UNIT-III

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRIC POWER

ENERGY SCENARIO INTRODUCTION
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by
nature, is cause due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’
itself is derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’, which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work
content’. The work output depends on the energy input. Energy is one of the major
inputs for the economic development of any country.
In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical
importance in view of the everincreasing energy needs requiring huge investments to
meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
• Conventional and Non-conventional energy
1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as
wood). sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's
gravity. Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into
secondary energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and
electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have
non energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in
fertilizer plants.
1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
Commercial Energy The energy sources that are available in the market for a
definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms
of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price
are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources
include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are
traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural
households. These are also called traditional fuels.
1.3 Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources
Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially
inexhaustible. Example: wind power,solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power
and hydroelectric power. The important feature of renewable energy resources is
that it can be controlled and make use of it without any harmful pollutants.
 Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas
which are likely to deplete with time.

1.4 Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:

Conventional energy resources are the fossil fuels, nuclear and hydro resources -
traditionally used for many decades
Non-conventional energy resources are solar, wind, biomass etc.

Solar Energy:
Introduction: Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available
renewable energy. It is received on Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with
very low power density 0 to 1 kW/m2.Solar energy received on the ground level is
affected by atmospheric clarity, degree of latitude, etc. For design purpose, the
variation of available solar power, the optimum tilt angle of solar flat plate collectors,
the location and orientation of the heliostats should be calculated.
Units of solar power and solar energy:
In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where 1
angley = 1 Cal/cm2.day 1 Cal = 4.186 J
For solar energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or
yearly average and is expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is
expressed in terms of W/m2 or kW/m2.
Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:
1. Solar collector or concentrator: It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It
may be of following types:
a) Flat plate type without focusing
b) Parabolic trough type with line focusing
c) Paraboloid dish with central focusing
d) Fresnel lens with centre focusing
e) Heliostats with centre receiver focusing
2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas
are used to transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or
thermal storage. In solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.
3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an
energy storage medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy
periods. There are three major types of energy storage:
a) Thermal energy storage; b) Battery storage; c) Pumped storage hydro-electric
plant.
4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for
producing steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to
steamthermal or gas-thermal power plant.
5. Power conditioning, control and protection system: Load requirements of electrical
energy vary with time. The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage,
current, frequency, power etc. The power conditioning unit performs several
functions such as control, regulation, conditioning, protection, automation, etc.
6. Alternative or standby power supply: The backup may be obtained as power from
electrical network or standby diesel generator.
Energy from the sun:
The sun radiates about 3.8 x 1026 W of power in all the directions. Out of this about
1.7 x 1017 W is received by earth. The average solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere is 1.35 kW/m2 varying from 1.43 kW/m2 (in January) to 1.33 kW/m2 (in
July).
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing
solar energy to generate thermal energy or electrical energy for use in industry, and
in the residential and commercial sectors. The first installation of solar thermal
energy equipment occurred in the Sahara Desert approximately in 1910 when a
steam engine was run on steam produced by sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines
were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara project was abandoned,
only to be revisited several decades late.
Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information
Administration as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors.
Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools.
Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating
water or air for residential and commercial use.
High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are
generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300 deg C / 20 bar pressure in
industries, and for electric power production. However, there is a term that used for
both the applications. Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling heat
requirements in industries and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat
collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of
application.
A solar thermal collector system gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives it
to the heat transport fluid. The heat-transport fluid receives the heat from the
collector and delivers it to the thermal storage tank, boiler steam generator, heat
exchanger etc. Thermal storage system stores heat for a few hours. The heat is
released during cloudy hours and at night. Thermal-electric conversion system
receives thermal energy and drives steam turbine generator or gas turbine
generator. The electrical energy is supplied to the electrical load or to the AC grid.
Applications of solar thermal energy systems range from simple solar cooker of 1 kW
rating to complex solar central receiver thermal power plant of 200 MW rating.

