Colla Note

SL - covalent bonds
HL - ionic bonds
The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the
route by which the chemical reaction takes place as long as the initial
Hess’s law and final conditions are the same.
The states of the reactants and products must also be the same
whichever route is followed
Energy cycles
F+G
indirect route 1
A+B C
Direct route
indirect route 2
Y+Z
X
We use the enthalpy changes of

formation of the reactants and
the products to calculate the
enthalpy change of the reaction
Example To calculate the enthalpy change

of reaction using this type of
enthalpy cycle, we use the
following procedure;
1. Write the balanced equation at

the top.
2. Draw the cycle with elements
at the bottom.
3. Draw in all arrows, making sure
they go in correct directions.
4. Apply Hess’s olaw, taking into
account number of moles of each
reactant and product.
Examples :
Standard enthalpy change of formation
Of a substance is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a

substance is formed from its elements in their standard states.
They are important as they, Example; thermochemical equation

representing the standard enthalpy
# Give a measure of the stability of a substance relative to its elements.
of formation of ethanol.
# Can be used to calculate the enthalpy changes of all reactions, either
hypothetical or real.
Using standard enthalpy changes of formation.
Reactants Products
Elements
Example; enthalpy change for the combustion of propane

using the standard enthalpy changes of formation.
Bond enthalpies.
Breaking bonds is an endothermic process
Making bonds is an exothermic process

Ozone
Chapman cycle
Education perfect: energy

level diagram
HL
The lattice enthalpy is the

Depends on. The best measure we can have of the strength of ionic bond enthalpy change when one
1. Size. would be the energy required to disrupt a standard amount mole of a solid ionic
compound breaks down to
2. Ionic charge. of lattice (one mole of the salt) into gaseous ions, with no
form gaseous ions under
interactions between them. standard conditions.
‘lattice dissociation enthalpy’
Ex. MgO
1st ionosation Electron affinity

energy
Magnitude of the lattice enthalpy

Based on Hess’s
Experimental lattice energies cannot be determined directly. Energy cycles Born-Haber cycle
Law
Enthalpy of formation: the enthalpy change when

one mole of a compound is formed from its elements
in their standard states under standard conditions.
Enthalpy of atomisation: the enthalpy change when

one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from an
element in its standard state.
Bond dissociation energy, E: the energy required to

break one mole of bonds in the gaseous state.
Ionisation energy: the energy required to remove

one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous
atoms. 2 pathways:
ΔH⦵f + ΔH⦵lattice
ΔH⦵at + E + ΔH⦵IE + ΔH⦵EA
Electron affinity: the energy released when one

mole of electrons are added to one mole of gaseous
atoms.
The solubility of salts
The first step in the dissolving process is the break-up

of the lattice structure, by which the ionic solid is
converted to gaseous ions. The enthalpy change for this
process is the lattice enthalpy
The enthalpy of hydration of a Once the lattice structure has been broken down, the separated
compound is the enthalpy change
that occurs when one mole of its
gaseous ions are hydrated by the surrounding water molecules
constituent gaseous ions is dissolved
to form an infinitely dilute solution
The sum of these two enthalpy changes is

the enthalpy change of solution
The enthalpy change of solution, is the
enthalpy change when one mole of
solute dissolves to form a solution of
infinite dilution
Energy cycle using Hess’s Law Born-Haber cycle
Slightly positive value ? How

can NaCl be soluble then?
Entropy
Solubillty: The solubility of an ionic compound depends to some extent on the sign and
magnitude of its enthalpy change of solution
Insoluble Soluble
Example
Given the following values, calculate the enthalpy of solution for NaCl.
Factors affecting the enthalpy of hydration charge density of the ion
Entropy
Neither ∆H(system) nor ∆S(system) Multiplying by T
Multiplying by –1
alone can reliably be used to

predict the feasibility of a reaction.
This combination of entropy and enthalpy of a

system gives a new function known as the Gibbs
free energy
Change in Gibbs free
energy of a system
must be negative for
a spontaneous process
Using ∆G(system) to predict the feasibility of a change
1. At low temperature:
∆G(system) = ∆H(system) As T∆S(system) ≈ 0
That is, all exothermic reactions can occur at low temperatures
2. At high temperature:
∆G(system) ≈ –T∆S(system)
This means all reactions which have a positive value of ∆S(system) can be feasible at high temperatures even if they are endothermic.
The effect of ∆H, ∆S, and T on the spontaneity of reaction

⊖ ⊖
Calculating ∆G values
1. For reactions at 298K:
2. For any temperatuer: When the system is the reaction we have,
∆Greaction = ∆Hreaction – T∆Sreaction

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SL - covalent bonds

Hess’s law and final conditions are the same.

We use the enthalpy changes of

Example To calculate the enthalpy change

1. Write the balanced equation at

Standard enthalpy change of formation

Of a substance is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a

They are important as they, Example; thermochemical equation

Using standard enthalpy changes of formation.

Example; enthalpy change for the combustion of propane

Making bonds is an exothermic process

Education perfect: energy

The lattice enthalpy is the

1st ionosation Electron affinity

Magnitude of the lattice enthalpy

Enthalpy of formation: the enthalpy change when

Enthalpy of atomisation: the enthalpy change when

Bond dissociation energy, E: the energy required to

Ionisation energy: the energy required to remove

Electron affinity: the energy released when one

The first step in the dissolving process is the break-up

The sum of these two enthalpy changes is

Energy cycle using Hess’s Law Born-Haber cycle

Slightly positive value ? How

Factors affecting the enthalpy of hydration charge density of the ion

alone can reliably be used to

This combination of entropy and enthalpy of a

∆G(system) = ∆H(system) As T∆S(system) ≈ 0

That is, all exothermic reactions can occur at low temperatures

The effect of ∆H, ∆S, and T on the spontaneity of reaction

1. For reactions at 298K:

2. For any temperatuer: When the system is the reaction we have,

∆Greaction = ∆Hreaction – T∆Sreaction

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