Overview:

We touch things every day; a coffee cup, a car door, a computer keyboard. Each time we
do, it leaves behind our fingerprints. No two people have exactly the same fingerprints. Even
identical twins, with identical DNA, have different fingerprints. This difference allows fingerprints
to be used in all sorts of ways, including for background checks, biometric security, mass
disaster identification, and of course, in criminal situations. Fingerprints are what we call the
pattern of ridges on the fingers that provide a rough surface that helps create the friction needed
to pick up a baseball or hold onto a pencil; they are also known as "friction ridges''. These ridges
are formed before birth, one of the deepest layers of skin pushes upwards, making ripples in the
layers of skin above it. By the time a baby is born, there are seven layers of skin, and fingerprint
ridges ripple through the top five layers. We leave impressions, or prints, with skin ridge
patterns, on everything we touch. Impressions can be of a palm, foot, face, or even an elbow,
but the most common are fingerprints.

It is also possible for us to identify different fingerprints. Fingerprint Identification, or

dactyloscopy, is useful to forensic scientists when they compare two fingerprint samples to
determine whether or not they came from the same person. Fingerprints can be visible when
fingers transfer materials like dirt, blood, ink or oil to another surface, these are called latent
fingerprints. Latent fingerprints are traces of sweat, oil, or other natural secretions on the skin,
and they are not ordinarily visible. Latent fingerprints can be made visible by dusting techniques
when the surface is hard and by chemical techniques when the surface is porous. Latent prints
are made by sweat or other residue present on our finger ridges. Because we can’t easily see
latent prints, forensic scientists must process them. One method of processing a fingerprint is by
dusting for them. This is done by coating fingerprints with powder, “lifting” them, and then taking
them to the forensic lab where they are compared to fingerprints in the database. Collecting
latent fingerprints at a crime scene is a very important task for forensic scientists. One of the
most important things to consider at a crime scene is who might have touched what. Latent
fingerprints can even be taken from surfaces that are not smooth, for example, clothing or paper
towels. Even if fingerprints are months or years old, new technology can allow forensic
scientists to recover fingerprints from these objects.

Fingerprint analysis has been used to identify suspects and solve crimes for more than
100 years, and it remains an extremely valuable tool for law enforcement. One of the most
important uses for fingerprints is to help investigators link one crime scene to another involving
the same person. Fingerprint identification also helps investigators to track a criminal’s record,
their previous arrests and convictions, to aid in sentencing, probation, parole and pardoning
decisions.
History:
In 1686 Marcello Malpighi, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna noted fingerprint
ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him, the "Malpighi"
layer, which is approximately 1.8 mm thick.

In 1788, German anatomist Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer authored the book "Anatomical
Copper-plates with Appropriate Explanations" containing drawings of friction ridge skin patterns
(the original title in German was "Anatomische Kupfertafeln nebst dazu gehörigen
Erklärungen"). Mayer wrote, "Although the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two
persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some individuals. In others the
differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of arrangement all have a certain
likeness" . Mayer was the first to declare friction ridge skin is unique.

In July 1858, The English began using fingerprints when Sir William James Herschel, Chief
Magistrate of the Hooghly District in Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts.
Herschel had Rajyadhar Konai, a local businessman, impress his handprint on a contract.

In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own thumb
print on a document to help prevent forgery. This is the first known use of fingerprints in the
United States.
At Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1892, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez made the first criminal
fingerprint identification. He was able to identify Francisca Rojas, a woman who murdered her
two sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on another. Her bloody print was
left on a door post, proving her presence at the scene of the murder. Alvarez was trained by
Juan Vucetich.

In 1914, Dr. Edmond Locard published his fingerprint identification conclusions and the criteria
that should be used to ensure reliability based on a statistical analysis study. His research
revealed the following three-part rule, which can be summarized as follows:

1. If more than 12 concurring points are present and the fingerprint is sharp, the certainty of
identity is beyond debate.

