Int. J. Appl. Comput.

Math (2021) 7:218

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40819-021-01152-w

ORIGINAL PAPER

Classification of the Real Roots of the Quartic Equation and

their Pythagorean Tunes

Emil M. Prodanov1

Accepted: 15 September 2021 / Published online: 12 October 2021

© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
Presented is a very detailed two-tier analysis of the location of the real roots of the general
quartic equation x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 with real coefficients and the classification
of the roots in terms of a, b, c, and d, without using any numerical approximations. Associ-
ated with the general quartic, there is a number of subsidiary quadratic equations (resolvent
quadratic equations) whose roots allow this systematization as well as the determination of
the bounds of the individual roots of the quartic. In many cases the root isolation intervals
are found. The second tier of the analysis uses two subsidiary cubic equations (auxiliary
cubic equations) and solving these, together with some of the resolvent quadratic equations,
allows the full classification of the roots of the general quartic and also the determination
of the isolation interval of each root. These isolation intervals involve the stationary points
of the quartic (among others) and, by solving some of the resolvent quadratic equations,
the isolation intervals of the stationary points of the quartic are also determined. The pre-
sented classification of the roots of the quartic equation is particularly useful in situations in
which the equation stems from a model the coefficients of which are (functions of) the model
parameters and solving cubic equations, let alone using the explicit quartic formulæ , is a
daunting task. The only benefit in such cases would be to gain insight into the location of the
roots and the proposed method provides this. Each possible case has been carefully studied
and illustrated with a detailed figure containing a description of its specific characteristics,
analysis based on solving cubic equations and analysis based on solving quadratic equations
only. As the analysis of the roots of the quartic equation is done by studying the intersection
points of the “sub-quartic” x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 with a set of suitable parallel lines, a beautiful
Pythagorean analogy can be found between these intersection points and the set of parallel
lines on one hand and the musical notes and the staves representing different musical pitches
on the other: each particular case of the quartic equation has its own short tune.

Keywords Quartic equation · Cubic equation · Quadratic equation · Roots · Isolation

intervals · Pythagorean music

Mathematics Subject Classification 12D10 · 26C10 · 11D41

B Emil M. Prodanov
emil.prodanov@tudublin.ie
1 School of Mathematical Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Park House, Grangegorman, 191
North circular Road, Dublin D07 EWV4, Ireland

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Introduction

The first book published in Europe that gives the complete solution to the quadratic equation
was Liber Embadorum, written by Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi (latinized as Savasorda) in
1145. Savasorda was the first who translated and introduced Arabic algebra into Europe and
this text became principal textbook for mathematical education. The first recorded mention
of quartic equations is in Luca Pacioli’s Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni
e Proportionalità from 1494 (see [1] for a modern translation). Later in the Renaissance,
Girolamo Cardano published a milestone in the history of mathematics—Artis Magnæ Sive
de Regulis Algebraicis (1545)—a most comprehensive and systematic treatment of cubic and
quartic equations. Cardano’s masterpiece reflects the geometrical way of thinking at the time
(numbers had to be positive as they represented lengths, areas, etc.) and avoids the use of
negative numbers. The notation used is pre-Viète—for example, cup p: 6 reb aequalis 20
means x 3 + 6x = 20. For modern-day translation and notation, see [2].
Quartic equations have been observed all around for centuries. They appear in all branches
of science. For example, in optics, the dispersion relationship is a quartic equation [3]. The
points of intersection of two conic sections with given foci and directrices are, in general,
the roots of a quartic equation.
The process of solving the general quartic equation
x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 (1)
involves the removal of the cubic term by using the substitution x = y − a/4. This results in
the depressed quartic y 4 + py 2 + qy + r = 0, where p = b − 3a 2 /8, q = c + a 3 /8 − ab/2,
and r = d −3a 4 /256+a 2 b/16−ac/4. There are several algorithms for solving the depressed
quartic equation and each of these involves solving a cubic equation called resolvent. The
resolvents are different for the different algorithms. Finding the roots of the original quartic
equation, once the roots of the resolvent cubic are known, is a straightforward procedure in
each algorithm.
In the literature, the term root classification refers to the provision of all possible cases
of the polynomial roots and it consists of a list of the multiplicities of all roots. On the
other hand, the complete root classification of parametric polynomials consists of the root
classification, together with the conditions which the equation coefficients should satisfy for
each case of the root classification. Root classification and complete root classification have
been extensively studied—see [4–8] and the references therein.
The complete root classification for the depressed quartic equation x 4 + px 2 +q x +r = 0
was found by Arnon in [4] and is as follows. Introducing:
δ( p, q, r ) = 256r 3 − 128 p 2 r 2 + 144 pq 2 r + 16 p 4 r − 27q 4 − 4 p 3 q 2 , (2)
L( p, q, r ) = 8 pr − 9q 2 − 2 p 3 , (3)
one has:
1 δ >0∧L >0∧ p <0 {1, 1, 1, 1}
2 δ =0∧L >0∧ p <0 {1, 1, 2}
3 δ = 0 ∧ L = 0 ∧ p < 0 ∧ q = 0 {1, 3}
4 δ =0∧L =0∧ p <0∧q =0 {1, 3}
5 δ<0 {1, 1}
6 δ =0∧L =0∧ p =0 {4}
7 δ =0∧L <0 {2}
8 [δ > 0 ∧ (L ≤ 0 ∨ p > 0)] ∨ (δ = 0 ∧ L = 0 ∧ p = 0) {}

