South Korea, 21,212 went to South Korea
(Figure 3.16).
The occupation of Nepalis going under the EPS programme are broadly recorded under two sectors:
agriculture and manufacturing. Hence, the data only shows Nepalis engaged in one of these two
sectors and does not provide a more detailed breakdown of their engagement. Accordingly, the data
shows that more Nepalis are working in the manufacturing sector in South Korea (Table 3.21).
89
Figure 3.15: Number of Successful Applicants in EPS-TOPIK (by sex)
Total Men Women
18,844
17,040
15,678
14,080
12,108
10,910
8,490
8,051
7,996
7,789
7,336
7,002
6,908
6,786
6,406
5,857
4,180
3,734
3,663
3,517
3,463
3,183
1,804
1,598
1,198
1,051
994
715
701
446
380
334
200
2008 2010 2011 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022
Note: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, EPS-TOPIK test was not conducted in 2020 and 2021. Also, there was no test in 2009 and 2012.
Figure 3.16: Migrants in South Korea under EPS (2008 to 15 November, 2022) (by sex)
Total Men Women
12,736
11,356
8,511
8,107
8,079
7,800
7,501
7,424
7,104
6,641
6,332
6,028
5,937
5,866
5,587
5,460
5,046
4,863
3,983
3,846
2,814
2,733
2,339
1,917
1,911
1,847
1,380
1,021
953
463
578
351
326
441
422
406
404
395
376
183
137
68
25
81
64
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Note: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, EPS-TOPIK test was not conducted in 2020 and 2021. Also, there was no test in 2009 and 2012.
Workers who went to South Korea in those years, including 2022 were recruited from among those who applied for jobs and were
listed in the employment roster. The data for 2022 is up to 15 November 2022. The government of South Korean has announced that
language and skill tests for 2022 will be conducted in phases between May and October 2022.
90
Table 3.21: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers in South Korea (by sector)
Agriculture Manufacturing
Men Women Total Men Women Total
2019 1,497 284 1,781 3,568 92 3,660
2020 172 36 208 525 17 542
Regular Workers 2021 58 15 73 80 1 81
2022 2,390 995 3,385 5,382 184 5,566
Total 4,117 1,330 5,447 9,555 294 9,849
2019 212 40 252 1364 47 1411
2020 9 11 20 247 4 251
Committed
2021 65 9 74 123 0 123
Workers*
2022 1,088 129 1,217 2,496 72 2,568
Total 1,374 189 1,563 4,230 123 4,353
2019 5,205 324 2,033 4,932 139 5,071
2020 181 47 228 772 21 793
Grand Total 2021 123 24 147 203 1 204
2022 3,478 1,124 4,602 7,878 256 8,134
Total 7,595 1,519 7,010 13,785 417 14,202
* Foreign workers who work in South Korea for four years and 10 months (the maximum period allowed per stint under EPS)
without changing their workplace and return to their home country are allowed to return to South Korea for employment three
months after their departure from South Korea as ‘committed workers’.
3.8 Returnees
The issue of returnee migrant workers and their reintegration has been receiving increased attention,
particularly because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The repatriation of a large number of migrant
workers during the pandemic spurred the discussion further, particularly with regard to utilising
their skills in Nepal. The Nepal Labour Force Survey (NLFS) 2017/18 was the first instance of the
Government of Nepal collecting data on returnee migrants. Starting September 2020, when it was
integrated with Nepali Port managed by the Department of Immigration under the Ministry of
Home Affairs, FEIMS started recording returning migrants as well.
After many expatriate Nepali workers were stranded abroad due to the COVID-19 lockdowns,
the COVID-19 Crisis Management Coordination Centre (CCMCC)64 began repatriating Nepali
citizens, beginning with a first batch of 26 Nepalis from Yangon in Myanmar on 5 June 2020. By
January 2021, 235,907 Nepali citizens from 86 countries had returned to Nepal via rescue flights
64 This body was initially known as the COVID-19 Crisis Management Centre, or CCMC.
91
according to the CCMCC (CCMC 2021).65 This section presents this data captured in the FEIMS
(starting in September 2020).66
The number of migrant workers who returned through the Tribhuvan International Airport was
203,934 in 2020/21 and 470,978 in 2021/22 (Figure 3.17). As restrictions on mobility due to the
COVID-19 pandemic were in place in 2020/21, fewer migrant workers returned that year. However,
as the restrictions were gradually lifted in Nepal as well as in the countries of destination, there was
a drastic jump in returnees. Also, as the figure for 2020/21 includes data only from September 2020,
migrant workers who returned prior to that period are not included although that number is likely
to be small given the then constraints on international travel and also because only a few weeks’ data
would have been missing given that Nepal’s fiscal year begins in mid-July. As with the number of
labour approvals issued, men returnees vastly outnumbered women, comprising 94.2 per cent and 93.3
per cent, respectively, in 2020/21 and 2021/22.67
Figure 3.17: Returnee Migrant Workers (by sex)
2020/21 2021/22
439,689
192,157
31,289
11,777
MEN WOMEN
The GCC countries and Malaysia accounted for the highest number of returnees in 2020/21 and
2021/22, which is to be expected since most Nepali migrant workers go to those countries (Figure
65 It is important to note that this number doesn’t represent the total number of returnees but only indicates the number of migrant workers
whose repatriation was assisted by the CCMCC.
66 Reintegration of returnee migrant workers is dealt with in a separate section below.
67 However, this figure needs to be considered with caution. As with the case of labour approvals, these returnee migrants are those who have
migrated after receiving labour approval from DoFE since there record-keeping is based on their approvals. Hence, the figure does not
incorporate those migrant workers who migrated through irregular channels.
92
Figure 3.18: Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22)

185,476
160,218
151,932
95,054
25,256
14,999
11,451
7,896
6,033
3,683
2,983
2,886
2,462
2,317
2,266
Note: Please look at Annex 16 for gender disaggregated data on this.
Figure 3.19: Women Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22)

18,741
5,382
3,675
2,465
2,336
2,127
1,501
955
920
883
856
654
529
486
464
281
212
206
197
196
3.18).68 Sex-disaggregated data corresponds to the destination for which labour approvals were issued.
The UAE features as the primary destination from which women migrant workers returned while a
significant number of women compared to men returned from countries like Jordan, Cyprus, East and
Central European countries and other Asian countries.
Disaggregated by province, Madhesh had the highest number of returnee migrant workers in 2020/21
68 The Nepali port records the destination as the last destination they are returning from (not including the transit during the return flight).
In some cases, the labour approvals issued and the individual country from where he/she returns does not match.
93
and 2021/22, and they were almost all men (Figure 3.20). Women returnees were predominantly from
Bagmati and Province 1. Again, there were clear parallels between the issuance of labour approvals
and returnees in province-level data. Details of returnee migrant workers for 77 districts are presented
in Annex 17.
Figure 3.20: Distribution of Returnees (2020/21–2021/22) (by province)
Men Women
163,949
135,037
114,585
104,338
80,863
18,306
16,831
16,243
13,204
4,437
4,081
1,976
567
495
PROVINCE 1 MADHESH BAGMATI GANDAKI LUMBINI KARNALI SUDURPASCHIM
Despite the start of recording of the returning migrants, we are yet to have a clear understanding
about social and economic remittances, their migration history and circumstances of return, their
socio-economic characteristics, their future and expectations, and their contact details etc. It poses
challenges for evidence-based policies and strategies related to their integration and utilisation of
their remittances in Nepal. Nevertheless, the three tiers of governments and other stakeholders
working on issues of safe migration and reintegration of migrants and their families can benefit to
formulate and implement evidence-based policies and programmes as per the data presented in this
section about the returnees of different provinces and districts. Likewise, data showing significant
number of women returnees even from the countries where the migration for domestic work is not
permitted (Table 3.19) indicates policy gaps and associated challenges concerning irregular migration
and precarity of their employment and rights as well as need for regularisation and ensuring regular
pathways in the future.
3.9 Stock of Migrant Workers

According to the 2011 census, there were 7.3 per cent of Nepalis living abroad (CBS 2012a), a
significantly higher proportion than the 3.2 per cent in the 2001 census (CBS 2002). The preliminary
data from the 2021 census suggests that proportion to be similar at 7.4 per cent, or 2.1 million (CBS
2021). Although the percentage of Nepalis living abroad has remained constant through the decade,
there has been a noticeable increase in the proportion of women in this population (Figure 3.21). In
94
Table 3.22: Returnee Migrant Workers (2020/21–2021/22)

(by province and country of destination)
Destination Men Women Total
Qatar 36,766 2,125 38,891
UAE 33,475 5,211 38,686
Saudi Arabia 31,975 464 32,439
Malaysia 19,235 804 20,039
Kuwait 4,661 1,354 6,015
Bahrain 3,245 327 3,572
Province 1
Oman 1,260 316 1,576
Jordan 71 776 847
Maldives 565 256 821
Cyprus 75 702 777
Others 3,709 869 4,578
Total 135,037 13,204 148,241
Qatar 64,742 274 65,016
Saudi Arabia 40,091 87 40,178
Malaysia 32,378 129 32,507
UAE 18,832 901 19,733
Kuwait 4,781 151 4,932
Bahrain 1,126 43 1,169
Madhesh
Oman 754 40 794
Jordan 161 114 275
Maldives 220 37 257
Romania 104 7 111
Others 760 193 953
Total 163,949 1,976 165,925
UAE 24,301 8,381 32,682
Saudi Arabia 18,062 579 18,641
Qatar 15,947 1,956 17,903
Malaysia 10,434 968 11,402
Kuwait 3,089 1,268 4,357
Bahrain 1,409 328 1,737
Bagmati
Japan 1,203 92 1,295
Oman 965 282 1,247
Jordan 74 1,162 1,236
Cyprus 109 941 1,050
Others 5,270 2,349 7,619
Total 80,863 18,306 99,169
95

UAE 29,759 1,902 31,661
Qatar 25,043 463 25,506
Saudi Arabia 25,082 95 25,177
Malaysia 6,862 153 7,015
Kuwait 3,948 322 4,270
Japan 2,638 68 2,706
Gandaki
Bahrain 2,588 117 2,705
Oman 1,974 127 2,101
Afghanistan 1,098 2 1,100
Maldives 773 141 914
Other 4,573 1,047 5,620
Total 104,338 4,437 108,775
Qatar 31,406 449 31,855
UAE 27,218 1,865 29,083
Saudi Arabia 27,748 221 27,969
Malaysia 15,257 189 15,446
Kuwait 3,949 446 4,395
Oman 1,731 136 1,867
Lumbini
Bahrain 1,735 60 1,795
Japan 1,564 22 1,586
Poland 566 16 582
Maldives 447 86 533
Others 2,964 591 3,555
Total 114,585 4,081 118,666
Malaysia 4,721 49 4,770
Saudi Arabia 4,102 47 4,149
Qatar 3,535 66 3,601
UAE 3,005 219 3,224
Kuwait 655 90 745
Bahrain 254 1 255
Karnali
Oman 137 13 150
Afghanistan 69 69
Maldives 49 10 59
Romania 53 3 56
Others 251 69 320
Total 16,831 567 17,398
96

UAE 4,887 262 5,149
Malaysia 3,831 44 3,875
Saudi Arabia 3,371 8 3,379
Qatar 2,655 49 2,704
Kuwait 498 44 542
Bahrain 211 7 218
Sudurpashcim Oman 155 6 161
Romania 114 4 118
Maldives 87 9 96
Japan 75 1 76
Others 359 61 420
Total 16,243 495 16,738
Grand Total 631,846 43,066 674,912
absolute terms, that means an increase from 237,400 in 2011 to 406,103 in 2021. This follows the
worldwide trend in which an increasing number of women have been migrating for work in what is
being termed as the ‘feminisation of migration’ (Caritas Internationalis 2012).
Figure 3.21: Percentage Change in Absentee Population

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2011 2021
Men Women
Source: National Statistics Office, 2022.69

Other than the census data, the recording of data on the stock of migrants and the returnee population
is in the developmental phase (such as FEIMS and Nepali Port) (MoLESS 2020a). The most
69 National Statistics Office was previously known as Central Bureau of Statistic and functioned under the National Planning Commission.
The Bureau was shifted under the Office of the Prime Minister & Council of Ministers in 2022 and renamed as National Statistics Office.
97
comprehensive data available is of labour approvals issued by DoFE, as presented in previous sections.
The databases maintained by the governments of countries of destination could prove to be a more
reliable and complete measure of the stock of Nepali workers abroad.70 One good example is Japan,
where the data on Nepali residents is up to date and available online.
Table 3.23: Number of Mid- to Long-term Nepali Residents in Japan

(by residence status)
Status of Residence 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Engineer/Specialist in Humanities/
2,046 3,278 5,426 8,541 12,203 15,581
International Services
Business manager 865 1,133 1,392 1,531 1,588 1,708
Skilled labour 10,134 12,480 12,706 12,547 12,679 12,524
Specified skilled worker 0 0 0 0 18 135
Designated activities 3,223 4,171 5,005 4,078 2,839 2,932
Technical intern trainee 0 90 81 133 189 118
Student 20,278 22,967 27,101 28,987 29,417 23,116
Source: Immigration Service Agency of Japan, Outline of Japan’s Immigration Control and Residency Management System: Data
Section (Tokyo: Immigration Service Agency of Japan, 2020). Available at: http://www.moj.go.jp/isa/content/001335873.pdf;
Immigration Service Agency of Japan, Outline of Japan’s Immigration Control and Residency Management System: Data Section
(Tokyo: Immigration Service Agency of Japan, 2021). Available at: https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/policies/policies/03_00015.html.
3.10 Labour Migration from a Regional Perspective

Migration is a cross-border and international phenomenon with implications extending beyond
national boundaries (Dhungana and Baniya 2022). A myopic view of labour migration provides an
incomplete and sometimes misleading perspective on the true dynamic of labour migration. At the
same time, addressing problems of migrant workers and protecting their rights requires bilateral,
regional and global collaboration, as illustrated by the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Improved labour
migration governance and overall welfare of migrant workers require working together at all levels
(MFA n.d.-a). Besides the advantage of collective action mechanisms, such cooperation can also
showcase trends and developments in migration. This fact becomes all the more prominent since the
GCC countries and Malaysia are among the prominent destination for South Asian migrants.71
This section portrays how labour migration and skills of migrant workers from Nepal compares with
the rest of the region and also neighbouring Southeast Asia for the two years 2019 and 2020.
70 There are challenges in obtaining migrant workers statistics from the countries of destinations. First, many countries do not keep foreign
workers’ statistics and in some cases that do have some data, for example, in case of Cyprus, the data are not disaggregated by country of
origin or are outdated. Second, language barrier also creates difficulty in navigating their online resources. On the other hand, such data
could be more accurate since it would also have captured irregular migrants as well.
71 Only Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have been taken into consideration since the other three countries in South Asia,
Afghanistan, Bhutan and the Maldives either do not export labour or do not have any data on the same.
98
Pakistan has the largest outflow of migrants to GCC countries and Nepal the smallest (Table 3.24). The
data from Labour Migration Outflow Database of United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific also shows the devastating impact of COVID-19 on migrant workers. There
was a stark 68.5 per cent drop in the outflow of migrant workers between 2019 and 2020.
Table 3.24: Migrant Workers in GCC Countries from South Asia (2019 and 2020)
Origin Country of Destination
Year Total
Country Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia UAE
2019 India 9,997 45,712 28,392 31,810 161,103 76,112 353,126
Bangladesh 133 12,299 72,654 50,292 399,000 3,318 537,696
Nepal 3,305 8,973 1,995 29,835 39,279 52,046 135,433
Pakistan 8,189 126 28,404 19,371 332,764 211,270 600,124
Sri Lanka 3,017 43,073 9,016 40,783 35,415 32,860 164,164
1,790,543
2020 India 4,175 8,107 7,206 8,907 44,316 17,891 90,602
Bangladesh 3 1,744 21,071 3,608 161,726 1,082 189,234
Nepal 1,202 1 767 7,247 9,061 8,702 26,980
Pakistan 7,843 419 10,348 7,422 136,736 53,676 216,444
Sri Lanka 1,050 8,040 2,723 9,689 9,407 10,714 41,623
564,883
Source: ‘Labour Migration Outflow Database,’ Situation Report: International Migration in South and South-West Asia, accessed 26
May 2022, https://sitreport.unescapsdd.org/labour-migration-outflow.
COVID-19 had a debilitating effect on the outflow of South Asian migrant workers to Malaysia.
There was a steep drop in the outflow of migrant workers to Malaysia from all the countries, and
particularly for Nepal—from 39,167 in 2019 to 9 in 2020 (Figure 3.22) (UN n.d.).
The Immigration Service Agency of Japan annual report on foreign residents in Japan shows that
Nepal followed Vietnam and Philippines as the top three developing Asian countries from where
migrants originated, making up 3.3 per cent of the total migrant stock in the country in 2019
(Immigration Services Agency of Japan n.d.).72 China has the highest migrant stock with 813,675.
There was a considerable number of workers from other South Asian countries as well.73 It should
72 This report has not included China, which actually has the highest migrant stock in Japan.
73 Mid- to long-term residents refer to ‘foreign nationals who do not come under any of the following items (i) Persons granted permission to
stay for three months or less, (ii) Persons granted the status of residence of ‘Temporary Visitor’, (iii) Persons granted the status of residence
of ‘Diplomat’ or ‘Official’, (iv) Persons recognized by the Ordinance of the Ministry of Justice as equivalent to the foreign nationals
mentioned above (i) to (iii) (specifically, the staff of the Japanese office of the Association of Taiwan-Japan Relations (Taipei Economic and
Cultural Representative Office in Japan, etc.) and the Permanent General Mission of Palestine in Japan who have the status of residence
of ‘Designated Activities’, and their families), (v) Special permanent residents and (vi) Persons with no status of residence’; Immigration
99
Figure 3.22: Outflow of Migrant Workers from South Asia to Malaysia

2019 2020
64,968
39,167
11,327
10,633
5,392
3,296
2,435
2,301
545
522
125
9
NEPAL INDIA BANGLADESH PAKISTAN SRI LANKA TOTAL
Source: ‘Labour Migration Outflow Database,’ Situation Report: International Migration in South and South-West Asia, accessed 26
May 2022, https://sitreport.unescapsdd.org/labour-migration-outflow .
be noted though that this data covers all migrants in Japan, including migrant workers, students and
those on family stay visas.
Figure 3.23: Total Migrant Stock in Japan in 2019, by Nationality and Sex
Total Men Women

411,968
282,798
233,419
197,074
178,549
96,824
85,724
66,860
56,055
45,519
40,769
40,202
32,049
27,367
27,379
21,341
19,888
17,766
17,069
16,632
15,020
14,980
13,016
12,823
11,389
7,708
7,479
7,312
5,243
4,750
2,965
1,560
1,405
PAKISTAN
PHILIPPINES
SRI LANKA
VIETNAM
MYANMAR
NEPAL
BANGLADESH
CAMBODIA
INDIA
LAOS
INDONESIA
Source: Immigration Services Agency of Japan
Service Agency of Japan, Outline of Japan’s Immigration Control and Residency Management System: Data Section (Tokyo: Immigration
Service Agency of Japan, 2021). Available at: https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/policies/policies/03_00015.html.
100
Table 3.25: Mid- to Long-term Residents in Japan in 2020, by Status of Residence

Origin Country
Bangladesh
Philippines
Myanmar
Sri Lanka
Vietnam
Pakistan
Taiwan
Status of Residence
Nepal
India
Highly Professional - - - 842 - 435 516 - -
Business manager 1,708 362 1374 387 1,427 640 787 - -
Engineer/Specialist in
Humanities/International 15,581 - - 8,924 6,233 61,181 13,654 5,767 8,256
Services
Skilled labour 12,524 323 253 5592 217 692 - - 668
Specified skilled worker 135 - - - 63 9,412 - 674 1,059
Technical intern trainee 118 - - - 240 41,564 - 3,456 4,818
Student 23,116 3,341 - - 5,578 65,653 6,206 4,371 -
Source: Immigration Service Agency of Japan, Outline of Japan’s Immigration Control and Residency Management System: Data
Section (Tokyo: Immigration Service Agency of Japan, 2021). Available at: https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/policies/policies/03_00015.
html.
The UK has emerged as an important destination for migrant workers from South Asian and Southeast
Asian countries in the last few years. UK data on visa issuance also highlights the increase in the
number of visas issued for temporary and skilled workers in 2021 and the first quarter of 2022 (Table
3.26). In terms of temporary workers, Nepal ranks second to India among the South Asian countries
on the number of visas issued in recent years.
Table 3.26: Skilled Worker and Temporary Workers Visa Issued by the UK
Country of Skilled Worker Temporary Worker
Origin 2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
India 29,552 14,917 30,512 12,758 2,675 1,524 2,033 524
Philippines 5,176 3,651 6,455 308 167 62 84 56
Pakistan 1,226 1,058 1,850 2,217 666 367 387 33
Sri Lanka 329 199 483 585 308 149 297 126
Bangladesh 188 169 349 138 54 21 17 6
Indonesia 116 76 151 44 58 34 29 11
Nepal 90 138 470 224 120 30 559 415
Vietnam 83 43 100 27 42 17 14 3
Note: Data for 2022 includes statistics for the first quarter only.
Source: Statistical Data Set: Managed Migration Datasets,’ GOV.UK, accessed 2 August 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/
statistical-data-sets/managed-migration-datasets#sponsorship.
101
102
Aspirant migrant workers receiving training in carpentary.

Chapter 4:
THEMATIC EXPLORATION
103
104
Hon’ble Minister Sher Bahadur Kunwar hearing grievances of migrant workers at the call centre established at the Ministry of
Labour, Employment and Social Security.
Chapter 4: Thematic Exploration
This chapter covers seven thematic areas related to labour migration and foreign employment: i) current
situation and practices of fair and ethical recruitment in Nepal, including implementation status of the
‘free-visa, free-ticket’ policy; ii) health and safety of migrant workers; iii) migrant workers’ access to
justice in Nepal; iv) remittance inflow into the country; v) reintegration of returnee migrant workers;
vi) skills profile of migrant workers and skills testing and certification; and vii) labour migration from
Nepal to India.
4.1 Fair and Ethical Recruitment

With regard to enhancing fair and ethical recruitment for Nepalis, the government of Nepal has
initiated and implemented several policy provisions. The Foreign Employment Act (FEA), 2007
has several provisions relating to fair and ethical recruitment of migrant workers. This includes the
requirements to submit contracts concluded between the employer and the worker, and between the
recruitment agency and worker to the Department of Foreign Employment (Government of Nepal
2007a, s. 25). It also has provisions for protecting workers from deception or coercion and delegates
authority to DoFE to investigate contract-related irregularities (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 61).
The FEA also prescribes a penalty for private recruitment agencies (PRAs) if migrant workers are paid
wages lower than stipulated in the contract. It also requires the PRA to pay the difference between
the wage agreed upon and what is actually paid in such cases (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 55).
There have also been efforts to restrict contract substitution by mandating employers to verify all job
requirements with Nepali diplomatic missions in countries of destination (MoLESS 2018). Similarly,
the recent Bilateral Labour Migration Agreements (BLMAs) with countries of destination have
provisions requiring contracts to contain detailed descriptions of wages and benefits, accommodation,
terms and conditions of employment, repatriation, etc.
In 2015, the Government of Nepal adopted the ‘free-visa, free-ticket’ policy for seven labour countries
of destination—Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE),
and Malaysia —in order to shift the cost associated with recruitment to employers and reduce the
burden on workers (MoLESS 2020a; Sijapati et al 2017). As per that policy, PRAs can charge migrant
workers a maximum of NPR 10,000 (ca. USD 75) as service fee. Workers themselves are required
to cover the costs associated with medical tests and pre-departures orientation training (PDOT)
(ILO 2021b). Nevertheless, implementation of the policy remains to be difficult (Institute for Human
Rights and Business 2018).
Nepal has also signed Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) with Malaysia, Mauritius, Jordan and
105
the UAE to institutionalise the ‘employer pays’ principle, whereby the employer covers recruitment
fees, airfare and other costs associated with the migration process. But various studies have reported
that despite these developments, employers and recruitment agencies continue to charge migrant
workers hefty recruitment fees and related costs (Bhattarai et al 2022b; Verité 2012). Concerns
regarding the proper implementation of the ‘employer pays’ scheme and its monitoring were raised
in the 56th Annual Report of the Auditor General of 2018/19. A public interest litigation (PIL) was
also filed at the Supreme Court in August 2017, demanding the effective implementation of the ‘free-
visa free-ticket’ policy. Following the PIL, in 2019, the apex court issued a directive to the government
to adopt appropriate measures to effectively implement the scheme (IOM 2019a).
Meanwhile, the government has been working to improve foreign employment governance and extend
support to migrant workers and their families for safer migration. In this regard, migrant resource
centres (MRCs) are established to provide accurate information related to labour migration including
recruitment process to migrant workers.
Nepali migrant workers are mandatorily provided with PDOT from authorised training providers
prior to issuance of labour approval from DoFE. The two-day training provides general and country-
specific information to potential migrant workers, including on safe migration. However, it has
been pointed out that the mandatory PDOT, which is held after all the recruitment process has
been completed, needs to be shifted to the very beginning so that aspirant migrant workers can take
advantage of the knowledge they gain from the PDOT as they enter the recruitment process (Kharel
et al 2022a). The government has also introduced Foreign Employment Information Management
System (FEIMS), which aims to ensure accountability in the recruitment process and strengthen data
management through an integrated mechanism, thus, serving as a one-stop portal to manage and
regulate the labour migration process (MoLESS 2020a).
Likewise, DoFE has signed an MoU with Nepal Police to curb human trafficking in the guise of
foreign employment and enhance fair and ethical recruitment. In order to achieve the objectives laid
out in the MoU between DoFE and Nepal Police (see Section 2.3.2), both agencies have agreed
on a list of activities to be undertaken by each entity. Accordingly, DoFE has the responsibility of
explaining, analysing and presenting foreign employment related crimes and trafficking cases that are
recorded in the process of investigation but are not prosecuted under the FEA, 2007, due to limitations
within the legal system or due to lack of human resource, to the Crime Investigation Division of the
Nepal police and the Anti-Human Trafficking Bureau and provide the necessary support in resolving
such cases. In addition, both the institutions are also required to share and exchange relevant national/
international news and information with each other; form a joint team to undertake collaborative
investigations led by the competent authority between the two; and appoint a communication officer
to serve as a point of communication between the two entities. Further, both institutions are mandated
with monitoring, investigating and collecting information on unlawful activities concerning foreign
employment committed by individuals/institutions operating foreign employment businesses without
obtaining a licence and reporting it back to the Department with all the supporting documents if the
106
case falls under the jurisdiction of DoFE. A representative from the labour and employment office is
required to be involved in all such investigations, or representatives from the District Administration
Office (DAO) and the Nepal Police in case of unavailability of the former.
Nepal has expressed commitment to strengthen its legal and regulatory framework relating to fair
and ethical recruitment at various international and regional platforms. In 2018, Nepal adopted the
Global Compact for Migration (GCM), at the core of which is enhancing fair and ethical recruitment
of migrant workers. Similarly, it ratified the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and
Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations
Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols (Palermo Protocol) in March
2020. Measures are currently being taken to amend the Human Trafficking and Transportation
(Control) Act, 2007 to align it with the Protocol.
Organisations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the International
Organization for Migration (IOM) as well as the National Network for Safe Migration, trade unions
and some PRAs have been playing important roles in spurring discussions on and advocating for the
adherence to fair and ethical principles of recruitment. Owing to their sustained efforts, awareness
and discussions about fair and ethical recruitment practices have increased among key stakeholders
working on labour migration and have also found space in policy discussions and Bilateral Labour
Agreement (BLA) negotiations.
4.2 Health and Safety of Migrant Workers

