Sustainability 13 11411 v3 PDF

sustainability
Article
Optimization of Piston Grooves, Bridges on Cylinder Head,
and Inlet Valve Masking of Home-Fueled Diesel Engine by
Response Surface Methodology
Mathad R. Indudhar 1 , Nagaraj R. Banapurmath 2, * , K. Govinda Rajulu 3 , Arun Y. Patil 2 , Syed Javed 4
and T. M. Yunus Khan 4, *
1 Research Scholar, JNTUA, Ananthapuramu 515002, India; indu.mr89@gmail.com

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BVB College of Engineering and Technology,
KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580030, India; patilarun7@gmail.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUA College of Engineering, Ananthapuramu 515002, India;
govindjntu@gmail.com
4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University,
Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia; syedjavedme@gmail.com
* Correspondence: nrbanapurmath@gmail.com (N.R.B.); yunus.tatagar@gmail.com (T.M.Y.K.)
Abstract: Naturally replenished biodiesel fuels are more precise in place of diesel engine applications
as they have complying thermal properties, which are extensively used by various researchers.
However, there is necessity to optimize their utility to meet stringent emission norms as per Bharat

Stage VI (BS VI) and Euro 6. From the exhaustive survey on the studies, number of piston grooves
(NG), number of grooves-n-bridges on cylinder head (Gr-Br), and inlet valve masking (IVM) using
Citation: Indudhar, M.R.;
Banapurmath, N.R.; Rajulu, K.G.;
the response surface methodologies (RSM) technique have not been reported on the competence,
Patil, A.Y.; Javed, S.; Khan, T.M.Y. emissions, and combustion attributes of diesel engines running on Honge oil methyl ester (HOME),
Optimization of Piston Grooves, hence this is an identified gap in literature. The present simulation work is for optimizing the
Bridges on Cylinder Head, and Inlet performance and lessoning exhaust emitted from the diesel prime mover tested on non-conventional
Valve Masking of Home-Fueled and petro fuels. Experimentation was carried out to inquest the competence, combustion, and
Diesel Engine by Response Surface emittance of a vertical cylinder, overhead valve, water cooling, open or induction swirl diesel
Methodology. Sustainability 2021, 13, engine running on HOME as the injecting fuel. The object of the present effort is to optimize
11411. https://doi.org/10.3390/
competence of diesel engines via a statistics inquest called designs of experiments (DoE). To curtail
su132011411
the diverse variations to be experimented on, full factorial designs (FFDs) array was employed. The
response surface methodologies (RSM)-based nonlinear or quadratic predictors establish the relation
Academic Editor: Talal Yusaf
between the input parameters and proposed attributes. The RSM-based mathematical predictors are
Received: 8 August 2021
established to prognosticate the distinguished engine output attributes at 95% confidence interval.
Accepted: 11 October 2021 The response surface assay discovered that a combination of 2B 3G, ‘IVM’ of 90◦ , and ‘NG’ of six
Published: 15 October 2021 grooves yields highest brake thermal efficiency (BTE), lessoning smoke, carbon monoxide (CO),
and hydrocarbon (HC), but nitrogenous oxides (NOx ) emissions increased slightly. Additionally,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral combustion attributes, such as Ignition delay (ID) and combustion duration (CD), were lessoned,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in but peak pressure (PP) and heat release rate (HRR) had a higher contrast to performance of HOME
published maps and institutional affil- biodiesel in a conventional CI engine.
iations.
Keywords: Honge oil methyl ester; piston grooves; number of grooves-n-bridges on cylinder head;
inlet valve masking; optimization; full factorials designs; response surface methodologies; regression;
validity by international relevance
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and 1. Introduction
conditions of the Creative Commons
Diesel powered CI engines have high part load thermo efficacy and hence are amply
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
applied for power plant and automobile utilities. However, every country is becoming
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
more and more aware of pollution caused due to their malodourous exhaust, vibration
4.0/).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 11411. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011411 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 11411 2 of 28
levels, noise, particulate matter, and smoke. Already stringent legislations are further up-
dated regularly to control pollution and to avoid affecting the delicate ecosystem balance.
NOx emission is especially weighed as a “strongest” greenhouse gas, having a deleterious
effect on the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Hence, it is time to implement new optimiza-
tion techniques that ameliorate the efficacy of diesel engines using its proven substitute
biodiesel and in turn tackle environmental problems and ameliorate socio-economic tie
ups. Agarwal et al. [1] showed that straight linseed oil posed operational and durability
problems in the CI engine. These hindrances attribute to the polyunsaturated character of
vegetable oils, i.e., they are less volatile and highly viscous. However, such problems were
not encountered for in linseed oil methyl ester (LOME) biodiesel due to the transesterifica-
tion process, which reduces its viscosity and thus rules out operating and longevity hurdles.
Economic assay was also done in this inquest, and it was found that use of veggie oil and
its BDF as an option for diesel costs almost the same as that of fossil diesel. Goldemberg
and Coelhobn [2] proved that naturally replenished biofuels can be super temporal and
are eco-friendly. Abuhabaya et al. [3] adopted response surface methodology (RSM), and
a centralized complex rotating design (CCRD) matrix showed that the molarity ratio of
methanol to raw sunflower oil and catalyst concentration had the most leveraging inputs in
comparison to reaction time and reaction temperature, affecting the percentage conversion
of fuel into biodiesel, which was validated by experimental testing. The model was fit
and accordable to be put forth the actual linkages among vital variables, and the output
with an acceptable determination fraction (R2 = 0.8142), which directed that 81.42% of the
variation in the outcome could be described by the second-order polynomial prediction, as
revealed by assay of variance (ASOVA). Yashvir Singh et al. [4] optimized competence and
emissions of cassia tora biodiesel, having five coded levels based on centralized complex
rotatory design (CCRD) matrices. The best compound of input variants was recorded at
15◦ bTDC fuel injecting time, 221 bar IOP of fuel, 40.1% mixture of cassia tora and diesel,
and 47.3% engine loading, which emitted an outcome of highest BTE and lowest UBHC
and NOx. Ganapathy, et al. [5] simulated the jatropha biodiesel performance using the
Taguchi method and linear graph theory. The test trials layout of the engine was deter-
mined by a L16 orthogonal array. To maximize the competence, the signal noise ratio (SNR),
related to higher-then-better (HTB) quality attributes, was utilized. The model correctly
prognosticated Wiebe’s heat releasing constants, the compression ratio, and duration of
burning zone as the vital variables that influence the competence contrasted with other
variables. Raheman and Phadatare [6] showed that, by blending Karanja esterified oil
(B20 and B40) with diesel output responses, torque, brake power, and BTE increased and
exhaust emissions decreased, thus controlling air pollution. Win et al. (2005) carried out a
RSM fit statistics analysis for the input variables engine speed, static injection timing, and
load as per the full factorial design array of 4×4×3. They showed that two outputs, NOx
and noise, have applicable good fittings, showing R2 values of 0.963 and 0.971, respectively,
by ANOVA. Sufficiently better fitting was obtained for BSFC and smoke, with R2 valuated
as 0.82 and 0.807. The fitting of HC illustrates a poor fitting due to a very low value of R2
0.669. Hirkude et al. [7] considered ratio of compression, blend, and load as input variables
and predicted output variables by DoE based on RSM to optimize the competence of the
diesel power unit with wasted fried oils methyl esters (WFOME) blending with fossil diesel.
The developed models represent experimental data and are vital as values of p, which were
less than 0.05. The rightness of fit (R2 ) and the rightness of prognostication (Adjusting R2)
regression statistics are represented for all the outcomes. The predictors are accounted by
value of Adjusted R2 , and the model suits the data very well. The experimental validation
of optimized inputs shows that measured responses were in good agreement with RSM
values. The effect of speed, load, and blend ratio on the competence of a multi cylinder
indirect injecting diesel power unit was investigated by Adam et al. (2015), using statistical
tool, Box-Behnken design (BBD) based on RSM to predict and assess their net effects on
the responses, such as torque, power, BSFC, and BTE. Blends of 5–20% volume of BDF
(prepared from a mixture of palm and rubber seed oils) to diesel fuel were prepared. The
load was found to be the most effective input, both individually and in combination,
contrasted to variables blend and speed. A strong influence of speed over the outcomes
was observed, except for torque, whereas its combined effect was not vital, except for
BSFC and BTE. No paramount contribution was noticed for the blend over the outcomes,
except for torque. However, the models established fitted the experimental results of all
the outcomes investigated. Prasada Rao and Appa Rao [8] investigated indirect injection
engine fueling with Mahua oil Methyl Ester (MOME), diesel, and methanol added blends,
with predictor variables load and fuel, for nine output responses, such as EGT, BSFC, BTE,
and emanations such as UBHC, CO, CO2 , Oxygen O2 , NOx, and smoke. To find optimized
responses, the set of experimental works were carried out using the DoE, as advised by
Taguchi for lessoning cost and time. The optimized set of the fuel and load were found
by Grey Relational Analysis (GRA), applying to the experimental data by transacting the
multi outcome hurdle into the single outcome hurdle using Grey Relating Grades (GRG).
The optimal combinations, 20 kg of loading and MOME + 3% Methanol, were found by
calculating signal noise ratio for GRG. After GRA, the results were validated with the
RSM, expediency approach was used, and the optimal combinations were found. The
validation outcomes almost coincided with experimental outcomes. They concluded that,
when MOME was blended with methanol, CO and HC emissions decreased because of the
methanol’s inherent oxygen content and hence reduced viscosity. GRA and expediency
approach of the RSM was found to be the most effective and simple optimizing tool, and
experiment outcomes almost coincided with the validated outcomes. For optimized engine
variants of fuel blend, MOME + 3% Methanol, and loading of 20 kg, high desirability was
obtained, where the values of the EGT, BSFC, BTE, UBHC, CO, CO2 , O2 , NOx, and smoke
intensity were found as 163.9 ◦ C, 0.3617 kg/kW-h, 26.341%, 3.82 ppm, 0.0181%, 5.271%,
20.983%, 230 ppm, and 36.555 HSU, respectively. Contrasting the validation result, there
was an error of 0.0970 for the experimented result of loading. Berber [9] proposed RSM to
find the performance of fuel flow in a DI diesel power unit by using diverse unique condi-
tions (IOP, N, and throttle position). IOP was chosen as 150 bar for a turbo-charged and
pre-combustion vestibule. A math model was used to prognosticate fuel flow competence,
according to IOPs 100, 150, 200, and 250 bars and throttle positioning 50, 75, and 100%.
The optimized competence conditions for a needed fuel flow were obtained by using the
response to surface methodologies with 3D graphing. The obtained polynomial predictions
proved that the linear variation of engine speeds were most vital and affected the flow.
A biodiesel fueled engine resulted in lessoned competence, increased fuel consumption,
and UBHC and CO emitted with lessoned NOx levels [10]. The blend ratio and operating
parameters were optimized using FFD for modelling and studying the experiments’ data.
Nayyar et al. [11] validated experimental data with forecasted values and discovered that
models put forth were very easily used for adequacy checking. Combustion features were
analyzed by many investigators using statistical tools. Hence, the use of RSM quadratic
models has developed and explored the competence of double fuel engines, as shown in
References [12–14], which analyzed the influence of EGR and IT on the competence and
emanations of a diesel prime mover running on diesel blends. Using RSM, optimization
was enacted through the expediency approach to lessen the smoke and NOx emanations
levels with lessoned BSFC. The model building was done using the DoE-RSM combination,
and an assay of multi linear regression math models were used to prognosticate the com-
petence and emanations of diesel and H2-fueled engines at diverse loads. It was shown
that outcomes obtained were at a 95% assurance level and hence were eloquent [15,16].
Further, the effect of injector variables and nozzle tip protuberance on the combustion
attributes of two cylinders of natural aspiration diesel prime mover was explored using
RSM statistic techniques. These variables got higher BTE and NOx with lesser BSFC, UBHC,
and CO at optimum IT of 21◦ bTDC (before Top Dead Centre), IOP of 225 bar, and nozzle tip
protuberance of 2.5 mm [17]. According to Reşitoğlu et al. [18], it is not possible to achieve
emission norms by engine modifications only. Similarly, the numerical simulation results
shows that the higher-pressure gasoline direct injecting improved smaller-scale turbulent
intensity and evaporation of fuel, both at the same time. These duo effects were considered
as the prime factors to enhance the flame propagation velocity, indicating new combustion
ideas that were different from conventional SI combustion controlled by in-cylinder bulk
flow, as reported by Kaminaga. et al. [19]. A set of laminar burning speeds with pressure,
temperature, and equivalence ratio dependences were combined into a 3D-CFD calculation
to compare the predicted displacements of flame front in an SI engine with that of the
experiments. It was found that the reaction mechanism was very well validated in 1D–3D
combustion calculations, as per the research by Ratnak. et al. [20].
Present Work
From the above literature survey, it is observed that research on the utility of biodiesels
with design changes, NG, BG, and IVM, in diesel engines is rarely studied. Hence, these
design changes need to be applied for detailed studies. Further RSM techniques have not
been reported on the competence, emanations, or combustion attributes of diesel prime
movers fueled with HOME with simultaneous design changes of NG, BG, and IVM in
diesel engines. This work is an effort towards enhancing competence and curtailing exhaust
emanations from diesel engines powered with renewable fuels. In addition, a statistical
approach must be employed for modelling and optimization of engine variables and to
ratify the valuable outcomes by the experiments inquest.
2. Experimentation Particulars
2.1. Thermal Characters of Fuels Utilised
Renewable Honge oil methyl esters (HOME) were derived from Honge vegetable
oil through already improved and demonstrated technologies, called the simple alkali
transesterification process, in which the Viscosity of HOME biodiesel obtained was 5.6 c. St
at 40 ◦ C, which is within the range of acceptance as diesel engine fuel, according to ASTM
standards (1.9 to 6 c. St at 40 ◦ C). Fuel properties in this inquest are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1. Thermal characters of diesel, Honge oil, and its ester, HOME.
Sl. NoN Properties Diesel Honge Oil HOME ASTM Standards