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As can be seen, the root classification and the complete root classification do not deal
with the location of the roots of the polynomial while the present work aims at addressing
this issue. This paper introduces a different connotation of the term root classification by
adding a new dimension to it. Using the methods presented in [9], a two-tier analysis of
the location of the real roots of the general quartic equation (1) with real coefficients is
presented and the root classification, in the sense of root multiplicities, conditions and, most
importantly, root isolation or clustering intervals, is given. Namely, a technique is offered
with which the precise isolation or clustering intervals of the roots of the parametric quartic
equation are determined. The endpoints of these intervals are found as roots of quadratic
equations with coefficients which are, at worst, integer multiples of the coefficients of the
original quartic equation (cubic equations too, for the determination of the precise isolation
interval of each root). The proposed classification of the roots of the quartic equation—in
terms of the coefficients of the equation and based on solving lower-degree equations—is
particularly useful when the quartic stems from the study of some model and the coefficients
of the resulting equation are (functions of) the model parameters. Even the presence of a
single parameter in the equation makes the application of the cubic formulæ, let alone the
quartic formulæ, practically impossible and the only benefit would be to get insight into the
location of the roots. The presence of parameters in the equation renders any approach, based
on numerical methods, tedious and time consuming. Even the determination of whether a
particular case is a casus irreducibilis is not possible.
Associated with each quartic, there is a number of subsidiary quadratic equations, referred
to in this text as resolvent quadratic equations, with the help of which the roots of the general
quartic are systematized in terms of its coefficients a, b, c, and d. Additionally, the bounds
on individual roots are determined. In many cases the root isolation intervals are found, but
there is some residual indeterminacy as some intervals may contain either two roots of the
quartic or no roots at all. The individual root bounds themselves are associated with the roots
of x 2 +ax +b = 0 and cx +d = 0, or with the non-zero stationary points of x 2 (x 2 +ax +b),
if real roots are absent, or with the points of curvature change of x 2 (x 2 + ax + b), if real roots
and non-zero stationary points are absent, or with the point of vanishing third derivative of
x 2 (x 2 + ax + b), if real roots and non-zero stationary points, and curvature change points
are absent.
The other tier of the presented analysis is the full classification of the roots of the quartic
in terms of its coefficients and, also, the determination of the isolation interval of each root
of the quartic by solving two cubic equations and some of the resolvent quadratic equations.
These two cubic equations are subsidiary to each quartic and are referred to in this paper as
auxiliary cubic equations—in order to make a distinction from the resolvent cubic equation.
It can be argued why it is necessary to address not one, but two cubic equations (the
auxiliary cubic equations) which do not yield the roots of the quartic, but only reveal their
isolation intervals, and what can be gained by doing so. Indeed, it suffices to solve a single
cubic equation (the resolvent) in order to find the actual roots of any quartic. The answer
to this is in the search for rules and patterns through abstraction to gain insight on how
different coefficient vectors affect the roots. Systematization and having predictive powers
are always a bonus and merit investigation. If analysis of the roots of the quartic could be
done with equations of degree two, one would expect that using equations of degree three
would be more informative, despite getting into the realm where the procedure of finding the
roots through the explicit formulæ is applied. The analysis based on solving cubic equations
complements the picture revealed by the analysis based on quadratic equations. The resulting
systematization and classification are not possible if one addresses the explicit formulæ for
the roots of the quartic—these are rather unwieldy and one cannot trace how the variation of

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a particular coefficient of the given quartic affects the roots, i.e. the coefficients of the quartic
enter the root formulæ in an intricate combination involving the root(s) of the resolvent
cubic (which, in turn, depend on the coefficients of the quartic) and one cannot discern the
individual contribution of each coefficient of the quartic to the location of its roots. The
proposed analysis based on cubic equations also has heuristic potential: just by observation
of the coefficients and whether they fall into specific ranges, one can predict the number
of real roots and also find their isolation intervals. For example, for any a, c, and d, when
b > 3a 2 /2, the quartic cannot have four real roots. If, additionally, the free term d is negative
and c is also negative, then the quartic has one negative root smaller than −d/c and one
positive root greater than the only real non-zero root λ > 0 of the equation obtained from
the quartic after removing the free term d. If μ denotes the only stationary point of quartic
(μ > 0 in this case) and d is positive and greater than μ4 + aμ3 + bμ2 + cμ (which itself
is positive), then the quartic has no real roots. If 0 < d < μ4 + aμ3 + bμ2 + cμ, then the
quartic has two positive roots —one bigger than −d/c and smaller than μ, the other—bigger
than μ and smaller than λ.
In the presented analysis, the isolation intervals of the stationary points of the general
quartic are also determined—with the help of the resolvent quadratic equations.
Every possible case has been individually studied and illustrated with a detailed figure con-
taining a description of its specific characteristics, analysis based on solving cubic equations
and analysis based on solving quadratic equations only.
Pythagoras believed that numbers hold the key to understanding the Cosmos. He thought
that mathematics could explain everything, including music. Pythagoras perceived the inher-
ent properties of mathematics within music and his quest to relate harmony to proportion
was taken up by the School of Plato. In this paper, the analysis of the roots of the quartic
equation is done after studying the intersection points of the “sub-quartic” x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2
with a set of suitable parallel lines. A beautiful Pythagorean analogy exists between these
intersection points and the set of parallel lines on one hand and the musical notes and the
staves representing different musical pitches on the other. Even more, each case of the quartic
equation has its own tune.

