List of Experiments

1. To study the function and working of various boiler mountings and accessories in a
boiler.
2. To study the construction and working of some low pressure boilers.
3. To study the construction and working of some high pressure boilers.
4. To study the construction and working of 4- stroke petrol / diesel engine.
5. To study the construction and working of 2- stroke petrol / diesel engine.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Aim:

To study the function and working of various boiler mountings and accessories in a boiler.

Theory:

A boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion
of fuel. Also defined as “A combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing, or recovering
heat together with the apparatus for transporting the heat so made available to the fluid being
heated and vaporized.”

Classification of Boilers:

The boilers may be classified according to following criteria:

1. According to relative position of water and hot gases.

(a) Water tube boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through the tubes which are
surrounded by hot combustion gases i.e. Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Benson
boilers etc.
(b) Fire tube boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler tubes, which
are surrounded by water i.e. Lancashire, Cochran, Locomotive boilers etc.

2. According to water circulation arrangement

(a) Natural circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density difference of hot
and cold water e.g., Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler, Locomotive
boiler etc.
(b) Forced circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path, therefore, the
steam generation rate increases e.g.. Benson, LaMont, Velox boilers etc.

3. According to position of furnaces:

(a) Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell e.g., Cochran, Lancashire
boilers etc.
(b) Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell i.e. Babcock and
Wilcox, Stirling boilers etc.

4. According to the use: Stationary, Portable, Locomotive or marine boiler.

5. According to position of the boilers: horizontal, inclined or vertical boilers.

Boiler Mountings:

The boiler mountings are the part of the boiler and are required for proper functioning. In
accordance with the Indian Boiler regulations, of the boiler mountings is essential fitting for
safe working of a boiler. Some of the important mountings are:

Water level Indicator

Water level indicator is located in front of boiler in such a position that the level of water can
easily be seen by attendant. Two water level indicators are used on all boilers.

Pressure Gauge
A pressure gauge is fitted in front of boiler in such a position that the operator can
conveniently read it. It reads the pressure of steam in the boiler and is connected to steam
space by a siphon tube.

The most commonly, the Bourdon pressure gauge is used.

Safety Valve

Safety valves are located on the top of the boiler. They guard the boiler against the excessive
high pressure of steam inside the drum. If the pressure of steam in the boiler drum exceeds
the working pressure then the safety valve allows blow-off the excess quantity of steam to
atmosphere. Thus the pressure of steam in the drum falls. The escape of steam makes a
audio noise to warm the boiler attendant.
There are four types of safety valve.

1. Dead weight safety valve.

2. Spring loaded safety valve
3. Lever loaded safety valve
4. High steam and low water safety valve.

Fusible Plug
It is very important safety device, which protects the fire tube boiler against overheating. It is
located just above the furnace in the boiler. It consists of gun metal plug fixed in a gun metal
body with fusible molten metal.

During the normal boiler operation, the fusible plug is covered by water and its temperature
does not rise to its melting state. But when the water level falls too low in the boiler, it
uncovers the fusible plug. The furnace gases heat up the plug and fusible metal of plug
melts, the inner plug falls down The water and steam then rush through the hole and
extinguish the fire before any major damage occurs to the boiler due to overheating.
Blow-Off Cock
The function of blow-off cock is to discharge mud and other sediments deposited in the
bottom most part of the water space in the boiler, while boiler is in operation. It can also be
used to drain-off boiler water. Hence it is mounted at the lowest part of the boiler. When it is
open, water under the pressure rushes out, thus carrying sediments and mud.

Feed Check Valve

The feed check valve is fitted to the boiler, slightly below the working level in the boiler. It
is used to supply high pressure feed water to boiler. It also prevents the returning of feed
water from the boiler if feed pump fails to work.

Steam Stop Valve

The steam stop valve is located on the highest part of the steam space. It regulates the steam
supply to use. The steam stop valve can be operated manually or automatically.