1 ◦ C)
Viscosity (c. St at 40 4.59 56 5.6 ASTMD445
2 Flash point (◦ C) 56 270 163 ASTM D93
3 Calorific Value (kJ/kg) 45,000 35,800 36,100 ASTM D5865
4 Mass Density (kg/m3 at 15 ◦ C) 830 930 890 ASTM D4052
5 Cetane Number 45–55 40 40–42 ASTM D613
6 Cloud Point (◦ C) 15 13 ASTM D2500
7 Pour Point (◦ C) 1 −2 to −5
8 Carbon Residue (%) 0.1 0.66 ASTM D4530
9 Type of oil Fossil fuel Non edible Non edible
2.2. Experimentation Methodologies

The experiments were carried out on existing single cylinder four stroke CI prime
movers to operate on HOME. Set up was interfaced with a data acquiring system with
Engine soft as the software. Figure 1 shows the line diagram of the test unit and modi-
fication to run on selected fuel, and its specific features are given in Table 2. The prime
mover was always run at a rated RPM of 1500. A piezoelectrical transducer for pressure
(made by PCB Piezotronics, Model: HSM 111A22, with Resolution: 0.145 mV/KPa) was
fixed on the cylinder’s head surface to record the cylinder gas pressure for a combustion
inquest. Figure 2 shows IVM with a masking angle varying from 30◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ . The
mask acts as a turbine blade and hence the inlet valve rotates along with its spring as inlet
air flows into the cylinder. Thus, araldite was applied to the spring to fix it and avoid
rotation of its inlet valve. Figure 3 shows altered cylinder heads with a diverse number
of bridges-n-grooves. Figure 4 shows triangular-shaped grooves on the piston, and the
number of grooves varies from 3 to 9 in steps of 3. A five holes injector, with holes at a
diameter of 0.3 mm, was used, which was optimized in our previous work. The number
of grooves made on the piston and cylinder head kept the same compression ratio and
intensified the air swirl. An optimized IOP of 240 bar and injecting time fixed at 27◦ bTDC
resulted in overall meliorated competence, while the compression ratio was kept constant
at 17.5. The Hartridge smoke opacity meter was used to record the exhaust smoke intensity,
which was a light extinction type working on the principle of a contrastive basis. The
emitted levels of UBHC, CO, and NOx were measured by a DELTA 1600 S exhaust gas
assayer. The exhaust gas assayer and smoke recorder, which were periodically calibrated,
were switched on, and before measurements, they were allowed to attain a steady state. To
assure high accuracy, readings were noted five times and were plotted after finding their
average graphs.
2.3. Uncertainties Estimated

The experiment’s inquest and data obtained may be uncertain and thus could creep
into various processes and hinder the proper outcomes of the research. Errors, due to the
use of many instruments and sensors, are bound to occur randomly from the changes,
resulting from diverse trials and measurements. Systematic errors may be made constant
by calibrating the instruments periodically. To minimize measuring error, five readings
were taken, and the average values were considered for their results assay. Accuracy
or correctness of recorded loading, engine speed, temperature, and fuel consumptions
were 0.11, 1.1, 1.0, and 0.12, respectively. Uncertainties determined for BTE%, EGT ◦ C,
and BSFC kg/kWh were = ±1.2, ±3.1, and ±1.1, respectively. Similarly, uncertainties of
outputs smoke HSU, UBHC ppm, CO%, and NOx ppm were ±5.25, ±2.35, ±2.6, and
±2.35, respectively.
Figure 1. T1, T3 = Water inlet temperature, T2 = Engine water jacket outlet temperature, T4 = Calorimeter outlet temperature,
T5 = Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) before calorimeter, T6 = EGT after calorimeter, F1= Fuel flow DP(differential pressure)
unit, PT = Pressure transducer, N = RPM encoder, EGA = Exhaust gas analyzer, SM = Smoke meter.
Table 2. Diesel engine specifications.
Sl. No. Parameters Specifications

1 Engine type TV1 (Kirloskar make)
2 Software interfaced Engine soft
3 Injector opening pressure 200 to 225 bar
4 Static injecting time 23◦ bTDC
5 Governor type Centrifugal type Mechanical
6 Number of cylinders Single cylinder
7 Number of strokes 4 strokes
8 Fuel oil Diesel
9 Rated power 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm
10 Cylinder diameter (Bore) 0.0875 m
11 Stroke length 0.11 m
12 Ratio of compression 17.5: 1
Figure 2. Masking inlet valve with different mask angles ◦ . (a) 30◦ ; (b) 60◦ ; (c) 90◦ .
Figure 3. Cylinder heads modified with diverse numbers of bridges-n-grooves, all having the same compression ratio.
Figure 4. Piston grooves: (a) 3 grooves (b) 6 grooves, and (c) 9 grooves.
2.4. Design of Experiments and Experimentation

The designs of experiments (DoE) gave us the outcomes of several possible variations
that coincidentally had fewer numbers of experimental inquests to be conducted within
the minimum time frame and lessoned material consumptions.
The entire process of sampling was well extracted based on the earlier iterations on
the experimental work. Further care was taken to arrive at the data points after several
cases of dry runs. The exhaustive study used predicted the results near to the accuracy
study, with a 90–95%confidence level.
Based on many facts and their levels, an appropriate DoE was selected [3,21–23]. In
this work, three input variants, namely number of piston grooves, inlet valve masking, and
number of grooves-n-bridges on cylinder heads, were considered as predictor variables
or regressors, selecting their range based on previous works. Such input variants chosen
for the inquest with levels are shown in Table 3, and the designs of the experimentation
plan is presented in Table 4. The readings were recorded, and competence, emanations,
and combustion attributes, i.e., BTE, smoke, UBHC, CO, NOx, PP, ID, CD, and HRR, were
determined. Additionally, emissions attributes were obtained using calibration of devices
and are presented in Table 5.
Table 3. Notified engine predictor variables and levels.
Variables Notation and Units Levels