Due to the mandatory medical check-up they undergo, migrant workers start their migration journey
as healthy individuals. However, they face several mental and psychosocial health-related problems
and risks during their migration cycle (UNHRC 2013; IOM 2004). The health risks migrant workers
face emanates from and are aggravated due to their exposure to occupational, safety and health
hazards, poor working and living conditions, lack of access to social protection, including medical/
health services, language and cultural barriers, forced overtime labour (ILO n.d.-b) and unhealthy
diet ( Joshi et al 2011), among others. Many migrant workers fall ill, and a significant number of them
succumb to illnesses. Low-skilled workers, and those in the informal sector, in irregular situations,
and involved in ‘dirty, dangerous and demeaning’ (3D) jobs in particular are more likely to encounter
health problems during or after their migration (UNHRC 2013; IOM 2019b). Nepali women migrant
workers, especially those in domestic work and agriculture, are exposed to additional health risks due
to long working hours, unprotected work with chemicals, as well as maltreatment in the workplace
(Regmi et al 2019). Many Nepali migrant workers are uninsured and face difficulties in accessing the
expensive healthcare in the country of destination, and injured and sick migrants are often considered
a burden and sent back home by the employers (Aryal et al 2016; Low et al 2015). Nepali migrant
workers, in particular the irregular and undocumented as well as temporary migrants, are more at
health risks because they are not covered by health and social security in the countries of destination
and are also afraid to seek health care and legal redress from their employers for fear of losing their
jobs (Baniya et al 2020a).
107
Likewise, a high incidence of deaths of Nepali migrant workers in various countries of destination
every year remains a pressing concern. As is the fact that the causes of death are not accurately
assessed in many cases. According to Foreign Employment Board (FEB) data, more than 600 Nepali
migrant workers have died in several countries of destination every fiscal year since 2011/12, peaking
in 2021/22 with 1,395 deaths, a figure that included 39 women (Figure 4.1).74
Figure 4.1: Families Receiving Financial Assistance for Migrant Workers’ Death in Countries of
Destination
2021/22
2020/21
2019/20
2018/19
2017/18
2016/17
2015/16
2014/15
2013/14
2012/13
2011/12
2010/11
2009/10
2008/09
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Women Men
Note: The data from 2008/09 to 2018/19 is based on the date of application for financial assistance made by migrant workers’ families
while for 2019/20 to 2021/22, it is based on date of decision made by the FEB on the application for assistance.
Source: FEWIMS, 2022.
Nepali migrant workers are dying due to various causes. A large number of deaths have been categorised
as death from ‘natural causes’, without further elaboration. Since 2008/09, more than 2077 deaths
(19.5 per cent of the total) have been termed ‘natural deaths’ (Table 4.1). The risk of deaths Nepalis
face in countries of destination is most likely related to their living and working conditions (Vital
Signs 2022). Migrant workers face a range of risks at their workplace and place of accommodation
which can adversely impact their health and put their lives in jeopardy. These include squalid and
congested living conditions, overwork/long working hours, lack of rest day, especially in the case of
domestic work, heat stress in agriculture and construction work, stress and dehydration from long
workdays, physical and psychological abuse, workplace accidents, and lack of personal protective
equipment (PPE) (Vital Signs 2022). Overwork and long working hours and extreme heat have
been linked to heart disease and strokes. Traffic accidents are also a common cause of death of Nepali
migrant workers.75
74 It should be noted here that FEB data on death and injury of migrant workers in this section is based on the financial assistance provided
by FEB to the families of deceased migrant workers from the Foreign Employment Welfare Fund [see discussion further below]. The year
mentioned corresponds to the year the support was provided and not the actual year the migrant worker died or was injured.
75 Other Causes include Sickness, Disease, Kidney Disease, Cancer, Murder and those that are other miscellaneous causes.
108
Table 4.1: Causes of Death

Cause of Death
Total
Fiscal Year Cardiac Heart Natural Traffic Workplace COVID Other
Suicide
Arrest Attack Causes Accident Accident -19 Causes Men Women Total
2008/09 26 2 24 8 9 6 0 15 87 3 90
2009/10 106 10 118 67 25 44 0 48 399 19 418
2010/11 100 48 118 60 62 61 0 100 541 8 549
2011/12 134 37 102 101 66 41 0 165 632 14 646
2012/13 116 32 106 104 81 27 0 261 716 11 727
2013/14 190 79 138 112 96 79 0 194 864 24 888
2014/15 268 90 247 121 113 113 0 54 1,000 6 1,006
2015/16 148 94 246 103 109 81 0 32 789 24 813
2016/17 64 64 252 122 89 61 0 103 737 18 755
2017/18 72 114 126 127 132 67 0 184 801 21 822
2018/19 86 33 136 115 111 62 0 210 730 23 753
2019/20 66 37 87 76 66 41 0 285 641 17 658
2020/21 65 36 162 114 130 21 0 618 1,118 28 1,146
2021/22 33 57 215 129 98 50 207 606 1,356 39 1,395
Total 1,474 733 2,077 1,359 1,187 754 207 2,875 10,411 255 10,666
Note: The data from 2008/09 to 2018/19 is based on the date of application for financial assistance made by migrant workers’ families
while for 2019/20 to 2021/22, it is based on date of decision made by FEB on the application for assistance.
Source: Data from 2008/09 to 2018/19 are from MoLESS, Nepal Labour Migration Report 2020; Data for 2019/20 to 2021/22 from
the FEWIMS, 2022.
Since they are host to most Nepali migrant workers, the GCC countries and Malaysia account for a
large proportion of Nepali migrant worker deaths. More than 100 deaths have been reported annually
in Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the UAE in 2019/20–2021/22 (Table 4.2). The ratio of migrant
worker deaths in South Korea is also considerably high with a total of 13 and 14 deaths in 2020/21
and 2021/22, respectively. Although the numbers are small, Nepali migrant workers have also died in
newer countries of destinations like Romania and Poland.
The data on the causes of death by countries of destination shows variation in the major causes of
death. In Malaysia, it was COVID-19, followed by suicide, traffic accidents and ‘natural causes’ while
in Saudi Arabia and Qatar, it was ‘natural causes’ and then traffic accidents. The high number of deaths
due to traffic accidents and COVID-19 highlight the need for specific attention to the safety and
health of migrant workers, including by imparting proper and effective awareness and trainings such
as during the PDOT before their migration as well as providing orientation after they reach their
destination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the fact that many families were unable to repatriate
the dead bodies of the migrant workers and perform the funeral rites calls for the need to ensure
dignified repatriation by both the countries of destinations and Nepal.
109
Table 4.2: Sex of Deceased Migrant Workers

2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Country Country Country
Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total
Malaysia 174 1 175 Saudi Arabia 340 2 342 Malaysia 385 2 387
Saudi Arabia 150 2 152 Malaysia 254 1 255 Saudi Arabia 372 4 376
Qatar 116 118 Qatar 205 1 206 Qatar 267 4 271
UAE 100 5 105 UAE 186 12 198 UAE 180 13 193
Kuwait 36 2 38 Kuwait 48 3 51 Kuwait 53 2 55
South Korea 10 0 10 Bahrain 27 2 29 Bahrain 23 0 23
Bahrain 6 2 8 Japan 9 0 9 South 14 0 14
Korea
Japan 8 0 8 South 12 1 13 Oman 12 1 13
Korea
Poland 3 0 3 Oman 6 0 6 Japan 11 0 11
Oman 3 0 3 Jordan 3 3 6 Romania 6 2 8
Table 4.3: Cause of Death in Major Countries of Destination (2019/20–2021/22)

Saudi South
Malaysia Qatar UAE Kuwait Bahrain Oman Japan
Arabia Korea
Suicide 80 78 50 58 13 5 1 0 4
Workplace Accident 20 39 28 12 5 1 1 0 3
Natural Death 39 242 102 53 9 1 4 5 3
Heart Attack 14 23 35 26 17 4 0 3 1
Cardiac Arrest 22 28 33 50 18 8 0 0 0
Traffic Accident 40 129 66 52 14 2 1 4 0
COVID-19 122 34 11 5 8 9 6 1 0
Others 480 297 270 240 60 30 9 15 26
Source: FEWIMS, 2022
In the three reference years, most of the deceased migrant workers were from Lumbini Province,
Province 1 and Madhesh Province, which are also the provinces that send the highest number of
migrant workers (see Section 3.3 for province-wise data on labour approvals). Siraha, Dhanusa,
Morang, Jhapa, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Sunsari and Rupandehi topped the list of districts in terms of
migrant worker deaths. Likewise, Jhapa (also a district with high out migration of women) in Province
1 accounted for the highest number of women migrant worker deaths.
110
Table 4.4: Migrant Workers’ Deaths (by province)

2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Province Total
Madhesh 167 0 167 270 0 270 312 2 314 751
Province 1 135 7 142 252 8 260 292 15 307 709
Lumbini 113 3 116 221 2 223 333 5 338 677
Gandaki 97 0 97 175 4 179 197 5 202 478
Bagmati 86 7 93 145 13 158 146 12 158 409
Karnali 23 0 23 37 0 37 50 0 50 110
Sudurpaschim 20 0 20 18 1 19 26 0 26 65
Total 641 17 658 1,118 28 1,146 1,356 39 1,395 3,199
In addition to those who die in countries of destination, hundreds of Nepali migrant workers return
home with mild to severe injuries and illnesses (Poudyal et al 2020) (Figure 4.2). Anxiety, depression,
tuberculosis, accidents and injuries, headaches and suicide attempts are identified as the major health-
related vulnerabilities men migrant workers face in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries
(Regmi et al 2019). Notably, migrant workers in such situations are less likely to report their health
problems as many of them do not have adequate knowledge and information either about preventing
and managing of health risks or of facilities they can avail of in countries of destination (ibid).
Figure 4.2: Major Causes of Injury/Illness of Migrant Workers

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Disease
Traffic Accident
Workplace accident
Others
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Mental health-related problems among Nepali migrant workers are also a major cause for concern
(Mahat et al 2020; Vital Signs 2022). The poor mental and psychosocial health of Nepali migrant
workers can be attributed to the high expectations of families back home, unfair treatment at work,
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poor living conditions, loneliness, lack of social support and poor social life abroad, among others
(Regmi et al 2020). This, coupled with the lack of proper access to mental health services, renders
migrant workers vulnerable and mentally fragile (ibid). As a consequence, there have been suicides by
a significant number of migrant workers in countries of destination (Table 4.1).
Another important health-related issue related to migrant workers in countries of destination is that
of workers in a comatose condition (Table 4.5). Twelve migrant workers in Qatar, two in Saudi Arabia,
and one each in Oman and South Korea were reported to be in a coma in 2021/22. There are also
a number of Nepali migrant workers reported missing. In 2021/22, there were 410 Nepali migrant
workers missing in Malaysia, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Oman.
Table 4.5: Number of Migrant Workers in Coma (2019/20–2021/22)

(by country of destination and sex)
Coma Missing
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
UAE 2 - - - - - 8 2 12 4 235 19
Qatar 10 1 11 1 11 1 - - - - - -
Saudi Arabia
3 1 1 - 2 - 4 - 2 1 1 1
(Riyadh and Jeddah)
Oman - - - - 1 - - 1 - 1
South Korea - - - - 1 - - - - - - -
Malaysia - - - - - - 300 - 250 - 105 -
Source: Information collected from Nepali diplomatic missions in the respective countries of destination.
Province 1, Madhesh and Gandaki are the provinces from where the highest number of migrant workers
have sought financial assistance from the FEB for injuries during their migration stint (Table 4.6). In
terms of districts, Sarlahi, Morang, Jhapa, Siraha, Sunsari, Baglung, Tanahun, Syangja, Mahottari and
Kaski feature as districts with more than 15 cases of migrant workers seeking assistance for injury.
4.2.1 Foreign Employment Welfare Fund

All migrant workers leaving for foreign employment are required to contribute to the Foreign
Employment Welfare Fund (FEWF). Payment into the FEWF is done at the time of obtaining the
labour approval from DoFE and hence those who leave through irregular channels would not have
contributed to it. The FEWF is managed by the FEB and is used to provide various welfare and
social protection services such as financial assistance in the event of death and/or injury as well as
scholarships to the children of the deceased. Families of deceased migrant workers are entitled to a
one-time financial assistance of NPR 700,000 (ca. USD 5,400) while families of migrant workers who
fall critically ill or become injured while working abroad, are provided amounts up to NPR 700,000
(ca. USD 5,400) based on the gravity and seriousness of illness (Government of Nepal 2017a, s. 6).
112
Table 4.6: Injury/Illness of Migrant Workers (by province)

Province 2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Province 1 53 2 55 28 1 29 43 6 49
Madhesh 31 0 31 25 0 25 41 2 43
Bagmati 20 3 23 20 1 21 35 8 43
Gandaki 31 1 32 20 2 22 53 2 55
Lumbini 29 0 29 14 1 15 34 1 35
Karnali 10 0 10 3 0 3 10 1 11
Sudurpashchim 2 0 2 2 0 2 7 0 7
Total 176 6 182 112 5 117 223 20 243
The FEB disbursed a total of NPR 769 million (ca. USD 6 million) to 1395 families of deceased
migrant workers and NPR 83 million (ca. USD 647,000) to 243 injured migrant workers in 2021/22
from the FEWF (Figure 4.3). Since 2019/20, more than 150 injured migrant workers have received
financial assistance every year.
Migrant workers who suffer grievous injuries have to be repatriated back to Nepal as well. In
coordination with the Department of Consular Services (DoCS) at MoFA, the FEB assists such
migrant workers to come back to Nepal and also helps families of the deceased to bring back the
body. It spent NPR 26 million (ca. USD 200,000) to repatriate bodies of deceased migrant workers
in 2021/22. Likewise, in 2021/22, the FEB provided scholarships amounting to NPR 20 million (ca.
USD 156,000) to a total of 2595 children of migrant workers from 60 districts, and medical support
to families of migrant workers worth NPR 430,000 (ca. USD 3,300).
The global COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the health and safety risks Nepali migrant workers
face. In addition to being denied access to basic health facilities such as timely screening, testing and
treatment, and access to protective equipment and medication, Nepali migrant workers also faced
heightened risks of infection as they were compelled to continue working and live in congested spaces
during the pandemic (Baniya et al 2020a). They also suffered high levels of anxiety and other mental
health issues (Choudhary and Sitoula 2020). Hundreds of Nepali migrant workers also died after
being infected with the virus (Table 4.2). Despite assurances from several countries of destination to
ensure healthcare coverage for migrant workers and health services at par with its own citizens, many
workers experienced discrimination on that score.
Death, injury and mental health among Nepali migrant workers also have huge ramifications
on the livelihood, indebtedness, and social security of the dependent families and the country in
general. These challenges have drawn the attention of the Government of Nepal to put in more
effort on sensitisation and awareness-raising at home and in countries of destination about the risks
113
Figure 4.3: Financial Assistance Provided to Deceased Migrant Workers’ Families
1600 900,000,000
Amount of Financial Assistance (NPR)

1400 800,000,000
769,950,000
Number of Beneficiaries
710,645,000 700,000,000
1200
600,000,000
1000
500,000,000
800
413,370,000 400,000,000
600
300,000,000
400 200,000,000
200 100,000,000
0 0
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
No. of Beneficiaries (Men)

No. of Beneficiaries (Women)
No. of Total Beneficiaries
Total Amount Provided for Total Death (NPR)
and preventative measures to be taken. They also indicate the importance of adequate and effective
implementation of country-specific PDOT, stringent pre-departure medical tests in Nepal, and health
camps that some embassies organise in countries of destination. At the same time, it highlights the
need for regular monitoring and inspection of the workplace by authorities in countries of destination
(MoLESS 2020) and making employers responsible for the health and safety of workers. Despite the
importance of PDOT in ensuring informed and safe migration, these classes are largely perfunctory
at present (Kharel et al 2022a; FEB 2019c).
4.3 Access to Justice

More often than not, migrant workers can be victims of deception not only in terms of how the
nature of the prospective job and terms and conditions are misrepresented but also by being given
false employment contracts. Overcharging in terms of recruitment fees and other expenses such as for
medical tests and PDOT render migrant workers vulnerable to debt bondage (Paoletti et al 2014).
This compels migrant workers to work under circumstances they had not agreed to initially since
refusal leaves them with no means of repaying their loans or supporting their families (Amnesty
International 2011). There are also cases of recruitment agencies and brokers being involved in
trafficking or smuggling of migrant workers, leading to exploitation and forced labour (IOM 2019a).
In countries of destination, the terms and conditions mentioned in the contract of the workers may
not be honoured, and they may be misled about their salary, the nature of employment offered, work
hours, and overtime pay or rest days (Amnesty International 2011). Similarly, employers in countries
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of destination tend to confiscate identity documents, including passports, of migrant workers in order
to exert control over them (Baniya and Bhattarai 2022; Bhattarai et al 2022a). In some instances,
they are also subjected to non-payment of wages, inadequate rest, physical and verbal abuse, and
threats of violence (Equidem 2022; Paoletti et al 2014). In particular, migrant workers in irregular
situation, a majority of whom are known to be women, are extremely vulnerable to domestic violence
and face increased risk of abusive treatment (McCarthy 2021; Choudhary and Sitoula 2020). They
also face added disadvantages given that they cannot benefit from the FEWF and other schemes of
the Government of Nepal, such as support for legal action in countries of destination, owing to their
irregular status (McCarthy 2021; Choudhary and Sitoula 2020).
The FEA, 2007 and the corresponding Rules of 2008 outline the justice and compensation mechanisms
available to migrant workers in case of any fraud or wrongdoing they face (Government of Nepal
2007a). These laws also regulate the actions of PRAs (and other independent agents), establish
standards of conduct, and prescribe punishment in case of failure to comply (Government of Nepal
2007a). Despite the government’s effort, access to justice for migrant workers remains a challenge.
Despite undergoing the mandatory PDOT, which is also meant to make them aware of their rights
and ways to seek redressal if necessary, the majority of migrant workers are unaware of government
policies, the rights they have, or the recourse available to them in Nepal as well as in the country of
destination when faced with problems such as deception (Bhattarai et al 2022b; Bhattarai et al 2022a).
Lack of information has been a major obstacle in their access to redress mechanisms (Bhattarai et al
2022a; Paoletti et al 2014). Many remain unaware of the benefits they can avail of through the FEWF
and are oblivious of policies such as the ‘free-visa, free-ticket’ policy.
Migrant workers are often unwilling to file complaints owing to threats and the fear of retaliation
by PRAs (Bhattarai et al 2022a). Since they do not always have actual receipts or even contracts, the
lack of evidence makes it nearly impossible for migrant workers to substantiate claims (Bhattarai et al
2022a; Amnesty International 2017). In addition, the largely centralised judicial mechanism for labour
disputes, the high cost of seeking legal assistance as well as lengthy and complicated judicial processes
have also restricted migrant workers’ access to justice (International Research and Exchanges Board
n.d.).Undocumented workers, particularly domestic workers, face additional difficulties in seeking
legal action owing to the nature of their job whereby their freedom of movement is restricted, not
to mention the fear of arrest and deportation due to their dubious legal status (People’s Forum for
Human Rights and CESLAM 2019; NHRC 2019).
In Nepal, DoFE and the Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET) are responsible for handling disputes
related to foreign employment. DoFE’s Complaint Registration and Investigation Section receives
cases against individuals and PRAs from migrant workers or their family members. Complaints
against PRAs are handled by DoFE and complaints against individuals not resolved there are
forwarded to the FET. Data from the latter shows that 441, 548 and 316 new cases were filed at the
FET in 2019/20, 2020/21 and 2021/22, respectively (Foreign Employment Tribunal n.d.). However,
115
since the information is not disaggregated, it is not possible to discern what the data can tell us about
migrant workers’ (lack of ) access to justice based on gender, age, nature of case, occupation or country
of destination.
Figure 4.4: Number of Cases Settled by Foreign Employment Tribunal
2021/22
2020/21
2019/20
2018/19
2017/18
2016/17
2015/16
2014/15
2013/14
2012/13
2011/12
2010/11
2009/10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Total Remaining Total Cases Adjudicated Total Cases Filed
Note: The FET was established as per FEA, 2007.