Subsidiary Cubic, Quadratic, and Linear Equations

Each quartic is associated with a number of subsidiary cubic, quadratic, and linear equations
whose roots can be used for the classification of the roots of the quartic. All figures are given
in Online Supplementary Material.
In parallel with the presentation of the analysis, Figs. 1 to 5 illustrate, through a particular
example with the quartic x 4 + x 3 − 3x 2 − x + 1, the full procedure of finding the isolation
interval of each root of the quartic, based on solving cubic equations, and the localization of
the roots by determination of the individual root bounds, based on solving quadratic equations
only. The isolation intervals of the stationary points of this quartic are also found.
Figures 6 to 12 illustrate some patterns associated with the general quartic and these are
used for the classification of the roots of the quartic.
Taking the free term d of the quartic and varying it, yields a one-parameter congruence of
quartics, all having the same set of stationary points (which are either three—two local minima
and a local maximum or a saddle point and a local minimum, or just one—a minimum). Let μi
denote the stationary point(s). For each μi , there is a “special” quartic within this congruence:
x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi —the one whose graph is tangent to the abscissa at that particular

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stationary point. The derivative of the “special” quartic is also zero at this stationary point,
namely, for x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi the stationary point μi is also a double root [or a triple
root, if the original quartic has a saddle at μi , or a quadruple root −a/4 in the case of the
quartic (x − a/4)4 = x 4 + ax 3 + (3/8)a 2 x 2 + (1/16)a 3 x + (1/256)a 4 , which coincides
with its only “special” quartic]. Setting the derivative of the quartic equal to zero yields the
set of its stationary points and the resulting equation,

4x 3 + 3ax 2 + 2bx + c = 0, (4)

is referred to in this text as first auxiliary cubic equation.

Substituting each real root μi of this equation into the corresponding “special” quartic
equation x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi = 0, immediately gives:

δi = −μi4 − aμi3 − bμi2 − cμi . (5)

Thus the “special” quartics are given by x 4 − μi4 + a(x 3 − μi3 ) + b(x 2 − μi2 ) + c(x − μi ).
The discriminant of the first auxiliary cubic equation is Δ1 = −432c2 − 432a(a 2 /4 −
b)c + 128b2 [(9/8)a 2 /4 − b]. It can be viewed as a quadratic in c, treated as unknown, with
a and b treated as parameters. The first resolvent quadratic equation is obtained by setting
Δ1 = 0:
 2   2 
a 8 9a
c2 + a − b c − b2 − b = 0. (6)
4 27 8 4
The roots of this equation,
√  3  
2 6 3 a2 1 a2
c1,2 (a, b) = c0 ± − b , with c0 (a, b) = a b − , (7)
9 2 4 2 4

play a very important role in the analysis. For any given quartic, one has to see first whether
the coefficient c of the linear term falls between the roots c1,2 (a, b) or outside them. If
c2 (a, b) ≤ c ≤ c1 (a, b), then the discriminant Δ1 is positive and the quartic has three
stationary points: μ1,2,3 . Otherwise it has just one: μ1 . In the first case, the quartic can
have either 0, or 2, or 4 real roots; in the second case it can have either 0 or 2 real roots.
It is immediately obvious that, for any a, c, and d, when b > (3/2)(a 2 /4), the quartic can
have either 0 or 2 real roots only (the first resolvent quadratic equation (6) has negative
discriminant).
When the discriminant Δ1 of the first auxiliary cubic equation (4) is equal to zero, that is,
when c = c1,2 (a, b), the original quartic with c replaced by c1,2 has a saddle point at η1,2
and a local minimum at θ1,2 . The corresponding “special” quartic at η1,2 is x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 +
c1,2 x + d1,2 , where d1,2 = −η1,2
4 − aη3 − bη2 − c η , and for the “special” quartic,
1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2
η1,2 is a triple root. The points η1,2 and θ1,2 can be easily found as the “special” quartic
x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + c1,2 x + d1,2 , its first derivative, and its second derivative are all zero at
η1,2 . In other words, one has to start with solving the second resolvent quadratic equation,

