6632 PDF
6632 PDF
6632 PDF
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel like hydrogen and carbon
combine with oxygen liberating heat energy and causing an increase in temperature of the gases.
Homogeneous mixture
In spark-ignition engines a nearly homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is formed in the carburetor. In a
homogeneous gas mixture the fuel and oxygen molecules are more or less, uniformly distributed.
In a homogeneous mixture with an equivalence ratio, p, (the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to the
stoichiometric fuel-air ratio) close to 1.0, the flame speed is normally of the order of 40 cm/s.
However in a spark- ignition engine the maximum flame speed is obtained when p is between 1.1 and
1.2, when the mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric.
If the equivalence ratio is outside this range the flame speed drops rapidly to a low value.
However by introducing turbulence and incorporating proper air movement, the flame speed can be
increased in mixtures outside the above range.
Heterogeneous mixture
When the mixture is heterogeneous the combustion can take place in an overall lean mixture since,
there are always local zones where p varies between 1.0 and 1.2 corresponding to maximum rate of
chemical reaction.
Ignition starts in this zone and the flame produced helps to burn the fuel in the adjoining zones where
the mixture is leaner.
Combustion in SI Engines
Combustion in SI engines may be broadly divided into two general types, viz, normal combustion and
abnormal combustion.
Stages of Combustion in SI engines
Sir Ricardo, known as the father of engine research, describes the combustion process in a SI engine
as consisting of three stages.
In the figure, A is the point of passage of spark (say 200 bTDC), B is the point the beginning of
pressure rise can be detected (say 8° bTDC) and C the attainment of peak pressure.
Thus AB represents the first stage and BC the second stage and CD the third stage.
The first stage (A-B) is referred to as the ignition lag or preparation phase in which growth and
development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place.
This is a chemical process depending upon both temperature and pressure, the nature of the fuel and
the proportion of the exhaust residual gas.
The second stage (B-C) is a physical one and it is concerned with the spread of the flame throughout
the combustion chamber.
The starting point of the second stage is where the first measurable rise of pressure is seen on the
indicator diagram i.e. the point where the line of combustion departs from the compression line (B).
During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a constant velocity. Heat transfer to the
cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder
wall during this period.
The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat- release because during this stage, the
combustion chamber volume remains practically constant.
The starting point of the third stage is usually taken as the instant at which the maximum pressure is
reached on the indicator diagram (point C). The flame velocity decreases during this stage.
The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface.
Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the piston moving away from
the top dead centre, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
rate again becomes negligible thereby reducing the flame speed. The reaction rate is also reduced
again since the flame is entering a zone (Ill) of relatively low turbulence
(C-D).
Factors Influencing the Flame Speed
Turbulence
The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and increases with increasing turbulence.
The turbulence in the incoming mixture is generated during admission of fuel-air mixture through
comparatively narrow sections of the intake pipe, valve openings etc. in the suction stroke.
Turbulence which is supposed to consist of many minute swirls appears to increase the rate of reaction
and produce a higher flame speed than that made of larger and fewer swirls.
A suitable design of the combustion chamber which involves the geometry of cylinder head and piston
crown increases the turbulence during compression stroke.
The increase of flame speed due to turbulence reduces the combustion duration and hence minimizes
the tendency of abnormal combustion.
However excessive turbulence may extinguish the flame resulting in rough and noisy operation of the
engine.
Fuel-Air Ratio
The fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame speed. The highest flame velocities are
obtained with somewhat richer mixture (point A). It shows the effect of mixture strength on the rate of
burning as indicated by the time taken for complete burning in a given engine.
When the mixture is made leaner or richer the flame speed decreases. Less thermal energy is released
in the case lean mixtures resulting in lower flame temperature. Very rich mixture leads to incomplete
combustion which results again in the release in less thermal energy.
Temperature and Pressure
Flame speed increases with an increase in intake temperature and pressure. A higher initial pressure
and temperature may help to form a better homogeneous airvapour mixture which helps in increasing
the flame speed.
Compression Ratio
A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the working mixture
which reduce the initial preparation phase of combustion and hence less ignition advance is
needed.
Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and therefore increases the density of the
cylinder gases during burning. This increases the peak pressure and temperature and total combustion
duration is reduced. Thus engines having higher compression ratios have higher flame speed.
Engine Speed
The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed since the increase in engine speed
increases the turbulence inside the cylinder.
The time required for the flame to traverse the combustion space would be halved, if the engine speed
is doubled.
Engine Size
The size of the engine does not have much effect on the rate of flame propagation. In large engines the
time required for complete combustion is more because the flame has to travel a longer distance.