Source: FET, 2022.
Records on legal and paralegal support provided, particularly for cases registered at MRCs, show
contract violations and cheating to be the main disputes in foreign employment.76 Cases of missing
migrants, deaths and issues of repatriation of dead body, medical emergencies of in-service migrants,
imprisonment and deportation have also been reported at the MRCs.
76 MRCs refer migrants to the SaMi’s partner organisation based on the nature of their cases and also support those in difficulties in countries
of destination to partners for assistance and repatriation in close coordination with the Nepali diplomatic mission in the country of
destination.
116
Table 4.7: Cases Registered at Migrant Resource Centres (by sex)

2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Nature of Case
Cheating 429 16 933 52 2,051 57
Withholding of passport in Nepal and in destination 152 3 98 3 121 11
Rescue from countries of destination/employer 132 12 179 28 401 28
Withholding of both money and passport 123 1 57 5 179 4
Death-related, including referral to relevant agencies 107 3 485 33 604 36
Withholding of money in Nepal 104 1 51 1 228 4
Contract substitution 89 9 200 19 671 18
Rescue in relation of detention/jail 43 2 167 12 149 14
Cases of missing migrant 26 3 130 29 163 14
Occupational health and safety 20 3 124 13 157 21
Detention and deportation 13 15 12 1 10 -
Non-payment of wages 6 2 59 3 84 3
Return of money and passport due to change in
4 - 20 - 15 1
decision to migrate
Abuse from employers - - 2 4 5 3
Failing in medical examination - - 1 - 5 1
Other 190 5 604 41 184 21
Source: MRC, 2022.
Of the cases handled by various MRCs, ‘cheating’ is highly prevalent in all provinces. ‘Cheating’ is a
broad category mostly involving deception and fraud by PRAs during the pre-departure phase. MRCs
in Madhesh Province and Province 1 reported 1428 and 764 cases of cheating, respectively, between
2019/20 and 2021/22. Cases concerning ‘death’ are common across all provinces. The term ‘death’
refers to cases handled by MRCs in supporting the repatriation of dead bodies to Nepal. Likewise,
MRCs across all provinces also reported a high number of cases related to ‘rescue of migrant workers’,
‘contract substitution’, ‘withholding of money in Nepal’ and ‘withholding of passport in Nepal’.
With regard to access to justice in countries of destination, the lack of easy access to legal and grievance-
handling mechanisms, lack of knowledge regarding available complaint mechanisms and related
processes, cumbersome reporting procedures, and fear of retaliation, among others, hinder migrant
workers’ access to justice (Bhattarai et al 2022a; MFA n.d.-b). Victimised Nepali migrants do not report
grievances related to wage theft or exploitation in countries of destination due to lack of knowledge
on how they can seek redress, and many migrants who do file complaints remain oblivious about
whether their complaints have been registered or investigated (Bhattarai et al 2022b; NNSM 2021).
Impediments in accessing justice for migrant workers were further compounded by the COVID-19
pandemic. Nepali migrant workers faced non-payment/delayed payment of wages, reduction in salary,
117
and lay-offs, and were also subjected to abuse and ill-treatment during the pandemic (IOM and
NIDS 2020; Bhattarai et al 2022a). Further, while some migrant workers were forced to take unpaid
leave and/or were quarantined for months, often without pay, some were forced to continue working
despite ill health (Mint 2020). During the pandemic, several Nepali migrant workers were deprived
of their right to return due to several reasons such as mobility and travel restrictions enforced by the
countries of destination and the Government of Nepal and lack of financial resources (Baniya et
al 2022b). Confiscation of travel documents by employers in countries of destination also curtailed
migrant workers’ right to return (Freedom Collaborative 2022).
Figure 4.5: Number of Migrant Workers in Jail in Countries of Destination

400
347
350
300
229
250
200
170
134
150
127
96
88
100
66
60
55
55
55
51
46
45
50
24
10
7
7
7
7
6
4
3
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
UAE Qatar Saudi Arabia (Riyadh and Jeddah) Baharain Oman Kuwait Malaysia
Source: Data obtained by MoLESS from Nepali diplomatic missions.
There are also Nepali migrant workers in jail in countries of destination. In 2021/22, 696 men and 39
women migrant workers were in jail in the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait and
Malaysia (Figure 4.5). There have been ongoing discussions on expanding access to legal representation
to migrant workers, including those in jails. Accordingly, MoLESS has issued the Directive for the
Legal Defence of Nepali Workers in Foreign Employment, 2019 to assist migrant workers with valid
labour approvals facing prosecution (FEB 2019b) (see Section 2.6.3 for more information on the
provisions in the directives).
Also, grievances related to human and labour rights violations migrant workers faced prior to their
repatriation in the wake of the pandemic were not recorded (Nepal et al 2020). Lack of proper evidence
puts the migrant workers or their families in a weaker position while seeking justice.
118
4.4 Remittances
With external remittances equalling about a quarter of the country’s economic output,77 Nepal ranks
seventh globally among the top remittance recipients relative to national Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) (World Bank n.d.-a). Commensurate with the number of migrant workers going abroad, Nepal
has seen an exponential growth in remittances received, from NPR 2.1 billion (ca. USD 16 million)
in 1990/91 to a mammoth NPR 961 billion (ca. USD 7.5 billion) in 2020/21 (NRB n.d.-a) (Figure
4.6). Remittance inflow has thus solidified its status as one of the mainstays of Nepal’s economy and
serves as the biggest contributor to the nation’s foreign exchange reserves. However, despite continued
increment in absolute terms, remittance as a percentage share of Nepal’s GDP saw a steady decline
from 27.6 percent in 2015 to 23.8 percent in 2021 (Figure 4.7).78
Figure 4.6: Remittance received in Nepal (in billion NPR)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1197/98
1998/99
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
1999/2000
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11
2011/12
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
2016/17
2017/18
2018/19
2019/20
2020/21
2021/22
Note: According to the Nepal Rastra Bank, the remittance figures exclude pensions received from abroad and any payment received
from abroad by business entities for services provided.
Source: ‘Annual Reports,’ Nepal Rastra Bank, accessed 6 June 2022, https://www.nrb.org.np/category/annual-reports/?department=red.
Many households in Nepal receive remittance from abroad. Remittances have contributed to an in-
crease in consumption levels and enabled households to obtain better health care, nutrition, educa-
tion and housing (NRB 2020b). According to the National Statistics Office, remittances contributed
significantly to reducing poverty headcount from 42 per cent in 1995 to 25 per cent in 2010 (CBS
2012b). Besides consumption, remittances have also enabled some capital creation for investment
(Sharma et al 2014).
In the immediate aftermath of lockdowns to contain the spread of COVID-19, remittance inflow
went down to almost half compared to the corresponding month of the previous year (Table 4.8).
However, while remittance inflow slumped in the two months immediately after the declaration of
77 This figure is for 2020. The data has been used from 2020 as it allows for comparison with other countries.
78 The remittance inflow was 22.1 percent of the Gross Domestic Product in 2012.
119
Figure 4.7: Remittance as Percentage Share of GDP

28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Source: ‘Personal Remittances, received (% of GDP),’ The World Bank, accessed 6 June 2022, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/
BX.TRF.PWKR.
lockdowns in mid-April 2020, it was followed by a steady recovery after mid-June. No major fluctua-
tions were experienced in the fiscal years 2020/21 and 2021/22 (NRB n.d.-b). This could be attributed
to the routing of remittance through formal channels because informal channels became defunct in
the wake of the pandemic and also the quick re-opening of the manufacturing sector in the GCC
countries.
Table 4.8: Remittance Inflow during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Remittance Received (in billions NPR)
Month
2019/20 2020/21 2021/22
Mid-July to mid-August (Saun) 75.4 92.7 76
Mid-August to mid-September (Bhadau) 78.3 73.0 79.4
Mid-September to mid-October (Asoj) 76.5 93.1 83.9
Mid-October to mid-November (Kartik) 74.7 78.9 73.1
Mid-November to mid-December (Mangsir) 72.0 79.1 76.2
Mid-December to mid-January (Push) 70.3 78.5 79.9
Mid-January to mid-February (Magh) 65.9 72.4 71.7
Mid-February to mid-March (Fagun) 79.2 74.4 91.1
Mid-March to mid-April (Chait) 34.5 86.9 93.5
Mid-April to mid-May (Baisakh) 53.9 80.9 87.05
Mid-May to mid-June (Jeth) 94.0 61.1 92.39
Mid-June to mid-July (Asar) 100.2 90.2 103.13
Total 874.9 961.2 1,007.31
Source: Current Macroeconomic and Financial Situation,’ Publication & Statistics, Nepal Rastra Bank, accessed 7 June 2022, https://
www.nrb.org.np/category/current-macroeconomic-situation/?department=red.
120
Data on remittance inflow disaggregated by country for the first four months of the fiscal year 2019/20
indicates that remittances received from the GCC countries accounted for 50 per cent of all transfers.
Qatar was the source of the highest share of remittances received in Nepal (17.7 per cent) followed by
India (14.2 per cent) and Malaysia (9.7 percent) (Table 4.9). Remittance inflow from the USA (8.3 per
cent) is the highest for any western nation although it must be noted that this could be the result of re-
mittances sent from other countries being rerouted via US-based remittance agencies (MoLESS 2020).
Table 4.9: Remittance Inflow by Country of Destination (First Four Months of FY 2019/20)
Total Remittance Amount (in Percentage Share of Total
Country
billions) (NPR) Remittance Received in Nepal
Qatar 53.93 17.7
India 43.16 14.2
UAE 40.87 13.4
Saudi Arabia 38.15 12.5
Malaysia 29.66 9.7
USA 25.42 8.3
Japan 22.87 7.5
Kuwait 11.52 3.8
Bahrain 8.79 2.9
South Korea 6.15 2.0
UK 5.04 1.7
Australia 1.34 0.4
Others 18.07 5.9
Total 304.97 100
Source: Nepal Rastra Bank, Nepal Ma Bipreshan Aprabaaha Sthiti (The Situation of Remittance Flow in Nepal) (Kathmandu: Nepal
Rastra Bank, 2020).
Remittances flow into Nepal through both formal and informal channels. The former consists of banks
and financial institutions, and domestic and international remittance service providers. According to a
Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) study, remittance service providers
(RSPs) receive 60 per cent of the remittance sent through formal means while banks and other financial
institutions account for the rest (Dahal 2019). There are currently 42 licensed RSPs operating in
Nepal (NRB n.d.-c). In terms of banks, Class A commercial banks, a few of the development banks
(Class B banks) and other financial institutions are allowed to remit money within and outside Nepal
(Government of Nepal 2017b, s. 49).
The issue of reducing remittance costs has gained favour globally with the 2010 G8 and the 2011 and
2014 G20 summits79 committing to reducing average remittance cost of remitted amount to 5 per cent
(World Bank 2021). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) also aim to reduce transfer costs to
3 per cent (UN 2015). A comparative study of remittance transfer costs from countries of destination
79 G20 refers to an inter-governmental forum comprising of 19 nations and the EU which work to address issues related to the global
economy.
121
for Nepali workers indicates that remitting money from India to Nepal is the most expensive, 5.29 per
cent for USD 200 and 3.01 per cent for USD 500 (World Bank n.d.-b). Remitting from Malaysia to
Nepal is the cheapest at 2.77 per cent for USD 200 (ibid). However, this cost is higher in comparison
to the cost for remitting money from Malaysia to other South Asian countries such as India and
Bangladesh. Also, compared to other South Asian countries, remittance cost from the UK is also
higher for Nepal (Table 4.10).
Table 4.10: Average Remittance Transfer Costs for South Asian Countries
Remittance Transfer Costs in Percentage (4th Quarter, 2021)80
Origin Country (Transfer to)
Nepal Bangladesh India Pakistan Sri Lanka
Country of destination 200 500 200 500 200 500 200 500 200 500
(Transfer from) USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD
India 5.3 3.0 6.7 3.9 N/A* N/A* 8.1 4.6 8.0 4.6
Malaysia 2.8 1.9 2.6 1.6 2.3 1.5 N/A† N/A† N/A† N/A†
Oman 3.1 1.5 3.2 1.5 3.2 1.5 3.2 2.3 3.3 1.6
Qatar 3.0 1.7 2.3 1.1 3.4 2.2 2.9 2.2 4.9 3.7
Saudi Arabia 3.9 2.4 3.4 2.0 4.2 2.5 3.5 2.3 3.3 2.0
UAE 3.3 2.0 5.2 3.7 3.5 2.3 3.9 3.1 4.2 2.9
United Kingdom 4.3 3.3 2.9 1.8 3.9 2.0 2.5 1.9 3.2 1.7
United States 4.1 3.1 3.6 2.4 3.7 2.7 4.9 3.9 N/A† N/A†
Source: ‘Find and Compare Prices,’ Remittance Prices Worldwide, accessed 8 June 2022, https://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/.
*
Not applicable.
†
Not available.
A look at remittance transfer costs from various countries over the years demonstrates that the costs
have generally decreased considerably from 2017 for all countries (Table 4.11). There was a slight
increase for four countries—Malaysia, Qatar, the UAE and the USA—between 2019 and 2020, but
costs went down the next year for all countries with the exception of India. Notably, the costs for re-
mittance transfers to Nepal are below the global average and within the SDG target of 3 per cent in
the case of Malaysia and just over 3 per cent in the case of the GCC countries.
80 The total cost of sending a remittance includes the fee charged to the sender plus the exchange rate margin. The total cost can be calculated
by multiplying the percentages mentioned in the figure with the amount remitted (either USD 200 or USD 500 in the figure).
122
Table 4.11: Costs of Average Remittance Transfer to Nepal
Period 4th Quarter, 4th Quarter, 4th Quarter, 4th Quarter, 4th Quarter,
Amount 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
200 500 200 500 200 500 200 500 200 500
Destination USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD
India N/A* N/A* N/A* N/A* N/A* N/A* 5.1 2.9 5.3 3.0
Malaysia 2.6 1.5 2.93 2.0 3.2 2.3 3.8 2.8 2.8 1.9
Oman 3.4 1.5 4.4 2.7 4.4 2.6 3.6 1.7 3.1 1.5
Qatar 5.2 3.7 4.9 4.2 4.2 2.8 4.8 3.3 3.0 1.7
Saudi Arabia 5.0 3.5 5.0 3.4 4.2 2.7 4.1 2.4 3.9 2.4
UAE 4.4 2.6 3.5 1.9 3.5 1.9 4.0 2.4 3.3 2.0
United Kingdom 7.0 4.5 4.7 3.4 6.2 4.3 5.9 4.1 4.3 3.3
United States 5.3 3.5 5.9 4.3 4.3 2.9 5.2 3.9 4.1 3.1
Source: ‘Find and Compare Prices,’ Remittance Prices Worldwide, accessed 9 June 2022, https://remittanceprices.worldbank.org
*N/A: not available
Even though there is no systematic data on remittance inflow through informal means, it is believed
that informal channels account for a considerable proportion of the total remittance received in Nepal
(Dahal 2019). For example, of the total NPR 128.5 billion (ca. USD 1 billion) remitted to Nepal from
India in 2018/19, an estimated NPR 38 billion (ca. USD 295 million) (29.6 per cent) was transferred
through informal means.81 Informal means of remitting money include personal networks, agents and
hawala/hundi, and remittances in the form of consumer items either brought by the workers them-
selves or sent with someone, among others. These means of transfer fall outside the purview of the
regulatory framework and operate outside of or parallel to formal channels. Several reasons contribute
to the popularity of the informal means of remittance transfer. For instance, hundi is faster and cheap-
er than formal channels and also provide secrecy and anonymity to the parties involved since it does
not involve documentation of any kind (Buencamino & Gorbunov 2018). Migrants using irregular
channels are often more likely to remit through informal channels. Low financial and digital literacy
among migrant workers and their families along with a lack of migrant-centric products and services
have been identified as major barriers to the formalisation of remittance inflows (UNCDF 2021b).
With regard to the use of remittance, the Nepal Rastra Bank estimates that only 3.5 per cent of the
amount remitted is being used in productive sectors such as capital formation and investment while
some 70 per cent is spent paying back loans and on daily consumption (NRB 2016). Remittances are
used to purchase assets and invest in land, and housing, and to pay for the education and health of
children of migrant workers as well (Sijapati et al 2017). Lack of entrepreneurial skills among migrant
workers and their families (Buckley and Hofmann 2012) and the poor institutional landscape for
81 This is an estimation made by Nepal Rastra Bank. Due to open borders with India, informal channels are frequently used for which an
official database doesn’t exist. So, the NRB makes an estimation for remittance received through informal channels from India.
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investment are among the reasons identified for the lack of productive use of remittances (Bjuggren
et al 2008; Chaudhary 2022).
In this context, the Government of Nepal has taken some initiatives to augment remittance inflow
through formal means and utilise remittance in the productive sectors. It has been working on policies
to include migrant workers in the social security schemes as well. A brief description of some of these
initiatives is given below.
a) Foreign Employment Savings Bonds: The Nepal Rastra Bank has been issuing Foreign
Employment Savings Bond (FESB) since 2009/10 (MoLESS 2020). In June 2022, it issued the
Foreign Employment Savings Bond–2027 for a period of five years at an attractive interest rate
of 12.5 per cent (MyRepublica 2022). It has also waived off income tax on the interest earnings
on the bond (ibid). However, bonds have consistently been undersold in the past, with only 11
per cent purchased in 2020/21.
b) Quotas in IPOs: The government has started setting aside 10 per cent of the shares in initial
public offerings (IPOs) of publicly listed companies for Nepali migrant workers abroad (Ministry
of Finance 2022).
c) Remit Hydro: Remit Hydro is an initiative of and a subsidiary of Hydroelectricity Investment

and Development Company Limited (HIDCL) (Remit Hydro Limited n.d.). It aims to channel
remittance inflows from migrants to build hydroelectricity projects in the country.
4.5 Return and Reintegration

Following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the return to Nepal of migrant workers in
substantial numbers, the Government of Nepal experienced an unprecedented challenge of absorbing
returnee migrant workers into the national labour market. The situation was further compounded by
the fact that many migrant workers were not able to easily re-migrate to countries of destination due
to the continuing economic slowdown around the world.
Reintegration of migrant workers consists of their ‘re-inclusion’ and ‘re-incorporation’ in their home
societies, and the re-establishment of economic and psychosocial ties in their country of origin (IOM
2017). It also encompasses the acceptance by their family, peers and community, and the capacity of
migrants to utilise development and economic opportunities available at home. Another important
aspect of reintegration is associated with creating a conducive environment for returnee migrant
workers through local resources and infrastructure to enable them to invest their valuable experience,
knowledge, skills and technical know-how gained abroad in their countries of origin (IOM 2019c).
As defined by the IOM, ‘reintegration can be considered sustainable when returnees have reached
levels of economic self-sufficiency, social stability within their communities, and psychological well-
being that allow them to cope with (re)migration drivers’ (ibid).
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Return migration features prominently in Nepal’s migration profile. Nepal welcomed back 183,875
returnees in 2020/21, and 450,897 in 2021/22.82 However, their sustainable reintegration in the
local labour market has remained a challenge. According to the Nepal Labour Force Survey (NLFS)
2017/18, 42.8 per cent of the returnee migrant workers are employed, 13.4 per cent are unemployed
and 43.8 per cent are outside the labour force (CBS 2019).
Ensuring sustainable reintegration of returnee migrants is an important agenda in Nepal’s labour

migration governance. The government has recognised that sustainable reintegration requires
harnessing both the social and financial remittances earned by migrant workers abroad in the
productive sectors of the national economy (MoLESS 2020). Reintegration is also covered under
various laws and policies governing labour migration. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 enshrines a
policy encouraging the mobilisation of capital, skills, technology, and experience gained from foreign
employment in the productive sectors in the country (Government of Nepal 2015, a. 51) The FEA
2007 authorises the government to use the FEWF to conduct employment programmes targeted
at returnees (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 33[a]). Similarly, the Foreign Employment Policy,
2012 calls for effective social and economic reintegration packages for returnee migrant workers
(Government of Nepal 2012). The Policy includes a separate section on returnee reintegration and
emphasises mobilising their skills and technical knowledge within the country (National Planning
Commission 2020).
The Fifteenth Periodic Plan (2019/20–2023/24) has also accorded priority to returnee reintegration. It
has expanded the definition of remittances beyond financial remittances to include social remittances,
which encompass skills, technological know-how, and experiences (National Planning Commission
2019). The Plan also highlights the need to incentivise returnee migrants to channel social remittances
towards the socio-economic development of the country. In addition, the Local Governance
Operations Act, 2017 mandates local governments to carry out training and reintegration of returnees
(Government of Nepal 2017a, s. 11[q]). It also authorises them to carry out tasks related to their social
reunion and mobilisation of the knowledge and skills they gained during foreign employment besides
collecting, maintaining and managing data related to the labour force currently in foreign employment
(Government of Nepal 2017a, s. 11[q]). Various other sectoral policies—such as the Agricultural
Policy, 2004, the Industrial Policy 2011 and the National Youth Policy, 2015—also include provisions
relating to reintegration of returnee migrant workers in Nepal.
As a party to the GCM, Nepal is expected to invest resources in the reintegration of returnee migrants
and take measures towards their reintegration into society through ‘skills recognition’. This involves
identifying new skills acquired overseas and matching them with the domestic labour market (UN
2018). Objective 18 of the GCM calls the member states to ‘invest in skills development and facilitate
mutual recognition of skills, qualifications and competences’ (UN 2018). The GCM also includes
provisions for providing migrants with equal access to social protection, and employment opportunities
82 FEIMS, 2022. Data for FY 2020/21 are calculated from the month of September since DoFE started to record data on returnees into
FEIMS for the first time since this month.
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(Rimal 2021). In line with the GCM, the government has taken a number of steps to reintegrate
returnee migrant workers through nationwide entrepreneurship development programmes. The
government currently conducts programmes associated with financial literacy, vocational training,
psychosocial support, shelter, and provides direct grants to individuals as part of the reintegration
programme (FEB n.d.).
Further, the MoLESS has adopted and implemented a reintegration directive to consolidate
reintegration efforts within the country (MoLESS 2022a). Returnee migrant workers can benefit
from three different kinds of reintegration programmes under the Reintegration Programme
(Operation and Management) Directives for Returnee Migrant Workers, 2022: socialisation of
returnees (family and social reunion, psychosocial counselling, leadership development and social
networking); employment (skill testing and certification, skill training, modernisation of traditional
occupations); and entrepreneurial development (aimed at increasing financial literacy and access, self-
employment generating programmes, providing grants and concessional loans in coordination with
local and provincial governments, facilitating access to market). The Directive authorises the FEB
Box 4.1: Recent Reintegration Projects

Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers (ReMi): The project (16 July 2022 to 15 July 2026) with a
budget of CHF 6.8 million (ca. NPR 861.3 million or USD 6 million) is implemented by MoLESS, Governments
of Province 1 and Madhesh Province, and 20 participating local governments. The project is a collaboration
between the Government of Nepal and the Government of Switzerland. The latter is providing support for
the project through the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). Helvetas Nepal is providing
technical assistance to the project on behalf of SDC. The overall goal of the project is to ensure returnee
migrant workers re-establish themselves and actively participate in social, cultural, economic and political
life. ReMI aims to achieve this objective through activities consisting of family counselling, support for
returnees in distress, referral for advanced psychosocial counselling, coordination with migrant cooperatives
and networks for community outreach, information and counselling through Employment Service Centres,
support for individual or group entrepreneurship, business development, advance financial literacy training,
linkages to labour markets, referrals for skills training, and testing and certification of returnees.
Reintegration of Korea Returnee Migrants Project: Nepal and South Korea agreed on technical cooperation
for a seven-year project Strengthening Stage-wise Support System for the Stable Reintegration of Korea
Returnee Migrants in Nepal with a budget of USD 8 million (ca. NPR 1 billion) in May 2022.* The project will
be implemented by the DoFE–Employment Permit System (EPS) Korea Section in collaboration with the
Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) and aims to support the reintegration of returnee migrant
workers from South Korea and support the socio-economic development of Nepal.† Under this project, a
fund will be maintained to provide financial resources to returnee workers for the enhancement of their
entrepreneurial capacity and initiative. Additionally, a one-stop mobile platform will be developed targeting
returnee migrant workers to enhance access to comprehensive information regarding reintegration.
*
International Organization for Migration (IOM), Mapping of Reintegration Services in Nepal (Kathmandu: IOM, 2022).
†
‘Deal Signed to Support S. Korea Returnee Migrants,’ The Rising Nepal, 1 June 2022, https://risingnepaldaily.com/
news/11960?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=ceslam_daily_news_compilation_1_
june_2022&utm_term=2022-06-01 .
126
to seek proposals from local governments, national NGOs, foreign organisations and agencies of
the federal, provincial and local governments to operate programmes on returnee reintegration. The
Directives also stipulates that a National Level Returnee Migrant Profile be created at the FEB to
identify returnee migrants for the reintegration programme.
The FEB is the main government body responsible for designing and providing various skill development
programmes for returnee migrants, and for carrying out returnee integration programmes. A brief
description of ongoing programmes targeting returnee migrant workers in Nepal is provided below.
i. Recognition of prior learning: In coordination with the National Skills Testing Board (NSTB),
the FEB helps returnee migrants certify their skills and experience acquired abroad free of cost.
Skills assessment/testing of returnee migrant workers is important in planning for upskilling,
resettlement in appropriate occupations, and providing them with additional income-generating
opportunities (Neupane and Adhikari 2021) (see also Section 4.6).
ii. Skills-oriented training: the FEB also provides skills-oriented training to workers going for
foreign employment as well as those returning using funds from the FEWF. This training
programme is guided by the Employment-Oriented Skill Development Training Operation
Procedure, 2019 formulated by MoLESS (see also Section 4.6).
iii. Felicitation of returnee entrepreneurs: MoLESS has been recognising returnee migrant
workers involved in various entrepreneurial activities in order to highlight them as a source of
inspiration for those returning from foreign jobs and seeking to start a business in Nepal. The
Returnee Migrant Worker Entrepreneurs National Honour and Award Management Procedure
2020 (MoLESS 2020d) is aimed at discouraging the flow of youth to foreign countries (The
Himalayan Times 2019). The returnee migrant workers thus felicitated are awarded a sum of
NPR 100,000 (ca. USD 780) and NPR 50,000 (ca. USD 390).
iv. Programmes at the provincial level: Within each province, the concerned ministry has the
overall responsibility of formulating policies and programmes related to foreign employment.83
Provincial governments have initiated a number of programmes directed at returnee migrants,
including mobilising them in priority sectors such as agriculture and entrepreneurship.
The FEB, in coordination with Nepal Rastra Bank, had implemented a scheme of providing subsidised
loans for up to NPR 1 million (ca. USD 7,800) for returnee migrant workers in accordance with the
budget speech of the GoN for the FY 2018/19, but this was discontinued since the FY 2019/20.
Local governments have also been mandated with certain tasks to support the federal government’s
83 The ministries are the Ministry of Social Development in Madhesh Province, Karnali Province and Sudurpaschim Province, the Ministry
of Industry, Labour and Employment in Province 1, the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security in Bagmati, the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Science, Technology and Social Development as well as the Ministry of Tourism, Industry, Commerce and Supplies in
Gandaki, and the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Transportation Management in Lumbini.
127
reintegration efforts (Government of Nepal 2017a). Among the notable achievements in this regard
have been the skilling and reintegration of migrant workers. For example, Employment Coordinators
under the Prime Minister’s Employment Programme (PMEP) have been appointed in all 753
municipalities and placed in employment service centres (ESCs) established as per the Prime Minister
Employment Programme Operation Directives, 2019 (Government of Nepal 2019d).
Table 4.12: Selected National Programmes Facilitating Reintegration of Returnees*