2. If 8 to 12 concurring points are involved, then the case is borderline and the certainty of
identity will depend on:
2.a. the sharpness of the fingerprints;

2.b. the rarity of its type;

2.c. the presence of the center of the figure [core] and the triangle [delta] in the exploitable part
of the print;

2.d. the presence of pores [poroscopy];

2.e. the perfect and obvious identity regarding the width of the papillary ridges and valleys, the
direction of the lines, and the angular value of the bifurcations [ridgeology / edgeoscopy]. Dr.
Locard also realized the value and the importance of, and rendered qualified conclusions to the
identification process.

3.If a limited number of characteristic points are present, the fingerprints cannot provide
certainty for an identification, but only a presumption proportional to the number of points
available and their clarity.

In 1924, an act of congress established the Identification Division of the FBI. The IACP's Bureau
of Criminal Identification fingerprint repository and the US Justice Department's Bureau of
Criminal Identification fingerprint repository were consolidated to form the nucleus of the FBI
Identification Division fingerprint files. During the decades since, the FBI's fingerprint national
fingerprint support has been indispensable in supporting law enforcement.

On 1 August 1977 at New Orleans, Louisiana, members attending the 62nd Annual Conference
of the International Association for Identification (IAI) voted to establish the world's first
certification program for fingerprint experts. Since then, the IAI's Latent Print Certification Board
has tested thousands of applicants, and periodically proficiency retests all IAI Certified Latent
Print Examiners (CLPEs).

Contrary to assertions by some forensic science critics that fingerprint experts claim they never
make erroneous identifications, the Latent Print Certification program, active since 1977, has
specifically recognized such mistakes sometimes occur and must be addressed.

Materials and process used to collect fingerprints:

Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface, including the human body.
Analysts classify fingerprints into three categories according to the type of surface on which they
are found and whether they are visible or not: Fingerprints on soft surfaces, such as soap, wax,
wet paint, are likely to be three-dimensional plastic prints. Those on hard surfaces are either
patent or latent prints. Visible prints are formed when blood, dirt, ink, paint, etc, is transferred
from a finger or thumb to a surface. Patent prints can be found on a wide variety of surfaces:
smooth or rough, porous, such as paper, cloth or wood, or nonporous, such as metal, glass or
plastic.

Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method: photography. These
prints are photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for
reference. Investigators can improve the quality of the images by using low-angle or alternate
light sources and/or certain chemicals or dyes during photography, but this is usually not
necessary.

One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent fingerprints is by
dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with fingerprint powder, such as black granular,
aluminum flake and black magnetic. If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned
above and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The lifting tape is then placed
on a latent lift card to preserve the print.

However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the evidence and ruin the opportunity to perform
other techniques that could turn up a hidden print or additional information. Therefore,
investigators may examine the area with an alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate before
using powders.

It is also becoming more commonplace for investigators to examine any likely surfaces, such as
doors, doorknobs, windows and railings, with an alternate light source. These are laser or LED
devices that emit a particular wavelength, or spectrum, of light. Some devices have different
filters to provide a variety of spectra that can be photographed or further processed with
powders or dye stains. For example, investigators may use a blue light with an orange filter to
find latent prints on desks, chairs, computer equipment or other objects at the scene of a
break-in.
Using a fluorescent dye stain and an orange alternate light source helps this latent print appear
clearly so that it can be documented. Use of various alternate light sources may help enhance
the appearance of a fingerprint.

Chemical Developers are also used. Porous surfaces such as paper are typically
processed with chemicals, including ninhydrin and physical developer, to reveal latent
fingerprints. These chemicals react with specific components of latent print residue, such as
amino acids and inorganic salts. Ninhydrin causes prints to turn a purple color, which makes
them easily photographed. DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-one) is another chemical used to locate
latent fingerprints on porous surfaces; it causes fingerprints to fluoresce, or glow, when they are
illuminated by blue-green light. Paper treated with ninhydrin reagent reveals latent prints after
being processed with a household steam iron.