Abnormal Combustion
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the combustion chamber in a fairly
uniform manner.
Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its normal course leading to loss of
performance and possible damage to the engine.
This type of combustion may be termed as abnormal combustion or knocking combustion.
The consequences of this abnormal combustion process are the loss of power, recurring preignition
and mechanical damage to the engine.
Knock in SI Engines
If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the selfignition temperature of the fuel and remains at
or above this temperature, spontaneous ignition or autoignition occurs at various pin-point locations.
This phenomenon is called knocking.
Because of the autoignition, another flame front starts traveling in the opposite direction to the main
flame front.
When the two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is generated. As a result of which the
combustion chamber walls vibrate vigorously.
The impact of knock on the engine components and structure can cause engine failure and in addition
the noise from engine vibration is always objectionable.
The pressure differences in the combustion chamber cause the gas to vibrate and scrub the chamber
walls causing increased loss of heat to the coolant.
The presence or absence of knocking combustion in engines is often judged from a distinctly audible
sound. A scientific method to detect the phenomenon of knocking is to use pressure transducer.
The output of this transducer is connected, usually, to a cathode ray oscilloscope.
This decreases the ignition lag of the end gas and thereby increasing the tendency for knocking.
Mass of Inducted Charge: A reduction in the mass of the inducted charge into the cylinder of an
engine by throttling or by reducing the amount of supercharging reduces both temperature and density
of the charge at the time of ignition. This decreases the tendency of knocking.
Inlet Temperature of the Mixture: Increase in the inlet temperature of the mixture makes the
compression temperature higher thereby, increasing the tendency of knocking. Further, volumetric
efficiency will be lowered. Hence, a lower inlet temperature is always preferable to reduce knocking.
Retarding the Spark Timing: By retarding the spark timing from the optimized timing, i.e., having the
spark closer to TDC, the peak pressures are reached farther down on the power stroke and are thus of
lower magnitude. This might reduce the knocking.
Power Output of the Engine: A decrease in the output of the engine decreases the temperature of the
cylinder and the combustion chamber walls and also the pressure of
the charge thereby lowering mixture and end gas temperatures. This reduces the tendency to knock.
Time Factors:
Increasing the flame speed or increasing the duration of the ignition and ignition lag or reducing the
time of exposure of the unburned mixture to autoignition condition will tend to reduce knocking. The
following factors, in most cases, reduce the possibility of knocking.
Turbulence: Turbulence depends on the design of the combustion chamber and on engine speed.
Increasing turbulence increases the fame speed and reduces the time available for the end charge to
attain autoignition conditions thereby decreasing the tendency to knock.
Engine Speed: An increase in engine speed increases the turbulence of the mixture considerably
resulting in increased flame speed, and reduces the time available for preflame reactions. Hence
knocking tendency is reduced at higher speeds.
Flame Travel Distance: The knocking tendency is reduced by shortening the time required for the
flame front to traverse the combustion chamber.
Engine size (combustion chamber size), and spark plug position are the important factors governing the
flame travel distance.
Engine Size: The flame requires a longer time to travel across the combustion chamber of a larger
engine. Therefore, a larger engine has a greater tendency for knocking than a smaller engine since
there is more time for the end gas to autoignite. Hence, an SI engine is generally limited to size of
about 150 mm bore.
Combustion Chamber Shape: Generally, the more compact the combustion chamber is, the shorter is
the flame travel and the combustion time and hence better antiknock characteristics.
Combustion chambers are made as spherical as possible to minimize the length of the flame travel for
a given volume. In addition the combustion chambers should be shaped in such a way to promote
turbulence.
Location of Spark Plug: In order to have a minimum flame travel the spark plug is centrally located in
the combustion chamber, resulting in minimum knocking
tendency. The flame travel can also be reduced by using two or more spark plugs in case of large
engines.
Composition Factors:
Once the basic design of the engine is finalized, the fuel- air ratio and the properties of the fuel,
particularly the octane rating, play crucial role in controlling the knock.
Fuel-Air Ratio: The flame speeds are affected by fuel-air ratio. Also the flame temperature and
reaction time are different for different fuel-air-ratios.
Maximum flame temperature is obtained when 0 1.1 to 1.2 whereas 0 = I gives minimum reaction time
for autoignition.
Octane Value of the Fuel:
A higher self-ignition temperature of the fuel and a low preflame reactivity would reduce the tendency of
knocking. In general paraffin series of hydrocarbon have the maximum and aromatic series the
minimum tendency to knock.
The naphthene series comes in between the two. Usually compounds with more compact molecular
structure are less prone to knock.