Date of
Programme Focus Area
Inception
Prime Minister Employment Guaranteed employment opportunities to the 2019
Programme unemployed aged 18–59, not exceeding a period of
100 days.
Microenterprise Development Helping entrepreneurs develop enterprises under a 2010
Programme for Poverty Alleviation microenterprise development model.
Prime Minister Agriculture Development of agricultural pockets, blocks, zones, 2016/17
Modernisation Project and super zones to support modernisation of
agriculture.
Subsidised loans Provision of subsidised loan of up to NPR 200,000 (ca. 2008/09
USD 1,500) for small enterprises with priority to the
underprivileged.
National Youth Council’s youth- 390-hour training on pig farming, poultry farming, -
oriented programmes mushroom farming and vegetable farming.
Rural Enterprises and Remittances Support poor households, migrant families and 2015
Project (RERP) -SAMRIDDHI returnee migrant workers in income generation
through creation of micro-, small, and rural medium-
sized enterprises.
Source: International Organization for Migration, 2022.
*
These programs are not exclusively targeted to returnee migrant workers. However, it is believed that they support reintegration of
returnee migrants too.
128
Table 4.13: Selected Government Projects for Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers
Funding/Collaborating Date of
Project Area of Reintegration
Agency Inception
Safer Migration Project Information and counselling to Government of Nepal 2011
(SaMi) returnee migrant workers and and Government of
referral to relevant agencies. Switzerland/ Helvetas
Nepal
Dakchyata Skills development of returnee European Union/ British 2017
migrants in construction, Council Nepal/ UNDP/
agricultural and tourism sectors. ILO/IOM
Strengthening Stage-wise Reintegration of Nepali returnee Korea International 2022
Support System for the migrants from Korea by Cooperation Agency
Stable Reintegration of Korea enhancing their employability and (KOICA)
Returnee Migrants in Nepal entrepreneurial capacity.
Reintegration of Returnee Providing reintegration services Swiss Agency for 2022
Migrant Workers (ReMi) and supporting the government to Development and
Project prepare reintegration policies. Cooperation (SDC)
Source: International Organization for Migration, 2022.
Table 4.14: Programmes for Reintegration of Migrant Workers in National Budgets

Fiscal Year 2019/20 Fiscal Year 2020/21 Fiscal Year 2021/22
• Youths returning from foreign • Arrangements for access to • The range and scope of
employment with skills in skills development, training concessional loans provided
agriculture to be encouraged and technology for Nepali to micro-, small and medium
to undertake organic farming citizens to enable them to take enterprises, commercial
as a business. advantage of employment agriculture, youth enterprises,
• New and special skills opportunities created in the women enterprises and
development training to be domestic market after return persons returning from foreign
conducted taking into account from foreign employment due employment to be expanded.
the market demand and to the COVID-19 pandemic. NPR 13 billion (ca. USD 100
interests of the unemployed. Various skills development million) allocated for this
• Priority given to employment trainings in manufacturing purpose to provide interest
with the realisation that higher and services sector, including subsidy of 5 per cent.
production, sustainable social handicraft, plumbing, electrical • Allocation of NPR 400 million
security, and self-respect can repairing, electronics, cookery, (ca. USD 3 million) for skill
be developed only through artisan carpentry, masonry, development training to push
productive labour and tailoring, beautician and hair an additional 100,000 people
employment. dressing, to be conducted at into businesses, including
federal and provincial levels handicraft, plumbing, electrical
to enable laid off workers and maintenance, electronics,
those working in areas where cooks, blacksmiths, carpenters,
masons, tailors, beauticians,
129
Fiscal Year 2019/20 Fiscal Year 2020/21 Fiscal Year 2021/22

• To effectively implement the employment cannot be revived hairdressers, vehicles and
Prime Minister Employment in the immediate future due to mobile phone maintenance,
Programme, an arrangement the pandemic, by transforming particularly targeting young
to mobilise unemployed labour their skills and enabling them people entering the labour
listed with the ESCs in public to work in a new environment market, workers returning from
development and construction elsewhere. Allocation of NPR
foreign employment, and those
activities. 1 billion (ca. USD 7.8 million)
who have lost their jobs at
to enable at least 50,000 to
home.
avail of employment from this
• The Prime Minister
programme.
Employment Programme
• Allocation of NPR 4.34 billion
to be restructured to
(ca. USD 33.8 million) for
ensure a minimum of 100
strengthening technical and
days’ employment to the
vocational education and
unemployed. An arrangement
training institutes and providing
to be made to conclude
skills-oriented training to
procurement contracts so that
75,000 people. Expected
the unemployed enlisted at the
to provide employment
ESCs will be hired in federal,
opportunities to new entrants
provincial and local projects
in the labour market, workers
and programmes, including
laid off from the informal
roads, irrigation, buildings,
sectors due to the pandemic
bridges, river training and tree
and youth returnees from
plantation implemented at the
foreign employment.
local level. Allocation of NPR 12
• Foreign Employment Welfare
billion (ca. USD 93.6 million) to
Fund is to be utilised in the
create 200,000 jobs in 2021/22
employment rehabilitation
year through the PMEP.
programme. Records of skills,
experiences and interests of
the workers returning from
foreign employment to be
maintained and linked with
work opportunities within the
country.
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4.6 Skilling, Skills Recognition and Certification

With the aim of developing a competitive and skilled workforce in order to maximise the benefits
of foreign employment, the Government of Nepal has continuously prioritised investing in skills
development of Nepali youth, including both aspirant and returnee migrant workers (Government of
Nepal 2021, 3). This includes synchronising training practices to current labour market requirements,
forecasting and strengthening the competencies of prospective migrant workers for jobs abroad,
and expanding access to employment-related training in rural communities as a means to improve
livelihoods, reduce poverty, and equip aspirant and returnee migrant workers with the skills required
in the formal economy (ILO n.d.-c). The government considers skilling of aspirant migrant workers
and reskilling and upskilling of current and returnee migrant workers as important steps in ensuring
a dignified and productive migration experience for them.
Regional and international agreements to which Nepal is a party also acknowledge the importance of
skills training and development as well as certification and recognition of such training. For example,
the Colombo Process recognises that ‘skills development, certification and recognition of migrant
workers coordinated between the countries of destination and the countries of origin will resolve
the issue of skills mismatch, reduce vulnerability of migrant workers and enhance the development
outcomes of temporary migration for all stakeholders’ (Colombo Process n.d.). Similarly, Objective 18
of the GCM calls on member-states to invest in skills development and facilitate mutual recognition
of skills, qualifications and competences (UN 2018).
The FEA 2007 classifies outgoing workers according to their skills in order to provide the requisite
training (UN 2018). It also allows for utilising the FEWF to provide skills training to prospective
migrant workers (UN 2018, s. 33). The FEA and the corresponding Rules 2008 have given the FEB
the responsibility of training prospective and returnee migrant workers (Government of Nepal 2007a,
s. 39). The FEB is entrusted with formulating and approving the curricula of skills training courses,
monitoring the skills training institutions, and carrying out needs assessment of training courses.
DoFE is the regulatory body to grant approval to prospective skills training institutions. Although the
FEA 2007 had the provision of requiring aspirant migrant workers to undergo skills training prior to
departure (Government of Nepal 2007a, s. 30), it was only in 2019 that MoLESS made it mandatory
(MoLESS 2019). However, the government is still looking for ways to implement this policy since the
PRAs have expressed reservations about the practicality of such a requirement (Naya Patrika 2019;
Onlinekhabar 2021).
The Employment-oriented Skill Development Training Operation Procedure, 2019 serves as a

guiding document to clearly lay out processes and responsibilities of the FEB, DoFE and registered
training providing institutions to conduct free or paid skills training of prospective migrant workers.
This document has classified the occupations available for training into four sectors (MoLESS 2019)
(Table 4.8).
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Table 4.15: FEB’s Skills Training Occupations

Sector 2: Hotel
Sector 1: Construction Sector 3: Services Sector 4: Other
Management
Masonry, scaffolding, welding, Cooking, waitering, Security guard, office Garment tailoring,
furniture and furnishing, plumbing, housekeeping, secretary, painter, aluminium
electrician, shuttering carpentry, cleaning, front beautician fabrication
steel fixture, tile-marble cutting and office-related
fitting
Source: FEB 2022.
The Procedure has allocated 160 hours (30 working days) as mandatory learning hours for skills
training (MoLESS 2019). It prescribes that the training be based on curricula developed and approved
by the FEB or other skills-training providing institutions of the Government of Nepal. The Procedure
further stipulates that prospective migrant workers who avail of free training from the FEB need to
pass a mandatory skills test in order to acquire a labour approval (MoLESS 2019). The FEB partners
with both governmental institutions such as the Vocational and Skill Development Training Centre
(VSTDC) and the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) and licensed
private institutions to impart free as well as paid skills training to prospective migrant workers.
The FEB has been providing free skills development and training to both aspirant and returnee migrant
workers in collaboration with the CTEVT (MoLESS 2020).84 The FEB recently revised the curricula
of 18 vocational and technical subjects in close coordination with the Curriculum Development
Committee of the CTEVT and set out a new requirement that trainees take at least 160 hours
of training. Likewise, the FEB has designed new skills training curriculum for occupations such
as tile-marble cutting and fitting, beautician related work, furniture making, aluminium fabrication,
and front office work while also revising the curriculum for caregivers (FEB 2021). In 2020/21, the
FEB conducted free skills training targeted at both aspirant and returnee migrant workers in 14
districts through CTEVT-affiliated institutions (FEB 2021).85 FEB entered into agreement with
these institutions to ensure the delivery of skills training for migrant workers (paid for by the FEB) as
well to carry out skills testing through the NSTB. These skills trainings were related to 15 subjects in
the construction and hospitality sectors in high demand in both domestic and international markets
(FEB 2021).
The FEB has also introduced a Training Management Information System (TMIS) to integrate
skills training activities into the FEB’s online system. With this, a record-keeping mechanism that
tracks and archives details of individuals trained under the auspices of the FEB has been created. This
84 CTEVT is an autonomous national council chaired by the Minister for Education, Science and Technology tasked to regulate TEVT in
Nepal.
85 The districts were: Mahottari, Dhanusa, Kavrepalanchok, Kathmandu, Dolakha, Chitwan, Kaski, Palpa, Rupandehi, Dang, Banke, Salyan,
Jumla and Kailali.
132
Figure 4.8: Number of Free Skills Training Provided by FEB
16
2021/22
5,161
16
2020/21
3,290
7
2019/20
1,118
2018/19
110
- 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Number of Institutions Involved Number of Trainees
Note: The number of institutions involved in providing training for the fiscal year 2018/19 is not available.
Source: FEB, 2022.
initiative has resulted in making skills training an integral component of the pre-departure phase and
is viewed as a basis for formulating plans for reskilling and upskilling of migrant workers (FEB 2021).
The FEB has initiated programmes to evaluate the occupational skills of returning migrant workers in
cooperation with the NSTB. Aspirant and returnee migrant workers who take free and/or paid skills
training can get their skills evaluated through the tests conducted by NSTB. This has enabled the
certification of skills of migrant workers.
Apart from the FEB, the MRCs at local levels provide migrant workers with information related
to free skills training. A regulation recently released by MoLESS, the Migrant Resource Centre
(Operation and Management) Procedure, 2022, provides MRCs with the mandate to facilitate foreign
employment-oriented skills development training (FEB 2022d). Furthermore, as per the FEA 2007
local governments have also been given the responsibility of providing skills-development training to
those migrating for foreign employment.
A National Vocational Qualification System (NVQS) has been established under the Nepal
Vocational Qualifications System Project (NVQS-P) (Swisscontact n.d.). This system will increase
the employability of youths in national and international labour markets through testing, certification
and recognition of their skills and competencies.
This is particularly important in light of the fact that a major cause for concern is that foreign
employers do not recognise trainings undertaken in Nepal (Thami and Bhattarai 2015). In-country
133
training does not cater to the needs of the international market, and thus the skills prospective migrant
workers receive in fields that require operating machinery/equipment, for instance, are not recognised
by employers in countries of destination (Thami and Bhattarai 2015). Also, certification received by
prospective migrants in Nepal is often not recognised during recruitment for skilled positions abroad
because of the variation in curriculum in Nepal and what is expected by employers abroad. In line with
such observations, the government is working to find ways for a mutual skills recognition system suited
to both Nepal and countries of destination. The efforts to secure mutual skills recognition mechanisms
are evident in recent BLAs signed with some countries of destination (ILO 2021b). For example,
MoU with Mauritius requires the formation of a Joint Working Group with responsibilities including
mutual skills recognition, vocational training, and counselling for workers (ibid), while Qatar has
expressed its commitment to support the Government of Nepal in establishing skills training centres
in all the seven provinces to ensure proper skilling of Qatar-bound Nepali workers (MoLESS 2021b).
4.7 Labour Migration from Nepal to India

The recorded history of migration for work between Nepal and India can be traced back to the Treaty
of Sugauli signed between Nepal and the English East India Company in 1816. The Treaty permitted
the recruitment of Nepalis into the British Army. That was followed by the tripartite agreement of
1947 between Nepal, India and the United Kingdom, facilitating the recruitment of Nepalis into both
the British and Indian Gorkha regiments (Sharma and Thapa 2013). The most significant agreement
is the Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1950, which, to this day, allow the free flow of
nationals of the two countries across the open Nepal–India border (ibid). Besides facilitating cross-
border mobility driven by cultural and religious ties shared with India (Bashyal 2020a), the Treaty
allows Nepalis to easily migrate to India in search of job opportunities (Adhikari 2017).
For this very reason, the existing legal framework governing labour migration from Nepal as well
as international conventions ratified by the government fall short of covering the Nepali diaspora
in India (ibid). There is growing concern, however, that discourses and concerns of migration to the
GCC countries and Malaysia have eclipsed Nepal-India migration and the issues of Nepali migrant
workers in India.
According to the NLFS 2017/18, there were around 1 million Nepalis in India who had migrated for
work.86 In terms of provinces, Sudurpaschim accounts for the highest number of Nepalis migrating
to India (38.2 per cent of the total), followed by Lumbini (29.1 per cent) and Karnali (10 per cent)
(Baniya et al 2020a). However, owing to the open border, it is difficult to ascertain the exact number
of Nepalis in India at any given time (Bashyal 2020a). Moreover, seasonal migration can also mislead
population estimates (Baniya et al 2020b). Likewise, outliers such as those illegally holding dual
citizenships of India and Nepal also affect the demographic representation of migrants (ibid, 35 – 36).
Developing a gender- and age-based disaggregation of Nepali migrants in India is equally challenging
as there is a mismatch in the figures made available by the two governments. For instance, the Indian
86 Calculation from the raw dataset from the Nepal Labour Force Survey from 2017/18 provided by Centre for the Study of Labour and
Mobility (CESLAM). See: Baniya et al (2020).
134
census quotes a higher number of Nepali women migrants in India compared to the Nepali census
(Sharma and Thapa 2013). Hence, according to the 2011 Census of India, there are 810,158 Nepalis
(including 533,369 women) in India while the 2011 Census of Nepal puts that figure at 722,256
(including 116,362 women) (Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India n.d.;
Khatiwada 2014).
In India, Nepalis have been found to be engaged in a wide range of occupations—serving in the
prestigious Gorkha regiment of the Indian Army to working in the tourism sector and as security
guards and domestic workers in the private sector (Bashyal 2020b; Sharma and Thapa 2013). Given
the long history of migration between Nepal and India, Nepali migrants are spread throughout the
country, creating a sizeable network, thus making it easier for new emigrants to find jobs (Bashyal
2020c). In fact, Nepali immigrants residing in India are known to carry cultural characteristics that
reflect the Nepali district they originate from (ibid). There is little information, however, regarding
the exact population of migrants working in unsupervised sectors such as in commercial sex work,
collieries and domestic spaces (Sharma and Thapa 2013). Because these groups are usually beyond
surveillance and social policing, it is difficult to track them.
Generally, those migrating to India either come from a poor economic background or are seasonal
migrant farmers (World Bank 2009; Seddon 2002). In fact, farmers tend to stay home during the
planting and harvesting seasons and go to India for work at other times of the year. As a country of
destination, India has gained popularity among poor and rural communities for multiple reasons,
including the low cost of migration (Kharel et al 2022c; Shrestha 2017), geographical proximity and
the open border besides extant networks in India.
In more recent years, India is being increasingly used as a transit point by migrant workers travelling to
third countries using irregular channels. Restrictive migration policies, primarily for women migrants,
complex and cumbersome migration procedures, specific country bans imposed on migration, and
inadequate awareness of the migration process, among others, have led migrant workers to use these
channels as a way of circumventing government rules such as the requirement to obtain labour approvals.
While such approaches have rendered Nepali migrant workers more vulnerable to forced labour and
exploitation, the open border has also furthered criminal activities such as human trafficking, among
others (Kharel et al 2022b; Kunwar 2018).
135
Foreign Employment Tribunal is responsible for adjudicating cases/disputes related to foreign employment.
Chapter 5:
REFLECTIONS ON DATA GAPS

138
Migrant workers/aspirant migrant workers can apply for new labour approvals and renewal of labour approval through the Foreign
Employment Information Management System (FEIMS).
Chapter 5: Reflections on Data Gaps
Migration-related data is important for understanding the pattern on migration, including its
causes and consequences and impacts on both countries of origin and destination, identifying
vulnerable groups, and subsequently developing migration-related plans and policies to support
migrant workers. The Constitution of Nepal, the Fifteenth Periodic Plan (2019/20–2023/24) and
various global and regional frameworks, processes and agenda that Nepal is part of (such as Global
Compact for Migration, Sustainable Development Goals and Colombo Process) highlight the
significance of collecting and managing high-quality, timely, reliable and disaggregated data on
labour and migration for evidence-based advocacy as well as development of effective programmes.
The COVID-19 situation highlighted the importance of timely and accurate data on the stock of
migrant workers as well as the number of returnees for the formulation of effective responses and
recovery plans and policies. However, availability and accessibility of migration data continues to
remain a challenge.
Migration data in Nepal are available through various sources such as national censuses and surveys,
information systems such as Foreign Employment Information Management System (FEIMS), and
other data recorded by government agencies dealing with migration and foreign employment. Each
type and source of data has its own strengths and limitations in terms of method of collection and
the statistics it can generate. In addition to the unavailability of disaggregated data,87 this report has
identified some key gaps as well as inconsistencies and discrepancies in the labour migration data
recorded and maintained.88 MoLESS recognises and aims to improve the information management
system to address these gaps and challenges at Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE), Foreign
Employment Board (FEB), Foreign Employment Tribunal (FET), Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(MoFA) and Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB).
Along with the decennial census and periodic national surveys such as the Nepal Living Standard
Survey, the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey and the Nepal Labour Force Survey, FEIMS is
perhaps the most important platform that collects data on labour migration from Nepal. The FEIMS
data, however, is not without its own limitations.
87 This issue is also highlighted by Sharma & Sharma, Enumerating Migration in Nepal.
88 Data gaps can occur when there are statistics missing and when data are available but are not disaggregated, representative or updated
(Women Deliver 2020).
139
• The data on labour approvals issued by DoFE forms the basis of data recorded in FEIMS. This
figure, however, excludes Nepali migrant workers who migrate without labour approvals through
irregular channels such as via India or by using tourist visas.
• FEIMS also does not cover labour migration from Nepal to India.
• The system does not provide information on the repeat labour approvals, i.e., more than one
labour approval issued to the same individual over a period of time.
• Data on district or province of origin captured in FEIMS is based on the district the citizenship
certificate was acquired from, not the actual district of residence of migrant workers.
• Data on skill, occupation and salary recorded in FEIMS is largely based on the occupation and
skill mentioned in the demand letter and may not reflect the worker’s actual occupation.
• The data on skills and occupations of outgoing and current migrants is scattered and non-
standardised although efforts to organise the data systematically are underway.
• Just as the number of migrant workers going for foreign employment is based on labour approvals,
data maintained in FEIMS on returnee migrant workers does not incorporate those returning
from India and those who had migrated without labour approvals.
Foreign Employment Welfare Information Management System (FEWIMS) figures also do not
provide an accurate picture of the situation of illness, injury, disability as well as death of migrant
workers in countries of destination.
• Migrant workers who die or are injured outside the financial assistance period, the contract
(labour approval) period plus an additional one year, are not eligible for support, and are not
included in the data.
• It is also not possible to disaggregate the data on financial assistance provided on death of migrant
workers and illness based on occupation in countries of destination.
• Data on death and injuries is not available for some years and even when it is, the causes are
missing.
There is also a lack of disaggregated data for some variables recorded by government agencies. For
example, data on cases related to fraud in foreign employment registered at DoFE and the FET lack
disaggregation based on gender and other variables such as place of origin, caste/ethnicity, types/
nature of cases registered and their current adjudication status. Remittance data also faces similar
issues.
There is also a lack of comprehensive and systematic data on skills and interests of returnee migrant
workers, especially since it has received heightened attention after the COVID-19 pandemic. Further,
despite the importance of Nepal-India migration for employment, especially seasonal work, migrant
flow along that corridor is not recorded in its entirety by the government or the national census and
surveys. Migrants are captured under ‘absentees’ in national surveys and census, the definition of
which fails to take into account seasonal migration that characterises this migration corridor to a very
large extent.
140
There is also a lack of coordination and systematic data-sharing among various relevant government
agencies such as diplomatic missions, Department of Consular Serivces (DoCS), FEB, DoFE, FET,
insurance providers, etc. Systematic sharing of data collected at local level through employment
service centres (ESCs), employment information centres (EICs) as well as District Administration
Office (DAO) offices and DoFE on grievances and cases, etc, has also not been regularised through
any mechanism.
Having access to timely, representative, robust and high-quality data on migration is essential to
inform and contribute to policy discussions and recommendations. The development of management
information systems such as FEIMS, FEWIMS and Training Management Information System
(TMIS) present an immense opportunity to collect detailed data on migration. An opportunity,
therefore, has become available to further develop and improve these information systems to create
regular, representative, comprehensive, standard and accessible data on different migration parameters.
141
Planning Meeting, MOLESS, 2022.
142
Chapter 6:
Way forward
143
144
Nepal-Japan Joint Committee Meeting,

Kathmandu.
Chapter 6: Way Forward
Labour migration has long become an integral part of Nepali society. In order to maximise the benefits
of labour migration, the Government of Nepal has been working to make labour migration safe, orderly
and dignified. Among the noteworthy developments over the last decade have been adjustments in
institutional and legislative arrangements, introduction of newer policies and initiatives, strengthened
cooperation at the national, regional and international levels, and greater attempts to understand
labour migration and the various aspects related to it.
As mentioned in the preceding chapters, there are still a number of gaps and challenges in both policy
and practice that will require attention in the near future. In line with the study and its own priority,
the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) will continue with its effort on
ensuring decent work, gender equality and digital transformation in migration governance. For this
purpose, MoLESS will adopt a Periodic Strategic Plan and a Labour Administration Action Plan.
With this backdrop, the following areas have been identified as guiding the way forward.
Strengthening Legal and Policy Frameworks
MoLESS recognises:
• that the ongoing revisions to the Foreign Employment Act (FEA), 2007 and the Foreign
Employment Policy, 2012 can address many of the concerns regarding the rights and protection
of undocumented migrant workers, women and those working as domestic staff while also
ensuring social protection coverage for these same groups. The planned changes can also rectify
contradictions in Nepal’s position on migration in general, including labour migration, while
also seeking harmonisation with the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act
(HTTCA), 2007.
• that the problem of human trafficking and smuggling being conflated with labour migration
can be addressed during the revision of the FEA, 2007. Accordingly, any amendment will have
to clarify the specific measures to be undertaken by MoLESS to curb trafficking and smuggling
in the context of labour migration and provide the necessary support to victims of trafficking in
line with commitments expressed in the Bali Process and the Palermo Protocol. With Nepal’s
accession to the Palermo Protocol, there is a need for strengthened coordination with the Ministry
of Women, Children and Senior Citizens and the Ministry of Home Affairs to ensure that both
the FEA, 2007 and HTTCA, 2007 and any amendments to these laws align with the Protocol.
145
Most specifically, the definition of human trafficking could follow the internationally accepted
one and avoid the conflation of human trafficking and smuggling with labour migration.
• the possibility of delegating responsibility to labour inspectors based in various labour offices to
provide oversight of recruitment practices in coordination with the Chief District Officer.
• that the planned revision of the FEA, 2007 and the Foreign Employment Policy, 2012 can
serve as an opportunity to define what is covered within the ambit of recruitment fees and
related costs while also supporting government efforts to ensure fair and ethical recruitment,
including implementation of the ‘employer pays’ principle, as stipulated in the bilateral labour
migration agreements (BLMAs) with countries of destination. The ILO General Principles and
Operational Guidelines for Fair Recruitment and Definitions of Recruitment Fees and Related
Cost can serve as guideposts for these changes.
• that signing BLMAs with more countries of destination is a significant step towards ensuring
the protection of migrant workers and their rights. It recognises the importance of discussions
and consultations with all the stakeholders prior to drafting and reviewing agreements while
also ensuring detailed documentation of the processes followed at home and in countries of
destination for future reference.
• the need to deliberate on and discuss changing trends and dynamics in the labour migration and
foreign employment sector and the possibility of amending BLMAs to reflect these developments
in joint committee meetings with countries of destination as well as in bilateral discussions and
regional and international platforms.
• that efforts need to be continued to ensure inclusion of gender-responsive provisions in the