Number of grooves on piston G or A, Nr 3 6 9
Inlet valve masking M or B, Degrees 30 60 90
Grooves and Bridges on Cylinder head Br-Gr or C, Nr 3 5 7
Table 4. Matrix of experimental design plan and measured values of responses.
Settings of Parameters Responses Characteristics (80% Load)

Trial No. Masking BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR
No. of Grove BR-GR
(Degree) (%) (HSU) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (Bar) (◦ CA) (◦ CA) (J/◦ CA)
1 3 30 1B2G 23.5 67 60 0.35 730 55 20 33 60
2 3 30 2B3G 25.5 58 49 0.31 750 60 18 31 63
3 3 30 3B4G 24.5 62 57 0.33 740 58 19 32 62
4 3 60 1B2G 24.15 65 58 0.33 740 57 19 32 62
5 3 60 2B3G 26.25 54 47 0.29 760 62 17 30 65
6 3 60 3B4G 25.20 60 55 0.31 750 60 18 31 64
7 3 90 1B2G 24.85 63 56 0.31 760 60 17 31 64
8 3 90 2B3G 27.95 52 45 0.27 780 65 15 29 67
9 3 90 3B4G 25.75 58 53 0.29 770 63 16 30 66
10 6 30 1B2G 25.45 61 54 0.3 790 61 16 30 65
11 6 30 2B3G 28.53 50 43 0.26 810 66 14 28 69
12 6 30 3B4G 26.25 56 51 0.27 800 64 15 29 67
13 6 60 1B2G 26.05 59 52 0.28 810 63 15 28 67
14 6 60 2B3G 29.15 49 41 0.24 830 68 13 26 71
15 6 60 3B4G 27.15 57 49 0.25 820 66 14 27 69
16 6 90 1B2G 28.55 57 50 0.26 840 65 14 26 69
17 6 90 2B3G 31.55 47 39 0.22 860 70 12 24 73
18 6 90 3B4G 28.15 55 47 0.24 850 68 13 25 71
19 9 30 1B2G 24.47 64 57 0.33 760 58 18 31 62
20 9 30 2B3G 26.52 54 46 0.29 780 63 16 29 66
21 9 30 3B4G 25.37 59 54 0.30 770 61 17 30 64
22 9 60 1B2G 25.10 62 55 0.31 775 60 17 30 65
23 9 60 2B3G 27.20 52 44 0.27 795 65 15 28 68
24 9 60 3B4G 26.17 59 52 0.28 785 63 16 29 66
25 9 90 1B2G 25.70 60 53 0.29 800 62 15 28 67
26 9 90 2B3G 30.25 50 50 0.25 820 68 13 26 70
27 9 90 3B4G 27.95 57 51 0.27 810 66 14 27 69
Table 5. RSM fitted values of the competence, combustion, and emanation attributes.
Parameter Settings Fitted Responses (80% Load)

Trial No. Masking BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR
No. of Grove BR-GR
(Degree) (%) (HSU) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (Bar) (◦ CA) (◦ CA) (J/◦ CA)
1 3 30 1B-2G 23.5215 67.3796 60.2500 0.351574 717.5 55.1574 19.8889 33.1944 59.8611
2 3 30 2B-3G 25.5694 56.4074 49.9722 0.311574 747.5 60.1019 17.8889 33.1944 63.3889
3 3 30 3B-4G 24.3757 61.9907 57.0278 0.327130 737.5 57.9352 18.8889 33.1944 61.9167
4 3 60 1B-2G 24.1174 65.0741 57.4167 0.329074 740.0 57.1574 18.8889 32.1111 61.8056
5 3 60 2B-3G 26.2528 54.5185 47.2222 0.290741 760.0 62.1852 16.8889 30.1111 65.3333
6 3 60 3B-4G 25.1465 60.5185 54.3611 0.307963 750.0 60.1019 17.8889 31.1111 63.8611
7 3 90 1B-2G 24.7465 62.3241 55.5833 0.308796 762.5 59.7130 17.2222 30.6944 63.7500
8 3 90 2B-3G 27.9694 52.1852 45.4722 0.272130 782.5 64.8241 15.2222 28.6944 67.2778
9 3 90 3B-4G 25.9507 58.6019 52.6944 0.291019 772.5 62.8241 16.2222 29.6944 65.8056
10 6 30 1B-2G 25.4458 61.3796 53.4167 0.300185 795.0 60.8241 16.2222 29.4444 65.1111
11 6 30 2B-3G 28.3167 50.7407 43.2222 0.258519 815.0 65.8519 14.2222 27.4444 68.5556
12 6 30 3B-4G 26.3458 56.6574 50.3611 0.272407 805.0 63.7685 15.2222 28.4444 67.0000
13 6 60 1B-2G 26.0667 59.4074 51.3333 0.278519 810.0 62.7407 15.2222 28.1111 67.2222
14 6 60 2B-3G 28.8250 49.1852 41.2222 0.238519 830.0 67.8519 13.2222 26.1111 70.6667
15 6 60 3B-4G 27.1417 55.5185 48.4444 0.254074 820.0 65.8519 14.2222 27.1111 69.1111
16 6 90 1B-2G 28.7208 56.9907 50.2500 0.259074 835.0 65.2130 13.5556 26.4444 69.3333
17 6 90 2B-3G 31.3679 47.1852 40.2222 0.220741 855.0 71.4074 11.5556 24.4444 72.7778
18 6 90 3B-4G 27.9708 53.9352 47.5278 0.237963 845.0 68.4907 12.5556 25.4444 71.2222
19 9 30 1B-2G 24.4118 63.6019 56.5833 0.331019 757.5 58.0463 17.8889 31.3611 62.3611
20 9 30 2B-3G 26.5056 53.2963 46.4722 0.287685 777.5 63.1574 15.8889 29.3611 65.7222
21 9 30 3B-4G 25.3576 59.5463 53.6944 0.299907 767.5 61.1574 16.8889 30.3611 64.0833
22 9 60 1B-2G 25.0576 61.9630 55.2500 0.310185 775.0 59.8796 16.8889 29.7778 64.6389
23 9 60 2B-3G 27.2389 52.0741 45.2222 0.268519 795.0 65.0741 14.8889 27.7778 68.0000
24 9 60 3B-4G 26.1785 58.7407 52.5278 0.282407 785.0 63.1574 15.8889 28.7778 66.3611
25 9 90 1B-2G 25.7368 59.8796 54.9167 0.291574 802.5 62.2685 15.2222 27.8611 66.9167
26 9 90 2B-3G 30.1056 50.4074 44.9722 0.251574 822.5 67.5463 13.2222 25.8611 70.2778
27 9 90 3B-4G 27.0326 57.4907 52.3611 0.267130 812.5 65.7130 14 26.8611 68.6389
2.5. Response Surface Modelling and Assay

RSM is extensively applied to problems in which numerous inputs with different levels
potentially influence the competence of responses or the quality attributes of the process.
The results are shown in the form of a surface of responses between input parameters.
Hence, every point is a predicted and optimized useful result, maximizing or minimizing
a response. Thus, any desirable point can be selected, its operating conditions are fixed
accordingly, and an experiment can be conducted. The mathematic modeling for outcomes
is fixed with correlation among input predictors. The quadratic polynomial predictor based
on RSM is given by [24].
k
Z = Co + ∑ Ci Xi + ∑ cii Xi2 + ∑ cij Xi X j (1)
i =1 i C j =2
Equation (1) is the response surface Z that accounts linearity, interactions, and curvy-
linear terms, where
co = constant coefficient,
ci ’ s = coefficients for all linearity terms,
cii ’ s = coefficients for quadratic terms,
cij ’ s = coefficients for interactions terms.
The regression predictors and regressing coefficients are obtained according to the
literature given in Reference [19]:
−1
c = (X T X) XT Z (2)
where C = matrix for input variant estimations;

X = calculations matrix, which includes linear, interaction, and quadratic terms;
XT = transposing of matrix X and Z is the matrix of the outcome attribute.
The current work can reach for higher order polynomials, at least mathematically;
however, the interpretation of higher order modelling is complex. There is always a higher
risk of introducing over-fitting of the model, which might result in bad predictions. On
the other hand, more terms could result in multi-collinearity and ill-conditioning of (X’X),
which can become an issue as the second-degree terms are the square or product of the
first-degree terms and so forth.
The established predicting models are obtained through multiple regressing assays
using the Design-Expert11 software program. The regression equations in terms of uncoded
variables are:
BTE = 9.11701 +2.10081 × A + 0.01299 × B + 4.21042 × C − 0.16435 × A2 + 0.00002 × B2
(3)
−0.40521 × C2 + 0.00028 × A × B + 0.00382 × A × C + 0.006764444 × B × C
The linear influences were due to changes in number of grooves on piston, G or A,
angle of masking, M or B, and bridge–groove configuration, Br-Gr or C, and the quadratics
effect C2 and the interactions effect M × Br-Gr (B × C) were prime finding factors for the
BTE as their coefficients were the largest. Additionally, the linear effect angle of masking
M or B and quadratic effect C2 were secondary evaluating factors, and other terms did not
affect significantly. The positive coefficients increased the response.
SMOKE = 132.42 −6.389 × A − 0.087 × B − 22.417 × C + 0.457 × A2 − 2.069 × C2 + 0.004 × A × B

(4)
+0.056 × A × C + 0.007 × B × C
Smoke considerably decreased due to the linear and quadratic effect of the C configu-
ration due to a large negative co-efficient. Similarly, the linear and quadratic effect of A
influences smoke formation. Piston grooves and grooves-n-bridges on cylinder heads en-
hance the rate of swirl and hence the rate of combustion, resulting in less smoke. Similarly,
the linear effect of masking B and the interactive effect of B and C have less effect on smoke
formation and others have negligible effect.
HC = 129.833− 7.569 × A − 0.177 × B − 22.556 × C + 0.556 × A2 + 0.001 × B2 + 2.167 × C2