PHOTO VOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY:

The density of power radiated from the sun (referred to as the ‘‘solar energy
constant’’) at the outer atmosphere is 1.373kW/m2 . Part of this energy is absorbed
and scattered by the earth’s atmosphere. The final incident sunlight on earth’s
surface has a peak density of 1kW/m2 at noon in the tropics. The technology of
photovoltaic (PV) is essentially concerned with the conversion of this energy into
usable electrical form. The basic element of a PV system is the solar cell.
Solar cells can convert the energy of sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells rely
on a quantum-mechanical process known as the ‘‘photovoltaic effect’’ to produce
electricity. A typical solar cell consists of a p n junction formed in a semiconductor
material similar to a diode. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the cross section
through a crystalline solar cell. It consists of a 0.2–0.3mm thick monocrystalline or
polycrystalline silicon wafer having two layers with different electrical properties
formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other impurities (e.g., boron and phosphorus). An electric
field is established at the junction between the negatively doped (using phosphorus
atoms) and the positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers. If light is incident
on the solar cell, the energy from the light (photons) creates free charge carriers,
which are separated by the electrical field. An electrical voltage is generated at the
external contacts, so that current can flow when a load is connected. The
photocurrent (Iph), which is internally generated in the solar cell, is proportional to
the radiation intensity.

A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source in parallel

with a diode as shown in Fig. 2a. A variable resistor is connected to the solar cell
generator as a load. When the terminals are short-circuited, the output voltage and
also the voltage across the diode are both zero. The entire photocurrent (Iph)
generated by the solar radiation then flows to the output. The solar cell current has
its maximum (Isc). If the load resistance is increased, which results in an increasing
voltage across the p n junction of the diode, a portion of the current flows through the
diode and the output current decreases by the same amount. When the load resistor
is open circuited, the output current is zero and the entire photocurrent flows through
the diode. The relationship between current and voltage may be determined from the
diode characteristic equation:

where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0

is the reverse saturation current, Id is diode current, and T is the solar cell operating
temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I-V) of a solar cell is thus equivalent to
an ‘‘inverted’’ diode.

Two important points on this curve are the open circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit
current (Isc). The open-circuit voltage is the maximum voltage at zero current,
whereas the short circuit current is the maximum current at zero voltage. For a
silicon solar cell under standard test conditions, Voc is typically 0.6–0.7 V, and Isc is
typically 20–40mA for every square centimeter of the cell area. To a good
approximation, Isc is proportional to the illumination level, whereas Voc is
proportional to the logarithm of the illumination level.
Peak-power-tracking in PV power system:
Figure shows the necessary components of a stand-alone PV power system.
The peakpower tracker senses the voltage and current outputs of the array and
continuously adjusts the operating point to extract the maximum power under varying
climatic conditions. The output of the array goes to the inverter, which converts the
DC into AC. The array output in excess of the load requirement is used to charge the
battery. The battery charger is usually a DC–DC buck converter. If excess power is
still available after fully charging the battery, it is shunted in dump heaters, which
may be a room or water heater in a standalone system. When the sun is not
available, the battery discharges to the inverter to power the load. The battery
discharge diode Db is to prevent the battery from being charged when the charger is
opened after a full charge or for other reasons. The array diode Da is to isolate the
array from the battery, thus keeping the array from acting as the load on the battery
at night. The mode controller collects system signals, such as the array.
and the battery currents and voltages, and keeps track of the battery state of charge
by bookkeeping the charge/discharge ampere-hours. It uses this information to turn
on or off the battery charger, discharge converter, and dump loads as needed. Thus,
the mode controller is the central controller of the entire system.
In the grid-connected system, dump heaters are not required, as all excess power is
always fed to the grid lines. The battery is also eliminated, except for a few small
critical loads, such as the start-up controller and the computer. DC power is first
converted into AC by the inverter, ripples are filtered, and only then is the filtered
power fed into the grid lines.
In the PV system, the inverter is a critical component, which converts the array DC
power into AC for supplying the loads or interfacing with the grid. A new product line
recently introduced into the market is the AC PV module, which integrates an
inverter directly into module design. It is presently available in a few hundred watts
capacity. It provides utility-grade 60-Hz power directly from the module junction box.
This greatly simplifies PV system design.