6x 2 + 3ax + b = 0, (8)

the roots of which are

√ 
1 6 3 a2
η1,2 =− a± − b, (9)
4 6 2 4

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then write down the vanishing first derivative of the (“special”) quartic as 4x 3 +3ax 2 +2bx +
c1,2 = 4(x − η1,2 )2 (x − θ1,2 ), and then compare the coefficients of the quadratic terms. This
will give θ1,2 = −(3/4)a − 2η1,2 and hence:
√ 
1 6 3 a2
θ1,2 = − a ± − b. (10)
4 3 2 4
One could observe that −a/4 is the quadruple root of the quartic x 4 + ax 3 + (3/8)a 2 x 2 +
(1/16)a 3 x + (1/256)a 4 = 0.
With the help of η1,2 and θ1,2 , the isolation intervals of the stationary points μi of the
general quartic can be easily found (see the example on Figure 6 in the Online Supplementary
Material). In the regime of increasing c and starting with c < c2 , there is only one stationary
point (local minimum) at  μ1 > θ2 . When c = c2 , the quartic has a saddle point at η2 and
a local minimum at θ2 . As soon as c gets bigger than c2 , the saddle point η2 bifurcates
into two stationary points μ2 and μ3 on either side of η2 : a local maximum at μ2 such that
η2 < μ2 < η1 and a local minimum at μ3 such that θ1 < μ3 < η2 . The local minimum

μ1 remains as μ1 and is such that η1 < μ1 < θ2 . With the further increase of c, the local
maximum at μ2 and the right local minimum (at μ1 ) get closer to each other and coalesce at
η1 when c = c1 . The left local minimum is then at θ1 . This corresponds to a saddle point η1
and a local minimum at θ1 for the quartic with c = c1 . When c becomes bigger than c1 , the
quartic will have only one stationary point—the left local minimum μ3 remains as  μ1 < θ1 .
To summarize, the isolation intervals of the stationary points of the general quartic are as
follows (dropping the tilde and the hat):
(i) If c < c2 , the quartic has a single local minimum μ1 > θ2 .
(ii) If c = c2 , the quartic has a saddle point at η2 and a local minimum at θ2 .
(iii) If c2 < c < c1 , the quartic has a local minimum at μ3 where θ1 < μ3 < η2 , a local
maximum at μ2 where η2 < μ2 < η1 , and local minimum at μ1 where η1 < μ1 < θ2 .
(iv) If c = c1 , the quartic has a saddle point at η1 and a local minimum at θ1 .
(v) If c > c1 , the quartic has a single local minimum μ1 < θ1 .
(i)
For the analysis further, one also needs to determine the other two roots ξ1,2 of the “special”
quartics x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi (recall that μi is at least a double root for them). One has:
(i) (i)
x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi = (x − μi )2 (x − ξ1 )(x − ξ2 ) = 0. (11)
(i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i)
Viète formulæ give: ξ1 + ξ2 = −a − 2μi and 2μi [ξ1 + ξ2 ] + μi2 + ξ1 ξ2 = b. From
(i) (i)
these one finds that ξ1 ξ2 = b + 3μi2 + 2aμi . If x  = μi then (11) reduces to

x 2 + (a + 2μi )x + b + 3μi2 + 2aμi = 0. (12)

This is the third resolvent quadratic equation. The roots of this equation are:

(i) 1 1
ξ1,2 = − a − μi ± a 2 − 4aμi − 8μi2 − 4b. (13)
2 2
Note that the roots of the third resolvent quadratic equation (12) depend on the roots μi of
the first auxiliary cubic equation (4). That is, to find the ξ ’s, one needs to find at least one
of the stationary points of the quartic. Thus, the third resolvent quadratic equation should be
used in the analysis based on solving cubic equations.
Separately, for one of the three “special” quartics x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi , the roots
(i)
ξ1,2 of the third resolvent quadratic equation (12) are not real, while for the remaining two

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they are real (unless the original quartic has the same value at its two local minima, in which
case two of the “special” quartics x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + δi coincide and so all “special”
quartics will have four real roots)—see Figure 2 in the Online Supplementary Material.
In the congruence of quartics, there is another significant quartic—the one that passes
through the origin—i.e. this is a privileged quartic as it is the only one that has zero as a root.
It is obtained from the original quartic by removing the free term d. The remaining three
roots of this privileged quartic are found by solving the second auxiliary cubic equation:
x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0. (14)
If the discriminant Δ2 = −27c2 + (−4a 3 + 18ab)c + a 2 b2 − 4b3 of this equation is negative,
there is only one real root: λ1 . If it is not negative, there are three real roots: λ0,1,2 . To determine
which of these occurs, set Δ2 = 0 to obtain the fourth resolvent quadratic equation:
 2   
2 8a 4 1 2
c2 + a − b c − b2 a − b = 0. (15)
3 9 4 27 4
Once again, setting a discriminant of a cubic equal to zero is viewed as a quadratic in the
unknown c with a and b treated as parameters. The roots of this equation,
  √  3
1 8 a2 2 3 4 a2
γ1,2 (a, b) = a b − ± −b . (16)
3 9 4 9 3 4
also play a very important role in the analysis. If the given c is such that γ2 (a, b) ≤ c ≤
γ1 (a, b), then the quartic x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx has four real roots: 0 and λ0,1,2 (there may
be zeros among the λ’s). Otherwise, the x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx has only two real roots: zero
and λ1 (which may also be zero).
Following the ideas of [9], the four “degrees of freedom” of the general quartic x 4 +
ax + bx 2 + cx + d are split equally between two separate polynomials, x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 and
3