(5)
+0.0008 × A × B + 0.014 × A × C + 0.001 × B × C
HC considerably decreases due to the linear and quadratic effect of C configuration
due to a large negative co-efficient. Similarly, the linear and quadratic effect of A influences
smoke formation. Piston grooves and grooves-n-bridges on cylinder heads enhance the
rate of swirl and hence the rate of combustion, resulting in less HC. Similarly, the linear
effect of masking B has a considerable effect because it meliorates swirl, decreasing HC
formation and offsetting its associated effect of decrease in volumetric efficiency.
CO = 0.674907 −0.057685 × A − 0.000972 × B − 0.075556 × C − 0.04568 × A2 + 0.000001 × B2
(6)
+0.006944 × C2 + 0.000009 × A × B − 0.000278 × A × C + 0.000028 × B × C
For CO quadratic effects, A2 and C2 and linear effects of A and C are significant. Other
terms have a negligible effect.
NOx = 468.750 +74.167 × A − 0.167 × B + 40.0008 × C − 5.833 × A2 + 0.006 × B2 − 3.750 × C2
(7)
+0.0028 × A × B
Piston grooves and grooves-bridges on cylinder heads enhance the rate of swirl and
hence the rate of burning, resulting in higher peak temperatures and pressures, thus in-
creasing NOx formation. The largest coefficients of A and C prove which can be considered
as primary significant factors. However, their quadratic effect tends to decrease NOx
formation, and while it is a secondary determining factor, the interactive effect is negligible.
Pmax = 19.0185 +6.0972 × A + 0.0375 × B + 9.500 × C − 0.4691 × A2 + 0.0003 × B2 − 0.8889 × C2

(8)
−0.0009 × A × B + 0.0139 × A × C + 0.0014 × B × C
For all linear coefficients significantly increasing the response, their quadratic effect
tends to decrease the response with a negligible interactive effect.
ID = 37.8472 − 3.8889 × A + 4.00 × C + 0.0963 × A2 − 0.0004 × B2 + 0.3750 × C2 (9)

Linear coefficients and quadratic coefficients increase this response.
CD = 51.7361− 4.00 × A − 0.0111 × B − 4.0000 × C + 0.3148 × A2 − 0.0002 × B2 − 0.3750 × C2
(10)
−0.0028 × A × B
Linear coefficient of A decreases this response, but its quadratic coefficient increases
the response. Quadratic coefficient of C decreases the response and has a considerable
interactive effect on A and B.
HRR = 30.0417 +5.7361 × A + 0.0593 × B + 6.8056 × C − 0.4444 × A2 − 0.6250∗C2
(11)
+0.0019 × B × C
For HRR, all linear coefficients significantly increase the response, while quadratic
coefficients of A and C decrease the response and have negligible interactive effects. NOTE:
It is to be observed that interactions were particularly important for BTE and CD. They
indirectly decreased emissions where BTE was in %, smoke in HSU, HC in ppm, CO in %,
NOx in ppm, ID in ◦ CA, CD in ◦ CA, Pmax in bar, and HRR in J/◦ CA.
The paramount parameter tests were: (1) Z-tests; (2) t-tests; (*3) X2 -tests, and (4)
F-tests, which were based on the normality assumption, i.e., the source for data taken
had normal distribution. The Fisher (F)-test [24] was used to check the sufficiency of
the RSM fittings-based modellings and was found to be adequately applicable at 95%
assurance level.
The contrasted prognosticated and experimented values of competence attributes can
be shown by graphs which were drawn taking two variables at a time, while keeping the
third variable at the central level.
The response surface model accuracy was given by calculating the error of prognosti-
cation, i.e.:
100 n yi,exp t − yi,pred
n i∑
∆= (12)
yi,pred

=1

where, yi, except design of experiments (DoE) value of competence, attributes correspond
to the ith trial. yi, predicted: RSM predicted value of competence attribute, corresponding
to ith trial n: number of trials in FFD.
Equations (3)–(11) are used to test the accuracy of the predictors, taking the experi-
mented data set in FFDs. The percentages predicting errors were found to be 0.58, −0.392,
−3.038, −0.3356, 0.5847, −1.97, 3.845, −1.818, and 0.3053 for the BTE, smoke, HC, CO, NOx,
Pmax, ID, CD, and HRR model, respectively. As the percentage of predicting errors are
small, the RSM predicted values may be considered for implementation by corresponding
design change and anticipating better results. However, it can be noted that percentage
errors are more for HC and ID, as reported in literature by [4,6,23]. Yashvir Singh et al. [4]
gave percentage errors for BTE, HC, and NOx as 3.97, 4.65, and 2.67, respectively.
Therefore, Equations (3)–(11) are used to prognosticate the required attribute by
substitution of the values of piston grooves, inlet valve masking, and number of grooves-
n-bridges on cylinder heads within the ranges of the variants notified. The impact of
notified input variables on competence, emissions, and combustion attributes are shown in
Figures 5–13. These contours were obtained, taking two variables at a time while keeping
the third variable at the central level.
Figure 5. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on BTE.
Figure 6. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on smoke emission.

Figure 7. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on HC emission.
Figure 8. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on CO emission.

Figure 9. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on NOx emission.
Figure 10. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on Pmax.

Figure 11. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on ignition delay.
Figure 12. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on combustion duration.

Figure 13. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on heat release rate.
The significance testing using ANOVA was carried out to validate the models after
establishing the use of the RSM. If p-values were less than 0.05, as given in Table 6, the
model terms were assumed to be significant and hence were able to describe 95% of the
variability of the response, as reported in literature [3,4,7,8]. Table 7 shows the significant
model terms for BTE, smoke, HC, CO, NOx, Pmax, ID, CD, and HRR predictor models.
The p-values greater than 0.05 showed unimportant models, which are indicated by the
terms in bold. Usually, the p values for interactions are much more than 0.05, which shows
lack of fit, as also reported by [25,26]. This is because the interactions between predictor
variables used in our works were arbitrarily taken, and it was quite possible that the
particular combination may not be the best and hence usually ended up with p values of
more than 0.05. Hence, there are endless design variabilities possible for interactions and
we are supposed to use the best combination to maximize responses, which may have
p values less than 0.05. It is usually very difficult to test different combinations in our works.
Additionally, linear and quadratic models show lack of fit for input variable masking. The
regressing statistics for rightness of fit (R2 ) and the rightness of prognostication (Adjusting
R2 ) are provided in Table 7 for all the outcomes. The value of R2 indicates the percentage
variation of the outcome after the paramount factors were considered. The adjusting R2
value gives an idea about the number of predictor inputs in the model. Both these values
indicate that the models fit the experimental data sufficiently. The data fitting quality
was expressed as a coefficient of multiple determination (R2 ) and rightness of prediction
(Adj-R2 ), but as the number of affecting variables increased, the R2 value increased. Hence,
adj-R2 was a better parameter, which is recommended to use as it decreases if unimportant
terms are included, as reported by K. Ibrahim et al. [26]. Therefore, the regressing R2 value
can be preferably put forth as the percent of information utilized by the models from the
data. For instance, R2 equal to 0.94 informs us that the models account for over 94% of the
changeability in the experimented data. The prima facie evidence from the R2 values in
Table 8 shows that all outcomes in the assay had very good fittings. The HC emissions
show lack of fit with the R2 value of 0.9478 and predicted R2 value of 0.8666. HC is usually
much less predictable as it is not smoothly related to other quantities, as reported by many
researchers, H. Raheman et al., 2004 [6] and Z. Win et al., 2005 [23], with a R2 value of
0
0.669. Along with ANOVA, the precise indexing values, such as R2 , ‘adjusting R2 , and
0
‘predicting R2 , were also found to be adequate as they were nearer to the experimented
values. The precise indexing values of the diverse predictor models are shown in Table 7.
The press residuals, the predicting errors sum of squares (press) supposed by Allen (years
1971 and 1974), present a meaningful residual scale. Press can be utilized to evaluate a
probable R2 value for predictions, such as R2 predictions = 1-(Press/SST).
Table 6. ANOVA evaluation for the responses indicating p-values.
Response BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR

Regression 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001
Linear 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.001 0.000
Number of Grooves 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.006 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
Masking 0.077 0.094 0.086 0.000 0.477 0.052 1.000 0.657 0.010
Grooves 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.000
Square 0.006 0.055 0.005 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000
Number of Grooves ∗ No of Grooves 0.010 0.020 0.000 0.030 0.003 0.057 0.002 0.000 0.045
Masking ∗ Masking 0.714 0.492 0.429 0.248 0.004 0.029 0.010 0.310 1.000
Grooves ∗ Grooves 0.003 0.040 0.003 0.000 0.010 0.022 0.000 0.000 0.010
Interaction 0.063 0.083 0.413 0.013 0.170 0.406 1.000 0.216 0.304
Number of Grooves ∗ Masking 0.440 0.155 0.104 0.222 0.029 0.325 1.000 0.040 0.094
Number of Grooves ∗ Grooves 0.479 0.155 0.851 0.021 1.000 0.325 1.000 1.000 0.388
Masking ∗ Grooves 0.013 0.080 0.851 0.021 1.000 0.325 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table 7. RSM model evaluation.
Response BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR

Mean 26.5139 59.7005 50.6666 0.27495 788.3333 62.8889 15.7777 29.1851 66.3333
Range 7.8464 20.1944 20.0278 0.130833 137.5 16.25 8.3333 8.75 12.9167
Variance 3.5902 33.026 26.3673 0.0009456 1158.333 13.8556 4.1234 5.6855 9.7109
Standard
1.894 5.7468 5.1349 0.03075 34.0343 3.7223 2.0306 2.3844 3.1162
Deviation
Linear, Linear
Model Quadratic Linear and Linear and Linear and Linear and Linear and Linear and Quadratic Linear and
Degree and Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic Quadratic and Quadratic
Interactive Interactive
R2 99.58 98.50 94.78 99.67 99.29 99.62 98.82 98.08 99.32
PRESS 0.598056 25.1137 99.2654 0.000236424 587.972 3.62095 3.33283 6.71292 4.65460
Predicted
98.76 96.30 86.66 99.10 98.13 98.99 97.04 95.02 98.24
R2
Adjusted
99.35 97.70 92.01 99.49 98.91 99.41 98.19 97.07 98.95
R2
Table 8. ANOVA and R2 valuates for the fitted predictor models.
Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Square