Boiler Accessories:
The accessories are mounted on the boiler to increase its efficiency. These units are optional
on an efficient boiler. With addition of accessories on the boiler, the plant efficiency also
increases. The following accessories are normally used on a modern boiler:
(i) Economizer (ii) Super heater (iii) Air pre heater (iv) Feed water pump (v) Steam injector.
Economizer
An economizer is a heat exchanger, used for heating the feed water before it enters the boiler.
The economizer recovers some of waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney. It helps in
improving the boiler efficiency. It is placed in the path of flue gases at the rear end of the
boiler just before air pre-heater.
Super heater
It is a heat exchanger in which heat of combustion products is used to dry the wet steam,
pressure remains constant, its volume and temperature increase. Basically, a super heater
consists of a set of small diameter U tubes in which steam flows and takes up the heat from
hot flue gases.
Air Pre-heater
The function of an air pre-heater is similar to that of an economizer. It recovers some portion
of the waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney, and transfers same to the fresh air
before it enters the combustion chamber.
Due to preheating of air, the furnace temperature increases. It results in rapid combustion of
fuel with less soot, smoke and ash. The high furnace temperature can permit low grade fuel
with less atmospheric pollution. The air pre-heater is placed between economizer and
chimney.
Feed Water Pump
It is used to feed the water at a high pressure against the high pressure of steam already
existing inside the boiler.
Steam Injector
A steam injector lifts and forces the feed water into the boiler. It is usually used for vertical
and locomotive boilers and can be accommodated in small space. It is less costly. It does not
have any moving parts thus operation is salient.

Fig. 2.1 Water Level Indicator

Fig. 2.2 Pressure Gauge
Fig. 2.3 Lever Safety Valve

Fig. 2.4 Fusible Plug

Fig. 2.5 Blow off Cock
Fig. 2.6 Feed Check Valve
Fig. 2.7 Steam Stop Valve
Fig. 2.8 Economizer

Fig. 2.9 Super Heater

 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim:
To study the construction and working of some low pressure boilers.

Theory: The steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water is heated,
vaporized and converted into steam at a pressure higher than the atmosphere pressure. The
heat energy required for steam generation is produced by burning of the fuel in the furnace.
The steam produced in the boiler may be used for producing power, for industrial process or
for heating purposes.

Principle parts and their functions

Generally a boiler consists of the following parts:

1. Drum: The boiler drum consists of shell and end heads. The shell of the boiler
consists of one or more steel plates bent into the cylindrical form and riveted or
welded together. The ends of the shell are closed by means of the flat or curved
plates called boiler head and boiler drum is formed.
2. Setting: It is also called foundation and constructed of bricks. It supports the
boiler drum and other components. It forms the wall of the furnace, combustion
chamber and passage to flue gases.
3. Grate: It is the space located below the furnace.
4. Furnace: It is the space above the grate and below the boiler shell. It is the space,
where the volatile matter and combustible gases are burnt and flue gases are
generated.
5. Flue gases: It is the hot mixture of products of combustion, generated in the
furnace.
6. Heating Surface: It is the surface of boiler, which is exposed to hot flue gases on
one side and water on other side.
7. Water space: The space of the boiler shell occupied by water is called water
space. The level of water is maintained in the boiler and can be seen through
water level indicator.
8. Steam space: The entire space of boiler shell which is not occupied by water is
called steam space.
9. Feed water: The water supplied to the boiler is called feed water. The pump
which supplies the water is called feed pump.
10. Working pressure: It is the pressure of steam
11. Economizer: The feed water supplied by the feed pump is heated by the waste hot
gases before they escape to the chimney. Therefore, some of the waste heat is
recovered
12. Air preheater: Similar to feed water heating the fresh air going to furnace is also
preheated to improve the combustion process. The device of air heating system is
knows as air pre heater.
13. Super heater: These are the devices which heat the saturated steam generated in
the boiler. The super heaters are located above the furnace and they increase the
heat content of steam without increasing it pressure.
The following low pressure boilers are studied:

1. Cochran Boiler:

It is a vertical fire tube boiler. The flue gases from the furnace are passed through a number
of small tubes surrounded by water.

As shown in figure 1 it consists of cylindrical shell, grating, fire box, combustion chamber,
number of smoke tubes, smoke box, chimney and various mountings.

The fuel is burnt on grate in the fire box. The hot gases pass through a short flue to
combustion chamber, small smoke tubes and then collected in the smoke box, from where
they are discharged to atmosphere through the chimney.

The heat is transferred to water by radiation through the dome of fire place and by convection
from the walls of the smoke tubes. On heating and vaporization the water is converted into
steam. The generated steam is collected in the steam space above the water. This steam is
then taken for use through main steam stop valve.

A man hole is provided in the crown of boiler for periodic cleaning and maintenance.

Mud hole is provided at the bottom for draining out the muddy water from the boiler. The
pressure gauge water gauge, blow off cock, feed check valve, feed pump, fusible plug and
chimney are provided for proper functioning of boiler.