−cx − d, the difference of which comprises the given quartic and the “interaction” between
which gives the roots of the quartic:
x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) = −cx − d (17)
—see Figure 3 (and also Figures 4 and 5 in the Online Supplementary Material) where this
is illustrated with an example.
It may be tempting to depress the quartic and analyse only its “three-dimensional projec-
tion” y 4 + py 2 + qy + r = 0, but by doing so, study of how the coefficients of the original
quartic affect its roots would not be possible as these coefficients would be “dissolved” into
p, q, and r .
It is quite easy to analyse the two parts of the “split” quartic and, hence, the quartic itself—
one of the “components” is a straight line, while the other is a quadratic “in disguise”—in
the sense that it is a quartic having zero as a double root and allowing analysis not more
difficult than that of a genuine quadratic (with the possible addition of a pair of stationary
points and/or a pair of curvature change points, and the addition of a point where the third
derivative vanishes).
For any given a and b, i.e. for any “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b), one can find a straight
line −c† x − d † such that it will be tangent to x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) at two points, say α and
β. This means that the obtained in this manner quartic, x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + c† x + d † , has
two double roots: α and β. That is, x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + c† x + d † = (x − α)2 (x − β)2 =
x 4 − 2(α + β)x 3 + (α 2 + β 2 + 4αβ)x 2 − 2αβ(α + β)x + α 2 β 2 . Comparing the corresponding
coefficients yields: c† = (1/2)a(b − a 2 /4). This is exactly equal to c0 —see the roots (7) of

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the first resolvent quadratic equation (6). One also gets d † = (1/4)(b − a 2 /4)2 > 0. From
now on, c0 and d0 will be used instead of c† and d † .
The quartic x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + c0 x + d0 is very important for the classification of the
roots of the general quartic. This is better visualized on the tablecloth of the “split” quartic
(17). The determination of whether c is smaller, equal, or greater than c0 will determine the
ordering of the δ’s and will also determine the number of intersection points between the
“sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 +ax +b) and −cx −d for any value of d. For example, on Figure 5 in the
Online Supplementary Material, one has 0 < c0 = −1.63 < c = −1. Thus, if one studies
the intersection points of x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) with −cx − d in the regime of increasing (−d)
starting from −∞, i.e. “sliding” a straight line with fixed slope (−c) upwards, intersections
of this straight line with x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) will occur first in the third quadrant before they
occur in the forth.
From the roots (7) of the first resolvent quadratic equation (6), it is immediately obvious
that c2 (a, b) ≤ c0 (a, b) ≤ c1 (a, b) for any a and b. The graph of c0 as a function of a
and b is shown on Figure 7 in the Online Supplementary Material. Figures 8 to 11 in the
Online Supplementary Material show that, for any a and b, the following holds for the general
quartic:

c2 (a, b) ≤ γ2 (a, b) ≤ c0 (a, b) ≤ γ1 (a, b) ≤ c1 (a, b). (18)

Depending on a and b, the place of zero in the above chain of inequalities could be anywhere.
For the analysis of the general quartic, the very first step is the determination of these numbers
and the following step is to find the place of 0 and the given c in the above. Figure 12 in the
Online Supplementary Material shows this chain when a and b are both negative, in which
case one has c2 < γ2 < 0 < c0 < γ1 < c1 . On Figure 12 in the Online Supplementary
Material, the “separator” straight lines −c1,2 x − d1,2 , −γ1,2 x, and −co x − d0 are drawn and
this clearly demonstrates that (including also the coordinate axes) there are seven ranges in
which c may fall. Each of these is individually studied. It has its own peculiarities that reflect
on the number of roots and their localization.
Next, for the classification of the roots based on solving cubic equations, one needs to find
the place of (−d) among the (−δ)’s and zero—see Figure 4 in the Online Supplementary
Material where this is illustrated with the quartic equation x 4 +x 3 −3x 2 −x +1 = 0. The role
of the second auxiliary cubic equation (14) and its roots λ0,1,2 now becomes clear. Keeping
a and b fixed [i.e. not changing the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b)], and only varying c would
“move” the stationary points μi along the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b). For the example
with a = 1 and b = −3 on Figures 1 to 5 in the Online Supplementary Material, for as long
as c < 0, one always has −δ2 > 0 for the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b). On the other hand
however, −δ1 and −δ3 could be anywhere. Because the second auxiliary cubic equation (14)
has three real roots λ0,1,2 , −δ1 and −δ3 are both negative—these are on the “other side”
(opposite side of −δ2 ) of the straight line −cx − 0 (the linear “part” of the privileged quartic
x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx). If the second auxiliary cubic equation (14) had just one root λ1 , then
−δ1 and −δ3 would both be positive. And because c > c0 , one has −δ3 < −δ1 .
For the other tier of the analysis—based on solving quadratic equations only—one does
not have the μ’s, the δ’s, and the λ s explicitly. The isolation intervals of the δ’s and the λ’s can
be found in a manner similar to the one used for the determination of the isolation intervals
of the μ’s or one can see [9] for the full classification of the roots of the cubic equation
and the determination of the isolation intervals of its roots. The “separator” line −cx can
still be used without knowing the loci of its point(s) of intersection with the “sub-quartic”
x 2 (x 2 + ax + b), but knowing if these are three or just one. The “separator” lines −cx − δi