F-Ratio R2
Regression, SST Residual Regression Residual Regression Residual
BTE 48.0350 0.2042 9 17 5.3372 0.0120 444.37 0.9958
Smoke 669.417 10.213 9 17 74.38 0.601 123.81 0.9850
HC 705.139 38.861 9 17 78.349 2.286 34.27 0.9478
CO 0.026186 0.000088 9 17 0.002910 0.000005 562.31 0.9967
NOx 31275.0 225.0 9 17 3475.0 13.2 262.56 0.9929
Pmax 358.028 1.38 9 17 39.781 0.081 490.19 0.9962
ID 111.333 1.333 9 17 12.3704 0.0784 157.72 0.9882
CD 132.083 2.583 9 17 14.6759 0.1520 98.58 0.9808
HRR 262.194 1.806 9 17 29.1327 0.1062 274.3 0.9932
The Fisher (F)-test was used to check the sufficiency of the RSM fittings-based mod-
ellings and was found to be adequately applicable at 95% assurance level. ANOVA sum-
mations are provided in Table 8, clearly notifying that the fitted model was satisfactory.
The determination coefficient (R2 ) [24] was also evaluated (Table 8), showing good linkages
among the experimented and prognosticated values for every outcome.
Looking at the values of range and standard deviation, it can be stated that there is
considerable variation in values of responses and hence it justifies 33 trials for DoE.
3. Results and Discussions

3.1. RSM Analysis
The response surface profiles and contours of the optimized characteristics are shown
in Figures 5–13. For a combination of the 2B 3G cylinder head, IVM of 90◦ , and ‘NG’ of six
grooves on piston RSM, analysis of the experimental results optimizes outcome responses
as: BTE, 31.3679%; smoke, 47.1852 HSU; HC emission, 40.2222 ppm; CO, 0.220741%;
NOx, 855.0 ppm; peak pressure, 70.4074 bar; ignition delay, 11.5556 ◦ CA; combustion
duration, 24.4444 ◦ CA, and heat release rate of 72.7778 J/◦ CA. This optimized condition was
validated with an actual experiment. It is to be noted that, for the above combination, BTE
was 31.3679% for HOME in the CMFIS operation, which was equal to the BTE of diesel in
the conventional engine. The above result had the highest NOx emissions of 855.0 ppm due
to the improved rate of combustion, which was much less than conventional diesel engine
and, due to improved swirl and enhanced heat transfer to cylinder walls, was the main
concept of this work. The highest NOx emissions may be due to an increased rate of swirling
and proper fuel air mixture formation, resulting in maximum peak temperature attained
in the cylinder, which enhanced formation of NOx. Hence, to reduce NOx emissions
and its harmful effects on the formation of photochemical smog, we can look for other
combinations. A combination of the 3B 4G cylinder head, IVM of 90◦ , and NG of three
grooves on the piston optimized a low NOx of 772.5 ppm with BTE 26.0%, a compromise
of 5.3679% in BTE compared to the above combination.
3.2. Performance Attributes

Brake Thermal Efficiency
The outturns of Inlet Valve Masking (IVM) and Number of Grooves (NG) on BTE
for a given bridge-groove configuration (BGC) at 80% loading are presented in Figure 5.
It is clear that the BTE enhances with increased IVM up to 90◦ , principally for enhanced
swirl, resulting in improved air-fuel mixture formation, whereas, reduced IVM showed
a decreasing trend of BTE. For a fixed bridge-groove configuration at 80% load, higher
BTE was observed with and increased NG up to six, and beyond, this BTE decreased.
Additionally, it is clear that the ID decreased to NG of six grooves, then exhibited increasing
trends for the other value of ‘BGC’. However, for given IVM and NG combinations, ‘BGC’
with the 2B 3G model showed the highest BTE. The reasons could be due to an increase
in swirl, bridges, and grooves induced in a tumbling flow. Therefore, it can be inferred
that lower ID at NG of six and IVM of 90◦ facilitated higher combusting efficacy and
lessoned heat escape in the cylinder due to escalated flaming temperatures and HRR.
Similar inquests are written in literature by Ganapathy et al., [5] and Khoobbakht et al., [13].
The highest BTE achieved for NG of six and IVM of 90◦ was 31.3679%, which was 3.3679%
higher and 10.73% more compared to the neat HOME operation in CI mode, which was
28%. In their RSM studies, Hirkude et al., [7] reported an increase in BTE by 5.41% for B70
waste fried oil methyl ester (WFOME).
3.3. Emission Attributes

3.3.1. Smoke Emissions
Figure 6 depicts the variant smoke intensity with the ‘IVM’ for diverse ‘NG’ at 80%
loading. For a given BGC at 80% loading, the smoke emitted decreased up to an ‘IVM’
of 90◦ then showed an increasing tendency at other values of ‘NG’. The rationale for this
tendency may be due to better intermixing of fluids air and fuel and perfect combustion
at ‘IVM’ of 90◦ and ‘NG’ of six, resulting in high BTE. However, for a given IVM and
NG, combinations of ‘BGC’ with the 2B 3G model showed the lowest smoke. The lower
smoke emitted level attained was 47.1852 HSU in the CMFIS, working at an ‘IVM’ of 90◦
and ‘NG’ of six, which was 44.11% lesser than the neat HOME utilized CI mode of engine
working, which was 68 HSU. A similar reduction of smoke by 20% for B100 was reported
by Raheman et al. [6] and Win et al. [20].
In addition, for only 2B 3G, operation of HSU reduced to 54 HSU, which was around
66 HSU for an ‘IVM’ of only 90◦ or ‘NG’ of only six in CMFIS operation taken from our
previous work. Now, their combination reduced smoke emissions to 47.1852 HSU.
3.3.2. HC Emissions
HC emittance tendency with the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ is presented in Figure 7 for the
BDF injected, i.e., HOME in the CMFIS mode. For a given BGC at 80% loading, the HC
emission decreased up to an ‘IVM’ of 90◦ then tended to increase at any other value of
‘NG’. The rationale for this trend may be due to an idealized combustion of fuel injecting,
resulting in high BTE at an ‘IVM’ of 90◦ and ‘NG’ of six. However, a given IVM and NG
combinations ‘BGC’ with the 2B 3G model showed the lowest HC emissions. The lesser
HC emissions level attained was 40.2222 ppm in the CMFIS, working at an ‘IVM’ of 90◦
and an ‘NG’ of six, which was 38.12% lower when contrasted to the neat HOME fueled CI
mode of working, which was 65 ppm. Additionally, for the opposite trend of increased HC
emissions with other bridge-groove combinations, the possible reason might be due to an
insufficient swirl developed for a 1B2G cylinder head and too much turbulence induced
for the 2B3G cylinder head, not allowing proper air-fuel mixture formation. A similar work
is reported by Najafi [10], using biodiesel in a diesel prime mover, resulting in lessoned
competence, increased fuel intake, and UBHC and carbon CO, emitted with curtailed NOx
gas formation.
3.3.3. CO Emissions
Figure 8 portrays the nature of CO emitted for HOME fueled CMFIS, working at 80%
loading. Large heat unleashing in the pre-mixed uncontrolled burning phases rather than
the diffusing or controlled burning phases is always amenable for lowered CO emission.
CO emitted strongly depends on the air fuel (A/F) ratios linked to stoichiometric propor-
tions. Richer combustion inevitably ends in more CO emissions and increases linearly with
the air fuel (A/F) ratios other than the stoichiometric A/F ratio. For a given BGC, at 80%
load-increased ‘IVM’ up to 90◦ showed lowered CO emissions similar to HC emissions
at any given value of ‘NG’. At ‘IVM’ of 90◦ and ‘NG’ of six, the lowest CO emanations
were seen. The rationale may increase in local temperatures and improve CO oxidation
to CO2 , as reported in the literature [3,7,16], which is similar with our findings. However,
for a given IVM and NG, combinations ‘BGC’ with the 2B 3G model showed the lowest
CO emissions. The least CO emanations level attained was 0.220741% in the CMFIS, work-
ing at ‘IVM’ of 90◦ and ‘NG’ of 6, which was considerably less compared with the neat
HOME utilized CI mode of engine working, which was 0.35%, thus reduced by 58.55%.
This satisfies emission standards BS 6 and Euro 6. Additionally, for the opposite trend
of increased CO emissions with other bridge-groove combinations, the possible rationale
might be an unsuitable swirl and lesser time available for the perfect combustion, similar
to the work of Najafi [10], which used biodiesel in a diesel prime mover and resulted
in inferior competence, increased fuel intake, and UBHC and CO emitted with lessoned
NOx formation.
3.3.4. NOx Emissions