The Cochran boiler are made in sizes from 1 m to 3 m in diameter, 2 m to 6 m height, its
steam generation rate is approximately 3600 kg/h with working pressure limited to 11 bar.

2. Lancashire boiler:

It is horizontal, internally fired, fire tube, stationary boiler. The boiler has cylindrical shell
usually 2 to 3 mm diameter and 7 to 9 m long. This boiler is used for power generation at
moderate steam pressure of 15 bar.

As shown in figure 2, the boiler consists of a large shell supported by refractory brick
masonry. Two large, horizontal and parallel flue gas tubes are passing through shell. The
fire place is located in front of flue tubes. In brick work, a flue passage, A below the boiler
shell, two flue passages B and C at the sides of boiler are formed. The flue passages B and C
are connected to a chamber and then to chimney.

The fuel is burnt on the grate and the hot gases travel along internal flue tubes followed by
flue passage A and then in side passages B and C. The flue gases are then collected in the
chamber before they are lead to atmosphere through a chimney. The hot flue gases transfer
its maximum heat contents to water during it long passages. The water is converted into
steam and collected in the steam space in the shell and it is then taken out through steam stop
valve for use.
The boiler is also provided with usual mountings like pressure gauge, water gauge, blow off
cock, steam stop valve and safety valve. It is also provided with low water and high steam
alarm, which gives audio signal for low water level and high steam pressure.

3. Cornish Boiler:

The Cornish boiler is very similar to Lancashire boiler; it is also horizontal, fire tube,
internally fired stationary boiler. However, it differs from Lancashire boiler in two respects.

1. It is small in size.
2. It has only one flue tube.

4. Locomotive Boiler:

It is also an internally fired, horizontal, fire tube boiler. It is mostly used on Locomotive for
generating steam to drive a steam engine. The locomotive boiler generates the steam at a
pressure of about 25 bar with steam rate of 60-70 kg/h per square meter of the heating
surface.

A view of Locomotive boiler is shown in figure 3. It consists of the following main parts:

1. Boiler shell 2. Fire box surrounded by water

3. Smoke tubes 4. Super heater tubes

5. Smoke box 6. Chimney

7. Blast pipe 8. Damper

9. Steam Dome with regulator 10. Safety valve and other mountings

The flue gases are formed due to combustion of solid fuel, coal in presence of air on grate.
These gases rise up and are deflected by a brick arch for their proper distribution to pass
through smoke tubes and over super heater tubes and then finally get discharged into the
atmosphere through a short chimney.

The heat is transferred to water through the walls of the furnace, smoke tubes and super
heater tubes.

The steam generated is collected in steam space above the water in the boiler drum. A steam
regulator is located in the steam dome and is operated by a long regulator rod from the engine
cabin by a driver. When this valve is opened, the wet steam passes through the super heater
header to super heated tubes located in a smoke box. As steam passes through super heated
tubes, it picks up additional heat and becomes superheated. The superheated steam is then
supplied to steam engine.

Since on locomotive engine the long chimney cannot be installed thus the sufficient suction
effect (natural draught) cannot be created. Therefore, the exhaust steam from the engine is
discharged through a nozzle at the top of the blast pipe (exhaust pipe). The jet of steam
draws the flue gases to atmosphere through the short chimney thus creates sufficient suction
in the fire box to suck the fresh air.

6. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

Babcock and Wilcox boiler is probably first water tube boiler designed and widely used. A
schematic of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is shown in figure 4 and its construction and
operation are stated below.

Construction:

(1). A horizontal steam and water drum:

This is a main part of boiler. It is supported by steel structure at a certain height and is
independent of brick work. The size of the boiler drum is small as compared with boiler
drum of fire tube boiler of same capacity. It contains water and steam. All safety and control
devices are mounted over the boiler drum.

(2). A bundle of steel tubes:

The front end of the boiler drum is connected to uptake header (water only) by short tube and
rear end is connected to the down take heater (water box) by a long tube. In between the
headers a number of small diameter steel tubes are fitted at an angle 50 to 150 with horizontal
to promote the water circulation. These steel tubes are arranged in combustion chamber in
zigzag manner so that more surface area of the tube is exposed to hot gases.

(3). Combustion Chamber:

It is the space above the grate below the front end of the drum where combustion of fuel takes
place. This chamber is enclosed by brickworks and it is lined from inside by fire bricks and
doors are provided to give access of cleaning, inspection and repair purpose. Combustion
chamber is divided into three separate compartments by baffles. Thus the first compartment
above the furnace is hottest and last chamber is of lowest temperature. This makes the longer
path of hot gases before leaving the boiler through the chimney. Dampers are provided at
rear end of the chamber to regulate the fresh air supply for maintaining proper combustion of
fuel.