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can no longer be used for analysis based on solving quadratic equations only. There is a way
however, to find “replacements”.
The “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) has zero as a double root and two more roots which
are the roots of the fifth resolvent quadratic equation
x 2 + ax + b = 0, (19)
the roots of which are

1 a2
ρ1,2 =− a± − b. (20)
2 4
These are real for b ≤ a 2 /4.
Then, one takes the given c and draws the two parallel lines with equations −c(x − ρ1,2 ).
These straight lines are the sought “replacements” of the “separator” lines −cx − δi and their
intersections with the ordinate—the “marker” points cρ1,2 —are the “replacements” of the
(−δ)’s. This allows the analysis based on solving quadratic equations only to be performed in
manner fully analogous to that of the analysis based on solving cubic equations—see Figure
5 in the Online Supplementary Material.
All possibilities for this analysis are shown on Figures 1.1 to 1.14 and 2.1 to 2.14 in the
Online Supplementary Material.
If b > a 2 /4 (ρ1,2 not being real), a different pair of characteristic points of the “sub-
quartic” x 2 (x 2 +ax+b) should be chosen as “marker” points—the two non-zero critical points
σ1,2 of x 2 (x 2 +ax +b). Clearly, recourse to these can be made for a 2 /4 < b ≤ (9/8)a 2 /4—as
can be easily seen from the sixth resolvent quadratic equation
4x 2 + 3ax + 2b = 0, (21)
the roots of which are the non-zero critical points of x 2 (x 2
+ ax + b) given by
√ 
3 2 9 a2
σh,H = − a ± − b. (22)
8 2 8 4
One then calculates the values H and h of x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) at σ H and σh respectively and
draws the parallel lines −c(x − σ H ) + H and −c(x − σh ) + h to serve as “separators”. These
intersect the ordinate at the “marker” points cσ H + H and cσh + h. One has to be careful
because, depending on c, one can have zero, cσ H + H , and cσh + h in any order.
All possibilities for this analysis are shown on Figures 3.1 to 3.14 in the Online Supple-
mentary Material.
Should b be greater than (9/8)(a 2 /4), then the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 +ax +b) will not have
critical points. One should then use the points of curvature change [non-zero first derivative,
but vanishing second derivative of the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b)]. These are real for
b ≤ (3/2)(a 2 /4). They are the roots of the second resolvent quadratic equation and on
Figures 4.1 to 4.14 and, also 5.1 to 5.10 in the Online Supplementary Material (where the
relevant analysis is), they are denoted by
√ 
1 6 3 a2
τh,H = − a ± − b. (23)
4 6 2 4
As with the critical points σ1,2 , one then calculates the values H and h of x 2 (x 2 + ax + b)
at τ H and τh respectively and draws the parallel lines −c(x − τ H ) + H and −c(x − τh ) + h
to serve as “separators”. These intersect the ordinate at the “marker” points cτ H + H and

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cτh + h. The slope of the straight line joining the two points of curvature change is equal
to ±c0 . Thus, which of cτ H + H and cτh + h is bigger depends on whether c is bigger or
smaller than c0 . Again, care should be exercised as zero, cτ H + H and cτh +h could be in any
order—it is the number of real roots of the second auxiliary cubic equation that determines
this order.
Finally, when b > (3/2)a 2 /4, not one of the resolvent quadratic equations has real roots.
One still needs to find identifiable points on the “sub-quartic” x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) from which
“separator” lines can be drawn. There is just one such point—where the third derivative of
x 2 (x 2 + ax + b) vanishes. This point is the only root φ = −a/4 of the resolvent linear
equation: 4x + a = 0. One then draws the only available “separator”—the line −c(x +
a/4) + (1/16)a 2 [b − (3/4)(a 2 /4)]. It intersects the ordinate at the “marker” point t =
−(1/4)ac + (1/16)a 2 [b − (3/4)(a 2 /4)]. If the signs of a and c are opposite, a second
“separator” line, −cx + (1/16)a 2 [b − (3/4)(a 2 /4)] (it is parallel to the first), can provide
sharper bounds on the roots (this line is not useful if a and c are with the same sign). Care
should be exercised as one could have t < 0, t = 0, or t > 0—see Figures 6.1 to 6.4 in the
Online Supplementary Material, on which the corresponding analysis can be found.