BLMAs.
Enhanced E-Governance of Foreign Employment
MoLESS also recognises
• the imperative of migrant workers and their families being aware of and having access to online
service delivery platforms while applying for labour approvals or seeking financial assistance from
the Foreign Employment Board (FEB).
• that adopting new modes of communication such as social media to provide audio-visual tutorials
and publicise infographics can be an effective way to support informed and safe migration.
Migrant workers can receive information on topics such as their rights, grievance registration
mechanisms, safe migration practices, compensation and other services available to them.
146
Decentralisation of Services
MoLESS further recognises
• that federalisation has offered a pathway to decentralise services related to foreign employment
such as issuing labour approvals, pre-departure orientation training (PDOT), medical check-ups,
recruitment, insurance, case registration, mediation and access to justice to the provincial and
local level of government. Ensuring ease of access to assistance such as financial assistance for
death, insurance claims for illness and injuries or scholarships for children is essential for labour
migration to become safe, dignified and beneficial to migrants and their families.
• that monitoring and regulation of actors such as private recruitment agencies (PRAs), insurance
companies, and PDOT and health centres can be decentralised to the provincial and local level.
• that there is a need to continue to seek ways to strengthen inter- and intra-governmental
coordination mechanisms and pathways as well as put in place a system for coordinating with
international agencies and civil society organisations (CSOs) working at the provincial and local
levels to enhance decentralised and effective service delivery.
Recruitment Practices
MoLESS will
• explore the designing of incentives for PRAs that practise fairer and more ethical recruitment.
• reconsider the currently suspended mandatory quota for PRAs to send at least 100 workers
abroad every year for two consecutive years.
• strengthen monitoring of the recruitment process and practices in coordination with and allocation
of resources to DoFE, the labour offices and the district administration offices (DAOs).
Access to Justice
MoLESS will
• continue to engage in discussions with authorities in countries of destination to find amicable

ways to address the grievances of migrant workers such as non-payment and/or reduction of
wages (wage theft), forced labour, exploitation, and abuse. To the extent possible, efforts will
be made to address these issues through bilateral discussions and also to incorporate them into
BLMAs in the future.
147
• continue making efforts to ensure that migrant workers in irregular situations in countries of
destination have free and easy access to legal remedies and compensation mechanisms, including
for recruitment-related violations. While this can be achieved through bilateral and diplomatic
discussions, it is equally important that the government coordinate with CSOs and other
stakeholders to use their extensive networks in Nepal and in countries of destination to encourage
migrant workers and returnees to register complaints while ensuring they can understand and
handle grievance registration and compensation processes.
• endeavour to ensure that migrant workers are well-informed about their rights and of the
legal protections available to them. These include accessing mechanisms to register grievances
regarding recruitment and labour rights violations at home and in countries of destination. It
recognises that information on grievance registration and the compensation-seeking procedure
has to be included in the PDOT. CSOs, trade unions and the media can also play an important
role through awareness-raising campaigns and information dissemination.
Roles of Diplomatic Missions and Labour Diplomacy
MoLESS acknowledges
• that the human resource and financial capacities of diplomatic missions, especially in countries
with a large number of migrant workers, have to be strengthened in order to provide effective
services to migrant workers.
• the need for innovative ideas to enhance communication with migrant workers in countries of
destination, particularly those living far away from where diplomatic missions are located.
• that it is essential to assign labour attachés to new destinations where more than 5000 Nepalis
have migrated for employment. This is especially true for those countries with the potential to
attract many more migrant workers but which do not yet have residential Nepali diplomatic
missions.
• the importance of engaging with emerging economies to secure early access to new labour markets
while also furthering political and socio-economic ties. MoLESS will continue coordinating with
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) to explore more opportunities for migrant workers in
terms of both sectors of occupation and countries of destination. This will go hand-in-hand with
efforts to ensure higher salaries and benefits for the workers, better protection of their rights,
access to social security and justice, ability to organise themselves and bargain collectively, and
social integration in host countries.
• that the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for more coordinated efforts between
148
Nepali diplomatic missions and governments of countries of destination for the safe and dignified
repatriation of migrant workers during emergencies.
• the importance of proactively seeking opportunities to chair regional processes such as the
Colombo Process and the Abu Dhabi Dialogue. These fora provide an opportunity to draw
attention to the concerns of Nepali migrant workers at the bilateral, regional, and international
levels. By playing a vital role in their organisations, priority issues of Nepal and Nepali migrant
workers can be highlighted in such platforms. In close coordination with MoFA, MoLESS
will study the relevant laws and policies of the countries of destinations and also gauge their
willingness to enter into BLMAs as advance preparation before attending bilateral meetings and
negotiations and joint technical committee meetings. The same approach will be adopted while
participating in ministerial conferences and other regional and international fora.
• the need for activities such as knowledge generation and sharing on migration and migrants from
South Asia through the SAARC Technical Committee on Labour Migration.
• the abundant opportunities to benefit from the UN Network on Migration. In the coming years,
MoLESS will not only actively participate in the Technical Working Groups of the Network on
Migration but also seek to lead some of the committees. This will allow Nepal an opportunity
to lay out its priorities and develop proposals aimed at the capacity enhancement of both Nepali
migrant workers and institutions involved in the labour migration sector.
• that the COVID-19 pandemic has emphasised the need for regional and international
cooperation. Nepal will continue its effort to create regional and international solidarity to
address the labour and human rights concerns of migrant workers in countries of destination.
Strengthening regional and international cooperation and collaboration will provide a major
boost to the protection of migrant workers.
Multi-stakeholder Collaboration
MoLESS will
• continue taking initiatives to strengthen and enhance dialogue and discussions at the national,
provincial and local levels. Establishing an inter-ministerial committee or a working group to
improve coordination between government institutions on matters related to migration could be
a first step towards that end.
• host multi-stakeholder dialogues and discussions on migration policies and programmes as a

means to improve the protection of human and labour rights of migrant workers and foster a
rights-based approach to labour migration governance. MoLESS acknowledges the importance
of participation of multiple groups in deliberations on policies on migration, foreign employment
149
and reintegration to ensure the formulation of effective migration policies and legislation. Periodic
consultations and dissemination of research findings in collaboration with concerned state and
non-state actors in both national and regional platforms are also crucial for a mutual exchange of
ideas and understanding of new developments in the labour migration sector.
Social Protection
MoLESS recognises
• the need to provide social protection coverage to all migrant workers and their families. This can
be addressed by establishing bilateral social security mechanisms based on the social security
schemes of Nepal and the respective countries of destination. Efforts will be made to allow
portability of social security benefits across borders, including through BLMAs, and also to
ensure 24 hour-insurance coverage for Nepali migrant workers in the countries of destination.
• that migrant workers and their families have to be covered by the social security system through
schemes to support left-behind family members of migrant workers. Such schemes also need to
be gender responsive, particularly since there are sectors with a large number of women migrant
workers such as in domestic work.
• the importance of providing better and long-term support to left-behind families and children of
migrant workers, particularly those of deceased or severely injured migrant workers.
Health and Safety of Migrant Workers
MoLESS will
• continue its efforts to ensure migrant workers have access to health care and health-related
information in countries of destination and even after their return home. It will push for bilateral
discussions and BLMAs with countries of destination towards that end, irrespective of legal
status, citizenship, gender or ethnicity.
• seek way to ensure regular and effective inspection of migrant workers’ workplace and their
working and living conditions as part of the effort to ensure their well-being.
• explore the provision of training on occupational safety and health to migrant workers prior to
their departure from Nepal and after their arrival in countries of destination in coordination with
both employers and Nepali diplomatic missions.
• scale up outreach programme focused on occupational safety and health (OSH) along with other
service-related information for migrant workers both in Nepal and countries of destinations
150
through social media platforms and digital mediums such as Facebook and YouTube.
• continue efforts to address issues of occupational hazard and long-term health and safety of
migrant workers, including gaining a better understanding of the causes of deaths and injuries,
through dialogue with countries of destination and also by raising them at international and
regional platforms.
• soon implement country-specific PDOT curricula so that migrants can be provided information
about various occupation-related risks and the measures to be taken in the countries of their
destination.
• begin taking steps to include information on the pros and cons of migration and issues of
occupational safety and health at workplaces in the school curriculum.
Return and Reintegration
MoLESS recognises
• that the federal system of governance provides an immense opportunity to align governance
structures and policies on labour migration through delegation of mandates and responsibilities
to the provincial and local level. Needs-based reintegration programmes can be designed by
adopting a bottom-up approach that takes into account local conditions as well as the development
plans of provincial and local governments. The recent Reintegration Programme (Operation and
Management) Directive for Returnee Migrant Workers, 2022, which provides for local governments
to submit proposals for reintegration programmes to the FEB, is a step in that direction.
• the importance of exploring strategies to strengthen cooperation and collaboration with

national and international organisations in the reintegration of returnee migrant workers, as per
the provision of the Reintegration Directive. In line with the Directive, linking reintegration
programmes with existing programmes and schemes of the government and the non-government
sector—such as employment programmes,89 concessional loan schemes, reintegration initiatives90
and bilateral projects91—can help broaden available options for returnees. It is necessary to explore
the potential to tailor such programmes to the needs of the diverse groups of migrant workers
coming back to Nepal. National, provincial and local support for reintegration should focus not
only on individuals but also consider improving and enhancing the institutional capacities of
local governments, businesses and civil society for the effective implementation of reintegration
programmes.
89 Employment programmes in the name of the Prime Minister and provincial Chief Ministers are some examples.
90 Such as IOM’s return and reintegration initiatives including its Reintegration Handbook that provides comprehensive approach to
sustainable reintegration.
91 Among these are the Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers (ReMi) supported by the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation and the reintegration project in partnership with the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA).
151
• that the government can support the establishment and capacity enhancement of shelter homes
(run both by the government and by CSOs) to provide support to distressed, exploited and needy
migrants as well as victims of violence in countries of destination and/or in Nepal. Efforts will be
made to establish shelters in all provinces as well as in countries of destination, where possible.
• that reintegration plans and strategies need to prioritise the most needy and vulnerable returnee
migrants and their left-behind family members.
Skilling, Skills Recognition and Certification
MoLESS is
• working to expand existing skills training programmes for potential and returnee migrant workers
with training in many more occupations and upgrading the curricula of existing ones. Following
the Government of Qatar’s recent pledge to establish training centres in all seven provinces for
prospective migrant workers headed to Qatar, MoLESS will explore the possibility of similar
schemes with other countries of destination.
• aiming to expand the existing skill training and certification scheme under the FEB tailored for
potential migrant workers and returnee migrant workers, and undertaken in collaboration with
the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) and the National Skill
Testing Board (NSTB), to all the provinces in the future. Returnees as well as employers have to
be made aware about such systems and that ease of access to the same is ensured. MoLESS notes
that the National Vocational Qualification System (NVQS) framework could be an important
tool to ensure recognition of prior learning of returnee migrant workers.
Disaster/Crisis Response and Recovery Plan
MoLESS notes
• that developing an emergency preparedness, response and recovery plan and strategy for the
protection of and support for migrant workers in countries of destination and after return is
required. This is especially so in light of lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic. Such a plan
will also have to envisage the roles of all three tiers of government, relevant agencies and social
partners as well as of potential coordination mechanisms.
• the role and importance of diplomatic missions, international organisations, civil society, workers’
organisations, PRAs, employers, and human rights and diaspora organisations in providing
support to migrant workers in countries of destination and at home during disasters, crises,
pandemics and wars. MoLESS emphasises the need to ensure participation of these groups in
formulating guidelines and practices for disaster response and recovery plans for migrant workers.
152
• that since BLMAs with countries of destination and existing policies and laws can address the
issue of protection of migrant workers in times of crisis, war and pandemic, clearly outlining the
roles and responsibilities of concerned authorities in both countries of origin and destination
would be helpful.
• that initiatives are required to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to eliminate the
adverse drivers and structural factors that compel people to leave the country.
Remittance
MoLESS recognises
• that the Government of Nepal will continue its efforts to ensure that remittance transfer is easy,
fast, inexpensive and conducted through regular channels in line with Targets 10.7 and Target
10.c of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).92
• the need for more attractive incentives to encourage Nepali migrant workers to remit through
formal channels. The effective implementation of the government’s scheme to provide a discount
of 50 per cent on the passport and labour approval renewal fees as well as for consular services to
those who remit through formal channels will be instrumental. It will be important to also ensure
that migrant workers are aware of these schemes and that they can easily access them.
• that, in order to ensure higher savings and investment in enterprises and employment generation,
MoLESS will work to expand the existing financial literacy programmes for migrant workers and
their families being conducted through the SaMi and ReMi programmes of the governments of
Nepal and Switzerland.
Migration Data and Further Knowledge

• It is important to generate nationally relevant and internationally comparable data on migration
indicators, including on returnee migrant workers, which is timely, representative, comprehensive
and accessible. MoLESS recognises the need to improve data collection, recording, management
and reporting, and make it interactive with various other systems. Existing ones, in particular, the
Employment Management Information System (EMIS) developed under the Prime Minister
Employment Programme (PMEP), can be upgraded to collect such information at the local level.
MoLESS notes that this system could be made accessible at the ward offices of local governments
in order to maintain data related to both unemployment and migration at that level.
92 Respectively, ‘Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of
planned and well-managed migration policies’, and ‘By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and
eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent’.
153
• MoLESS recognises the crucial role of local and provincial governments in creating profiles of
returnee migrant workers, including of their skills and expertise.
• MoLESS notes that assessing and mapping data sources on migration and foreign employment
is important. Such efforts can help identify gaps in the data, such as lack of disaggregation or
absence of information on indicators like recruitment fees and remittance transfer costs borne by
migrant workers, information that can help inform the SDGs and the GCM and also bilateral
discussions with countries of destination.
• Migration desks at checkpoints along the Nepal–India border can be established by local
governments to record the flow of migrants across the border. Technical assistance and support
for human and financial resources and capacity-building training can be provided in coordination
with I/NGOs. Since a major gap in information is on the Nepal–India migration corridor, the
National Employment Management Information System (NEMIS) can serve as a crucial source
for data on Nepalis’ migration to India for work and also on returnees from there.
• MoLESS will continue working to update and upgrade the existing information management
system.
² The Ministry notes that data on indicators such as occupation and skills profile of migrant
workers recorded in the Foreign Employment Information Management System (FEIMS)
could follow the standard international classification of occupations and skills.
² FEIMS and FEWIMS need to be updated to reflect changes in the administrative structure
of the country.
² Work on integrating FEWIMS and FEIMS to align the welfare-related information of
migrant workers obtaining labour approvals is ongoing.
² MoLESS recognises that Nepali Port, which captures real-time immigration data at Nepal’s
international airports, can be upgraded to be able to also identify and capture data on returnee
migrants who had used irregular channels to migrate.
• MoLESS acknowledges the need to record and maintain disaggregated data for important
variables related to foreign employment and migrant workers.
² A template can be developed to record disaggregated data on cases related to fraud, deception,
etc, registered with DoFE, the Foreign Employment Tribunal, and district administration
offices across the country.
² Another template can be developed to record gender-disaggregated data on migrant workers
going to South Korea under the Employment Permit System (EPS) and also allow for
disaggregation for occupation, origin districts and provinces.
² There is a need for disaggregated data on deaths and injuries of migrant workers by occupation
154
in order to support evidence-based discussions on OSH of workers with countries of

destination.
² MoLESS acknowledges that a standard template to document disaggregated statistics on
migrant workers in jail, missing, and in a coma in countries of destination is required.
• Dedicated officers or a team of officers can be deployed for the operation and management of the
information systems and generation of disaggregated migration statistics. Capacity development
training will be required for such officials to enable them to navigate through the system as well
as identify discrepancies and irregularities.
• A periodic migration survey at an interval of two to three years could be a potential source of very
valuable real-time data on migration.
• Structural barriers facing returnee migrant workers, particularly women, in accessing reintegration
support programmes need to be identified. This is crucial since returnees would have become
accustomed to a different institutional set-up in countries of destination. Micro-studies can be an
important tool to collect such information and thus inform formulation of reintegration policies,
plans and programmes while ensuring that issues of gender equality and social inclusion are
reflected fully in reintegration support programmes.
• Issue-based studies can be conducted to understand the needs, interests and preferences of
returnee migrant workers, particularly women, assess the labour market, and identify sectors
with the potential for employment and self-employment. Such studies can be conducted with
support from and in collaboration with international organisations, CSOs, research institutes and
academics working in the field of migration and reintegration.
155
156
Multi-stakeholders Consultation, MOLESS, 2022.

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168
Annex
169
Skills Test.
170
Annex 1: No-Objection Certificates 2020/21 (2077/78) (Number Issued And Destination)
S.N. Country Approved S.N. Country Approved S.N. Country Approved

1 Armenia 4 21 Greece 1 41 Portugal 4
2 United States of America 964 22 Hungary 5 42 Qatar 79
3 Australia 4,849 23 India 2,797 43 Republic Of Korea 2,643
4 Austria 8 24 Ireland 31 44 Romania 4
5 Bahrain 39 25 Israel 1 45 Russia 19
6 Bangladesh 114 26 Italy 45 46 Saudi Arabia 8
7 Belgium 12 27 Japan 8,146 47 Scotland 8
8 Bosnia And Herzegovina 4 28 Kyrgyz Republic 1 48 Singapore 8
9 Canada 2,516 29 Kyrgyzstan 4 49 South Africa 18
10 China 90 30 Latvia 6 50 Spain 23
11 Costa Rica 5 31 Lithuania 9 51 Sweden 45
12 Croatia 29 32 Luxembourg 1 52 Switzerland 6
13 Cyprus 9 33 Malaysia 11 53 Tanzania 1
14 Czech Republic 50 34 Malta 15 54 Thailand 189
15 Denmark 259 35 Netherlands 38 55 Turkey 2
16 Egypt 9 36 New Zealand 91 56 UAE 933
17 Estonia 6 37 Norway 202 57 United Kingdom (UK) 2,354
18 Finland 156 38 Pakistan 18 58 Ukraine 376
19 France 269 39 Philippines 47 Total NOC Approved 27,978
20 Germany 350 40 Poland 47
171
172
Annex 2: Institutional Structure of Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security
Ministry of Labour,
Employment and Social
Security
Departments
Divisions
Employment
Administration
Management
Division
Division
Vocational and Skill
Development
Foreign Employment Training Centre
Financial Management Section
Administration Administration
Section Section
Department of
Employment Foreign Employment
Policy, Planning, Law and Decision Coordination and
Monitoring and Implementation Information Section
Evaluation Section Section
Department of Labour
and Occupational
Labour Relations Safety
and Social Security
Division
Prime Minister
Employment
Labour Relation Labour Welfare Programme
Section Section
Child Labour
Prevention and Skill Development
Occupational Safety and Training Section
Section
Annex 3: Annual Policies, Programmes and Budget 2022/23 of the Ministry of Labour,
a. Monetary Aid Distribution Programme [NPR 981.4 million (ca. USD 7.7 million)]
• Financial assistance and relief distribution to families of deceased migrant workers and returnees
with physical injuries/serious illness
• Support for health check-ups of families of migrant workers engaged in foreign employment
• School-level scholarship distribution programme (for 3500 students)
• Delivery of body to the home of deceased
• Pre-departure training cost of women migrant workers
• Expert committee management and other economic costs
b. Rescue and Relief Programme [NPR 14.6 million (ca. USD 115,000)]
• Legal support to Nepali workers, safe house operation support in seven diplomatic missions and
rescue and repatriation
• Management of information and support section at international airports in Nepal
• Management of assistance contact office at Nepali embassies in major countries of destination
c. Free Skill-based Training Programmes [NPR 202.8 million (ca. USD 1.6 million)]
• Free skill training (for 10,000 outbound and returnee migrant workers)
• Free vocational and skill development training in collaboration with Vocational and Skill
Development Training Centre (residential training for 500 individuals)
• Assessment of usefulness of vocational skills and development training to the trainees
• Free skill test (for 10,500 individuals)
• Inspection and evaluation of the infrastructure of institutions providing skills-based training
• Interaction and evaluation programme for institutions providing skill-based training (two times)
• Occupational skills and occupational health related training (for 500 trainees)
• Periodic reflection and revision of curriculum for skills-based training work procedures for
domestic workers
d. Foreign Employment Orientation Training [NPR 9.7 million (ca. USD 76,000)]
• Development of mobile app related to pre-departure orientation training
• Development of audio and audio-visual training materials (10 episodes)
• Inspection and evaluation of pre-departure orientation training institutions
• Management of free orientation training for outbound women workers
• Reflection on and revision of information sharing leaflets throughout the country
• Training of trainers for pre-departure orientation training
e. Information Sharing and Consultation Relating to Foreign Employment [NPR 25.25 million
(ca. USD 198,000)]
• Institutional capacity building as well as mobilisation of Migration Resource Centres (MRCs)
173
with orientation to local levels on MRC guidelines and maintenance of National Migrant
Resource Centre (NMRC) database (update, promotion)
• Establishment and operation of labour call centres
• Production and telecasting of safer migration related television and radio programmes
• Development, publication and distribution of information materials on foreign employment
including brochures, leaflets and factsheets on laws and regulations (including for MRCs)
• Translation of labour laws of countries of destination (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Bahrain,
Qatar and Malaysia) into Nepali language
• Celebration of International Migrants Day
• Carrying out relevant programmes in collaboration with donor agencies and other institutions
f. Reintegration Programmes [NPR 152.5 million (ca. USD 1.2 million)]

• Operation of safe houses with socio-psychological counselling services (for 500 individuals)
• Financial literacy and entrepreneurship training for returnee migrant workers in collaboration
with provincial and local governments (reintegration package for 3000 individuals)
• Communication, coordination and collaboration meetings with local level governments
g. Social and Health and Safety Programmes [NPR 8 million (ca. USD 62,000 USD)]
• Meetings and collaborations with countries of destination for social security of workers (three
meetings in total)
• Development and dissemination of awareness raising audio-visual material on physical and
mental health and safety
• Feasibility study and conduction of telemedicine services (five studies and 20 conduction)
h. Training, Study and Research [NPR 6.2 million (ca. USD 48,000)]
• Evaluation of occupational plans of FEB
• Academic studies and research on different aspects of foreign employment
• Language training to labour attachés/counsellors in Nepali diplomatic missions
• Formation of working committees through the decision of FEB, management of those committees
and mobilisation of expert
• Internship opportunities/support for Bachelor’s level students studying in universities (total six
students—three men and three women)
i. Collaboration with Stakeholders and Institutional Capacity Building [NPR 14.4 million
(ca.USD 113,000)]
• Interaction and discussion programmes on different agendas in collaboration with Nepal
Association of Foreign Employment Agencies
• Discussion programmes or meetings for collaborations with Non-Resident Nepali Association,
Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry and other financial institutions for
the security, rescue and rehabilitation of Migrant workers
174
• Interactions or discussion programmes between counsellor/labour attachés and Secretariat of

Foreign Employment Board on solutions of problems migrant workers face
• Interaction programmes with journalists who report on foreign employment related issues (three
programmes)
• Capacity building of FEB Secretariat staff
• Interaction and discussion with local governments about the use of digital platform/online
procedure (150 local governments)
• Support to the strengthening of service delivery of missions and employment offices in Nepal
175
Annex 4: Nepali Diplomatic Missions, Permanent Missions of Nepal to The UN and

Consulates General of Nepal in Countries of Destination
S. N. Diplomatic Mission Country

1. Embassy of Nepal in Canberra Australia
2. Embassy of Nepal in Manama Bahrain
3. Embassy of Nepal in Dhaka Bangladesh
Embassy of Nepal in Brussels and Mission
4. Belgium
to the European Communities
5. Embassy of Nepal in Brasilia Brazil
6. Embassy of Nepal in Ottawa Canada
7. Embassy of Nepal in Beijing China
8. Embassy of Nepal in Copenhagen Denmark
9. Embassy of Nepal in Cairo Egypt
10. Embassy of Nepal in Paris France
11. Embassy of Nepal in Berlin Germany
12. Embassy of Nepal in New Delhi India
13. Embassy of Nepal in Tel Aviv Israel
14. Embassy of Nepal in Tokyo Japan
15. Embassy of Nepal in Seoul South Korea
16. Embassy of Nepal in Kuwait City Kuwait
17. Embassy of Nepal in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
18. Embassy of Nepal in Yangon Myanmar
19. Embassy of Nepal in Muscat Oman
20. Embassy of Nepal in Islamabad Pakistan
21. Embassy of Nepal in Doha Qatar
22. Embassy of Nepal in Moscow Russia
23. Embassy of Nepal in Riyadh Saudi Arabia
24. Embassy of Nepal in Pretoria South Africa
25. Embassy of Nepal in Colombo Sri Lanka
26. Embassy of Nepal in Bangkok Thailand
27. Embassy of Nepal in Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
176
S. N. Diplomatic Mission Country

28. Embassy of Nepal in London United Kingdom
29. Embassy of Nepal in Washington D.C. United States of America
30. Embassy of Nepal in Madrid Spain
Permanent Mission of Nepal to the UN and
31. Other International Organisations in New United States of America
York
Permanent Mission of Nepal to the UN
32. and Other International Organisations in Switzerland
Geneva
Permanent Mission of Nepal to the UN
33. and Other International Organizations in Austria
Vienna
34. Consulate General of Nepal in Kolkata India
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
35. Consulate General of Nepal in Hong Kong
of China
36. Consulate General of Nepal in Lhasa Tibet Autonomous Region of China
37. Consulate General of Nepal in New York United States of America
38. Consulate General of Nepal in Jeddah Saudi Arabia
39. Consulate General of Nepal in Guangzhou China
40. Consulate General of Nepal in Chengdu China
Source: Diplomatic Missions, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed 8 June 2022, https://mofa.gov.np/embassy-of-nepal/#.
177
178
Annex 5: Coordination Committees
Committees Guided by Purpose Structure