WIND ENERGY
Introduction:
The first use of a large windmill to generate electricity was a system built in
Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888 by Charles F. Brush. The Brush machine was a postmill
with a multiple-bladed "picket-fence" rotor 17 meters in diameter, featuring a large
tail hinged to turn the rotor out of the wind. It was the first windmill to incorporate a
step-up gearbox (with a ratio of 50:1) in order to turn a direct current generator at its
required operational speed (in this case, 500 RPM.)
Modern Wind Turbine
Commercial wind energy is one of the most economical sources of new electricity
available today. Wind turbines can be set up quickly and cheaply compared with
building new coal-fired generating stations or hydroelectric facilities. Modern wind
generating equipment is efficient, highly reliable, and becoming cheaper to purchase.
The environmental impact of large wind turbines is negligible compared with an open
pit coal mine or a reservoir, and during their operation produce no air pollution.
Because of these factors, wind energy is recognized as the world's fastest-growing
new energy source.
• Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two
or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the
main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.
• Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet
(30 meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster and less
turbulent wind.
• Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building,
or they can be connected to an electricity grid (shown here) for more
widespread electricity distribution.

Components of Wind Turbine:

• Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to
the controller.
• Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the
blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate.
• Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or
hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies.
• Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to
16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines
do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because they might be
damaged by the high winds.
• Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and
increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm)
to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators
to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind
turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at
lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
• Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-
cycle AC electricity. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft:
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
• Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and
high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large
enough for a helicopter to land on.
• Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed
and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to
produce electricity.
• Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
• Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel
lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable
turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
• Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates
facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind," facing
away from the wind.
• Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to
orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.
• Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep
the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind
turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.
• Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.
Working of Wind Turbine
An internal Block diagram of a wind turbine

When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is
connected to a high-speed gearbox. Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low
speed to high speed. The high-speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the
rotor of the generator and hence the electrical generator runs at a higher speed. An
exciter is needed to give the required excitation to the magnetic coil of the generator
field system so that it can generate the required electricity. The generated voltage at
output terminals of the alternator is proportional to both the speed and field flux of
the alternator. The speed is governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence
to maintain uniformity of the output power from the alternator, excitation must be
controlled according to the availability of natural wind power. The exciter current is
controlled by a turbine controller which senses the wind speed. Then output voltage
of electrical generator(alternator) is given to a rectifier where the alternator output
gets rectified to DC. Then this rectified DC output is given to line converter unit to
convert it into stabilized AC output which is ultimately fed to either electrical
transmission network or transmission grid with the help of step up transformer. An
extra units is used to give the power to internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like motor,
battery etc.), this is called Internal Supply Unit.

There are other two control mechanisms attached to a modern big wind turbine.

 Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.

 Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.
 The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades.
The blades are attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating
arrangement through gears and small electric motor or hydraulic rotary
system. The system can be electrically or mechanically controlled depending
on its design. The blades are swiveled depending upon the speed of the wind.
The technique is called pitch control. It provides the best possible orientation
 of the turbine blades along the direction of the wind to obtain optimized wind
power.
 The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the
direction of changing wind direction to maximize mechanical energy
harvesting from the wind. The direction of the wind along with its speed is
sensed by an anemometer (automatic speed measuring devices) with wind
vanes attached to the back top of the nacelle. The signal is fed back to an
electronic microprocessor-based controlling system which governs the yaw
motor which rotates the entire nacelle with gearing arrangement to face the air
turbine along the direction of the wind.

ILLUMINATION BY LAMPS
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the
principles of light control as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and
factory lighting but also to understand outdoor applications such as highway lighting
and flood lighting. The best illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes.
Apart from its esthetic and decorative aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian
value in reducing the fatigue of the workers, protecting their health, increasing
production, etc.
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human
eye is capable of receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities
of human being ultimately depend upon the light. Various forms of incandescent
bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by such bodies depends upon
their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a red hot and about
2,500–3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red hot, the
wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available
in the form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-
hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and
enters into the range of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves
varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10–10
mm).
The eye discriminates between different wavelengths in this range by the sensation
of color. The whole of the energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose.
Radiations of very short wavelength varying from 0.0000156 × 10–6m to 0.001 × 10–
6 m are not in the visible range are called as rontgen or x-rays, which are having the
property of penetrating through opaque bodies.

TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

The following terms are generally used in illumination.
Color: The energy radiation of the heated body is monochromatic, i.e. the radiation
of only one wavelength emits specific color. The wavelength of visible light lies
between 4,000 and 7,500 Å.

Relative sensitivity: The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of
different wavelengths varies from person to person, and also varies with age. The
eye is most sensitive for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So that, the relative sensitivity
according to this wavelength is taken as unity.
Referred from Fig. Wavelength, blue and violet corresponding to the short
wavelengths and red to the long wavelengths, orange, yellow, and green being in the
middle of the visible region of wavelength. The color corresponding to 5,500 Å is not
suitable for most of the applications since yellowish green. The relative sensitivity at
any particular wavelength (λ) is known as relative luminous factor (Kλ).
Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to
watthours, which denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.
Luminous flux: It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per
second from a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in
lumens.
Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp.
The total electrical power input to the lamp is not converted to luminous flux, some of
the power lost through conduction, convection, and radiation, etc. Afraction of the
remaining radiant flux is in the form of light waves lies in between the visual range of
wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Fig. Flux Diagram.
Radiant efficiency
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is produced
to I2R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature,
conductor radiates energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high temperatures,
radiated energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves.
‘Radiant efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light,
produces sensation of vision to the total energy radiated out by the luminous body’.

Plane angle
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines
(Fig. Plane angle).
It is denoted by the
Greek letter ‘θ’
(theta) and is
usually measured
in degrees or
radians.

One radian is
defined as the
angle subtended
by an arc of a
circle whose
length by an arc of
a circle whose
length is equals to
the radius of the
circle.
Solid angle
Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting
at the point (Fig. Solid angle). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in
steradian.
The largest solid angle
subtended at the
center of
a sphere

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius
of the sphere ‘r’ as shown in Fig. 6.6. The surface area of the curved surface of the
spherical segment ABC = 2πrh. From the Fig. Sectional view for solid angle.

Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity in a given direction
is defined as the luminous flux emitted
by the
source per unit solid angle . It is
denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is
usually measured in ‘candela’. Let ‘F’ be the luminous flux crossing a spherical
segment of solid angle ‘ω’. Then luminous intensity lumen/steradian or
candela.
Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux.
It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power per unit
solid angle in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
Candle power (CP)
The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted by that source
in a unit solid angle.

Illumination
Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.
It is usually denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m2 or meter
candle or foot candle.

Lux or meter candle

It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a source of
1 CP is fitted at the center of sphere.
Foot candle
It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere
of radius 1 foot, and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.
We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle = 1 lumen/(ft)2

Brightness
Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit surface area
of
the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘L’.
If the luminous intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the projected
area is Acos θ.

The unit of brightness is candela/m2 or candela/cm2 or candela/(ft)2.

Relation between I, E, and L
Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a source
of 1 CP, and luminous intensity I candela.
Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP)
MHCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in
horizontal plane.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP)
MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in all
planes.
Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP)
MHSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions above
or below the horizontal plane.
Reduction factor
Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical
candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.

Lamp efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the source to its
electrical power input in watts.

It is expressed in lumen/W.
Specific consumption
It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.
Space to height ratio
It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the height of
their mountings.

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor

It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the
total number of lumens emitting from source.

Maintenance factor
It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination when everything is clean.

Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to the
accumulation of dust, dirt, and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they
emit when they are so clean. Frequent cleaning of lamp will improve the
maintenance factor.

Depreciation factor
It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained illumination
on the working plane.

Its values is always more than 1.

Waste light factor

When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is
certain amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is
taken into account depending upon the type of area to be illuminated. Its value for
rectangular area is 1.2 and for irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as statues,
monuments, etc.

Absorption factor
Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes, there is a possibility of
absorption of light. Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total
lumens emitted by the lamp are known as absorption factor.

Reflection factor or coefficient of

reflection

When light rays impinge on a surface, it is

reflected from the surface at an angle of
incidence shown in Fig. Reflected Ray. A portion of incident light is absorbed by the
surface.
The ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it is
known as reflection factor.