Classification of the Roots of the Quartic Equation

Every possible case for non-zero a, b, and c has been thoroughly analyzed. The cases of c
equal to c1,2 , or γ1,2 , or c0 do not get special attention—should one or more of a, b, and c
be zero or should c be equal to one of the above, the analysis (not presented here) follows
trivially.
The results of the investigation are presented in figures with labels i. j in the Online
Supplementary Material, where i and j are positive integers . The figures can be grouped
into a (rather large) table. For ease of reference, an effort has been made to keep the individual
figures independent from each other and for this purpose, each Figure i. j contains a short
description of the situation, analysis based on solving cubic equations, and analysis based on
solving quadratic equations only.
The index i in Figure i. j runs from 1 to 6 and labels the rows of the table:
i = 1 : This is the case of b < 0. The roots c1,2 , γ1,2 , and ρ1,2 of the first, fourth, and
fifth resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are real. The roots ρ1,2 have opposite signs.
When i = 1, the index j runs from 1 to 14 (there are fourteen columns). The first seven of
these correspond to the seven possible ranges for c when a < 0; the remaining seven are the
seven possible ranges for c when a > 0.
i = 2 : This is the case of 0 < b ≤ a 2 /4. The roots c1,2 , γ1,2 , and ρ1,2 of the first,
fourth, and fifth resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are again real. This time the roots
ρ1,2 have the same sign (opposite to the sign of a). When i = 2, the index j again runs
from 1 to 14 (there are fourteen columns) with the first seven of these corresponding to the
seven possible ranges for c when a < 0 and the remaining seven corresponding to the seven
possible ranges for c when a > 0.
i = 3 : This is the case of a 2 /4 < b ≤ (9/8)a 2 /4. The roots c1,2 and γ1,2 of the first
and fourth resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are real, but the roots ρ1,2 of the fifth
resolvent quadratic equation, are not real. The roots σh,H of the sixth resolvent quadratic
equation are real and these are used in the analysis. When i = 3, the index j again runs
from 1 to 14 (there are fourteen columns). The first seven of these correspond to the seven

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Int. J. Appl. Comput. Math (2021) 7:218 Page 11 of 14 218

possible ranges for c when a < 0; the remaining seven are the seven possible ranges for c
when a > 0.
i = 4 : This is the case of (9/8)a 2 /4 < b ≤ (4/3)a 2 /4. The roots c1,2 and γ1,2 of the
first and fourth resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are real, but the roots ρ1,2 and
σh,H of the fifth and sixth resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are not real. The roots
τh,H of the second resolvent quadratic equation are real and these are used in the analysis.
When i = 4, the index j again runs from 1 to 14 (there are fourteen columns). The first seven
of these correspond to the seven possible ranges for c when a < 0; the remaining seven are
the seven possible ranges for c when a > 0.
i = 5 : This is case of (4/3)a 2 /4 < b ≤ (3/2)a 2 /4. The roots c1,2 of the first resolvent
quadratic equation are real, but the roots γ1,2 , ρ1,2 , and σh,H , of the fourth, fifth, and sixth
resolvent quadratic equation, respectively, are not real. The roots τh,H of the second resolvent
quadratic equation are real and these are again used in the analysis. When i = 5, the index
j runs from 1 to 10 (there are ten columns). The first five of these correspond to the five
possible ranges for c when a < 0; the remaining five are the five possible ranges for c when
a > 0—there are no γ ’s anymore.
i = 6 : This is the case of (3/2)a 2 /4 < b. Not one of the resolvent quadratic equations
has real roots. But the graph of the “sub-quartic” x 2 (ax 2 + bx + c) still has a “blemish”
that can be used and extract one or two “separator” lines for the analysis. This is the point
φ = −a/4 where the third derivative of x 2 (ax 2 + bx + c) is zero. i.e. φ is the root of the
resolvent linear equation 4x + a = 0. When i = 6, the index j runs from 1 to 4 (there are
only four columns): a < 0 with c < 0, a < 0 with c > 0, a > 0 with c < 0, and a > 0
with c > 0.
To find the relevant case, one has to see first in which of the above ranges the coefficient b
of the quadratic term falls into. The relevant row of the table is then selected by the particular
value of b.
Next, if the sign of the coefficient a of the cubic term is negative, one should look at
columns 1 to 7 for the first four rows of the table, columns 1 to 5 for the fifth row and
columns 1 and 2 for the sixth row of the table. If a is positive, one should look at the other
columns of the relevant row.
It is the place of the coefficient c of the linear term within the chain of inequalities (18)
that determines which particular column applies, namely, c selects the individual cell in the
table that is relevant.
Finally, the value of the coefficient d of the free term determines, within that cell, which
one of the cases labeled by lower case Roman numerals applies (either for the analysis based
on cubic equations or for the analysis based on solving quadratic equations only).
As example of the above and demonstration of how to use this work, consider the quartic
equation x 4 + 2x 3 − 4x 2 − 13x − 3 = 0 for which, obviously, one has a > 0, b < 0, c < 0,
and d < 0.
Firstly, given that b < 0, a > 0, and c < 0, one determines that Figures 1.8 to 1.11 in the
Online Supplementary Material are relevant, that is, here are 4 possible cases, depending on
the coefficient c of the linear term.
To determine which of these 4 cases is the relevant one for the given equation, two resolvent
quadratic equations should be solved first: equation (6), the roots of which are given by (7)
and equation (15), the roots of which are given by (16). One will also need to solve equation
(19) with roots (20) which will be needed afterwards.
Given that a = 2 and b = −4, equation (6) becomes x 2 + 10x − 656/27 = 0 and
the roots (7) are: c1 = 2.023 and c2 = −12.023. Also, c0 = −5. Equation (15) becomes
x 2 +(176/27)x −320/27 = 0 and the roots (16) are: γ1 = 1.481 and γ2 = −7.999. Equation