Foreign Section 6(2), To make the process of selecting • 11 members
Employment Foreign workers for foreign employment • Chaired by Hon'ble Minister or Hon’ble State Minister of Labour,
Steering Employment by the Government of Nepal to Employment and Social Security
(Directive) Act, 2007 a country which has diplomatic • Representatives from Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social
Committee relation with Nepal and with Security, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Industry, Commerce and
which it has signed bilateral Supplies, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
agreements or treaties more each registered trade union federation, Foreign Employment
organised, competitive and Entrepreneur Association, Director General from Department of

transparent Foreign Employment (DoFE) and Executive Director as members.
Planning Section To formulate short-term as well • 5 members
Programme 29(a), as long-term plans, programmes • Secretary of Ministry of Labour of Labour, Employment and Social
and Budget Foreign and determine budget of FEB Security as the Coordinator
Formulation Employment • Representative from the Ministry of Finance, who is a member in
Committee Rules, 2008 FEB, Director General of DoFE; President of Foreign Employment
Entrepreneur Association and Executive Director of FEB as members.
Expert Section 72 To determine whether the • Medical doctor of eleventh or twelfth level designated by the Ministry
Committee (3) of the health report submitted is sound of Health and Population as the Chairperson
Foreign and authentic. • Medical doctor designated by Nepal Medical Association, law
Employment officer at the Ministry of Labour of Labour, Employment and Social
Act, 2007 Security, chairperson or representative of Nepal Health Practitioners’
Federation, and one person designated by the Ministry of Labour
of Labour, Employment and Social Security from among returnee
migrant workers as members. Law Section at the Ministry of Labour
of Labour, Employment and Social Security acts as the secretariat of
the expert committee.
Source: MoLESS
Annex 6: List of International Organizations, NGOs and CSOs Working in Labour Migration Sector
Activities/Working National networks, Non- Governmental International Organisations and Trade Unions working in the
Area Organizations and Projects International Projects Area of Labour Migration
Information • Agro-Forestry Basic Health and • Caritas • Federation of
dissemination Cooperatives (ABC Nepal) • Alliance Against Trafficking in Nepal Foreign
throughout • Aprawasi Mahila Kaamdar Samuha Women and children in Nepal Employment
migration cycle (AMKAS Nepal) (AATWIN) Orientation
and awareness • Asia Human Rights and Culture • British Council Agencies (FEONA)
raising; Vocational Development Forum • Helvetas Nepal
Development, Skill • Centre for Labour and Social Studies • International Fund for • General Federation
Agricultural Development of Nepalese Trade
Training, Skill (CLASS Nepal)
(IFAD) Union (GEFONT)
Certification and • Centre for Migration and International
• International Labour • International
Capacity building Relations (CMIR) Organization (ILO) Trade Union
• Conquer Nepal (CN Nepal) • International Organization for Confederation–
• Media Advocacy Group for Social Migration (IOM) Nepal Affiliated
Transformation • Swiss Agency for Development Council (ITUC-
• Employer Led Market Secretariat (ELMS) and Cooperation (SDC) NAC)
• Nepal Association of Foreign Employment • Swiss Foundation for Technical
Agencies (NAFEA) Cooperation (Swisscontact)
• Pourakhi • United Nations Development
• Pravasi Nepali Coordination Committee Programme (UNDP)
(PNCC) • World Bank
• Women’s’ Rehabilitation Centre (WOREC
Nepal)
• Youth Action Nepal,
Access to justice • Aprawasi Mahila Kaamdar Samuha • Helvetas
and legal/paralegal (AMKAS Nepal) • Migrant Forum in Asia (MFA)
support • Law and Policy Forum for Social Justice
(LAPSOJ)
• People Forum for Human Rights
179
• Pourakhi
180
• PNCC
• Youth Action Nepal
Capacity Building • AMKAS Nepal • Caritas
and Empowerment • Asia Human Rights and Culture • UN Women
Development Forum • IFAD
• Centre for Labour and Social Studies • IOM
(CLASS Nepal)
• Pourakhi

Rescue and • ABC Nepal • IOM • GEFONT
repatriation, Shelter/ • Pourakhi
Safe House • PNCC
• CMIR
Pshycosocial • AMKAS Nepal • Helvetas
Counselling • CMIR • Terre Des Hommes
Finanacial Literacy • ABC Nepal • Helvetas
for migrant workers
and their families
Academic activities • AMKAS Nepal • SaMi programme • GEFONT
• CMIR • Migrant Forum in Asia (MFA) • South Asian
• Centre for Social Change (CSC) • Solidarity Center Regional Trade
• CN Nepal • The Asia Foundation (TAF) Union Council
• Equidem Research & Consulting • UN Women, (SARTUC)
• International Institute for Human • Winrock International
Rights, Environment and Development • ILO
(INHURED International) • IOM
• Social Science Baha • IFAD
• LAPSOJ
• Media Advocacy Group for Social
Transformation
• National Network for safe Migration
(NNSM)
• Nepal Institute of Development Studies
(NIDS)
• People’s Forum for Human Rights
Migrant Worker's • Sakriya Sewa Samaj • IOM
Health and Safety
(Basic Health Care
and assistance)
Reintegration • Asia Human Rights and Culture • Solidarity Center
support for migrant Development Forum • Helvetas
workers and their • NIDS • Korean International
families • PNCC Cooperation Agency (KOICA)
• IOM
Educational support • Asia Human Rights and Culture
to migrant workers Development Forum
families/Children • CMIR
181
182
Support to survivors • Change Nepal • AATWIN • FEONA Nepal
and victims of human
Trafficking and • Change Nepal • Solidarity Center • GEFONT
Gender-based • Forum for Women, Law and Development • UN Women • ITUC-NAC
Violence (GBV) (FWLD) Nepal • Winrock International • Joint Trade Union
(Access to Justice, • Maiti Nepal Coordination
Shelter/Safe • Pourakhi Centre ( JTUCC)
• Sathi
home, access to
information, etc.) • Shakti Samuha
• Sunita Foundation
• Women Forum for Women in Nepal
(WOFOWON)
• Chhori
Advocacy and Social • ABC • AATWIN • FEONA
Dialouge • AMKAS Nepal • ILO • GEFONT
• CLASS Nepal • IOM • ITUC-NAC
• CMIR • JTUCC
• CSC • SARTUC
• Chhori
• CN Nepal
• FWLD Nepal
• INHURED International
• Media Advocacy Group for Social
Transformation
• NNSM
• NAFEA
• People Forum for Human Rights
• Pourakhi
• PNCC
• Sathi
• Shakti Samuha
• Sunita Foundation
• WOFOWON
• WOREC Nepal
Provide Technical • Enhanced Skills for Sustainable and • Caritas • Nepal Trade Union
Support Rewarding Employment (ENSSURE) • Deutsche Gesellschaft für Congress (NTUC)
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ) Nepal
• ILO
• IOM

183
Annex 7: International Conventions and Treaties Ratified by Nepal
Date of Ratification/
International Agreements/Forums
Participation by Nepal
ILO Conventions
Migration for Employment Convention, 1949 (No. 97) 1949
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention,1958 (No.111) 1974
Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970 (No. 131) 1974
Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100) 1976
Weekly Rest (Industry) Convention, 1921 (No. 14) 1986
Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention,

1995
1976 (No. 144)
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98) 1996
Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) 1997
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) 2002
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) 2002
Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) 2007
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) 2007
UN Conventions
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948 1948
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading

1991
Treatment or Punishment, 1991
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966 1991

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1966
(ICESR), 1966
International Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Racial
1971
Discrimination (ICERD), 1969
184
Date of Ratification/
International Agreements/Forums
Participation by Nepal
Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
1979
Women (CEDAW), 1979
Convention on Rights of Children (CRC), 1989 1989
Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2002 2011
Palermo Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,

2020
Especially Women and Children, 2000
Regional and Global Agreements and Forums
South Asian Association for Regional cooperation (SAARC), 1985 1985
Colombo Process (CP), 2003 2003
Abu Dhabi Dialogue (ADD), 2008 2008
UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2030 2015
Global Forum for Migration and Development (GFMD), 2006 2006
High-level Dialogue on International Migration and Development, 2006 2006
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM), 2018 2018
185
186
Annex 8: Number of Migrant Workers Based on Labour Demand, by Sex and Destination
2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)

UAE 112,755 17,564 130,319 21,704 5,774 27,478 130,354 34,377 164,731
Malaysia 66,365 1,200 67,565 - - - 91,214 4,038 95,252
Saudi Arabia 46,005 97 46,102 37,836 105 37,941 133,482 295 133,777
Qatar 32,182 3,572 35,754 65,062 3,159 68,221 80,080 6,362 86,442
Kuwait 18,263 3,556 21,819 204 61 265 69,935 16,926 86,861
Bahrain 7,828 1,580 9,408 9,600 519 10,119 14,487 2,023 16,510
Romania 5,054 600 5,654 3,743 695 4,438 10,733 2,072 12,805
Oman 3,577 467 4,044 3,470 275 3,745 4,827 1,095 5,922
Macau SAR, China 491 128 619 - - - - - -
Mauritius 297 - 297 122 - 122 571 - 571
Cyprus 254 1,429 1,683 195 1,104 1,299 781 3,265 4,046
Malta 232 134 366 45 13 58 417 130 547
Brunei Darussalam 210 85 295 - - - 215 100 315
Turkey 200 1,005 1,205 30 75 105 - - -
Japan 174 54 228 166 160 326 608 193 801
Afghanistan 100 100 350 - 350 - - -
Hong Kong SAR, China 77 5 82 - - - 8 - 8
Sri Lanka 65 - 65 - - - - - -
Jordan 2 3,074 3,076 - 1,426 1,426 702 3,972 4,674
Croatia - - - - - - 5,905 1,655 7,560
Albania - - - - - - 721 458 1,179
Israel - - - - - - 354 821 1,175
UK - - - 100 - 100 300 50 350
Maldives - - - - - - 50 100 150
Russia - - - - - - 105 - 105
Republic of Seychelles - - - - - - 60 - 60
Total 294,131 34,550 328,681 142,627 13,366 155,993 545,909 77,932 623,841
Annex 9: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers Based on Labour Approvals, by Sex, Countries of Destination and Mode of
Labour Approval, 2019/20 (2076/77)
Individual-New Regularisation Recruitment Agency Renewal
Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total
UAE 660 368 1,028 3,919 592 4,511 40,119 6,399 46,518 36,257 5,081 41,338
Saudi Arabia - - - 38 5 43 38,974 243 39,217 43,503 375 43,878
Qatar 1,004 102 1,106 1,180 33 1,213 25,269 2,248 27,517 50,562 1,180 51,742
Malaysia 5 - 5 167 15 182 38,587 385 38,972 19,823 723 20,546
Kuwait 360 102 462 104 8 112 7,300 1,097 8,397 6,846 1,040 7,886
Bahrain 83 41 124 119 14 133 2,690 357 3,047 2,633 251 2,884
Oman 180 27 207 170 3 173 1,355 261 1,616 1,962 181 2,143
Japan 529 68 597 135 18 153 144 45 189 2,739 50 2,789
Jordan - - - 2 - 2 69 2,303 2,372 99 154 253
Romania 331 155 486 2 - 2 1,418 24 1,442 70 28 98
Cyprus 12 - 12 3 1 4 141 1,301 1,442 51 497 548
Malta 1,016 487 1,503 5 2 7 97 61 158 119 63 182
Macau SAR, China 246 3 249 81 10 91 214 18 232 942 23 965
Maldives 569 259 828 39 13 52 6 - 6 489 160 649
Turkey 292 190 482 14 2 16 159 343 502 14 41 55
Afghanistan - - - 783 1 784 140 - 140 - - -
Croatia 575 64 639 4 2 6 - - - 1 - 1
Portugal 467 52 519 - - - 106 2 108 - - -
Republic of Seychelles 231 20 251 20 2 22 - - - 207 14 221
Poland 127 35 162 8 2 10 6 6 12 236 28 264
Brunei Darussalam 13 - 13 - 1 1 87 20 107 308 2 310
Israel - - - 3 11 14 - - - 98 230 328
USA 26 6 32 199 52 251 - - - 22 7 29
New Zealand 50 3 53 54 21 75 - - - 64 7 71
187
188
China 45 7 52 93 5 98 - - - 35 5 40
Czech Republic 55 5 60 1 - 1 - - - 111 14 125
Azerbaijan 16 164 180 - 1 1 - - - 2 2 4
Republic of Korea 21 - 21 29 - 29 - - - 79 - 79
Cayman 26 12 38 12 3 15 - - - 46 9 55
Russia 35 3 38 13 - 13 - - - 55 - 55
Hong Kong SAR, China 4 - 4 2 - 2 73 12 85 3 4 7
Singapore 4 - 4 78 3 81 - - - - - -
Mauritius 15 - 15 1 - 1 58 - 58 7 - 7
Papua New Guinea 39 4 43 3 - 3 - - - 27 3 30
Panama - - - - - - 73 - 73 - - -
Sri Lanka 28 - 28 33 7 40 - - - 3 - 3
Australia 38 3 41 14 2 16 - - - 12 - 12
Lebanon - - - 2 3 5 - - - 27 36 63
Canada 40 8 48 9 4 13 - - - 3 - 3
France 34 - 34 20 2 22 - - - - 1 1
Finland 29 - 29 3 - 3 - - - 13 2 15
Cambodia - - - 24 4 28 - - - 15 2 17
Germany 15 1 16 16 4 20 - - - 3 5 8
United Kingdom 4 1 5 21 12 33 - - - - - -
Nigeria 11 - 11 3 - 3 - - - 21 1 22
Republic of Congo 12 - 12 10 - 10 - - - 13 - 13
Hungary 29 1 30 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Netherland 18 1 19 6 3 9 - - - 3 - 3
Italy 10 - 10 13 3 16 - - - 2 1 3
Spain 6 - 6 19 2 21 - - - 1 1 2
Somalia - - - 12 - 12 - - - 15 - 15
Estonia 18 - 18 8 - 8 - - - - - -
Ukraine 24 - 24 - - - - - - - - -
Bermuda 3 - 3 6 - 6 - - - 14 - 14
Kenya 3 - 3 7 - 7 - - - 13 - 13
Slovakia (Republic of Slovak) 19 3 22 - - - - - - - - -
Egypt 8 - 8 5 - 5 - - - 7 1 8
Cambodia - - - 11 1 12 - - - 6 2 8
Ireland 4 1 5 9 - 9 - - - 5 1 6
Tanzania - - - 10 - 10 - - - 8 - 8
Turks And Caicos Island 5 - 5 1 - 1 - - - 12 - 12
Zambia 3 - 3 3 1 4 - - - 11 - 11
Indonesia 11 - 11 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Uganda 2 - 2 4 - 4 - - - 11 - 11
Angola 1 - 1 3 - 3 - - - 10 2 12
Thailand 2 - 2 3 - 3 - - - 11 - 11
Mozambique - 3 3 3 - 3 - - - 8 - 8
Lithuania 10 - 10 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Morocco - - - 4 3 7 - - - 6 - 6
Sudan - - - 2 - 2 - - - 10 - 10
Greece 4 - 4 6 1 7 - - - - - -
Ghana - - - 7 - 7 - - - 2 - 2
Philippines - - - 6 1 7 - - - 2 - 2
Belgium 6 - 6 - - - - - - 2 - 2
Lao PDR - - - 4 - 4 - - - 4 - 4
Mali - - - 2 - 2 - - - 6 - 6
189
Equatorial Guinea 2 - 2 3 - 3 - - - 2 - 2
190
Latvia 3 - 3 1 - 1 - - - 3 - 3
Vietnam - - - 3 - 3 - - - 4 - 4
Senegal - - - 3 - 3 - - - 3 - 3
South Africa 3 - 3 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Colombia 2 - 2 3 - 3 - - - - - -
Denmark 3 - 3 - 1 1 - - - 1 - 1
Djibouti - - - 1 - 1 - - - 4 - 4
Gabon 1 - 1 2 - 2 - - - 2 - 2
Luxembourg 3 - 3 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Slovenia 1 - 1 3 - 3 - - - 1 - 1
Algeria 1 - 1 2 - 2 - - - 1 - 1
Madagascar - - - - - - - - - 4 - 4
Malawi - - - 1 - 1 - - - 3 - 3
Norway 3 - 3 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Palau 1 - 1 - 1 1 - - - 2 - 2
Sweden 4 - 4 - - - - - - - - -
Jamaica 1 - 1 1 1 2 - - - - - -
Uzbekistan - - - 3 - 3 - - - - - -
West-Indies - - - 1 - 1 - - - 2 - 2
Albania 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Bahamas 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Burkina Faso - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Cameroon 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Comoros - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Cote d’Ivoire - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Eritrea 1 - 1 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Georgia - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Kazakhstan - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Myanmar - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Peru 2 - 2 - - - - - - - - -
Rwanda - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Sierra Leone - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Tajikistan - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Trinidad And Tobago 2 - 2 - - - - - - - - -
Uruguay - - - - 1 1 - - - 1 - 1
Chile - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Co-Operative Republic
1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
of Guyana
Dominican Republic - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Ethiopia - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Fiji - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Iran - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Kosovo - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Malabo 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Mexico 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Mongolia - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Sint Maarten - - - - 1 1 - - - - - -
South Sudan - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Turkmenistan - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
191
Total 7,472 2,199 9,671 7,634 878 8,512 157,085 15,125 172,210 167,753 10,227 177,980
192

Qatar 156 8 164 684 3 687 20,236 1,043 21,279 32,398 389 32,787
Saudi Arabia - - - 21 - 21 23,213 85 23,298 23,510 123 23,633
UAE 93 61 154 2,494 395 2,889 6,670 1,896 8,566 26,142 2,724 28,866
Bahrain 80 15 95 50 6 56 2,842 153 2,995 1,659 135 1,794
Oman 131 13 144 93 2 95 1,177 140 1,317 1,465 112 1,577

Romania 391 131 522 4 - 4 1,348 80 1,428 178 15 193
Japan 392 52 444 48 12 60 28 21 49 1,495 31 1,526
Maldives 548 423 971 31 5 36 - - - 510 111 621
Cyprus 8 - 8 8 - 8 82 914 996 25 218 243
Malaysia 17 - 17 86 4 90 - - - 1,016 12 1,028
Croatia 935 138 1,073 14 - 14 - - - 7 - 7
Afghanistan - - - 921 3 924 149 - 149 - - -
Kuwait - - - 2 - 2 - - - 844 168 1,012
Jordan 10 - 10 1 - 1 1 918 919 28 21 49
Turkey 259 118 377 2 - 2 32 299 331 21 44 65
Poland 374 50 424 12 1 13 16 - 16 231 21 252
United Kingdom 150 98 248 27 10 37 30 - 30 2 - 2
Malta 51 4 55 9 - 9 - - - 168 83 251
Czech Republic 6 - 6 3 - 3 - - - 133 16 149
Republic of Seychelles 38 1 39 11 - 11 - - - 75 7 82
USA 9 - 9 62 18 80 - - - 8 1 9
Egypt 44 - 44 38 1 39 - - - 3 1 4
Canada 47 10 57 7 1 8 - - - 2 - 2
Netherland 47 5 52 3 4 7 - - - 6 - 6
China 3 - 3 21 - 21 - - - 39 1 40
Portugal 55 - 55 - - - 2 - 2 1 - 1
Ukraine 46 7 53 - - - - - - - - -
Papua New Guinea 40 - 40 - - - - - - 8 - 8
Mauritius - - - - - - 46 - 46 1 - 1
Nigeria 15 - 15 11 - 11 - - - 17 1 18
Brunei Darussalam 3 1 4 1 - 1 - - - 35 - 35
Republic of Korea 12 - 12 3 1 4 - - - 18 - 18
Comoros 23 - 23 4 - 4 - - - 2 - 2
Singapore 5 - 5 23 - 23 - - - - - -
France 6 - 6 16 4 20 - - - 1 - 1
Israel - - - - 1 1 - - - 5 21 26
Germany 7 1 8 9 2 11 - - - 5 - 5
Ireland 17 2 19 2 - 2 - - - 2 - 2
Macau SAR, China - - - - - - - - - 23 - 23
Zambia 3 1 4 3 - 3 - - - 13 2 15
Kenya 2 - 2 8 - 8 - - - 10 - 10
Albania 15 3 18 - - - - - - - 1 1
Somalia 1 - 1 3 - 3 - - - 15 - 15
Djibouti 3 - 3 6 - 6 - - - 9 - 9
Italy 1 - 1 15 2 17 - - - - - -
193
194
Spain 5 1 6 11 - 11 - - - - 1 1
Angola 1 - 1 2 - 2 - - - 10 4 14
Uganda 1 - 1 7 - 7 - - - 9 - 9
Mozambique 5 - 5 - - - - - - 8 3 11
Cayman 2 2 4 - - - - - - 10 1 11
Sierra Leone 9 - 9 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Belgium 13 - 13 - - - - - - - - -
Mali - - - 3 - 3 - - - 10 - 10
Morocco - - - 2 - 2 - - - 10 1 11
Finland 7 - 7 - 1 1 - - - 4 - 4
Ghana - - - 11 - 11 - - - 1 - 1
Sri Lanka 7 - 7 3 2 5 - - - - - -
Tanzania - - - 2 - 2 - - - 10 - 10
Lebanon - - - 2 - 2 - - - 1 8 9
Bermuda - - - 1 - 1 - - - 9 - 9
Norway 7 - 7 3 - 3 - - - - - -
Russia 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - 7 - 7
Greece 2 - 2 5 - 5 - - - 1 - 1
Kazakhstan 1 - 1 - - - - - - 7 - 7
Sweden 4 - 4 1 - 1 - - - 3 - 3
Estonia 6 - 6 - - - - - - 1 - 1
New Zealand 2 - 2 2 - 2 - - - 2 1 3
Rwanda - - - 1 - 1 - - - 6 - 6
Sudan 1 - 1 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Turks And Caicos Island 3 - 3 - - - - - - 4 - 4
Denmark 6 - 6 - - - - - - - - -
Dominican Republic 6 - 6 - - - - - - - - -
Senegal - - - - - - - - - 6 - 6
South Sudan 3 - 3 1 - 1 - - - 2 - 2
Tajikistan 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - 4 - 4
Australia 4 1 5 - - - - - - - - -
Ethiopia 1 - 1 3 - 3 - - - 1 - 1
Gabon - - - - - - - - - 5 - 5
Iceland 4 - 4 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Indonesia - - - 1 - 1 - - - 4 - 4
Latvia 1 - 1 - - - - - - 4 - 4
Lithuania 2 - 2 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Malawi - - - - - - - - - 4 1 5
South Africa 4 - 4 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Thailand - - - 2 - 2 - - - 3 - 3
Burkina Faso - - - 1 - 1 - - - 3 - 3
Equatorial Guinea 1 - 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Slovenia 1 - 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Cambodia - - - 2 1 3 - - - - - -
Colombia 1 - 1 - - - - - - 2 - 2
Hungary 2 1 3 - - - - - - - - -
Luxembourg 1 1 2 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Bangladesh - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
195
196
Central African Republic - - - 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Jamaica 2 - 2 - - - - - - - - -
Mexico - - - 1 1 2 - - - - - -
Panama - - - 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Republic of Bulgaria 2 - 2 - - - - - - - - -
Algeria 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Austria 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Benin - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Brazil - 1 1 - - - - - - - - -
Cameroon - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Cambodia - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Kosovo - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Lao PDR - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Mongolia - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Philippines - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Republic of Macedonia - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Sint Maarten - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Switzerland 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Togo - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Uruguay - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Total 4,168 1,149 5,317 4,854 480 5,334 55,872 5,549 61,421 90,339 4,278 94,617

Saudi Arabia 26 3 29 93 9 102 125,041 196 125,237 62,805 518 63,323
Qatar 2,861 192 3,053 1,334 19 1,353 68,280 4,137 72,417 105,313 2,790 108,103
UAE 2,068 1,013 3,081 5,208 905 6,113 33,640 11,010 44,650 60,580 8,211 68,791
Malaysia 69 2 71 169 9 178 24,595 1,247 25,842 10,347 206 10,553
Kuwait 379 134 513 70 156 226 18,605 3,442 22,047 11,122 1,633 12,755
Bahrain 237 75 312 179 13 192 6,538 550 7,088 4,101 369 4,470
Romania 1,062 183 1,245 6 1 7 4,512 654 5,166 994 63 1,057
Oman 628 124 752 144 13 157 2,232 485 2,717 2,960 263 3,223
Japan 1,462 398 1,860 77 18 95 358 165 523 3,106 72 3,178
Croatia 2,996 727 3,723 45 1 46 1,073 364 1,437 127 11 138
Cyprus 2 - 2 6 3 9 387 2,824 3,211 133 826 959
Maldives 1,796 861 2,657 22 3 25 15 38 53 858 263 1,121
United Kingdom 2,146 520 2,666 30 26 56 86 - 86 5 1 6
Malta 919 310 1,229 34 2 36 - 3 3 449 198 647
Poland 1,286 205 1,491 9 2 11 - - - 311 42 353
Jordan 8 4 12 2 - 2 146 767 913 90 162 252
Republic of Seychelles 324 179 503 31 1 32 59 - 59 401 24 425
Turkey 529 229 758 11 1 12 - 82 82 47 96 143
Brunei Darussalam 88 12 100 1 - 1 164 20 184 313 - 313
Israel - 1 1 3 5 8 102 195 297 78 214 292
USA 98 23 121 263 66 329 - - - 41 6 47
Republic of Korea 84 - 84 88 1 89 - - - 108 - 108
197
Mauritius 12 - 12 - - - 248 - 248 10 - 10

198
Cayman 140 37 177 4 1 5 - - - 39 7 46
Albania 33 41 74 - - - 66 59 125 2 - 2
Singapore 106 5 111 73 4 77 - - - 1 - 1
Czech Republic 7 - 7 7 1 8 - - - 145 25 170
France 118 6 124 29 9 38 - - - 2 - 2
Ireland 141 8 149 3 - 3 - - - 6 1 7
Ukraine 135 16 151 - - - - - - 1 - 1