(4). Safety and control devices:

Safety and control devices are called mountings basically these devices are mounted over a
boiler drum. These are safety valve, pressure gauge, water level indicator, feed check valve,
steam stop valve, and blow off cock, fusible plug and man hole.

Operation:
The water is pumped by feed pump and it enters the drum through the feed check valve upto
the pre specified level so that the headers and tubes are flooded always. When the
combustion takes place above the grate the product of hot gases comes out and rushes
through each compartment of combustion chamber. Hence front portion of the tubes have the
highest temperature and rear portion has lowest. When water is heated inside the tubes, it
becomes lighter and rises up in the tube. Due to continuous heat supply, some of water gets
vaporized into steam inside the tubes and the mixture of water and steam enters the boiler
drum through uptake header and the cold water from the boiler drum comes down through
the downtime header and enters the lower end of the water tubes for getting heated further.
This natural circulation of water remains continuous due to difference in temperature. Such a
circulation is called thermo-siphon system.

The steam generated gets collected in the steam space above water space in the boiler drum.
In order to remove all water particles from the steam, it is finally, passed through the super
heater tubes for its superheating. The superheated steam is then available for use.

Fig. 1. Cochran Boiler

Fig. 2 Lancashire Boiler

Fig. 3 Locomotive Boiler

Fig. 4 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Aim:
To study the construction and working of some high pressure boilers.

Theory:
The modern trend in central power stations is to generate and use steam at a high pressure
and temperature. The modern high pressure boilers used for power generation are for steam
capacities ranging from 30 to 650 tons/h and above with a pressure up to 200 bar and
maximum steam temperature about 6000C. Now, it is possible to generate steam above the
critical pressure of water (221.2 bar). But these supercritical boilers are different than sub
critical boiler in both design and operation because of the fact that properties of steam in the
critical range are different. The high pressure boilers are characterized by the following:

(i) Forced circulation of water. In high pressure boilers, circulation of water is forced
instead of natural. Therefore, a pump is used to force the water in the boiler.
(ii) Arrangement of drums and tubing. In order to avoid any large resistance to flow
of water, these boilers have a parallel set of tubes arrangement. They have a very
small steam separating drum or may be entirely free of drum.
(iii) Improved method of heating. The following methods are used to improve
heating:-
a. Superheated steam is used to heat the water.
b. Saving of latent heat by evaporation of water at pressure above critical.
c. The heat flow through the tube walls may be increased with the use of hot
gases traveling with supersonic velocity.

Advantages of high pressure boilers:

The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers:
(i) Smaller bore and therefore lighter tubes make the unit more compact. The space
and weight requirements are minimized which reduces the erection time and cost.
(ii) Reduction in the number of drums.
(iii) There is greater freedom for disposing of the heating surface and hence greater
evaporation for a given size.
(iv) Lighter structure for a given output.
(v) The boiler is capable of meeting rapid changes of load without the use of
complicated or delicate control devices.
(vi) All the parts are heated uniformly which eliminate the danger of overheating and
setting up thermal stresses.
(vii) Due to uniform temperature of parts, the differential expansions are minimized;
this reduces the leakage of gas and air.
(viii) There is complete elimination of high head which is needed for natural
circulation.
(ix) Due to high circulation velocity the tendency to form scales is eliminated to a
large extent.
 (x) If an external supply of power is available, very rapid start from cold state is
possible. Hence the boiler is suitable for carrying peak loads. It is also useful for
standby purposes in hydraulic stations.