Its value will be always less than 1.

Beam factor
It is defined as the ratio of ‘lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out
by lamps’. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account
for the absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.

LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.
1. Inverse square law.
2. Lambert's cosine law.
Inverse square law
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square
of distance between the surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux
emitting from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and
A3 square meters, which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the
point source respectively as shown in Fig. Inverse square law.

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle

 ∴ Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:

Similarly, illumination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is:

and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area A3 is:

From Equations (6.5), (6.6), and (6.7)

Hence, from Equation (6.8), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to

the square of distance between the surface and the source.
Lambert's cosine law
This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional
to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined
at an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Fig. 6.11.

Let
PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the
source ‘O’.
Therefore, from Fig. 6.11:
From Fig. 6.11(b):

Substituting ‘d' from the above equation in Equation (6.10):

where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of
source from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela.
Hence, Equation (6.11) is also known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the
‘illumination at any point on a surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the
angle
between line of flux and normal at that point’.
Note:
*From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's
cosine law is applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the
line of flux.
Various Illumination Methods

INTRODUCTION
Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a
day, it is very difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is
necessary to have substitute for natural light. Light from incandescent bodies
produced electrically, which playing important role in everyday life due to its
controlled output, reliability, and cleanliness nowadays; various sources are
producing artificial light. Each source has its own characteristics and specific
importance.

TYPES OF SOURCES OF ILLUMINATION

Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by electricity,
the sources of light are classified into following four types.
1.Electric arc lamps
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and
provides intense light.
2.Incandescent lamps
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light
that falls in the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating
on this principle.
3.Gaseous discharge lamps
When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces
visible radiation by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury
vapor lamps operate on this principle.
4.Fluorescent lamps
Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the
absorbed energy into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This
principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.

ARC LAMPS
In arc lamps, the electrodes are in contact with each other and are separated
by some distance apart; the electric current is made to flow through these two
electrodes. The discharge is allowed to take place in the atmosphere where there
are the production of a very intense light and a considerable amount of UV radiation,
when an arc is struck between two electrodes.
The arcs maintain current and is very efficient source of light. They are used in
search lights,
projection lamps, and other special purpose lamps such as those in flash cameras.
Generally, used arc lamps are:
1. carbon arc lamp,
2. flame arc lamp, and
3. magnetic arc lamp.
Carbon arc lamp
Carbon arc lamp consists of two hard rod-type electrodes made up of carbon.
Two electrodes are placed end to end and are connected to the DC supply. The
positive electrode is of a large size than that of the negative electrode. The carbon
electrodes used with AC supply are of the same size as that of the DC supply. The
DC supply across the two electrodes must not be less than 45V. When electric
current passes through the electrodes are in contact and then withdrawn apart about
2–3 mm an arc is established between the two rods.
The two edges of the
rods becomes incandescence
due to the high resistance
offered by rods as shown in Fig.
7.1 by transfer of carbon
particles from one rod to the
other. It is observed that carbon
particles transfer from the
positive rod to the negative one.
So that the positive electrode
gets consumed earlier than the
negative electrode. Hence, the
positive electrode is of twice the
diameter than that of the
negative electrode.

In case of AC supply, the rate of consumption of the two electrodes is same; therefore, the
cross-section of the two electrodes is same. A resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with the
electrode for stabilizing the arc. As current increases, the vaporizing rate of carbon increases,
which decreases the resistance so much, then voltage drop across the arc decreases. So, to
maintain the arc between the two electrodes, series resistance should be necessarily
connected.
For maintaining the arc, the necessary voltage required is:
V = (39 + 2.8 l ) V,
where l is the length of the arc. The voltage drop across the arc is 60 V, the temperature of the
positive electrode is 3,500 – 4,200°C, and the temperature of the negative electrode is
2,500°C. The luminous efficiency of such lamps is 9–12 lumens/W. This low luminous
efficiency is due to the service resistance provided in DC supply while in case of AC supply,
an inductor is used in place of a resistor. In carbon arc lamps, 85% of the light is given out by
the positive electrode, 10% of the light is given out by the negative electrodes, and 5% of the
light is given out by the air.
Flame arc lamp
The electrodes used in flame arc lamp are made
up of 85% of carbon and 15% of fluoride. This
fluoride is also known as flame material; it has the
efficient property that radiates light energy from
high heated arc stream. Generally, the core type
electrodes are used and the cavities are filled with
fluoride. The principle of operation of the flame
arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. When
the arc is established between the electrodes, both
fluoride and carbon get vaporized and give out
very high luminous intensities. The color output of the flame arc lamps depends upon the
flame materials. The luminous efficiency of such lamp is 8 lumens/W. A simple flame arc
lamp is shown in Fig. 7.2. Resistance is connected in service with the electrodes to stabilize
the arc.
Magnetic arc lamp
The principle of the operation of the magnetic arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. This
lamp consists of positive electrode that is made up of copper and negative electrode that is
made up of magnetic oxide of iron. Light energy radiated out when the arc is struck between
the two electrodes. These are rarely used lamps.