According to a standard practice, the antiknock value of an SI engine fuel is determined by comparing
its antiknock property with a mixture of two reference fuels, iso-octane (C8H18) and normal heptane
(C7H16).
Iso-octane chemically being a very good antiknock fuel, is arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 octane
number. Normal heptane on the other hand has poor antiknock qualities and is given a rating of 0
octane number.
The octane number of fuel is defined as the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-
octane and normal heptane, which exactly matches the knocking intensity of the fuel in a standard
engine under a set of standard operating conditions.
The addition of certain compounds (TEL) to iso-octane produces fuels of greater antiknock quality
(above 100 octane number).
Increases
Compression
temperature & Reduce No
Ratio
pressure
Increases
Inlet temperature Reduce In some cases
temperature
Increases
Spark advance temperature and Retard In some cases
pressure
Increase
A/F ratio temperature and Make very rich In some cases
pressure
Some what
Decreases time
Turbulence Increase (through engine
factor
speed)
Decrease time
Engine speed Increase Yes
factor
I-Head Type or Overhead Valve: The I-head type is also called the overhead valve combustion
chamber in which both the valves are located on the cylinder head. The overhead valve engine is
superior to a side valve or an Lhead engine at high compression ratios due to the following reasons;
i. Less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat loss
ii. Less flame travel length and hence greater freedom from knock
iii. Higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or valve lifts
iv. Confinement of thermal failures to cylinder head by keeping the hot exhaust valve in the head
instead of the cylinder block.
F-Head Type: The F-head type of valve arrangement is a compromise between L-head and I-head
types. Combustion chambers in which one valve is in the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder
block are known as Fhead combustion chambers.
Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in the head and inlet valve in the cylinder block. The main
disadvantage of this type is that the inlet valve and the exhaust valve are separately actuated by two
cams mounted on two camshafts driven by the crankshaft through gears.
Combustion in Cl Engines
In Cl engines, only air is compressed through a high compression ratio (16:1 to 20:1) raising its
temperature and pressure to a high value.
Fuel is injected through one or more jets into this highly compressed air in the combustion chamber.
Here the fuel jet disintegrates into a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel
particles. This spray envelope is created both by atomization and vaporization of fuel.
The turbulence of the air in the combustion chamber passing across the jet tears the fuel particles from
the core. A mixture of air and fuel forms at some location in the spray envelope and oxidation starts.
The liquid fuel droplets evaporate by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from the surrounding air
which reduces the temperature of thin layer of air surrounding the droplet and some time elapses
before this temperature can be raised again by absorbing heat from the bulk of air.
As soon as this vapour and the air reach the level of autoignition temperature and the local A/F ratio is
within the combustible range, ignition takes place.
Thus it is obvious that at first there is a certain delay period before ignition takes place.
Since the fuel droplets cannot be injected and distributed uniformly throughout the combustion space,
the fuel-air mixture is essentially heterogeneous.
If the air within the cylinder were motionless under these conditions, there will not be enough oxygen in
the burning zone and burning of the fuel would be either slow or totally fail as it would be surrounded by
its own products of combustion.
Hence an orderly and controlled movement must be imparted to the air and the fuel so that a
continuous flow of fresh air is brought to each burning droplet and the products of combustion are
swept away. This air motion is called air swirl.
In an SI engine, the turbulence is a disorderly air motion with no general direction of flow.
However the swirl which is required in Cl engines, is an orderly movement of the whole body of air with
a particular direction of flow and it assists the breaking of the fuel jet. Intermixing of the burned and
unburned portions of the mixture also takes place due to this swirl.
In the SI engine, the ignition occurs at one point with a slow rise in pressure whereas in Cl engine,
ignition occurs at many points simultaneously with consequent rapid rise in pressure.
In contrast to the process of combustion in SI engines, there is no definite flame front in Cl engines.
In an SI engine, the air-fuel ratio remains close to stochometric value from no load to full load.
But in a Cl engine, irrespective of load, at any given speed, an approximately constant supply of air
enters the cylinder.
With change in load, the quantity of fuel injected is changed, varying the air-fuel ratio. The overall air—
fuel ratio thus varies from about 18:1 at full load to about 80:1 at no load.
It is the main aim of the Cl engine designer that the A/F ratio should be as close to stiochiometric as
possible while operating at full load since the mean effective pressure and power output are maximum
at that condition.
Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
• Ignition delay period
• Period of rapid combustion
• Period of controlled combustion
• Period of after burning
• Ignition Delay Period
The ignition delay period is also called the preparatory phase during which some fuel has already been
admitted but has not yet ignited.