The system is slightly complicated and a certain percentage of the power is consumed by the
circulating pump. Examples of high pressure boilers are Lamont, Benson, Velox, Loeffler,
etc.
1. Lamont Boiler:
This is a high pressure, forced circulation, water tube type boiler invented by Lamont in
1925. Figure 1 shows the details of a Lamont high pressure boiler.
The feed water from the hot well is supplied through an economizer to a separating and
storing drum that contains a feed regulator which controls the speed of the feed pump. Since
the economizer is placed in the boiler at a place from where hot combustion gases pass, the
economizer supplies sensible heat to the feed water. Water from the boiler drum flows by
gravity to a circulating pump, which discharges water into a distributing header. Water from
the distributing header flows through long small diameter boiler tubes located in the walls
and roof of the furnace to the drum where the steam is separated and water returns to the
pump. Orifices located at inlet to each circuit on the distributing header correctly proportions
the water among the many parallel circuits, so that, each receives its proper share. The
circulating pump raises the water pressure to about 3.5 bars above the drum pressure to
overcome the resistance to the flow controlling orifices and the long circuit of small diameter
tubing. At normal load, the quantity of water circulated in each tube is about 3.8 times the
steam evaporated in the long circuit of small tubes. This avoids the overheating of the tubes.
Since three circuit tubes are placed in the combustion chamber through which the hot gases
are passing upwards, the steam is generated in them. The mixture of water and steam from
these tubes enter the boiler drum where the moisture is separated from the drum. Now the
steam is led to the super heater tubes in which the steam gets superheated. The superheated
steam goes to ultimate destination through the steam stop valve.
It is essential to maintain a constant level of water in the drum. This is possible by supplying
feed water equivalent to the steam quantity blown-off continuously. The pump consumes
about 0.5 to 0.6 % of the boiler output which is supplied by the power unit using the steam
from boiler. For economic combustion forced air preheated by the flue gases is used.

2. Benson Boiler:
The Benson high pressure boiler introduced by Mark Benson in 1923 is a forced circulation
water tube boiler. The main feature of this boiler is the absence of the steam separating
drum. The entire process of heating, steam formation and superheating is done in a single
continuous tube but to increase efficiency many parallel circuits are used The efficiency of
this boiler is as high as 90%.
Figure 2 shows the details of a Benson boiler. It consists of:
(i) Air preheater in which air is preheated for economical combustion.
(ii) Economizer in which sensible heat is imparted to feed water.
(iii) Radiant surface of tubes in which radiant heat is supplied by combustion.
(iv) Evaporative surface where the major quantity of water is evaporated
(v) Super heater tubes in which steam is superheated and led to the work.
It is an established fact that the rate of heat transmission from flue gas to water is seriously
impaired by the presence of steam bubbles in contact with the tube, and that, the release of
these bubbles causes the water circulation to pulsate. It was pointed out by Mark Benson that
if the boiler pressure was raised to the critical pressure, the steam and water would have the
same density and, therefore, no bubbles would be formed, thus eliminating the trouble. But
to raise the pressure above critical, a large amount of power is consumed by the feed pump
which lowers the efficiency of the plant. Hence by using pressure slightly lower than critical
improved efficiency is possible. At normal load, this boiler has an operating pressure of 210
bar with 13500 kg/h evaporating capacity at 4050 C superheating temperature.

The Benson boiler has the following advantages:

(i) There is no pressure limitations and it may be as high as supercritical
(ii) Absence of circulating pump and down comers.
(iii) Absence of drum hence the cost is less.
(iv) Lighter in weight, higher specific output with high safety factor.
(v) Evaporation is quick
(vi) Self-contained unit and can be easily erected.

The disadvantages are:

(i) Evaporation process accompanied by formation of salt and solids in the tubes.
Special arrangements are required to remove this.
(ii) On evaporative surface, there is chance of corrosion of the tubes.
(iii) Overheating of the tubes in case of insufficient water supply.
(iv) Since the storage capacity is small, it requires close coordination between steam,
feed water and fuel input.

3. Loeffler Boiler:
This boiler is a forced circulation, indirect heating type of boiler. In this, water is evaporated
solely by means of superheated steam i.e., steam is used as the heat carrying and heat
absorbing media.
Figure 3 shows the details of a Loeffler boiler. It consists of an evaporator drum which may
be placed at any convenient point outside the furnace setting. The feed water pump is placed
where the feed water passes through an economizer on the way to the drum. Since the
economizer is placed in the path of the outgoing hot gases, the economizer gives sensible heat
to water. The steam circulating pump extracts steam from the evaporator drum and forces it
to pass through the radiant and convective surface of the super heater tubes placed in the path
of the hot combustion gases. From the super heater tube, a big portion (about ¾) of the
superheated steam is trapped off for external use while the remainder (1/4) passes on to the
evaporator drum where it gives up it super heat to the water contained in this drum, this
generates an amount of steam equal to that trapped off.
Nozzles are provided which distribute steam through out the water contained in the drum.
The nozzles are of special design which avoid priming and noise so that the boiler can carry a
higher salt concentration than any other type of boiler. This makes it very suitable for marine
transport and for power generation.
The air, preheated through the air preheater placed in the path of the outgoing hot gases is
used for economical combustion. The operating pressure of this boiler is 140 bars and the
steaming capacity is 95000 kg/h.
4. Velox Boiler:
The Velox boiler is a high pressure, forced circulation, pressurized or forced combustion
boiler but with the limitation of firing with oil or gas under pressure with little or no ash
problem. The evaporative capacity is limited to 10200 kg/h of steam.
Figure 4 shows the details of a Velox boiler. Air is compressed to about 2.5 bar in an axial
compressor (which, at the time of start is driven by a motor) before being supplied to an oil
fuel furnace. The purpose of this compression of air is to secure a high velocity of gas and
also at the same time release of a great amount of heat. The fuel and the compressed air are
injected downwards into a vertical combustion chamber which is surrounded by hollow
evaporator tubes. On reaching the bottom of the combustion chamber the products of
combustion are deflected upward into the evaporator tubes by means of a spiral water coil.
The evaporator tubes consist of an outer annulus through which 10 to 20 times the water
evaporated is circulated at a high velocity. The core of the lower half of the evaporator tube
or element is occupied by a central pipe which supplies water to the outer annulus, while the
upper half is occupied by U-type super heater tubes. In the space between the inner pipes and
outer annulus, the flue gas rushes at a speed of about 250 m/s.