In addition to the methods identified above, there are special techniques for capturing
prints from skin, clothing and other difficult surfaces. Amido Black, a non-specific protein stain
that reacts with any protein present, is typically used for developing or enhancing bloody
impressions on human skin. To reveal prints on clothing, high-tech methods such as vacuum
metal deposition using gold and zinc are showing promise for the investigator. AccuTrans, a
liquid casting compound, can be used to lift powdered latent prints from rough, textured or
curved surfaces. AccuTrans is basically a very thick liquid that fills in the nooks and crannies of
rough or textured areas where conventional print lifting tape encounters difficulty.

Like fingerprint powders, chemical processing can reduce the investigator’s ability to
perform other techniques that could reveal valuable information. Therefore, any nondestructive
investigations are performed before the evidence is treated with chemicals. For example, a
ransom or hold-up note will be examined by a questioned documents expert before being
treated with ninhydrin, since some formulations of ninhydrin will cause certain inks to run, thus
destroying the writing.

Who does the analysis, education and money:

In criminal justice cases, computerized systems are used to search various local, state
and national fingerprint databases for potential matches. Many of these systems provide a value
indicating how close the match is, based on the algorithm used to perform the search.
Fingerprint examiners then review the potential matches and make a final determination.
Fingerprint examinations may be conducted by forensic scientists, technicians or police officers;
however, the examiner should have the proper training and experience to perform the task.To
go into the field of fingerprinting forensics you are required to obtain either a bachelor's degree
in forensic science, criminal justice or an applied science field. Once you have gotten into the
program you are also required to take courses in basic forensics and fingerprinting. Currently
many agencies require new examiners to have a four-year degree in science (biology, chemistry
or physics). In addition, agencies may require examiners to become certified by the International
Association for Identification (IAI). Forensic fingerprinting scientists make a median salary of
$59,150 in 2019. The best-paid 25 percent made $77,200 that year, while the lowest-paid 25
percent made $45,180.

Fingerprint analysis is usually performed by law enforcement agencies or crime

laboratories, however casework may be sent to private companies if there is a need, such as to
reduce backlogs, verify results, or handle high-profile cases. Fingerprint examination involves
looking at the quality and quantity of information in order to find agreement or disagreement
between the unknown print from the crime scene and known prints on file. To conduct the
examination, fingerprint examiners use a small magnifier called a loupe to view minute details
minutiae of a print. A pointer called a ridge counter is used to count the friction ridges.

The Fingerprint Analysis Process:

Fingerprint examiners use the ACE-V (analysis, comparison, evaluation and verification)
method to reach a determination on each print. Analysis involves assessing a print to determine
if it can be used for a comparison. If the print is not suitable for comparison because of
inadequate quality or quantity of features, the examination ends and the print is reported as not
suitable. If the print is suitable, the analysis indicates the features to be used in the comparison
and their tolerance. The analysis may also uncover physical features such as recurves, deltas,
creases and scars that help indicate where to begin the comparison. Comparisons are
performed by an analyst who views the known and suspect prints side-by-side. The analyst
compares minutiae characteristics and locations to determine if they match. Known prints are
often collected from persons of interest, victims, others present at the scene or through a search
of one or more fingerprint databases such as the FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (IAFIS). IAFIS is the largest fingerprint database in the world and, as of
June 2012, held more than 72 million print records from criminals, military personnel,
government employees and other civilian employees. Evaluation is where the examiner
ultimately decides if the prints are from the same source (identification or individualization),
different sources (exclusion) or is inconclusive. Inconclusive results may be due to poor quality
samples, lack of comparable areas, or insufficient number of corresponding or dissimilar
features to be certain. Verification is when another examiner independently analyzes, compares
and evaluates the prints to either support or refute the conclusions of the original examiner. The
examiner may also verify the suitability of determinations made in the analysis phase.