Papua New Guinea 85 4 89 2 - 2 - - - 55 2 57
Austria 120 25 145 - - - - - - - - -
Afghanistan - - - 125 - 125 - - - - - -
Norway 93 1 94 3 1 4 - - - 7 1 8
Canada 50 43 93 5 1 6 - - - 3 1 4
Italy 22 6 28 54 17 71 - - - 2 1 3
Serbia 57 39 96 - - - - - - - - -
Netherland 77 3 80 5 - 5 - - - 7 1 8
Russia 18 2 20 1 - 1 30 - 30 31 - 31
Portugal 65 11 76 1 - 1 - - - 2 - 2
Australia 53 4 57 3 - 3 - - - 16 1 17
New Zealand 22 6 28 5 1 6 - - - 40 2 42
Belgium 65 - 65 7 - 7 - - - 3 - 3
Greece 46 5 51 7 2 9 - - - 5 - 5
Nigeria 21 - 21 9 3 12 - - - 30 - 30
Germany 31 4 35 13 1 14 - - - 5 4 9
Lebanon - - - 2 1 3 - - - 19 35 54
Spain 18 1 19 33 3 36 - - - - - -
Bosnia And Herzegovina 46 - 46 - - - - - - - - -
Denmark 27 13 40 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Republic of Bulgaria 41 1 42 - 2 2 - - - - - -
Senegal 38 - 38 3 - 3 - - - 1 - 1
Comoros 36 - 36 2 - 2 - - - 3 - 3
Zambia 6 - 6 12 - 12 - - - 23 - 23
Cambodia 1 - 1 19 - 19 - - - 18 2 20
Sri Lanka 28 2 30 6 3 9 - - - 1 - 1
Thailand 7 2 9 3 - 3 - - - 27 - 27
Egypt 24 2 26 7 1 8 - - - 4 - 4
Kenya 4 - 4 9 - 9 - - - 23 - 23
Uganda 3 - 3 7 1 8 - - - 25 - 25
Turks And Caicos Island 12 - 12 2 - 2 - - - 19 - 19
Finland 25 2 27 - - - - - - 4 1 5
Brazil 27 2 29 - - - - - - - - -
Hungary 24 1 25 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Morocco 11 - 11 5 - 5 - - - 10 2 12
Mali 13 - 13 6 - 6 - - - 8 - 8
Mozambique 5 6 11 3 - 3 - - - 13 - 13
Dominican Republic 23 - 23 3 - 3 - - - - - -
Somalia 2 - 2 - - - - - - 24 - 24
Bermuda 5 1 6 - - - - - - 18 1 19
Tanzania 5 - 5 3 - 3 - - - 17 - 17
199
Cambodia 2 - 2 6 - 6 - - - 14 2 16
200
Ghana 9 - 9 6 - 6 - - - 9 - 9
Mexico 18 3 21 - - - - - - - - -
Togo 20 - 20 - - - - - - - - -
Lithuania 9 - 9 - - - - - - 10 - 10
Estonia 6 - 6 1 - 1 - - - 9 - 9
South Africa 7 2 9 4 - 4 - - - 3 - 3
Angola - 1 1 - - - - - - 12 2 14
Sierra Leone 10 - 10 1 - 1 - - - 4 - 4
Djibouti 4 - 4 2 - 2 - - - 8 - 8
Slovenia 12 1 13 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Mauritania 12 - 12 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Sudan 4 - 4 2 - 2 - - - 5 - 5
Latvia 4 - 4 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Philippines 1 - 1 3 - 3 - - - 6 - 6
Republic of Macedonia 6 3 9 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Cameroon 7 - 7 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Sweden 3 2 5 - - - - - - 4 - 4
Colombia 4 - 4 2 - 2 - - - 2 - 2
Iceland 7 1 8 - - - - - - - - -
Jamaica 6 1 7 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Azerbaijan - - - - 2 2 - - - 3 2 5
Kazakhstan 1 - 1 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Barbados 3 - 3 2 1 3 - - - - - -
Lao PDR - - - 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
Slovakia (Republic of Slovak) 5 - 5 - - - - - - 1 - 1
South Sudan - - - 5 - 5 - - - 1 - 1
Vietnam - - - 2 - 2 - - - 4 - 4
China - 1 1 - - - - - - 4 - 4
Hong Kong SAR, China - - - - - - - - - 1 4 5
Indonesia - - - 1 - 1 - - - 4 - 4
Luxembourg 2 - 2 1 - 1 - - - 2 - 2
Panama - - - 4 1 5 - - - - - -
Swaziland 5 - 5 - - - - - - - - -
Algeria - - - - - - - - - 4 - 4
Bahamas 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - - 2 - 2
Equatorial Guinea - - - 3 - 3 - - - 1 - 1
Fiji 2 - 2 - - - - - - 2 - 2
Gabon 1 - 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3
Pakistan 1 2 3 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Peru 4 - 4 - - - - - - - - -
Rwanda - - - - - - - - - 4 - 4
Uzbekistan - - - 1 - 1 - - - 3 - 3
Bangladesh - - - 3 - 3 - - - - - -
British Virgin Islands 3 - 3 - - - - - - - - -
Ethiopia 2 - 2 - 1 1 - - - - - -
Kosovo - 2 2 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Madagascar 1 - 1 - - - - - - 2 - 2
Mongolia - - - - - - - - - 3 - 3
201
202
Antigua & Barbuda 1 - 1 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Burkina Faso - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Cote d’Ivoire - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Macau SAR, China - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Malabo - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Myanmar - - - 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Saint Lucia - - - 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Sint Maarten - - - 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Tajikistan - - - - - - - - - 2 - 2
Timor-Leste - - - 2 - 2 - - - - - -
Trinidad And Tobago 1 - 1 - - - - - - 1 - 1
Armenia 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Benin - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Chile 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Cook Islands 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - -
Eritrea - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
French Polynesia - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Iran - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Malawi - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Samoa - - - - - - - - - - 1 1
Tunisia - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Turkmenistan - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1
Uruguay - - - 1 - 1 - - - - - -
Total 21,227 5,513 26,740 8,401 1,311 9,712 286,177 26,238 312,415 265,156 16,066 281,222
Annex 12: Number of Nepali Migrant Workers Based on Labour Approvals, by Sex and District (2019/20-2021/22)
New New and renew

S
District 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
N
M W T M W T M W T M W T M W T M W T
Province 1
1 Bhojpur 1,936 195 2,131 528 72 600 2,965 373 3,338 3,645 292 3,937 1,181 109 1,290 5,389 516 5,905
2 Dhankuta 1,671 204 1,875 483 65 548 2,304 331 2,635 3,191 299 3,490 1,043 99 1,142 4,444 490 4,934
3 Ilam 2,466 552 3,018 691 199 890 3,167 864 4,031 4,371 789 5,160 1,375 289 1,664 5,661 1,301 6,962
4 Jhapa 7,767 1,649 9,416 2,384 650 3,034 10,883 2,675 13,558 15,895 2,634 18,529 6,468 1,022 7,490 23,702 4,264 27,966
5 Khotang 2,796 183 2,979 855 71 926 3,904 391 4,295 5,041 285 5,326 1,824 104 1,928 7,317 553 7,870
6 Morang 7,110 1,045 8,155 2,221 403 2,624 10,914 1,743 12,657 13,682 1,636 15,318 5,561 630 6,191 21,427 2,648 24,075
7 Okhaldhunga 1,386 170 1,556 449 69 518 2,106 356 2,462 2,397 257 2,654 847 99 946 3,528 479 4,007
8 Panchthar 2,215 302 2,517 624 104 728 3,085 437 3,522 3,961 409 4,370 1,313 127 1,440 5,506 621 6,127
9 Sankhuwasabha 1,565 148 1,713 402 64 466 2,107 255 2,362 2,702 225 2,927 853 92 945 3,843 363 4,206
10 Solukhumbu 688 257 945 232 139 371 1,521 570 2,091 1,156 384 1,540 437 193 630 2,162 738 2,900
11 Sunsari 5,216 663 5,879 2,082 225 2,307 9,648 1,062 10,710 10,452 1,044 11,496 5,180 365 5,545 19,161 1,670 20,831
12 Taplejung 1,398 141 1,539 336 45 381 1,715 220 1,935 2,369 201 2,570 719 60 779 3,091 302 3,393
13 Terhathum 1,092 83 1,175 294 32 326 1,469 160 1,629 2,125 126 2,251 687 45 732 2,953 235 3,188
14 Udayapur 2,857 360 3,217 935 116 1,051 4,726 672 5,398 5,111 526 5,637 1,821 190 2,011 7,927 911 8,838
Total 40,163 5,952 46,115 12,516 2,254 14,770 60,514 10,109 70,623 76,098 9,107 85,205 29,309 3,424 32,733 116,111 15,091 131,202
Madhesh Province
1 Bara 2,308 205 2,513 779 83 862 5,801 421 6,222 4,879 301 5,180 2,230 130 2,360 9,749 596 10,345
2 Dhanusa 10,144 48 10,192 5,418 14 5,432 22,799 103 22,902 20,251 81 20,332 12,651 34 12,685 41,141 151 41,292
3 Mahottari 7,014 56 7,070 3,543 22 3,565 16,711 127 16,838 13,711 96 13,807 8,067 40 8,107 28,813 176 28,989
4 Parsa 1,488 74 1,562 550 20 570 3,111 128 3,239 3,011 127 3,138 1,386 45 1,431 5,493 202 5,695
5 Rautahat 2,829 90 2,919 1,388 35 1,423 8,480 226 8,706 5,187 126 5,313 2,441 50 2,491 12,309 298 12,607
203
6 Saptari 5,457 30 5,487 1,810 11 1,821 11,150 83 11,233 9,698 54 9,752 4,069 25 4,094 18,196 131 18,327
204
New New and renew
S
District 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
N
7 Sarlahi 5,491 256 5,747 2,305 90 2,395 12,747 541 13,288 9,335 400 9,735 4,511 145 4,656 19,282 750 20,032
8 Siraha 8,602 26 8,628 4,568 9 4,577 17,573 65 17,638 16,026 46 16,072 9,870 18 9,888 32,140 93 32,233
Total 43,333 785 44,118 20,361 284 20,645 98,372 1,694 100,066 82,098 1,231 83,329 45,225 487 45,712 167,123 2,397 169,520
Bagmati Province
1 Bhaktapur 416 159 575 136 63 199 578 266 844 1,010 274 1,284 447 133 580 1,330 449 1,779
2 Chitawan 3,122 557 3,679 1,239 247 1,486 5,658 1,035 6,693 7,581 901 8,482 3,705 411 4,116 12,350 1,585 13,935
3 Dhading 2,525 480 3,005 972 186 1,158 4,552 1,025 5,577 4,727 720 5,447 2,092 302 2,394 7,810 1,417 9,227
4 Dolakha 1,367 463 1,830 440 177 617 2,325 755 3,080 2,423 699 3,122 913 271 1,184 3,802 1,109 4,911
5 Kathmandu 1,442 791 2,233 482 278 760 1,945 1,251 3,196 3,585 1,551 5,136 1,546 646 2,192 4,688 2,327 7,015
6 Kavrepalanchok 2,400 836 3,236 813 324 1,137 4,224 1,642 5,866 4,380 1,283 5,663 1,781 506 2,287 7,013 2,333 9,346
7 Lalitpur 740 311 1,051 219 114 333 1,020 616 1,636 1,616 530 2,146 626 221 847 2,151 1,025 3,176
8 Makwanpur 2,383 948 3,331 873 345 1,218 4,736 1,856 6,592 4,571 1,383 5,954 1,884 544 2,428 7,707 2,555 10,262
9 Nuwakot 2,287 747 3,034 748 287 1,035 3,680 1,422 5,102 4,058 1,079 5,137 1,668 448 2,116 6,417 1,961 8,378
10 Ramechhap 1,594 395 1,989 505 158 663 2,629 730 3,359 2,913 637 3,550 1,070 256 1,326 4,445 1,095 5,540
11 Rasuwa 264 168 432 92 190 282 509 313 822 420 223 643 167 215 382 718 400 1,118
12 Sindhuli 2,363 362 2,725 902 117 1,019 4,330 734 5,064 3,999 534 4,533 1,567 181 1,748 6,543 989 7,532
13 Sindhupalchok 2,464 1,422 3,886 897 608 1,505 4,161 2,025 6,186 4,029 2,030 6,059 1,649 843 2,492 6,369 2,922 9,291
Total 23,367 7,639 31,006 8,318 3,094 11,412 40,347 13,670 54,017 45,312 11,844 57,156 19,115 4,977 24,092 71,343 20,167 91,510
Gandaki Province
1 Baglung 2,799 102 2,901 1,128 35 1,163 4,781 223 5,004 6,601 149 6,750 3,123 65 3,188 10,293 310 10,603
2 Gorkha 2,815 280 3,095 978 125 1,103 4,856 634 5,490 5,819 427 6,246 2,484 197 2,681 9,451 871 10,322
3 Kaski 2,393 313 2,706 803 133 936 4,037 595 4,632 6,439 546 6,985 2,788 223 3,011 10,067 915 10,982
4 Lamjung 2,128 168 2,296 717 62 779 3,195 316 3,511 4,714 257 4,971 2,051 110 2,161 7,360 469 7,829
5 Manang 19 6 25 4 1 5 22 11 33 26 8 34 7 2 9 31 18 49
New New and renew
S
District 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
N
6 Mustang 26 9 35 18 2 20 64 26 90 47 14 61 27 4 31 94 31 125
7 Myagdi 1,370 123 1,493 439 55 494 1,957 271 2,228 2,980 194 3,174 1,113 75 1,188 4,277 356 4,633
Nawalparasi
8 3,278 265 3,543 1,225 94 1,319 6,196 452 6,648 7,390 452 7,842 3,593 164 3,757 12,242 719 12,961
East
9 Parbat 1,590 87 1,677 581 48 629 2,282 167 2,449 3,716 138 3,854 1,786 68 1,854 5,872 257 6,129
10 Syangja 3,134 183 3,317 1,281 81 1,362 5,280 386 5,666 8,808 324 9,132 4,737 154 4,891 14,491 654 15,145
11 Tanahu 3,611 205 3,816 1,293 100 1,393 6,314 471 6,785 9,150 355 9,505 4,121 172 4,293 14,933 711 15,644
Total 23,163 1,741 24,904 8,467 736 9,203 38,984 3,552 42,536 55,690 2,864 58,554 25,830 1,234 27,064 89,111 5,311 94,422
Lumbini Province
1 Arghakhanchi 1,572 65 1,637 658 20 678 2,890 162 3,052 3,978 116 4,094 1,893 48 1,941 6,505 244 6,749
2 Banke 2,215 192 2,407 907 61 968 4,848 310 5,158 4,034 270 4,304 1,782 86 1,868 7,663 434 8,097
3 Bardiya 2,111 151 2,262 722 49 771 3,825 222 4,047 3,730 221 3,951 1,375 73 1,448 6,082 347 6,429
4 Dang 4,310 270 4,580 1,815 112 1,927 7,759 614 8,373 7,191 398 7,589 3,001 173 3,174 11,850 875 12,725
5 Gulmi 2,362 110 2,472 916 51 967 4,059 201 4,260 6,185 216 6,401 3,295 99 3,394 10,143 403 10,546
6 Kapilbastu 3,311 84 3,395 1,069 35 1,104 6,649 135 6,784 7,006 161 7,167 3,892 58 3,950 13,771 246 14,017
Nawalparasi
7 2,026 164 2,190 758 59 817 3,830 280 4,110 4,568 280 4,848 2,221 102 2,323 7,567 445 8,012
West
8 Palpa 2,240 92 2,332 801 53 854 3,827 206 4,033 5,672 180 5,852 2,766 89 2,855 9,127 345 9,472
9 Pyuthan 1,814 48 1,862 758 18 776 3,483 90 3,573 3,083 71 3,154 1,322 32 1,354 5,714 134 5,848
10 Rolpa 2,965 71 3,036 1,339 28 1,367 5,083 180 5,263 4,979 107 5,086 1,990 40 2,030 7,722 238 7,960
11 Rukum East 360 19 379 140 5 145 711 38 749 550 24 574 194 8 202 949 48 997
12 Rupandehi 4,287 352 4,639 1,394 130 1,524 8,706 575 9,281 10,042 648 10,690 5,129 252 5,381 18,075 1,014 19,089
Total 29,573 1,618 31,191 11,277 621 11,898 55,670 3,013 58,683 61,018 2,692 63,710 28,860 1,060 29,920 105,168 4,773 109,941
205
206
New New and renew
S
District 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) 2019/20 (2076/77) 2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
N
Karnali Province
1 Dailekh 765 27 792 235 16 251 1,238 54 1,292 1,237 35 1,272 438 21 459 1,953 77 2,030
2 Dolpa 34 7 41 10 1 11 62 10 72 49 14 63 14 1 15 80 15 95
3 Humla 34 2 36 10 2 12 50 12 62 47 3 50 12 2 14 69 13 82
4 Jajarkot 651 14 665 169 5 174 912 31 943 884 18 902 227 7 234 1,187 39 1,226
5 Jumla 183 2 185 93 2 95 396 10 406 253 5 258 117 3 120 481 12 493
6 Kalikot 210 6 216 66 7 73 276 14 290 290 10 300 82 8 90 376 22 398
7 Mugu 85 3 88 23 3 26 124 4 128 115 3 118 32 3 35 152 5 157
8 Rukum West 1,186 66 1,252 465 16 481 2,346 125 2,471 1,814 84 1,898 645 25 670 3,131 159 3,290
9 Salyan 2,532 66 2,598 899 34 933 4,576 178 4,754 3,681 103 3,784 1,250 46 1,296 5,931 229 6,160
10 Surkhet 1,468 84 1,552 485 24 509 2,877 131 3,008 2,290 113 2,403 819 35 854 4,051 187 4,238
Total 7,148 277 7,425 2,455 110 2,565 12,857 569 13,426 10,660 388 11,048 3,636 151 3,787 17,411 758 18,169
Sudurpashchim Province
1 Achham 244 4 248 60 1 61 369 34 403 382 6 388 135 6 141 587 36 623
2 Baitadi 640 5 645 191 3 194 1,180 33 1,213 1,022 10 1,032 379 5 384 1,781 39 1,820
3 Bajhang 207 5 212 56 1 57 278 26 304 330 5 335 82 1 83 408 28 436
4 Bajura 224 5 229 60 2 62 266 25 291 306 7 313 83 3 86 353 30 383
5 Dadeldhura 355 4 359 95 2 97 624 22 646 597 13 610 210 3 213 962 27 989
6 Darchula 462 13 475 93 4 97 780 24 804 701 14 715 184 4 188 1,110 30 1,140
7 Doti 278 3 281 99 1 100 476 10 486 473 8 481 172 3 175 751 18 769
8 Kailali 1,494 92 1,586 431 43 474 2,449 187 2,636 2,502 148 2,650 986 60 1,046 4,149 280 4,429
9 Kanchanpur 1,540 59 1,599 415 22 437 2,639 94 2,733 2,755 92 2,847 1,027 38 1,065 4,593 143 4,736
Total 5,444 190 5,634 1,500 79 1,579 9,061 455 9,516 9,068 303 9,371 3,258 123 3,381 14,694 631 15,325
Grand Total 172,191 18,202 190,393 64,894 7,178 72,072 315,805 33,062 348,867 339,944 28,429 368,373 155,233 11,456 166,689 580,961 49,128 630,089
Annex 13: New Labour Approval Issued, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by Sex, Mode of Obtaining Approval and Occupation)
Individual Regularization Recruitment Agency Total

Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry, Animal and Gardener 6.2 7.4 6.5 0.6 0.0 0.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry, Animal and Gardener 6.2 7.4 6.5 0.6 0.0 0.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
Construction 5.9 0.3 4.7 3.9 0.0 3.4 6.1 0.0 5.6 6.1 0.1 5.5
Carpenter 1.8 0.1 1.4 0.9 0.0 0.8 1.6 0.0 1.5 1.6 0.0 1.4
Mason 2.7 0.1 2.1 1.3 0.0 1.1 2.1 0.0 1.9 2.1 0.0 1.9
Painting 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.5
Scaffolding 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 1.1 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.9
Steel Fixer 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.7
Construction (others) 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Driver/Machine Operator 3.4 1.1 2.9 5.3 0.6 4.7 8.4 0.3 7.7 8.0 0.4 7.2
Driver 2.1 0.0 1.7 3.3 0.2 2.9 7.3 0.0 6.7 6.8 0.0 6.2
Machine Operator 1.3 1.1 1.2 2.0 0.5 1.8 1.1 0.2 1.0 1.2 0.4 1.1
Electrical and Mechanical Technician 3.8 0.8 3.2 2.9 0.0 2.5 3.0 0.1 2.7 3.0 0.2 2.8
A/C Technician 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1
Automotive 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2
Electrician 1.3 0.0 1.1 0.9 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.7
207
208
Plumbing/Pipe Fitter 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.4 1.3 0.0 1.2 1.2 0.0 1.1
Welding 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3
Electro/Mechanical Other 1.5 0.7 1.3 0.8 0.0 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3
Elementary Occupations 37.6 32.7 36.6 29.8 27.2 29.4 59.1 64.0 59.5 56.9 57.3 56.9
Cleaning and Laundry 4.3 14.7 6.4 7.9 20.4 9.6 11.3 46.2 14.2 10.7 39.9 13.5
Labour (Specified) 4.7 3.6 4.5 3.2 1.5 2.9 4.2 0.4 3.9 4.2 1.0 3.9
Labour (Unspecified) 24.1 12.6 21.7 15.0 5.1 13.7 41.9 17.2 39.8 40.0 16.0 37.7
Packaging, Loading, Shipping and Delivery 4.5 1.9 4.0 3.7 0.3 3.3 1.7 0.2 1.6 2.0 0.5 1.8
Manufacturing 4.3 2.4 3.9 1.7 0.2 1.5 9.4 6.7 9.2 8.9 5.7 8.6
Manufacturing 4.3 2.4 3.9 1.7 0.2 1.5 9.4 6.7 9.2 8.9 5.7 8.6
Office/Administrative/Associate Professionals 5.9 12.3 7.2 10.6 24.7 12.5 1.6 3.9 1.8 2.1 6.1 2.5
Office/Administrative/Associate Professionals 5.9 12.3 7.2 10.6 24.7 12.5 1.6 3.9 1.8 2.1 6.1 2.5
Professionals and Managers 2.9 4.0 3.1 3.3 5.1 3.6 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.4
Manager 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.5 2.4 1.7 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.2
Professional 1.9 2.9 2.1 1.8 2.7 1.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.7 0.3
Service & Sales 24.5 36.6 27.0 37.6 37.6 37.6 9.8 22.7 10.8 11.5 25.6 12.8
Baker/Dessert Maker 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2
Barista/Coffee Maker 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5
Beauty & Fitness 0.5 6.6 1.8 0.6 6.5 1.4 0.1 3.2 0.4 0.2 3.9 0.5
Caregiver/Nursing Aide 0.4 6.5 1.7 0.0 1.5 0.2 0.0 2.1 0.2 0.1 2.8 0.3
Chef/Cook 10.2 2.5 8.6 9.1 1.1 8.0 1.5 0.6 1.4 2.3 1.0 2.2
Housekeeping 0.9 5.3 1.8 1.1 2.4 1.2 0.2 2.6 0.4 0.3 3.0 0.5
Retail 1.8 2.6 2.0 6.2 8.3 6.5 0.7 3.8 0.9 0.9 3.8 1.2
Security 3.8 0.6 3.1 7.9 5.6 7.6 4.2 1.7 4.0 4.3 1.7 4.0
Tailor 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.3 0.1 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
Waiter/Waitress 3.9 9.7 5.1 8.0 10.2 8.3 2.0 7.0 2.4 2.3 7.6 2.8
Hospitality (others) 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 0.2 1.1 0.3 0.3 1.1 0.4
Supervisor and Foreman 2.0 0.9 1.8 1.8 2.6 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5
Foreman 0.8 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2
Supervisor 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.6 1.7 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3
Others 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Others 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total Number 21,227 5,513 26,740 8,401 1,311 9,712 286,177 26,238 312,415 315,805 33,062 348,867
209
210
Annex 14: New Labour Approvals Issued, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by country of destination and occupation)
Saudi
Arabia
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry, Animal
0.7 0.8 1.6 5.1 1.3 3.6 3.7 6.6 2.7 20.7 3.8
and Gardener
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry, Animal and
0.7 0.8 1.6 5.1 1.3 3.6 3.7 6.6 2.7 20.7 3.8
Gardener
Aviation and Cruise 0.5 0.1 2.3 0.3 0.9 - 0.5 0.5 2.8 0.8 2.2
Aviation and Cruise 0.5 0.1 2.3 0.3 0.9 - 0.5 0.5 2.8 0.8 2.2
Construction 10.83 3.82 4.68 0 2.49 0.03 4.86 18.63 0.23 0.04 6.51
Carpenter 3.1 1.0 1.1 - 1.0 - 1.7 5.8 - 0.04 0.9
Mason 5.2 0.7 1.6 - 0.2 - 1.6 7.0 0.2 - 1.3
Painting 1.3 0.4 0.3 - 0.1 0.03 0.9 0.3 - - 0.3
Scaffolding - 1.4 0.8 - 0.5 - 0.3 0.2 - - 3.7
Steel Fixer 1.3 0.4 0.7 - 0.5 - 0.3 4.9 - - 0.2
Construction (other) - - 0.02 - 0.1 - - 0.3 - - 0.1
Driver/Machine Operator 7.6 11.9 4.2 1.9 4.4 - 0.3 2.7 4.5 0.04 2.4
Driver 7.0 10.3 3.8 - 4.4 - 0.1 1.0 - 0.04 0.9
Machine Operator 0.6 1.7 0.4 1.9 0.1 - 0.2 1.7 4.5 - 1.5
Electrical and Mechanical Technician 7.4 1.6 1.1 0.1 0.6 0.03 2.2 5.8 - 0.6 2.7
A/C Technician 0.5 0.02 0.1 - - - 0.1 - - - 0.04
Automotive Technicians - 0.4 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.03 0.2 - - 0.2
Electrician 1.9 0.4 0.4 - 0.2 - 0.6 0.6 - - 0.8
Plumbing/Pipe Fitter 4.1 0.4 0.2 - 0.01 - 0.4 0.1 - - 0.3
Saudi
Arabia
Welding 0.5 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 0.03 0.8 3.0 - 0.2 0.5
Electro/Mechanical (other) 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 - 0.4 2.0 - 0.4 1.0
Elementary Occupations 57.0 68.9 55.9 14.9 57.9 85.7 59.7 35.2 34.4 56.3 43.0
Cleaning and Laundry 11.0 2.5 40.3 5.9 32.7 0.1 6.4 4.7 9.5 0.04 16.0
Labour (Specified) 4.5 5.2 1.3 0.7 2.3 0.03 3.4 4.0 9.6 0.7 7.0
Labour (Unspecified) 41.2 58.6 12.5 7.7 20.6 85.4 49.4 20.9 12.9 52.5 17.0
Packaging, Loading, Shipping and
0.4 2.6 1.8 0.6 2.3 0.1 0.4 5.6 2.4 3.1 3.1
Delivery
Manufacturing 0.1 7.7 0.8 66.6 1.5 - 4.5 12.5 20.0 2.1 3.5
Manufacturing 0.1 7.7 0.8 66.6 1.5 - 4.5 12.5 20.0 2.1 3.5
Office/Administrative/Associate
5.1 0.2 4.8 0.4 3.0 0.03 2.7 0.8 5.9 0.6 3.7
Professionals
Office/Administrative/Associate
5.1 0.2 4.8 0.4 3.0 0.03 2.7 0.8 5.9 0.6 3.7
Professionals
Professionals and Managers 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.03 0.02 0.2 5.1 1.6 3.0
Manager 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.03 0.01 0.03 - 0.02 - 0.9 0.8
Professional 0.1 0.04 0.2 0.1 0.2 - 0.0 0.2 5.1 0.7 2.2
Service & Sales 9.2 4.6 23.3 10.5 27.4 10.6 21.3 17.0 23.9 16.9 28.1
Baker/Dessert Maker 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.3 0.1 1.0 3.5 0.1 - 0.3
Barista/Coffee Maker 0.04 0.9 0.3 - 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.4 - - 1.0
Beauty & Fitness 0.3 0.1 1.0 - 2.1 - 0.3 0.04 5.2 0.8 1.4
Caregiver/Nursing Aide 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.5 4.4 1.1 0.02 2.4 7.6 1.4
Chef/Cook 1.2 1.2 2.0 0.5 4.0 5.4 7.9 2.8 7.8 4.2 8.0
211
212
Saudi
Arabia
Housekeeping - 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.8 6.0 3.9 - 2.3
Retail 1.7 0.2 3.7 0.2 1.3 - 0.7 0.02 - - 1.0
Security 3.1 - 10.4 9.3 7.3 0.03 - - - 4.2 7.4
Tailor 0.3 0.3 0.2 - 0.2 - - 1.1 - - 0.2
Waiter/Waitress 2.1 1.5 4.0 0.5 9.8 0.4 4.4 3.2 4.7 - 4.5
Hospitality (others) 0.3 0.2 0.8 - 0.8 0.03 0.0 - - 0.1 0.7
Supervisor and Foreman 1.6 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 - 0.03 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.7
Foreman 0.7 - 0.01 - - - - 0.02 - - 0.04
Supervisor 0.8 0.03 0.4 0.1 0.1 - 0.03 0.04 0.1 0.4 0.7
Others 0.0 0.2 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.2 0.04 0.5 0.0 0.4
Others 0.01 0.2 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.2 0.04 0.5 0.04 0.4
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 76,823 125,368 53,844 26,091 22,786 3,222 6,418 5,206 852 2,808 25,449
Annex 15: New Labour Approvals Issued for Women, 2021/22 (2078/79) (by country of destination and occupation)
Occupation UAE Qatar Kuwait Oman Jordan Malaysia Cyprus Bahrain Romania Maldives Croatia Others Total
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry,
0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1 2.6 0.0 1.2 22.5 10.9 6.0 1.8
Animal and Gardener
Agriculture, Fishery, Poultry,
0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1 2.6 0.0 1.2 22.5 10.9 6.0 1.8
Animal and Gardener
Aviation and Cruise 1.1 3.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.3 0.0 0.6 1.0
Aviation and Cruise 1.1 3.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.3 0.0 0.6 1.0
Construction 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.9 0.0 0.0
Carpenter 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0
Mason 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.0
Painting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
Driver/Machine Operator 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 4.8 0.8 0.4
Driver 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
Machine Operator 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 4.4 0.8 0.4
Electrical and Mechanical
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 2.6 0.9 0.2
Technician
Electrician 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Plumbing/Pipe Fitter 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
Electro/Mechanical Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.9 0.2
Elementary Occupations 64.4 63.6 56.6 59.5 3.8 1.2 92.4 52.0 50.0 22.1 28.4 46.7 57.3
Cleaning and Laundry 58.1 53.4 48.8 56.6 0.0 0.1 0.1 44.7 14.6 12.3 17.9 14.8 39.9
Labour (Specified) 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 1.9 5.3 0.3 4.7 1.0
Labour (Unpecified) 5.7 9.4 7.1 2.6 3.8 1.1 92.3 4.2 33.1 4.3 7.7 24.9 16.0
Packaging, Loading, Shipping
0.2 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.1 2.6 2.3 0.5
and Delivery
Manufacturing 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 61.7 94.4 0.0 0.2 1.3 0.1 11.3 1.5 5.7
213
Manufacturing 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 61.7 94.4 0.0 0.2 1.3 0.1 11.3 1.5 5.7
214
Occupation UAE Qatar Kuwait Oman Jordan Malaysia Cyprus Bahrain Romania Maldives Croatia Others Total
9.8 5.9 5.8 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.0 7.8 3.5 8.5 1.6 3.4 6.1
9.8 5.9 5.8 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.0 7.8 3.5 8.5 1.6 3.4 6.1
Professionals and Managers 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 4.5 0.0 5.0 1.0
Manager 0.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.3
Professional 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 4.5 0.0 3.9 0.7
Service & Sales 22.4 26.4 36.5 38.4 34.2 0.2 5.0 39.3 43.0 38.0 39.5 33.5 25.6
Baker/Dessert Maker 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.4 2.9 0.0 0.2
Barista/Coffee Maker 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 2.4 0.5 0.1 0.3
Beauty & Fitness 2.9 3.6 10.4 22.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.7 2.0 2.3 0.2 1.9 3.9
Caregiver/Nursing Aide 0.8 0.9 1.3 0.2 1.6 0.0 4.9 0.0 2.6 0.4 0.1 18.3 2.8
Chef/Cook 0.4 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.5 4.8 3.3 1.7 2.5 1.0
Housekeeping 0.9 0.0 2.0 0.3 32.6 0.0 0.0 1.7 22.6 2.0 20.0 3.8 3.0
Retail 6.5 5.1 2.6 2.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.9 0.1 6.1 0.1 0.1 3.8
Security 2.3 2.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 2.0 0.0 1.8 0.0 2.5 1.7
Tailor 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.4 4.2 0.0 0.3
Waiter/Waitress 6.7 12.6 13.4 10.8 0.0 0.1 0.1 10.8 10.3 17.3 9.8 3.8 7.6
Hospitality-Others 1.3 0.8 3.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.4 1.1
Supervisor and Foreman 0.8 0.7 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.8 0.5
Foreman 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Supervisor 0.8 0.6 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.8 0.5
Others 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.6 0.2
Others 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.6 0.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total number 12,928 4,348 3,732 622 771 1,258 2,827 638 838 902 1,092 3,106 33,062
Annex 16: Number of Returnee Nepali Migrant Workers, by Sex and Countries of Destination
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total

Country of destination
Qatar 50,600 1,206 51,806 129,494 4,176 133,670 180,094 5,382 185,476
UAE 46,614 5,614 52,228 94,863 13,127 107,990 141,477 18,741 160,218
Saudi Arabia 45,672 318 45,990 104,759 1,183 105,942 150,431 1,501 151,932
Malaysia 28,633 681 29,314 64,085 1,655 65,740 92,718 2,336 95,054
Kuwait 5,714 803 6,517 15,867 2,872 18,739 21,581 3,675 25,256
Bahrain 3,274 256 3,530 7,294 627 7,921 10,568 883 11,451
Oman 2,175 263 2,438 4,801 657 5,458 6,976 920 7,896
Japan 1,958 81 2,039 3,863 131 3,994 5,821 212 6,033
Maldives 827 224 1,051 1,901 731 2,632 2,728 955 3,683
Poland 1,025 80 1,105 1,677 201 1,878 2,702 281 2,983
Jordan 195 737 932 226 1,728 1,954 421 2,465 2,886
Cyprus 83 566 649 252 1,561 1,813 335 2,127 2,462
Romania 682 65 747 1,429 141 1,570 2,111 206 2,317
Afghanistan 1,125 3 1,128 1,135 3 1,138 2,260 6 2,266
Malta 376 126 502 907 338 1,245 1,283 464 1,747
Seychelles 333 28 361 611 68 679 944 96 1,040
USA 188 38 226 618 158 776 806 196 1,002
Turkey 186 164 350 312 322 634 498 486 984
Germany 48 140 188 115 514 629 163 654 817
Israel 71 132 203 184 397 581 255 529 784
Croatia 237 34 271 446 47 493 683 81 764
Czech Republic 228 25 253 351 64 415 579 89 668
Macau SAR, China 219 9 228 400 32 432 619 41 660
215
216
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total
Portugal 161 4 165 437 10 447 598 14 612
UK 103 12 115 345 75 420 448 87 535
Brunei Darussalam 64 2 66 428 9 437 492 11 503
Lebanon 40 66 106 58 131 189 98 197 295
Canada 34 6 40 140 36 176 174 42 216
Republic of Korea 39 - 39 167 1 168 206 1 207
Singapore 79 4 83 105 7 112 184 11 195

Finland 49 1 50 117 4 121 166 5 171
New Zealand 26 - 26 111 23 134 137 23 160
Mauritius 37 - 37 115 - 115 152 - 152
Australia 20 1 21 122 4 126 142 5 147
Russia 55 - 55 87 1 88 142 1 143
Sri Lanka 54 8 62 42 19 61 96 27 123
Nigeria 43 2 45 70 2 72 113 4 117
China 66 4 70 41 5 46 107 9 116
Papua New Guinea 20 2 22 88 4 92 108 6 114
Cayman 27 2 29 72 12 84 99 14 113
Italy 25 5 30 64 19 83 89 24 113
Republic of Congo 40 - 40 72 - 72 112 - 112
France 27 3 30 64 15 79 91 18 109
Egypt 24 5 29 66 6 72 90 11 101
Spain 29 2 31 59 4 63 88 6 94
Norway 8 2 10 70 4 74 78 6 84
Ukraine 30 2 32 37 7 44 67 9 76
Somalia 32 - 32 41 - 41 73 - 73
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total
Netherland 20 2 22 45 5 50 65 7 72
Lithuania 23 1 24 44 - 44 67 1 68
Zambia 23 3 26 40 1 41 63 4 67
Mali 27 - 27 33 - 33 60 - 60
Kenya 15 - 15 44 - 44 59 - 59
Denmark 9 9 18 13 25 38 22 34 56
Thailand 10 - 10 44 1 45 54 1 55
Uganda 20 - 20 35 - 35 55 - 55
Azerbaijan 4 2 6 3 45 48 7 47 54
Hong Kong SAR, China 26 3 29 14 8 22 40 11 51
Mozambique 15 5 20 25 5 30 40 10 50
Tanzania 16 - 16 34 - 34 50 - 50
Cambodia 5 4 9 36 2 38 41 6 47
Angola 12 5 17 20 7 27 32 12 44
Bermuda 19 - 19 23 2 25 42 2 44
Djibouti 18 - 18 23 - 23 41 - 41
Ireland 10 - 10 29 2 31 39 2 41
Panama 23 1 24 15 - 15 38 1 39
Morocco 16 1 17 18 3 21 34 4 38
Comoros 9 - 9 23 1 24 32 1 33
Turks and Caicos Island 4 - 4 29 - 29 33 - 33
Chile 8 - 8 20 3 23 28 3 31
Estonia 10 - 10 20 - 20 30 - 30
Albania 3 1 4 20 4 24 23 5 28
217
Sweden 6 1 7 19 2 21 25 3 28
218
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total
Austria 3 2 5 12 10 22 15 12 27
Serbia 5 2 7 17 3 20 22 5 27
Belgium 6 - 6 18 1 19 24 1 25
Greece 7 1 8 15 2 17 22 3 25
Cambodia 5 2 7 13 3 16 18 5 23
Senegal 7 - 7 16 - 16 23 - 23
Africa 9 - 9 13 - 13 22 - 22
Ghana 1 - 1 21 - 21 22 - 22
Indonesia 11 - 11 11 - 11 22 - 22
Sudan 11 - 11 11 - 11 22 - 22
Dominican Republic 2 - 2 18 - 18 20 - 20
Luxembourg 8 1 9 8 3 11 16 4 20
South Sudan 6 - 6 14 - 14 20 - 20
Hungary 4 - 4 13 1 14 17 1 18
Latvia 6 - 6 12 - 12 18 - 18
Equatorial Guinea 6 - 6 11 - 11 17 - 17
Kazakhstan 9 - 9 7 1 8 16 1 17
Mexico 3 - 3 13 1 14 16 1 17
Iceland 1 - 1 12 3 15 13 3 16
Algeria 2 - 2 13 - 13 15 - 15
Colombia 6 - 6 9 - 9 15 - 15
Tajikistan 6 - 6 9 - 9 15 - 15
Ethiopia 7 - 7 6 - 6 13 - 13
Philippines 1 1 2 8 1 9 9 2 11
Sierra Leone 6 - 6 5 - 5 11 - 11
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total
Slovenia 6 - 6 5 - 5 11 - 11
Gabon 4 - 4 6 - 6 10 - 10
Lao PDR 3 - 3 6 1 7 9 1 10
Rwanda 5 - 5 4 - 4 9 - 9
Togo 3 - 3 6 - 6 9 - 9
Vietnam 3 - 3 6 - 6 9 - 9
Brazil 3 1 4 4 - 4 7 1 8
Malawi 7 1 8 - - - 7 1 8
Mongolia 2 - 2 6 - 6 8 - 8
Iran 5 - 5 2 - 2 7 - 7
Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 - 3 3 - 3 6 - 6
Burundi 6 - 6 - - - 6 - 6
Republic of Bulgaria 2 - 2 2 2 4 4 2 6
Bangladesh 1 - 1 3 1 4 4 1 5
Burkina Faso 3 - 3 2 - 2 5 - 5
Bahamas - - - 4 - 4 4 - 4
British Virgin Islands - - - 4 - 4 4 - 4
Central African Republic 2 - 2 2 - 2 4 - 4
Cote d’Ivoire 2 - 2 2 - 2 4 - 4
Jamaica - - - 4 - 4 4 - 4
Kosovo 1 - 1 2 1 3 3 1 4
Saipan - - - 3 1 4 3 1 4
Uruguay 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 4
Uzbekistan 3 - 3 1 - 1 4 - 4
219
Myanmar 1 - 1 2 - 2 3 - 3
220
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79) Total
Peru 1 - 1 2 - 2 3 - 3
Republic of Macedonia 1 - 1 2 - 2 3 - 3
Sint Maarten 1 - 1 2 - 2 3 - 3
Switzerland - 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3
Trinidad and Tobago - - - 2 1 3 2 1 3
Slovakia - - - 3 - 3 3 - 3
Antigua and Barbuda 1 - 1 1 - 1 2 - 2

Barbados - - - 1 1 2 1 1 2
Belarus - - - 2 - 2 2 - 2
Madagascar - - - 2 - 2 2 - 2
Pakistan - - - 1 1 2 1 1 2
Tunisia 1 - 1 1 - 1 2 - 2
Benin 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Cameroon 1 - 1 - - - 1 - 1
Eritrea - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Fiji - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
French Polynesia - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Liberia - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Mauritania - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Palau - - - - 1 1 - 1 1
Saint Lucia - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Samoa - - - - 1 1 - 1 1
Vanuatu - - - 1 - 1 1 - 1
Total 192,157 11,777 203,934 439,689 31,289 470,978 631,846 43,066 674,912
Annex 17: Number of Returnee Nepali Migrant Workers, by Sex, Province and District
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)

Province District Total
Bhojpur 1,914 137 2,051 4,414 326 4,740 6,791
Dhankuta 1,598 105 1,703 3,914 333 4,247 5,950
Ilam 2,233 294 2,527 4,859 853 5,712 8,239
Jhapa 8,765 997 9,762 20,212 2,865 23,077 32,839
Khotang 2,513 125 2,638 5,919 322 6,241 8,879
Morang 7,713 631 8,344 17,447 1,741 19,188 27,532
Okhaldhunga 1,154 108 1,262 2,672 287 2,959 4,221
Province 1 Panchthar 2,038 139 2,177 4,655 415 5,070 7,247
Sankhuwasabha 1,405 91 1,496 3,176 227 3,403 4,899
Solukhumbu 598 174 772 1,282 405 1,687 2,459
Sunsari 6,360 378 6,738 14,188 1,121 15,309 22,047
Taplejung 1,164 72 1,236 2,774 180 2,954 4,190
Tehrathum 1,102 51 1,153 2,630 140 2,770 3,923
Udayapur 2,480 183 2,663 5,858 504 6,362 9,025
Total 41,037 3,485 44,522 94,000 9,719 103,719 148,241
Bara 3,801 126 3,927 7,364 374 7,738 11,665
Dhanusha 11,554 46 11,600 28,581 98 28,679 40,279
Mahottari 7,907 42 7,949 19,245 92 19,337 27,286
Parsa 2,292 64 2,356 4,272 133 4,405 6,761
Madhesh Rautahat 3,246 47 3,293 7,813 161 7,974 11,267
Saptari 5,372 21 5,393 12,745 96 12,841 18,234
Sarlahi 5,470 168 5,638 12,491 422 12,913 18,551
Siraha 8,939 26 8,965 22,857 60 22,917 31,882
Total 48,581 540 49,121 115,368 1,436 116,804 165,925
221
222
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
Bhaktapur 688 152 840 1,413 349 1,762 2,602
Chitwan 4,607 410 5,017 10,204 1,029 11,233 16,250
Dhading 2,411 301 2,712 5,703 760 6,463 9,175
Dolakha 1,249 265 1,514 2,732 740 3,472 4,986
Kathmandu 2,403 784 3,187 4,876 1,989 6,865 10,052
Kavrepalanchok 2,563 521 3,084 5,289 1,427 6,716 9,800
Lalitpur 971 289 1,260 2,048 721 2,769 4,029
Bagmati
Makawanpur 2,671 572 3,243 5,587 1,473 7,060 10,303
Nuwakot 2,081 469 2,550 4,810 1,072 5,882 8,432
Ramechhap 1,421 301 1,722 3,369 739 4,108 5,830
Rasuwa 191 61 252 492 215 707 959
Sindhuli 2,126 232 2,358 4,551 571 5,122 7,480
Sindhupalchok 1,957 876 2,833 4,450 1,988 6,438 9,271
Total 25,339 5,233 30,572 55,524 13,073 68,597 99,169
Baglung 3,793 95 3,888 8,582 176 8,758 12,646
Gorkha 3,010 204 3,214 7,219 479 7,698 10,912
Kaski 3,710 209 3,919 8,823 604 9,427 13,346
Lamjung 2,459 119 2,578 6,142 291 6,433 9,011
Manang 20 7 27 32 19 51 78
Mustang 31 5 36 72 15 87 123
Gandaki
Myagdi 1,611 66 1,677 3,643 178 3,821 5,498
Nawalparasi East 3,980 164 4,144 9,053 462 9,515 13,659
Parbat 2,196 47 2,243 5,087 172 5,259 7,502
Syangja 5,264 152 5,416 12,515 420 12,935 18,351
Tanahun 4,781 153 4,934 12,315 400 12,715 17,649
Total 30,855 1,221 32,076 73,483 3,216 76,699 108,775
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
Arghakhanchi 2,333 60 2,393 5,400 153 5,553 7,946
Banke 2,537 80 2,617 5,291 250 5,541 8,158
Bardiya 1,835 63 1,898 4,235 246 4,481 6,379
Dang 3,752 153 3,905 8,559 479 9,038 12,943
Gulmi 3,756 109 3,865 8,495 283 8,778 12,643
Kapilvastu 4,929 58 4,987 9,692 183 9,875 14,862
Lumbini Nawalparasi West 2,691 109 2,800 6,133 306 6,419 9,219
Palpa 3,077 77 3,154 7,415 227 7,642 10,796
Pyuthan 1,560 27 1,587 3,860 75 3,935 5,522
Rolpa 2,241 41 2,282 5,449 121 5,570 7,852
Rukum East 349 8 357 814 26 840 1,197
Rupandehi 6,694 246 6,940 13,510 699 14,209 21,149
Total 35,754 1,031 36,785 78,853 3,048 81,881 118,666
Dailekh 700 15 715 1,510 49 1,559 2,274
Dolpa 26 5 31 74 15 89 120
Humla 25 1 26 66 4 70 96
Jajarkot 427 4 431 899 14 913 1,344
Jumla 135 4 139 301 4 305 444
Karnali Kalikot 167 7 174 344 14 358 532
Mugu 86 1 87 144 4 148 235
Rukum West 866 19 885 2,015 68 2,083 2,968
Salyan 1,687 43 1,730 3,671 116 3,787 5,517
Surkhet 1,176 37 1,213 2,510 145 2,655 3,868
Total 5,295 136 5,431 11,534 433 11,967 17,398
223
224
2020/21 (2077/78) 2021/22 (2078/79)
Achham 289 7 296 542 11 553 849
Baitadi 659 4 663 1,246 15 1,261 1,924
Bajhang 182 182 372 7 379 561
Bajura 197 6 203 371 14 385 588
Dadeldhura 377 9 386 741 11 752 1,138
Sudurpashchim
Darchula 369 5 374 687 16 703 1,077
Doti 256 3 259 542 11 553 812
Kailali 1,453 60 1,513 3,098 176 3,274 4,787

Kanchanpur 1,514 37 1,551 3,348 103 3,451 5,002
Total 5,296 131 5,427 10,947 364 11,311 16,738
Total 192,157 11,777 203,934 439,689 31,289 470,978 674,912

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NEPAL LABOUR

MIGRATION REPORT 2022

Designed & Printed by: Luna Creation Pvt. Ltd.

Sher Bahadur Kunwar

Mr Jhakka Prasad Acharya, Joint Secretary; Dr Thaneshwar Bhusal, Under-Secretary; Ms Shanti

Research & Report Writing Team

3. Status of Labour Migration in Nepal 53

4. Thematic Exploration 105

5. Reflections on Data Gaps 139

6. Way Forward 145

Figure 2.1: Stakeholders with Log-in Access to FEIMS 27

Box 2.1: Migration Resource Centre: Key Figures (2019/20–2021/22) 14

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADD Abu Dhabi Dialogue

MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs

Decentralisation of services: MoLESS recognises the importance of collaborating with provincial

Multi-stakeholder Collaboration: MoLESS is gearing up to improve dialogue at the national,

More specifically, the report aims to provide:

iii. insights into other aspects of labour migration, namely:

1.3.1 Analysis of Secondary Data

1.3.2 Review of Government Reports and Grey Literature

1.3.3 Review of National and International Legal Framework

1.3.4 National and Province-Level Consultation

1.3.5 Key Informant Interviews

1.4 Structure of the Report

Chapter 2: Labour Migration

Labour migration is a multidimensional and multi-structural phenomenon, requiring proper

2.1 Institutional Arrangements

2.1.1 Government Institutions

2.1.1.1 Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security

platforms on labour migration as well as research on foreign employment,

2.1.1.1.1 Department of Foreign Employment

2.1.1.1.2 Foreign Employment Board

2.1.1.1.3 Foreign Employment Tribunal

2.1.1.1.4 Vocational and Skill Development Training Centre and SaMi

2.1.1.1.5 Migrant Resource Centres

Box 2.1: Migrant Resource Centre: Key Figures (2019/20–2021/22)

2.1.1.1.6 Employment Information Centres

2.1.1.1.7 Labour and Employment Offices

2.1.1.1.8 Employment Service Centres

2.1.1.2 Ministry of Foreign Affairs

2.1.1.3 Department of Immigration

2.1.1.4 Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT)

2.1.1.5 Provincial Ministries with Responsibilities on Labour Migration

2.1.1.6 Local Governments

2.1.1.7 Coordination Mechanism and Committees

Table 2.2: Committees

Expert Committee • To determine whether the health reports submitted by migrant

2.1.1.8 Other Regulatory Mechanisms

2.1.1.8.1 Nepal Rastra Bank

2.1.1.8.2 Parliamentary Committees

2.1.1.8.3 National Human Right Commission

2.1.1.8.4 Supreme Court Decisions and Declarations Pertaining to Labour Migration

3 7 April Repatriation of The SC ordered the government to Interim order

S. N. Date Issue Order / Decision / Declaration Order / Decision

2.2 Regulation of Private Entities

2.2.1 Private Recruitment Agencies

Table 2.4: Particulars to be Submitted for Labour Approval

2.2.2 Health Institutions

2.2.2.1 Country of Destination’s Initiatives Regarding Medical Check-up