INCANDESCENT LAMP
These lamps are temperature-dependent sources. When electric current is made to flow
through a fine metallic wire, which is known as filament, its temperature increases. At low
temperatures, it emits only heat energy, but at very high temperature, the metallic wire emits
both heat and light energy. These incandescent lamps are also known as temperature
radiators.
Choice of material for filament
The materials commonly used as filament for incandescent lamps are carbon, tantalum,
tungsten, and osmium.
The materials used for the filament of the incandescent lamp have the following properties.
o The melting point of the filament material should be high.
o The temperature coefficient of the material should be low.
o It should be high resistive material.
o The material should possess good mechanical strength to withstand vibrations.
o The material should be ductile.
Construction
Figure 7.3 shows the construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists
of an evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to insert
the bulb into the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten filament and the
support wires are made of molybdenum to hold the filament in proper position. A glass
button is provided in which the support wires are inserted. A stem tube forms an air-tight seal
around the filament whenever the glass is melted.

Operation
When electric current is made to
flow through the fine metallic
tungsten filament, its
temperature increases. At very
high temperature, the filament
emits both heat and light
radiations, which fall in the
visible region. The maximum
temperature at which the
filament can be worked without
oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e.,
beyond this temperature, the
tungsten filament blackens the
inside of the bulb. The tungsten
filament lamps can be operated
efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it
can be attained by inserting a
small quantity of inert gas
nitrogen with small quantity of
organ. But if gas is inserted
instead of vacuum in the inner
side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp is conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the
lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by conduction and convection, as far as possible, the
filament should be so wound that it takes very little space. This is achieved by using a single-
coil filament instead of a straight wire filament. This single-coil filament is used in vacuum
bulbs up to 25 W and gas filled bulbs from 300 to 1,000 W.

