Chapter-7 Human Memory The Concept of Human Memory

CHAPTER- 7
HUMAN MEMORY
The Concept Of Human Memory: Human memory can be clearly defined as a process comprising
of three independent yet interrelated stages which are explained as follows:
1. Encoding – It is the first stage of human memory in which information is recorded and
registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system and
substantial meaning is derived from the incoming information.
2. Storage -It is the second stage of human memory in which the encoded information is
retained and held over a period of time so that it can be utilized later.
3. Retrieval – It is the third stage of memory in which the stored information can be recovered
from our memory as and when the situation demands.
Information Processing Approach (Stage Model): Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory are also
known as the stage model of memory. This proposes the existence of three separate but
sequentially linked memory systems:
1. Sensory memory- It Contains a fleeting impression of a sensory stimulus(sight, sound).it

has a large capacity. It is of a very short duration that is less than a second
2. Short-term memory – A limited recollection of recently perceived stimulus(telephone
number, order of food). It holds a small amount of information for a brief period of time
which is less than 30 seconds
3. Long-term memory- It is defined as a permanent store of memories for later retrieval.
here, information is encoded semantically and the storage capacity is unlimited.
Maintenance Rehearsal vs Elaborative Rehearsal
Types of Long-Term Memory
1. Declarative Memory- All information pertaining to facts, names, dates like a car has four
wheels,14th February is valentine’s day is part of the declarative memory. Facts retained in
the declarative memory are amenable to verbal descriptions
2. Procedural Memory – It refers to the memories relating to procedures of accomplishing
various tasks like how to drive a car, bake cakes, etc. Contents of procedural memory
cannot be described easily as they are more practical and application-based
Declarative Memory
Declarative memory is further classified into two categories Episodic and semantic memory. Let’
explore in-depth:
Episodic Memory
It comprises biographical details of our life. Its memories relate to our personal life experiences
and its contents are emotional in nature. Example- First marriage anniversary celebration, birthday
party with friends.
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is defined as the memory of general awareness and knowledge. All concepts,
ideas, rules of logic are stored in semantic memory. Example- 7*8 is 56, STD code of New Delhi is
011, etc.
Knowledge Representation and Organisation in Memory
 The most important unit of representation of knowledge in long-term memory is a concept.

Concepts are mental categories for objects and events, which are similar to each other in
one or more one way
 Concepts may also be organized in Schema which are mental frameworks that are
representative of our knowledge and assumptions about the world
 For example, think of a schema of the kitchen. It will have different things like crockery, gas
stove, etc
 In 1969, Allan Collins and Ross Quillan suggested that knowledge in long-term memory is
organized in terms of concepts, categories, and images, and they are organized
hierarchically
 As per this view, we can store all knowledge at a certain level that applies to all the
members of a category without having to repeat that information at the lower levels in the
hierarchy. This as a result ensures a high degree of the cognitive economy which means
maximum and efficient use of the capacity of long-term memory with minimum effort
 Images- it is a concrete form of representation that directly conveys the perceptual
attributes of an object
 Almost all concrete objects generate images and knowledge related to them is encoded
both verbally as well as visually which is termed as Dual Coding Hypothesis originally
proposed by Paivio
Nature and Causes of Forgetting
Human memory is nature and causes of forgetting. Forgetting happens when we fail to retrieve
information from our long-term memory and the reasons behind forgetting are elucidated below:
1. The information we commit to our long-term memory is somehow lost

2. The information to be learned was not memorized well enough
3. Improper encoding of the information
4. The information to be learned is not stored properly.
 Hermann Ebbinghaus came up with his theory of forgetting as per which rate of forgetting is
maximum in the first 9 hours, particularly during the first hour. After that, the forgetting rate
slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days
 Trace theory of forgetting is also termed as the disuse theory which states that memory
leads to modification in the central nervous system which is akin to physical changes in the
brain called memory traces. If the memory traces are not used for a long time, they simply
fade away and become unavailable. The trace theory has been called baseless and
inadequate by many psychologists as it is impractical.
Interference
Forgetting also happens because of the interference between various pieces of information that
the memory store contains. Interferences come about at a time of retrieval when these sets of
associations compete with each other for retrieval. Two types of interference are explained below:
Proactive Interference
It means what one has learned earlier interferes with the recall of subsequent learning. Past
learning interferes with the recall of later learning. For example- a person well-versed with English
may find difficulty in learning French.
Retroactive Interference
It refers to difficulty in recalling what one has learned earlier because of learning new material.
Later learning interferes with the recall of past learning. For example- if one cannot recall English
equivalents of French words that one is currently memorizing then it might be because of
retroactive interference. Forgetting can also occur because at the time of recall either the retrieval
cues are absent or they are not appropriate as per the need. Retrieval Cues are aids that help us
in recovering information stored in the memory.
Enhancing Memory
There are various techniques to enhance your memory. Here are some of the ways to improve
your memory:
Mnemonics Using Images- It requires us to create vivid and interacting images of the material
that we wish to remember. Under this type, there are two techniques which are explained as
follows:
Keyword Method- In this method, an English word that sounds similar word that sounds similar to
the word of a foreign language is identified. This English word will function as a keyword. It is
considered as a simple method as compared to rote learning
Method Of Loci– It helps in learning in a serial order. It first requires an individual to visualize
places/objects that they know well in a specific order. Imagine the objects to be memorized and
then associate them one by one to the physical locations
Mnemonics Using Organization- Organization refers to imposing certain orders on the material

to be remembered. Techniques under this category are explained as follows-
 Chunking- It helps in increasing short-term memory. Several smaller units are combined to
form larger chunks and for creating chunks it is important to discover some organizational
principles which can link smaller units
 First Letter Technique- For this method, we need to pick up the first letter of each word to
be remembered and then arrange them logically to form another word/sentence. For
example, we learn colours of the rainbow as VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Green, Yellow,
Orange, Red)
 Deep Level Processing- As per Craik and Lockhart processing information in terms of
meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to their surface
features. It involves asking as many questions as possible related to the information that is
to be learned
 Give Oneself Retrieval Cues- Giving one self-sufficient retrieval cues will make it easier to
remember the information as it will help in linking it to the retrieval cues
Extra Questions
Differentiate between Declarative and Procedural Memory.

Declarative Memory is the information focusing on facts, dates, etc whereas Procedural Memory
lays focus on the procedures followed behind a particular task.
Explain the techniques of enhancing memory.

Various techniques are used for enhancing memory like methods Of Loci, chunking, deep-level
processing, etc.
Why does forgetting take place?

Forgetting takes place due to various reasons like retrieval failure, improper encoding/storage of
information, interferences, etc.

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CHAPTER- 7

1. Sensory memory- It Contains a fleeting impression of a sensory stimulus(sight, sound).it

Maintenance Rehearsal vs Elaborative Rehearsal

Types of Long-Term Memory

Knowledge Representation and Organisation in Memory

 The most important unit of representation of knowledge in long-term memory is a concept.

Nature and Causes of Forgetting

1. The information we commit to our long-term memory is somehow lost

Mnemonics Using Organization- Organization refers to imposing certain orders on the material

Differentiate between Declarative and Procedural Memory.

Explain the techniques of enhancing memory.

Why does forgetting take place?

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