The NOx emissions measured for CMFIS mode at 80% loading are indicated in
Figure 9. The NOx gas emitted is meliorated by enhanced cylinder pressures and charge
temperatures. Elated NOx emitted for BDF HOME might be due to the presence of a
large oxygen content of the oil chemical structure itself. A notified BGC at 80% load that
increased IVM up to 90◦ showed increased NOx concentration at first and then a decreasing
tendency for any given value of ‘NG’ under CMFIS operation. A suitable description for
this could be due to the enhanced temperatures registered inside the cylinder for the
uncontrolled combustion stage at IVM of 90◦ and NG of 6, which ended in larger NOx.
Similarly, Pandal et al. [16] reported elated BTE and NOx with lesser BSFC, HC, and CO at
optimal IT of 21◦ bTDC, IOP of 225 bar, and nozzle tip protuberance of 2.5 mm.
However, a given IVM and NG combinations of BGC with the 2B 3G model showed the
highest NOx emissions of 855 ppm, which were 18.01% less contrasted with the neat HOME
utilized CI mode of working, which was 1009 and 900 ppm, respectively, with and without
bridge-groove configuration. Lowered NOx emitted with other combinations may be
linked to low combusting temperatures. Similar inquests are written in literature [14,22,27].
Use of biodiesel resulted in lessoned BTE and enhanced BSFC, CO, and HC emittance with
lowered NOx formed, as reported by Najafi [10]. It is to be noted that, for diesel engine
simulation, fueled with HOME, when implementing a combination of 1B 2G cylinder heads,
an IVM of 30◦ , and NG of 3 grooves on the piston optimizes a low NOx of 717.5 ppm,
BTE decreased slightly from 31.3679% to 23.5215%. This was much less than that for neat
HOME in a conventional engine, i.e., 1009 ppm. Hence, the percentage reduction of NOx
was about 40.62%. This suffices, to some extent, emission standards BS 6 and Euro 6,
which are planning to reduce NOx by a staggering 70% compared to BS 4 and Euro 5.
Thus, by making further design changes in the above combination, NOx may be decreased
towards 70%.
3.4. Combustion Attributes

3.4.1. Peak Pressure (Pmax, PP)
The variant PP for HOME fueled CMFIS working at diverse IVM and NG is put forth
in Figure 10. The PP is influenced by contained energy and the dynamic viscous nature of
the injecting fuel. At an IVM of 90◦ and NG of 6, cylinder gas pressure was the highest. The
lessoned ID and CD could be the reason for these set conditions making combusting reac-
tions, faster ending at enhanced PP. However, a given a IVM and NG combinations of BGC
with the 2B 3G model showed the highest peak pressure of 71.4074 bar. However, the PP
in a neat HOME utilized CI engine working with and without bride-groove configuration
was 70 and 50 bar, respectively. Therefore, comparing PP in neat HOME injected CI engine
operation without bride-groove configuration, it was 30% lower than the optimized value.
3.4.2. Ignition Delay (ID)

The behavior of ID with IVM and NG for different BGC is shown in Figure 11. The
charge in temperatures during compression, heat energy unleashed in premixed combus-
tion, heat conveyed to the surrounding materials, and the residue gas quantity appears to
be the prime factors amenable for changes in ID crank angles. The ID value was evaluated
based on the static injection timing, considering pressure crank angles data for 100 power
cycles. For the IVM of 90◦ and NG of 6, shorter ID was noted because of the highest charge
temperatures. However, the ignition delay duration increased for either increasing or de-
creasing IVM and NG from the optimized values due to lessoned temperatures prevailing.
However, a given IVM and NG combinations of BGC with the 2B 3G model showed lower
ID of 11.5556 ◦ CA, which was 55.76% (without BGC) lower than the ID in neat HOME
fueled CI engine operation with and without bridge-groove configuration, i.e., 13 and
18 degrees, respectively. Though ID decrease, it marginally results in PP nearer to TDC
position, which acts through larger lengths of strokes, leading to more displacement work
done and higher BTE.
3.4.3. Combustion Duration (CD)

The variant CD, as in Figure 12, has been calculated as the duration between the SOC
and 90% net heat unleashed. In addition, total CD is the time length of the net fuel oxidation
processes and is the summation of the flames establishment period. For a given BGC at 80%
load, an IVM of 90◦ and NG of 6 lower CD was noticed due to higher cylinder temperatures
prevailing inside the engine cylinder. Similar inquests are written in literature [16]. The
high BTE due to rapid-fire and more combusting intensity with the shortest ID in both
stages of the HRR demonstrates the noticed results.
However, a given IVM and NG combinations of BGC with the 2B 3G model showed
higher CD of 24.4444 ◦ Ca, which was 43.18% lower than the CD in neat HOME fueled CI
engine operation with and without bridge-groove configuration, which was 32 and 35 ◦ CA,
respectively. Reduced CD resulted in decreased burning time loss, enhancing competence.
Additionally, though CD decreased marginally, it resulted in a shifting of PP towards the
TDC position, which acted through larger stroke lengths, resulting in more work done and
higher BTE.
3.4.4. Heat Release Rate (HRR)

Figure 13 portrays the variant HRR for CMFIS mode of prime mover, running at
diverse IVM and NG for a given BGC. For the given NG, the HRR varies first with
increasing tendency up to 90◦ , as presented in Figure 11. At IVM of 90◦ and NG of 6,
maximized HRR was realized, which might be because of more heat unleashed in the
uncontrolled combusting phase. Meliorated air fuel mixture forming, and consequently
swift combusting, could have rendered for higher HRR. However, a given IVM and NG
combinations of BGC with the 2B 3G model showed higher HRR of 72.7778 J/◦ CA, which
was 17.55% higher than the HRR in neat HOME fueled CI engine operation with and
without bridge-groove configuration, i.e., 70, 60 J/◦ CA, respectively. Faster HRR meliorates
competence, and thus we can design high speed engines.
4. Validation of Test Results

4.1. Validation of Test Results for Optimized Conditions
The experimental work conducted thrice at the predictor variables of the piston
with six numbers of grooves (NG), 90◦ inlet valve masking (IVM), and five numbers
combinations of bridges-n-grooves on cylinder heads (Br-Gr) for validating the predicted
results. An optimum IOP of 240 bar and injecting time of 27◦ bTDC resulted in overall
better performance at 80% load and for a five-hole injector with a 0.3 mm hole size. For
the actual value of outputs, the mean of three experimental results was considered. The
summary of the theoretical RSM values, the mean of the measured values, and the percent
error between them is given in Table 9. This validates that the models generated were
accurate as the percent error in predictions agreed well with actual values.
Table 9. Validation of test results.
BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax HRR