There is provision of a ring main (4) which collects the steam and water and discharges it
tangentially into the separating chamber (5). This forms a forced vortex, which, by
centrifugal loading on the water particles, allows steam release, without priming about two
hundred times as great as in boilers of normal design. The dry steam then passes up the
central tube (2) the super heater. The mud drum collects the separated water which is
extracted by means of a circulating pump. This circulating pump also creates a high water
velocity through the evaporator tubes.

The flue gases, after passing through the superheater enter exhaust gas turbines that drives the
compressor. The exhaust from the turbine passes through the counter flow feed heater where
the feed water is preheated and which is discharged tangentially into the separating drum.

This boiler is a very compact steam generative plant of great flexibility. It is capable of quick
starting and its thermal efficiency is about 90 to 95%.
Fig. 1 La Mont Boiler

Fig. 2 Benson Boiler

Fig.3 Loeffler Boiler

Fig. 4 Velox Boiler

 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim:

To study the construction and working of 4- stroke petrol / diesel engine.

Theory:

A machine or device which derives heat from the combustion of fuel and converts part of this
energy into mechanical work is called a heat engine. Heat engines are broadly classified into
internal combustion engines [I.C. engines] and external combustion engines.

Petrol and diesel engines fall under the category of internal combustion engines as these are
reciprocating heat engines in which fuel mixed with correct amount of air is burnt inside a
cylinder. The gaseous products of combustion form the working substance which make the
piston move and produce mechanical work at the engine crankshaft. In contrast, the
combustion of fuel in external combustion engines (ex. Steam engines) is external.

Classification of I.C. Engines:

I.C. engines can be classified as follows:

1. According to the number of strokes required to complete a cycle:

(i) 2 stroke engine

(ii) 4 stroke engine

2. According to fuel used:

(i) Petrol engine

(ii) Diesel engine

(iii) Gas Engine

3. According to thermodynamic cycle of operation:

(i) Constant volume or Otto cycle

(ii) Constant Pressure or Diesel cycle

(iii) Mixed or Dual cycle

4. According to the ignition system used:

(i) Spark Ignition engine

(ii) Compression Ignition Engine

5. According to the number of cylinders:

(i) Single cylinder engine

(ii) Multi Cylinder engine

6. According to arrangement of cylinders:

(i) Vertical engine

(ii) Horizontal engine

(iii) In line engines

(iv) V engines

(v) Radial engine

7. According to the cooling system:

(i) Air cooled engine

(ii) Water cooled engine

8. According to the speed of the engine:

(i) Low Speed (below 400 rpm)

(ii) Medium Speed (400 to 900 rpm)

(iii) High Speed (above 900 rpm)

9. According to lubrication system:

(i) Splash Lubrication

(ii) Pressure Lubrication

10. According to field of application:

(i) Stationary engine

(ii) Mobile engine.

Four Stroke Petrol Engine:

The cycle of operation in a four stroke petrol engine is completed in two revolutions of
crank shaft or four strokes of piston. Stroke is defined as the distance traveled by the
piston from one of the dead centers to the other dead centre. It is also equal to two times
the crank radius. Hence in a four stroke engine work is obtained only during one stroke
out of the four strokes of the piston required to complete one cycle. This engine works on
Otto or constant volume cycle.