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(19) becomes x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0 and the roots (20) are: ρ1 = 1.236 and ρ2 = −3.236. Hence,
cρ1 = −16.069 and cρ2 = 42.069.
Clearly, one has c = −13 < c2 < γ2 < c0 < 0 < γ1 < c1 for this equation. Hence,
Figure 1.8 in the Online Supplementary Material applies.
Given that d < 0, one has to look at the upper half-plane of Figure 1.8 in the Online
Supplementary Material. One immediately finds that 0 < −d < cρ2 and that section (iii) of
the analysis based on solving quadratic equations only on Figure 1.8 in the Online Supple-
mentary Material applies. Thus, the quartic equation x 4 + 2x 3 − 4x 2 − 13x − 3 = 0 has
two real roots. One of them is between ρ2 = −3.236 and −d/c = −0.2308. The other root
is greater than ρ1 = 1.236. The roots of the equation are: x1 = 2.335, x2 = −0.2526, and
x3,4 = −2.041±0.9605i. The real roots x1,2 are exactly in their predicted isolation intervals.

Outcomes, Discussion and Concluding Remarks

When only quadratic equations are solved, the method leaves some indeterminacy as to the
exact number of roots within the intervals determined by solving the resolvent quadratic
equations. This residual indeterminacy can be fully lifted if one applies Arnon’s complete
root classification (given in the Introduction). Despite the complexity of the coefficients p, q,
and r of the depressed quartic and, in turn, the complexity of the conditions of the complete
root classifications [manifested through p, q, δ( p, q, r ), and L( p, q, r )], one can determine
the exact number of roots of the quartic equation within each interval determined by solving
the resolvent quadratic equations only.
A common outcome in both tiers of the analysis (solving cubic equations or solving
quadratic equations only) is the arising need to find a bound of the biggest root from above
or of the smallest root from below. For that, one needs to use a polynomial root bound. There
are many existing root bounds—see [10,11,13]—and different root bounds would perform
differently, depending on the coefficients of the equation. Just to name a few, one can use, for
example, the Cauchy bound, which is the bigger of 1 and the sum of the absolute values of all
coefficients of the monic quartic equation. Or one can use instead the stricter root bound [12]:
the bigger of 1 and the sum of the absolute√ values of all negative coefficients of the equation.
Or one can consider the bound [13]: 1 + k H , where k = 1 if a < 0, k = 2 if a > 0 and
b < 0, and k = 3 if a > 0 and b > 0, c < 0, and k = 4 if the only negative coefficient is d
(if all coefficients are positive, the upper root bound is zero). H is the biggest absolute value
of all negative coefficients in x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d. To find the lower root bound, one
needs to determine the negative of the upper root bound of x 4 − ax 3 + bx 2 − cx + d.
The real version of the Siebeck–Marden Theorem [14–20], stated and proved by
Northshield in [20], is as follows: “Any three real numbers, not all equal, are the projections
of the vertices of some equilateral triangle in the plane. For a cubic polynomial p(x) with
three real roots (not all equal), the inscribed circle of the equilateral triangle that projects
onto those roots itself projects to an interval with endpoints equal to the roots of p (x).”
Recently, by solving the Siebeck–Marden–Northshield triangle, the isolation intervals of
the real roots of the symbolic cubic equation were determined in terms of the coefficients of
this equation [21].
In this vein, it would be very interesting to link the proposed method to the relationship
between quartic equations and tetrahedral symmetries [22] and, in particular, to the vertices

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Int. J. Appl. Comput. Math (2021) 7:218 Page 13 of 14 218

of a tetrahedron aligned with the roots of a quartic [23]—as done in the analysis of the cubic
equation in [21].

Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.
org/10.1007/s40819-021-01152-w.

Acknowledgements It is a pleasure to thank Elena Tonkova for useful discussions and Milena E. Mihaylova
for the help with the figures.

Funding Open Access funding provided by the IReL Consortium

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