On further development of the incandescent lamps, the shortening of the length of the
filament was achieved by adopting a coiled coil or a double coil filament as shown in Fig.
7.4(b). The use of coiled coil filament not only improves the efficiency of the lamp but also
reduces the number of filament supports and thus simplified interior construction because the
double coil reduces the filament mounting length in the ratio of 1:25 as compared to the
straight wire filaments.
Usually, the tungsten filament lamp suffers from ‘aging effect’, the output of the light an
incandescent lamp decreases as the lamp ages. The output of the light of the lamp decreases
due to two reasons.
o At very high temperature, the vaporization of filament decreases the coil diameter so that resistance of
the filament increases and hence its draws less current from the supply, so the temperature of the
filament and the light output of the bulb decrease.
o The current drawn from the mains and the power consumed by the filament decrease, which decrease
the efficiency of the lamp with the passage of time. In addition, the evaporation of the filament at high
temperature blackens the inside of the bulb.
The effects of voltage variations
The variations in normal supply voltages will affect the operating characteristics of
incandescent lamps. The performance characteristic of an incandescent lamp, when it is
subjected to voltage. With an increase in the voltage owing to the increase in the temperature,
the luminous output of the incandescent lamps, and the efficiency and power consumption,
but its life span decreases.
The depreciation in the light output is around 15% over the useful life of the lamp. The
abovestated factors are related to the variations of voltage are given as:
o Lumens output ∝ (voltage)3.55.
o Power consumption ∝ (voltage)1.55.
o Luminous efficiency ∝ (voltage)2.
o Life ∝ (voltage)–13 (for vacuum lamps).
o Life ∝ (voltage)–14 (for gas filled lamps).
The advantages of the incandescent lamps
o These lamps are available in various shapes and sizes.
o These are operating at unity power factor.
o These lamps are not affected by surrounding air temperature.
o Different colored light output can be obtained by using different colored glasses.
Limitations
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
o Low efficiency.
o Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.
DISCHARGE LAMPS
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamp.
The main principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as
below.
In all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which
produces its illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the
gases are poor conductors of electricity. But on application of sufficient voltage across the
two electrodes, these
ionized gases produce
electromagnetic
radiation. In the
process of producing
light by gaseous
conduction, the most
commonly used
elements are neon,
sodium, and mercury.
The wavelength of
the electromagnetic
radiation depends
upon the nature of gas and the gaseous pressure used inside the lamp. A simple discharge
lamp is shown in Fig. 7.6.
The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of
excitation and ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a
discharge tube.
When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential, gas or metal
vapor starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. Volt–ampere
characteristics of the arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possess a negative
resistance characteristics. A choke or ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value.
Here, the choke serves two functions.
o It provides ignition voltage initially.
o Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all
the discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The
nature of the gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.
Types of discharge lamps
Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
1. The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or vapor
present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside the walls of
the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces UV radiation, then the
invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiates light energy falls in the visible region. This
UV light causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such lamps are known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the lamp circuitry is
complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have negative resistance
characteristics.
NEON DISCHARGE LAMP
This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for starting.
Neon lamp consists of two electrodes placed at the two ends of a long discharge tube is
shown in Fig. 7.7.
The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low
voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V on AC is
impressed across the two electrodes; the discharge
takes place through the neon gas that emits
light or electro magnetic radiation reddish in color.
The sizes of electrodes used are equal for
both AC and DC supplies. On DC, neon glow
appear nearer to the negative electrode; therefore,
the negative electrode is made larger in size. Neon
lamp electric circuit consists of a transformer
with high leakage reactance in order to stabilize the
arc. Capacitor is used to improve the power
factor. Neon lamp efficiency is approximately 15–
40 lumens/W. The power consumption of the
neon lamp is 5 W.
If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white light is obtained. These lamps are
used as night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the determination of the polarity of
DC mains and for advertising purpose.
SODIUM VAPOR LAMP
A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge
lamp consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the
temperature of the tube within the working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-
coated electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These electrodes are connected to a pin
type base construction of sodium vapor lamp is shown in Fig.

This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so

that the length of the lamp should be
more. In order to get the desired length, it is made in
the form of a U-shaped tube. This longUtube
consists of a small amount of neon gas and metallic
sodium. At the time of start, the neon
gas vaporizes and develops sufficient heat to vaporize
metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.
Working
Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid,
deposited on the walls of inner tube. When
sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes,
the discharge starts in the inert gas, i.e.,
neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with
pink color. The temperature of the lamp. In order to
start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage
required for 40- and 100-W lamps.
These voltages can be obtained from a high reactance
transformer or an auto transformer. The
operating power factor of the lamp is very poor, so
that a capacitor is placed to improve the
power factor to above 0.8. More care should be taken
while replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in contact with the
moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly so, to
spread out the sodium well along the tube.
The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally, these
lamps are manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The normal operating
temperatures of these lamps are 300°C. In general, the average life of the sodium vapor lamp
is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected by voltage variations.
Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:
o The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
o The filament breaks or burns out.
o All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
o The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly
used for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.

HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP

The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure,
voltage, temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the
efficiency of the lamp.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
1. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
2. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
3. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high pressures.
MA type lamp
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of
sodium vapor lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Fig. 7.9
MA type lamp consists of a long discharge
tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard
glass or quartz. This discharge tube is
enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass.
To prevent the heat loss from the inner
bulb, by convection, the gap between the
two tubes is completely evacuated.
The inner tube contains two main
electrodes and an auxiliary starting
electrode, which is connected through a
high resistance of about 50 kΩ. It also
contains a small quantity of argon
gas and mercury. The two main electrodes
are tungsten coils coated with electron
emitting material (such as thorium metal).
Working
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the
mercury is in condensed form. Initially,
when supply is given to the lamp, argon
gas present between the main and the
auxiliary electrodes gets ionized, and an
arc is established, and then discharge takes

place through argon for few minutes between the main and the auxiliary electrodes. As a
result, discharge takes place through argon for few minutes in between the main and the
auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by using high resistance that is inserted
in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After few minutes, the argon gas, as a whole, gets
ionized between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge shifts from the auxiliary
electrode to the two main electrodes. During the discharge process, heat is produced and this
heat is sufficient to vaporize the mercury. As a result, the pressure inside the discharge tube
becomes high and the voltage drop across the two main electrodes will increases from 20 to
150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and gives its full output.
Initially, the discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the
mercury vapors is greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high currents and
capacitor is to improve the power factor of the lamp.
If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapor pressure be reduced
before it will start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating temperature of the inner
discharge tube is about 600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is 30–40 lumens/W. These
lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on 200–250 V on AC supply.
Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports, shopping
centers, railway yards, etc.
MAT type lamp
This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for
use on AC as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the
MA type lamp except the outer tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at
the time of starting, it works as a tungsten filament lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a
choke or ballast to limit the high currents to safer value.
When the supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten filament lamp, its full output is given
by the outer tube. At this time, the temperature of the inner discharge tube increases
gradually, the argon gas present in it starts ionizing in the discharge tube at any particular
temperature is attained then thermal
switch gets opened, and the part of the
filament is detached and voltage across
the discharge tube increases. Now, the
discharge takes place through the mercury
vapor.
Useful color effect can be obtained by this
lamp. This is because of the combination
of light
emitted form the filament and blue
radiations from the discharge tube. In this
type of lamp,
capacitor is not required since the overall
power factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is
because the
filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 7.10
shows the construction of MAT type
lamp.

MB type lamp
Schematic representation of MB type lamp is shown in Fig. .
The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB
type lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of
quartz material. It has three electrodes; two
main and one auxiliary electrodes. There are three
electrodes present in the MB type lamp,
namely two main electrodes and one auxiliary
electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is
maintained inside the discharge tube and it is about
5–10 times greater than atmospheric
pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl glass
material so as to withstand high temperatures.
We can use these tubes in any position, because
they are made up of special glass material.
The working principle of the MB type lamp is
similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are
manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in
AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp consists a bayonet cap with three pins, so it
may not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil and a capacitor are necessary for working
with these types of lamps.

FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP)

Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction and
working of the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is
made in the form of a long tube. The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated
with electron emissive material and are placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube
contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm
of mercury. The construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 7.12. Normally, low-
pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce an objectionable
colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the tube with fluorescent
powders. They are in the form of solids, which are usually knows as phosphors.
A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp
with bimetallic strip is
connected in series with
the electrodes, which puts
the electrodes directly
across the supply at the
time of starting. A choke
is connected in series that
acts as ballast when
the lamp is running, and
it provides a voltage
impulse for starting. A
capacitor of 4μF is
connected across the
starter in order to
improve the power factor.

Working
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in
the form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open
circuited and full supply voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of
electrodes and choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an
arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short
circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and are connected across the supply
voltage. Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of
current through them. These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube
discharge that takes place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts
conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form
and takes over the conduction of current.
In the mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling
down. As a result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series circuit. A
very high voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter
terminals in the series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced
voltage is quite sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide
with argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation,
which will not fall in the visible region.
Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-emission of
light of different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the emission is
called as luminescence.
This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
1. Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
2. Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation will present.
In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known
asfluorescent
lamp.
Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different colors as given
in Table.

Advantages of fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has the following advantages:
o High efficiency.
o The life of the lamp is thr
o The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
o Less chances of glare.
o These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be unsatisfactory.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following
disadvantages:
o The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
o The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient
temperature.
o Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
o The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.ee times of the ordinary filament lamp.