1. Suction stroke: To start with the piston is at or very near T.D.C. and the inlet valve is
open and exhaust valve is closed. As the piston moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C.
rarefaction is formed in the cylinder which causes the charge to rush in and fill the
space vacated by the piston. The charge consists of a mixture of air and petrol
prepared by the carburetor. The admission of charge inside the engine cylinder
continues until the inlet valve closes at B.D.C.

2. Compression stroke: Both the valves are closed and the piston moves from B.D.C. to
T.D.C. The charge is compressed up to a compression ratio of 5:1 to 9:1 and pressure
and temperature at the end of compression are about 6 to 12 bar and 250º C to 300º C
respectively.

3. Working, Power or Expansion stroke: When the piston reaches T.D.C. position, or
just at the end of compression stroke, the charge is ignited by causing an electric spark
between the electrodes of a spark plug, which is located some where in the walls of
cylinder head. During combustion the chemical energy of fuel is released and there is
rise in temperature and pressure of gases. The temperature of gases increases to about
1800º C to 2000º C and the pressure reaches 30 to 40 bar. Up till now the volume of
gases formed however remains almost constant with both valves closed. Now the
combustion products expand and push the piston down the cylinder. The reciprocating
piston motion is converted into rotary motion of crankshaft by a connecting rod and
crank. During expansion the pressure drops due to increase in the volume of gases and
absorption of heat by cylinder walls.

4. Exhaust stroke: Theoretically exhaust valve opens at the end of working stroke when
the piston is at B.D.C. position. But actually exhaust valve begins to open when about
85 % of the working stroke is completed. A pressure of 4 to 5 bar at this instant forces
about 60 % of the burnt gases into the exhaust manifold at high speed. The remaining
burnt gases are cleared off the swept volume when the piston moves from B.D.C. to
T.D.C. During this stroke the pressure in side the cylinder is slightly above the
atmospheric value. Some of the burnt gases are however left in the clearance space.
The exhaust valve closes shortly after the piston reaches T.D.C. The inlet valve opens
slightly before the end of exhaust stroke and the cycle repeats.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine:

The cycle of operation in a four stroke diesel engine is completed in two revolutions of
crankshaft or four strokes of piston using diesel oil as fuel. This engine works on diesel
cycle.

1. Suction Stroke: Starting of engine is done by an electric motor or manually. In both

cases the energy is supplied to the engine. In this stroke the inlet valve opens and the
 outlet valve remains closed. Piston moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and in this way a
vacuum is created in the cylinder. This vacuum is filled by air alone and piston
reaches to B.D.C.

2. Compression Stroke: Both valves are closed. This time piston moves from B.D.C. to
T.D.C. Air is compressed in this stroke up to a compression ratio of 15:1 to 22:1 and a
very high temperature is produced due to high pressure. The high temperature is the
only cause of combustion of the fuel. The piston takes the power in this stroke from
the flywheel. During this stroke the pressure and temperature attain a high value of 40
to 60 bar and 600º C to 700º C.

3. Working Stroke: At the end of compression stroke or when the piston reaches the
T.D.C. position, a fine spray of diesel is injected in the cylinder through injector. The
fuel burns by the heat of compressed air and due to its burning the power is produced.
This power pushes the piston downward i.e. from T.D.C. to B.D.C. The excess energy
of the piston is stored in the flywheel of the engine, which is further used for the
remaining three strokes of the engine. The reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft by connecting rod and crank.
During expansion the pressure drops due to increase in volume of gases and
absorption of heat by cylinder walls.

4. Exhaust Stroke: The exhaust valve begins to open when about 85% of the working
stroke is completed. The force of piston coming from B.D.C. to T.D.C. forces the
burnt gases into the exhaust manifold. Some of the gases are forced out due to higher
pressure in the cylinder and the remaining gases are forced out by the piston. Some of
the burnt gases are however left inside the clearance space. The exhaust valve closes
shortly after T.D.C. The inlet valve opens slightly before the end of exhaust and in
this way the cycle repeats.

Comparison between petrol and diesel engine:

S. No. Criteria of comparison Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

1. Working cycle Otto Cycle Diesel cycle

2. Fuel used Petrol Diesel

3. Compression Ratio 5:1 to 9:1 14:1 to 22:1

4. Fuel Supply Carburetor is there Fuel injector is there

5. Ignition Spark plug is required Heat of compressed air

6. Pressure & temperature Lesser due to lower CR Higher due to more
compression ratio

7. Weight & size Lighter & Smaller Heavier & Larger

8. Initial cost Lesser More expensive

9. Running cost More Less

10. Maintenance cost Frequent but costs less Rare but costlier

11. Thermal efficiency Lesser, about 25 to 35% More, about 40 to 50%

12. Starting effort Less cranking effort More effort required

due to higher CR

13. Chances of pre-ignition More chances No chances

14. Vibration & noise Less More

15. Field of application Light duty work Heavy duty work

Fig. 3.1 Four Stroke Petrol Engine
Fig. 3.2. Working of 4-stroke Petrol engine
Fig. 3.3 Four Stroke Diesel Engine
Fig. 3.4 Working of 4-stroke Diesel engine
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Aim:

To study the construction and working of 2- stroke petrol / diesel engine.