This period is counted from the start of injection to the point where pressure-time curve separates from
the motoring curve indicated at start of combustion.
The delay period in the Cl engine exerts a very great influence on both engine design and performance.
It is of extreme importance because of its effect on both the combustion rate and knocking and also its
influence on engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in the exhaust.
Ignition delay period can be divided into two parts; the physical delay and the chemical delay.
Physical Delay
The physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment of chemical
reaction conditions.
During this period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed with air and raised to its self-ignition
temperature.
The physical delay depends on the type of fuel i.e. for light fuel the physical delay is small while for
heavy viscous fuels the physical delay is high.
The physical delay is greatly reduced by using high
injection pressure, higher combustion chamber
temperature and high turbulence to facilitate breakup of the jet and improving evaporation.
Chemical Delay
During chemical delay, reactions start slowly and then accelerate until ignition takes place. Generally
the chemical delay is larger than the physical delay.
However, it depends on the temperature of the surroundings and at high temperatures, the chemical
reactions are faster and the physical delay becomes longer tan the chemical delay.
It is clear that the ignition lag in the SI engine is essentially equivalent to the chemical delay for the Cl
engine.
In most Cl engines the ignition lag is shorter than the duration of injection.
Period of Rapid Combustion
It is also called the uncontrolled combustion, is that phase in which the pressure rise is rapid.
During the delay period, the droplets have had time to spread over a wide area and fresh air is always
available around the droplets.
Most of the fuel admitted would have evaporated and formed a combustible mixture with air. By this
time, the pre-flame reactions would have also been completed.
The period of rapid combustion is counted from the end of delay period or the beginning of the
combustion to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. The rate of heat release is
maximum during this period.
It may be noted that the pressure reached during the period of rapid combustion will depend upon the
duration of delay period.
Period of Controlled Combustion
The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled combustion. The temperature
and pressure in the second stage is already quite high.
Hence the fuel droplets injected during the second stage burn faster with reduced ignition delay as
soon as they
find the necessary oxygen and any further pressure rise is controlled by the injection rate.
The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.
Period of After Burning
Combustion does not cease with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt and partially
burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon as they come into contact with
the oxygen.
This process continues for a certain duration called the after-burning period.
Usually this period starts from the point of maximum cycle temperature and continues over a part of the
expansion stroke.
Rate of after-burning depends on the velocity of diffusion and turbulent mixing of unburnt and partially
burnt fuel with air.
The duration of after burning phase may correspond to 70- 80 degrees of crank travel from TDC.
Therefore in practice the engine designers always try to use a lower compression ratio which helps in
easy cold starting and light load running at high speeds.
Engine Speed
The delay period could be given either in terms of absolute time (in milliseconds) or in terms of crank
angle degrees.
With increase in engine speed, the loss of heat during compression decreases, resulting in the rise of
both the temperature and pressure of the compressed air thus reducing the delay period in
milliseconds.
However, in degrees of crank travel the delay period increases as the engine operates at a higher rpm.
The fuel pump is geared to the engine, and hence the amount of fuel injected during the delay period
depends on crank degrees and not on absolute time.
Hence at high speeds, there will be more fuel present in the cylinder to take part in the second stage of
uncontrolled combustion resulting in high rate of pressure rise.
Output
With an increase in engine output the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperatures increase and
delay period decreases. The rate of pressure rise is unaffected but the peak pressure reached may be
high.
Injection Timing
The effect of inject advance on the pressure variation is shown in Figure for three injection advance
timings of 9°, 18° and 27° before TDC.
The injected quantity of fuel per cycle is constant. As the pressure and temperature at the beginning of
injection are lower for higher ignition advance, the delay period increases with increase in injection
advance.
The optimum angle of injection advance depends on many factors but generally it is about 20° bTDC.
Quality of Fuel
Self-ignition temperature is the most important property of the fuel which affects the delay period.
A lower self-ignition temperature results in a lower delay period. Also, fuels with higher cetane number
give lower delay period and smoother engine operation.
Other properties of the fuel which affect the delay period are volatility, latent heat, viscosity and surface
tension.
Intake Temperature
Increase in intake temperature increases the compressed air temperature resulting in reduced delay
period. However, preheating of the charge for this purpose would be undesirable because it would
reduce the density of air reducing the volumetric efficiency and power output.
Intake Pressure
Increase in intake pressure of supercharging reduces the autoignition temperature and hence reduces
the delay period.
The peak pressure will be higher since the compression pressure will increase with intake pressure.
Table below gives the summary of the factors which influence the delay period in an engine.
Increases air
temperature and
Compression ratio Reduces
pressure and reduces
autoignition temperature