Response ID (◦ CA) CD (◦ CA)
% HSU ppm % ppm Bar (J/◦ CA)
Predicted 31.3679 47.1852 40.2222 0.220741 855.0 71.4074 11.5556 24.4444 72.7778
Actual 29.94 55 46 0.24 820 66 14 32 67
Error% −4.5521 16.56 14.36 8.72 −4.09 −7.572 21.15 30.91 −7.938
4.2. Emission Norms Set by Worldwide Councils and Validation of Engine Test
In BS 6 and Euro 6, the mass of pollutants emitted are computed by the equation in
g/kwh.
m f + m a × 1000 × 3600) (NOx in ppm) 30
M= × × (13)
28 1, 000, 000 BP
(0.00019531 + 0.007982) × 1000 × 3600) (220) 30
M= × × (14)
28 1, 000, 000 1.04
M = 6.641 g/kWh (15)
In which mf + ma = mass of fuel and air in kg/s. and BP = brake power output of
the engine.
Additionally, in BS 6 and Euro 6, the mass of pollutants emitted are computed by the
equation in g/km:
Qi × Ci × KH × Vmix × 10−6
Mi = [ ] (16)
d
In which Mi = Emission of the pollutant in g/km
Vmix = Exhaust gases volume diluted expressed in m3 for the test and then corrected
to normal pressure and temperatures 101.33 kPa. and 293 K.
Qi = Pollutant i density in kg/m3 at 101.33 kPa and 293 K, standard conditions.
kH = Correction factor for humidity used for calculating the mass emission of nitrogen
oxides. Such correction is not needed for CO and HC.
Ci = Pollutant i concentration in ppm of the dilute exhaust gases and correction made
by the quantity of the pollutant i present in the diluting air.
d = Distance travelled in km.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), along with the Ministry of Forests
and Environment in India, laid down emission regulations for diesel gensets (Figure 14),
its logo. Permissible limits of emissions and other CPCB regulations that diesel genset
manufacturers and users should be aware of are set. According to CPCB, the emission
of NOx and HC in a diesel generator up to 19 kW output power should not exceed
7.5 g/kW-h. The emissions of CO should not be more than 3.5 g/kW-h, while that of
particulate matter not exceed 0.3 g/kW-h. An expert committee estimated that only cars
released approximately 48.678 tons of NOx in the year 2016 in the national capital of New
Delhi, causing serious health problems. This November 2019, the Air Quality Index (AQI)
of Delhi is 613 and extremely hazardous to health, and we can contrast it with the safe and
good AQI range of 0–50.
The emissions
mately of CO
48.678 tons ofshould
NOx innot
thebeyear
more than
2016 in 3.5
theg/kW-h,
nationalwhile that
capital of of particulat
New Delhi,
not exceed 0.3 g/kW-h. An expert committee estimated that only cars
serious health problems. This November 2019, the Air Quality Index (AQI) of Delreleased
mately
and 48.678 tons
extremely of NOxtoinhealth,
hazardous the year 2016
and weincan
thecontrast
nationalitcapital of New
with the Delhi,
safe and go
serious health
range of 0–50. problems. This November 2019, the Air Quality Index (AQI) of De
Sustainability 2021, 13, 11411
and extremely hazardous to health, and we can contrast it with the23safe of 28
and go
range of 0–50.
Figure 14. Logo of Central Pollution Control Board.
Figure
Figure 14.14.
The Logo
Logo of Central
Conseil Pollution
International
of Central Pollution Des
Control Control Board. A
Machines
Board. Combustion (CIMAC), Frankfu
(Website www.cimac.com) Germany (Figure 15), guide to diesel exhaust emissi
The Conseil International Des Machines A Combustion (CIMAC), Frankfurt/Main
trol ofThe
NO Conseil Internationalsmoke,
x, SOx, particulates, Des Machines
and A Combustion
COto2—seagoing (CIMAC), Frankfu
(Website www.cimac.com) Germany (Figure 15), guide diesel exhaustships, bigcontrol
emissions and small st
(Website
diesel
of NOx ,powerwww.cimac.com)
plants, and
SOx , particulates, Germany
unitsand
smoke, gives (Figure
CO2some 15),
background
—seagoing guide to diesel
ships, biginformation exhaust emissi
on diesel exh
and small stationary
trol
diesel of NO
power , SO
plants, , particulates,
and units gives smoke,
some and CO
background —seagoing
information
components and their environmental impact, along with a short overview
x x 2 on ships,
diesel big and
exhaust gassmall
ofstt
components
diesel power andplants,
their environmental
andupcoming impact,
units gives along
some with a short information
background overview of the most
important existing and regulations and various existing onanddiesel exhp
future
important existing and upcoming regulations and various existing and future potential
components
emission and their
abatement environmental
technologies. CIMAC impact, along with
was founded a short overview of t
emission abatement technologies. CIMAC was founded in Paris inin1951,
Paris in 1951,
which is Thewhich is
important Council
ternational
International existing
Council onand
on upcoming
Combustion
Combustion regulations
Engines. and various existing and future p
Engines.
emission abatement technologies. CIMAC was founded in Paris in 1951, which is
ternational Council on Combustion Engines.
Figure15.15.
Figure Logo
Logo of Conseil
of Conseil International
International Des Machines
Des Machines a Combustion.
a Combustion.
The15.
Figure European
Logo ofUnion
Conseil andInternational
USA both set Des
up the International Maritime Organization
The European Union and USA bothMachines
set up the a Combustion.
International Maritime Orga
(IMO) for NOx regulations. Accordingly, inland waterways and engines with a per cylin-
(IMO)
der for NOxofregulations.
displacement Accordingly,
less than 30 L/cylinder have inland
a maximum waterways
permittedand engines
value for NOx with a p
The European
der displacement
emissions Union and
of lessdepending
at 7.2 to 11 g/kWh, USA both
than 30 L/cylinder set
on engine size.up the International Maritime
have a maximum permitted value Orga
(IMO)Thefor
emissions NOx
at 7.2regulations.
following Tables
to 10 andAccordingly,
11 g/kWh, 11 show load on
depending inland
tests waterways
carried
engine and
out on the
size. engines
engine, withwith a p
optimized conditions
der displacement and emissions calculated in g/kWh. It can be seen that all values
The followingofTables less than 30 11
10 and L/cylinder
show load have a maximum
tests carried outpermitted valuew
on the engine,
of HC emissions are less than 7.5 g/kW-h, which is the maximum permitted value as per
emissions
mized at 7.2 toand
conditions 11 g/kWh, depending oninengine size.
CPCB India and is also lessemissions calculated
than 11 g/kW-h, which is g/kWh.
the maximumIt can be seenvalue
permitted thatasall value
The
emissions following
are less Tables
than 7.5 10 and
g/kW-h, 11 show
which load
is the tests carried
maximum
per CIMAC and USA. Additionally, only the first value of NOx emissions is less than out on
permitted the engine,
value w
as pe
mized
7.5 g/kW-h,
India conditions
and but others
is also and emissions
are than
less more as 11per calculated
CPCB. However,
g/kW-h, in
which istwo g/kWh.
thevaluesIt can be seen
of NOx permitted
maximum that all value
emissions arevalue as
emissions
less than 11 are less
g/kW-h, than
but 7.5
others g/kW-h,
are more which
as per is
CIMAC the
MAC and USA. Additionally, only the first value of NOx emissions is maximum
and USA. permitted
Furthermore, value
allless as p
the than 7
values
India of CO
and emissions
is also are
less more
than than
11 3.5 g/kW-h,
g/kW-h, which
which isis the
the maximum
maximum permitted
permittedvalue value as
h, but others are more as per CPCB. However, two values of NOx emissions are l
as per CPCB India. Therefore, as the emissions are less than or very close to the norms, it
MAC and USA. Additionally, only the first value of NOx emissions is less than 7
can be stated that inlet valve masking (IVM), number of piston grooves (NG), and cylinder
h, but
head others are configuration
bridge-groove more as per(BGC) CPCB. canHowever,
be implementedtwo forvalues of NOx
any diesel emissions are l
engines.
Table 10. Observations of load test on diesel engine at optimised conditions.
Time for 20 cc Fuel Air Consumption EGT NOx HC CO

S.No N (rpm)
Consumption (s) (m3 /h) (◦ C) (ppm) (ppm) (%vol)/ppm
1 1500 84.99 28.1 170 220 20 0.05/500
2 1500 69.78 30.46 216 380 25 0.08/800
3 1500 53.53 30.89 250 520 30 0.10/1000
4 1500 34.50 28.57 325 710 45 0.15/1500
5 1500 31.63 29.29 340 850 70 0.28/2800
Table 11. Validation of test emission results as per CPCB India, the European Union, and USA.
Brake Power Mass of Fuel BSFC Mass of A/F BMEP BTE Volumetric NOx CO HC
(kW) (kg/s) (g/kWh) Air (kg/s) Ratio (Bar) (%) Efficiency (%) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh)
1.04 0.00019531 417.63 0.007982 40.86 1.27 16.98 88.61 6.641 15.16 1.78
2.08 0.00023789 287.93 0.008293 34.86 2.54 24.22 86.89 10.81 12.65 2.22
3.12 0.00031010 236.33 0.008411 27.12 3.81 27.87 86.67 16.17 10.78 2.67
4.16 0.00048110 226.48 0.007778 16.17 5.08 29.94 84.52 22.08 11.48 4.00
5.20 0.00052475 211.53 0.007974 15.19 6.35 27.45 80.65 26.43 17.65 6.23
The emissions of CO for non-road diesel engines should not be more than 3.5 g/kW-h
as per CPCB, BS VI norms. Diesel is proven to be a good fuel for diesel engines but,
for diesel, these norms are not satisfied as all the values of CO emissions are more than
3.5 g/kW-h. Thus, for any blends of diesel with biodiesels, CO emissions are more than
that of diesel due to incomplete combustion. For 100% HOME biodiesel, in conventional
engines, these norms were not satisfied as all the values of CO emissions were more than
3.5 g/kW-h and considerably more than diesel due to poor combustion. However, for
100% HOME biodiesel with optimized combination of inlet valve masking (IVM) of 90◦
and number of piston grooves (NG) of 6 grooves on piston crown and cylinder head
bridge-groove configuration (BGC) of 2B 3G, CO emissions are considerably reduced from
46.0 g/kW-h to 17.65 g/kW-h, if we take the last readings for a full load of 5.2 kW, as given
in Table 12. Thus, we can conclude that, for CO, BS VI norms cannot be satisfied only
from engine research, as reported by Resitoglu et al. [18], and may be satisfied by on board
equipment, such as a (diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). According to RSM studies, at 80%
load, the lowest percentage of CO emissions is 0.220741% or 2207.41 ppm. at the same
above optimum combinations, for which CO emissions are 16.90 g/kW-h, which is more
than the corresponding value of the validation experiment, i.e., 11.48 g/kW-h, as given in
Table 11.
Table 12. Comparison of CO emissions for diesel and HOME in conventional diesel engine and for validation test.
S.No Brake Power (kW) For Diesel For HOME For Validation Test
CO CO CO CO CO
CO (g/kWh)
(%vol)/ppm (g/kWh) (%vol)/ppm (g/kWh) (%vol)/ppm
1 1.04 0.03/300 9.906 0.08/800 24.25 0.05/500 15.16
2 2.08 0.04/400 6.320 0.09/900 14.23 0.08/800 12.65
3 3.12 0.06/600 6.46 0.12/1200 12.93 0.10/1000 10.78
4 4.16 0.1/1000 10.78 0.25/2500 19.13 0.15/1500 11.48
5 5.20 0.35/3500 22.06 0.73/7300 46.01 0.28/2800 17.65
4.3. Theoretical Calculations of Approximate Emission of Greenhouse Gases CO2 and NO2 Based
on Diesel Consumption by Vehicles in g/km
In total, 1 L of diesel weighs 835 g if specific gravity is 0.835. Diesel consists of about
86.2% of carbon or 720 g of carbon per liter. We know that 12 g of carbon needs 32 g
of oxygen and burns to form 44 g of CO2 . Hence, for the complete combustion of 720 g
of this carbon to CO2 , carbon needs (720 × 32)/12 = 1920 g of oxygen. The sum is then
720 + 1920 = 2640 g of CO2 /liter diesel. An average diesel consumption of 5 L/100 km by a
vehicle then corresponds to 5 × 2640 g/liter/100 km = 132 g CO2 /km. If 1920 g of oxygen
is used, then 2.33 × 1920 = 4480 g of nitrogen is used, then, (4480 × 32)/14 = 10,240 g
of oxygen is needed for the formation of NO2 if it is completely oxidized. This oxy-
gen is taken from large amount of air available in the engine cylinder. The sum is then
4480 + 10,240 = 14,720 g of NO2 . Therefore, an average diesel consumption of 5 L/100 km
by a vehicle then corresponds to 5 × 14,720 g/liter/100 km = 736 g NO2 /km. However,
if about 75% of the nitrogen exhaust is N2 , then the remaining 25% burns to form NO2 .
Hence, the quantity of NO2 formed is 0.25 × 736 = 184 g NO2 /km. The carbon content of
biodiesel is 76.5% or less, hence the above values shall reduce proportionately.
5. Conclusions
1. RSM is a powerful optimization tool for diesel engines fueled with HOME. Significant
outcomes on the competence and emission attributes were assayed. A second-degree
model was prosperously established to narrate the linkages among input parameter
grooves on piston, inlet valve masking, and bridges and grooves on cylinder heads
on output responses.
2. Optimal input variables for maximizing performance and minimizing emissions,
except NOx, are 2B 3G cylinder head, ‘IVM’ of 90◦ , and ‘NG’ of 6 grooves on the
piston. RSM analysis of the experimental results optimizes outcome responses, as
given below in Table 13.
Table 13. RSM analysis with optimized outcome responses.
Parameter Settings Fitted Responses (80% Load)