Theory:

In this engine the cycle is completed in 2- strokes of the piston or in one revolution of
crankshaft. The preparatory strokes (suction and exhaust) are combined with the working
strokes (compression and expansion). In 2- stroke engines, instead of valves ports are used
for suction and exhaust purposes. As the moving parts are less; mechanical efficiency is high.
But thermal efficiency of the engine is lower due to some charge escaping without burning,
through the exhaust port. Also, in 2 –stroke engines, as the power is available once in every
revolution of the crankshaft, flywheel required is less in weight and small in size.

Two Stroke Petrol Engine:

Fig. 2.1 shows a two stroke petrol engine. It has no valves but consists of inlet or induction
port (IP), exhaust port (EP), and a third port called the transfer port (TP). Referring to the fig.
2.1 (a) let the piston be nearing the completion of its compression stroke. The ignition starts
due the spark given by the spark plug and the piston is pushed down (fig. (b) and (c) )
performing the working strokes and in doing so the air fuel mixture already drawn from the
inlet port in the previous stroke is compressed to a pressure of about 1.4 bar. When about
4/5th of this stroke is completed the exhaust port (EP) is uncovered slightly and some of the
burning gases escape to the atmosphere. Immediately afterwards as the exhaust port is
uncovered by the further downward movement of the piston, the transfer port which is only
very slightly lower than exhaust port is also uncovered as shown in fig.(d) and a charge of
compressed fuel air mixture enters the cylinder and further pushes out the burnt gases out of
the exhaust port. The top of the piston is made of a particular shape that facilitates the
deflection of fresh charge upwards and thus avoids its escape along with the exhaust gases.
This process is known as scavenging.

After reaching the bottom dead center when the piston moves up, it first closes the inlet port,
then transfer port and then exhaust port. The charge of fuel which previously entered the
cylinder is now compressed. Simultaneously there is a fall of pressure in the crank case,
creating a partial vacuum. When the piston is nearing the upward movement, the inlet port
opens and a fresh charge of air fuel mixture from the carburetor enters the crank case. After
the ignition of the charge, the piston moves down for the power stroke and the cycle is
repeated as before.
Two Stroke Diesel Engine:

In a two stroke cycle C.I. engine all the operations are exactly the same as those in S.I. engine
except that in this case only air is taken in instead of air fuel mixture and the fuel is injected
at the end of compression stroke, a fuel injector being fitted instead of a spark plug.

Applications of Internal Combustion Engines:

The main applications of I.C. engines are:

1. Four stroke petrol engine- light vehicles such as cars, jeeps, motor bikes, and small
generating sets etc.

2. Two stroke petrol engines- very light vehicles such as scooters, mopeds, three
wheelers and portable crop sprayers etc.

3. Four stroke diesel engine- diesel power plants, heavy vehicles such as trucks, buses,
road rollers, tractors, diesel locomotives and water pumps.

4. Two stroke diesel engine- mainly used in marine engines where lesser weight is the
main consideration.

Comparison between 2- stroke and 4- stroke cycle engine:

S. No. Criteria of 2- stroke cycle engine 4- stroke cycle engine

comparison

1. Power stroke One working stroke in each One working stroke in

cylinder per revolution of each cylinder per two
crankshaft revolutions of
crankshaft

2. Weight and size Lighter and compact for same Heavier and larger
power

3. Turning moment Even and more uniform Less uniform

4. Flywheel size Smaller Larger

5. Construction Simpler and easy to More complicated due

manufacture to valve mechanism

6. Moving parts Few in number More

7. Mechanical efficiency More due to lesser moving Lesser

parts
8. Thermal efficiency Lesser because a part of air fuel More
mixture goes as waste with the
exhaust gases

9. Noise More Lesser

10. Wear and tear More due to smaller size for the Less
same power

11. Scavenging Required Most efficient

12. Fuel consumption More Less

Fig.4.1 Two Stroke Petrol Engine
Fig.4.2 Two Stroke Diesel Engine