ID CD HR
Trial No. No. of Masking BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ◦ ◦
BR-GR CA CA R
Grove ◦
(Degree) (%) (HSU) (ppm) (%) (ppm) (Bar) J/ CA
1 3 30 1B-2G 23.5215 67.3796 60.2500 0.351574 717.5 55.1574 19.8889 33.1944 59.8611
17 6 90 2B-3G 31.3679 47.1852 40.2222 0.220741 855.0 71.4074 11.5556 24.4444 72.7778
Although trial no 17 maximizes BTE, NOx is also maximum. However, for trial no 1,
NOx is the minimum, but BTE decreases considerably as shown in Table 13.
3. Provision of bridges and grooves on the cylinder head proves to be very effective as
they reduce emissions considerably. Additionally, a slight change in configuration of
bridges and grooves can change flow directions and patterns and vary the way gases
react, thus may reduce emissions further.
4. In RSM assay, BTE achieved for ‘NG’ of 6 and ‘IVM’ of 90◦ and 2B 3G cylinder head
for HOME is 31.3679%, which is equal to BTE of diesel in a conventional engine. It
is 3.3679% higher and 10.73% more compared to neat HOME operation in CI mode,
which is 28%. In addition, BTE for the validity test was 29.94% less than the RSM
value. Similarly, for the above combinations, smoke, HC, CO, and NOx were reduced
by 28.5% (66 to 47.1852 HSU), 38.12% (65 to 40.2222 ppm), 36.93% (0.35 to 0.220741%),
and by 15.26% (1009 to 855 ppm) compared to neat HOME operation in CI mode.
5. The assay of variances (ASOVA) revealed that this model could put forth the actual
linkages among the outcomes and eloquent variables, with an acceptable overall
or average determining coefficient R2 = 0.9862 of all responses, which directs that
98.62% of the adaptability for the responses could be described by the second-order
polynomial predictors.
6. This optimized condition was validated by conducting an experiment and found
similar results.
7. The other experimental design values of FFD and RSM values can also be considered
in actual implementation in engine applications, keeping in view the response to
be optimized.
8. Response surface assay-based quadratic predictors can be used with ease to create
the linkages among the independent parameters and dependent characteristics.
9. The validation of predicted outputs shows that the quadratic predictors are accurate
enough and in good agreement.
10. The effect of provision of bridges and grooves on cylinder heads proves to be an
important parameter to improve competence and curtail emissions, but some other
variables, such as injection pressure, injection timing, compression ratio, nozzle
geometry, and speed, etc., should be tested and assayed alongside them.
11. According to the validation of test emission results as per CPCB India, the European
Union, and the USA, the emissions are less than or very close to the norms and are in
general around 10 g/kW-h, thus it can be stated that inlet valve masking (IVM) and
number of piston grooves (NG) and cylinder head bridge-groove configuration (BGC)
can be implemented for any diesel engines.
12. The major difference between the existing BS-IV and forthcoming BS-VI norms is the
presence of diverse Sulphur compounds in the fuel. While the BS-IV fuel contains
50 parts per million (ppm) or mg/kg Sulphur, the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm
or mg/kg Sulphur content. The different compounds of Sulphur form SO2 , and 10%
of SO3 formed combines with water to form H2 SO4 aerosols, combining with soot
and dust to form particulate matter. Additionally, the harmful NOx (nitrogen oxides)
from diesel cars has to be brought down by nearly 70%. In the petrol cars, they can
be reduced by 25%. However, when we discuss air pollution, particulate matter,
such as PM 2.5 (particles smaller than 2.5 microns) and PM 10 (particles smaller than
10 microns), are the most harmful components, and the BS VI will bring down the
cancer-causing particulate matter in diesel cars by a phenomenal 80%. As there is no
Sulphur in BDF, there is no PM problem.
13. An IVM of 90◦ , a ‘NG’ on piston 6, and ‘BGC’ with 2B 3G model showed the highest
NOx emissions of 855 ppm, which was 15.26% less contrasted with neat HOME
utilized CI mode of working, which was 1009 and 900 ppm, respectively, with and
without bridge-groove configuration. Lowered NOx emitted with other combinations
may be linked to low combusting temperatures. It is to be noted that, for diesel engine
simulation fueled with HOME, if we implement a combination of 1B 2G cylinder head,
‘IVM’ of 30◦ and ‘NG’ of 3 grooves on the piston optimizes a low NOx of 717.5 ppm
(BTE decreases slightly from 31.3679% to 23.5215%). It is much less than that for neat
HOME in a conventional engine, i.e., 1009 ppm. Hence, the percentage reduction
of NOx is about 40.62%. This suffices, to some extent, emission standards BS 6 and
Euro 6 (to be implemented from April 2020), which are planning to reduce NOx by a
staggering 70% compared to BS 4 and Euro 5. For the time being, this large reduction
has not been made possible by engine research only, as reported by İbrahim Aslan
Reşitoğlu et al. [18]. Thus, by using further On Board Equipment (OBE) and Real
Driving Emissions (RDE) on all vehicles, enabling real-time tracking of emissions,
diesel vehicles will include a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic
Reduction (SCR) technologies. With these design changes, NOx may be decreased
towards 70%. Additionally, by 2023, catalytic converters and misfire detectors are to
be incorporated as per the (Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI), which
is the leading automotive R&D organization of the country, set up by the Automotive
Industry with the Government of India.
14. For 100% HOME biodiesel with a combination of inlet valve masking (IVM) of 90◦ ,
number of piston grooves (NG) of 6 grooves on piston crown, and cylinder head
bridge-groove configuration (BGC) of 2B 3G, CO emissions are considerably reduced
from 46.0 g/kW-h to 17.65 g/kW-h if we take the last readings for a full load of 5.2 kW,
as given in Table 6. Thus, we can conclude that, for CO, BS VI norms cannot be satis-
fied only from engine research, as also reported by İbrahim Aslan Reşitoğlu et al. [18],
and may be satisfied by on board equipment such as a DOC (diesel oxidation catalyst).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R.I. and N.R.B.; methodology, K.G.R.; software, A.Y.P.;
validation, M.R.I., A.Y.P., N.R.B. and K.G.R.; formal analysis, N.R.B.; investigation, M.R.I.; resources,
T.M.Y.K. and S.J.; writing—original draft preparation, N.R.B.; writing—review and editing, T.M.Y.K.;
supervision, N.R.B. project administration, S.J.; funding acquisition, T.M.Y.K. and S.J. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was funded by at King Khalid University under grant number R.G.P 1/197/41.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author extends his appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at
King Khalid University for funding this work through research groups program under grant number
(R.G.P 1/197/41).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
DOE Designs of experiments

FFD Full factorial designs
RSM Response surface methodologies
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
BGC Bridge-groove configuration
IVM Inlet valve masking
CR Compression ratio
SOC Start of combustion
BDF Biodiesel fuel
DICI Direct injection compression ignition
IT Injection timing
IOP Injector opening pressure
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
TDC Top dead center
bTDC Before top dead center
a TDC After top dead center
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
ID Ignition delay
CD Combustion duration
NOx Oxides of nitrogen
HC Hydrocarbon
UBHC Unburnt hydrocarbon
CO Carbon monoxide
PM Particulate matter
SI Spark ignition
CA Crank angle
PP Peak pressure
HRR Heat release rate
BTL Burning time loss
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
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sustainability

1 Research Scholar, JNTUA, Ananthapuramu 515002, India; indu.mr89@gmail.com

Sustainability 2021, 13, 11411. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011411 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sl. NoN Properties Diesel Honge Oil HOME ASTM Standards

2.2. Experimentation Methodologies

2.3. Uncertainties Estimated

Table 2. Diesel engine specifications.

Sl. No. Parameters Specifications

2.4. Design of Experiments and Experimentation

Table 3. Notified engine predictor variables and levels.

Variables Notation and Units Levels

Table 4. Matrix of experimental design plan and measured values of responses.

Settings of Parameters Responses Characteristics (80% Load)

Parameter Settings Fitted Responses (80% Load)

2.5. Response Surface Modelling and Assay

where C = matrix for input variant estimations;

SMOKE = 132.42 −6.389 × A − 0.087 × B − 22.417 × C + 0.457 × A2 − 2.069 × C2 + 0.004 × A × B

HC = 129.833− 7.569 × A − 0.177 × B − 22.556 × C + 0.556 × A2 + 0.001 × B2 + 2.167 × C2

Pmax = 19.0185 +6.0972 × A + 0.0375 × B + 9.500 × C − 0.4691 × A2 + 0.0003 × B2 − 0.8889 × C2

ID = 37.8472 − 3.8889 × A + 4.00 × C + 0.0963 × A2 − 0.0004 × B2 + 0.3750 × C2 (9)

Figure 5. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on BTE.

Figure 6. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on smoke emission.

Figure 7. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on HC emission.

Figure 8. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on CO emission.

Figure 9. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on NOx emission.

Figure 10. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on Pmax.

Figure 11. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on ignition delay.

Figure 12. Effect of the ‘IVM’ and ‘NG’ on combustion duration.

Table 6. ANOVA evaluation for the responses indicating p-values.

Response BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR

Table 7. RSM model evaluation.

Response BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax ID CD HRR

Table 8. ANOVA and R2 valuates for the fitted predictor models.

Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Square

3. Results and Discussions

3.2. Performance Attributes

3.3. Emission Attributes

3.3.4. NOx Emissions

3.4. Combustion Attributes

3.4.2. Ignition Delay (ID)

3.4.3. Combustion Duration (CD)

3.4.4. Heat Release Rate (HRR)

4. Validation of Test Results

Table 9. Validation of test results.

BTE Smoke HC CO NOx Pmax HRR

Figure 14. Logo of Central Pollution Control Board.

Table 10. Observations of load test on diesel engine at optimised conditions.

Time for 20 cc Fuel Air Consumption EGT NOx HC CO

Table 13. RSM analysis with optimized outcome responses.

Parameter Settings Fitted Responses (80% Load)

DOE Designs of experiments

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