Cell

• Different types of cells in the

body do different jobs. But
they are basically similar.
• All cells have a control centre
called a nucleus. Inside the
nucleus are chromosomes
made up of thousands of
genes. Genes contain long
strings of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid),
which are coded messages
that tell the cell how to
behave.
• In humans, each cell normally contains 23
pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46.
Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes,
look the same in both males and females. The
23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ
between males and females. Females have
two copies of the X chromosome, while males
have one X and one Y chromosome.
• Each gene is an instruction that tells the cell to
make something. This could be a protein or a
different type of molecule called RNA.
Together, proteins and RNA control the cell.
They decide:
• what sort of cell it will be
• what it does
• when it divides
• when it dies
• Genes make sure that cells grow and make
copies (reproduce) in an orderly and
controlled way. And are needed to keep the
body healthy.
• Sometimes a change happens in the genes
when a cell divides. This is a mutation. It
means that a gene has been damaged
• Mutations can happen by chance when a cell is
dividing. Some mutations mean that the cell no longer
understands its instructions. It can start to grow out of
control. There have to be about 6 different mutations
before a normal cell turns into a cancer cell.
• Mutations in particular genes may mean that:
• a cell starts making too many proteins that trigger a
cell to divide
• a cell stops making proteins that normally tell a cell to
stop dividing
• abnormal proteins may be produced that work
differently to normal
 Benign and malignant
Cancer is malignant neoplasms or tumours.
Neoplasia means cells in a tissue proliferate
without the normal control on growth.

Unlike malignant tumors, benign tumors do not

spread into, or invade, nearby tissues.
whereas malignant tumors spread to adjacent
tissues’
 Neoplasia
• The term neoplasia refers to a mass that has
developed due to abnormal cell or tissue
growth. Neoplasia refers to various types of
growth including non-cancerous or benign
tumors, precancerous growth, and malignant
or cancerous tumors. The term neoplasm is
derived from a combination of the Greek
words "neo" meaning new and "plasma"
meaning formation.
 Oncogene
• Oncogene, genetic material that carries the
ability to induce cancer.

• An oncogene is a sequence of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that has been
altered or mutated from its original form,
the proto-oncogene.
 How Cancer Arises

• Proto-oncogenes are genes that normally help

cells grow. When a proto-oncogene mutates
(changes) or there are too many copies of it, it
becomes a "bad" gene that can become
permanently turned on or activated when it is
not supposed to be. When this happens, the
cell grows out of control, which can lead to
cancer. This bad gene is called an oncogene.
• carcinoma – this cancer begins in the skin or in tissues that line or
cover internal organs. There are different subtypes, including
adenocarcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell
carcinoma and transitional cell carcinoma
• sarcoma – this cancer begins in the connective or supportive
tissues such as bone, cartilage, fat, muscle or blood vessels
• leukaemia – this is cancer of the white blood cells. It starts in the
tissues that make blood cells such as the bone marrow.
• lymphoma and myeloma – these cancers begin in the cells of the
immune system
• brain and spinal cord cancers – these are known as central
nervous system cancers
1.Carcinoma
Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed
by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and
outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial
cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a
microscope.
Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific
names:
Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that
produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell
are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the
breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.
Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal
(base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer layer of
skin.
2. Sarcoma

Soft tissue sarcoma forms in soft tissues of the body,

including muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels,
lymph vessels, nerves, and tissue around joints.
Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft
tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph
vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and
ligaments).
Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone.
3. Leukemia
Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone
marrow are called leukemias. These cancers do not form
solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white
blood cells (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up
in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood
cells. The low level of normal blood cells can make it harder
for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding,
or fight infections.
There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped
based on how quickly the disease gets worse (acute or
chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in
(lymphoblastic or myeloid).
4. lymphoma
Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes
(T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting
white blood cells that are part of the immune
system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes
build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as
well as in other organs of the body.
5. Melanoma
Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become
melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make
melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most
melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also
form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.
Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors
There are different types of brain and spinal cord
tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of
cell in which they formed and where the tumor first
formed in the central nervous system.
 Causes of cancer
• Causes
• Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within
cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number
of individual genes, each of which contains a set of
instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as
well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions
can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow
a cell to become cancerous.
• What do gene mutations do?
• A gene mutation can instruct a healthy cell to:
• Allow rapid growth. A gene mutation can tell a cell to grow
and divide more rapidly. This creates many new cells that all
have that same mutation.
• Fail to stop uncontrolled cell growth. Normal cells know
when to stop growing so that you have just the right
number of each type of cell. Cancer cells lose the controls
(tumor suppressor genes) that tell them when to stop
growing. A mutation in a tumor suppressor gene allows
cancer cells to continue growing and accumulating.
• Make mistakes when repairing DNA errors. DNA repair
genes look for errors in a cell's DNA and make corrections. A
mutation in a DNA repair gene may mean that other errors
aren't corrected, leading cells to become cancerous.
• These mutations are the most common ones found in
cancer. But many other gene mutations can contribute to
causing cancer.
• What causes gene mutations?
• Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance:
• Gene mutations you're born with. You may be born with a
genetic mutation that you inherited from your parents. This type
of mutation accounts for a small percentage of cancers.
• Gene mutations that occur after birth. Most gene mutations
occur after you're born and aren't inherited. A number of forces
can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses,
cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones,
chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise.
• Gene mutations occur frequently during normal cell growth.
However, cells contain a mechanism that recognizes when a
mistake occurs and repairs the mistake. Occasionally, a mistake is
missed. This could cause a cell to become cancerous.
• Behavioral Causes of Cancer
• There are a number of behavioral factors that can lead
to genetic mutations and, as a result, lead to the
development of cancer.
• Tobacco
• Tanning (excessive exposure to ultraviolet light)
• Diet (red, processed meats)
• Alcohol
• Unsafe sex (leading to viral infection)
• Inflammatory conditions, such as ulcerative colitis or
obesity
• Environmental Causes of Cancer
• Exposure to certain factors in the environment, such as chemicals
like asbestos and benzene, as well as talcum powder and various
sources of radiation (including excessive X-rays), can also cause
cancer. These substances capable of damaging DNA and triggering
cancer are referred to as carcinogens.
• Excessive sun exposure (UV)
• Chemical carcinogen exposure
• High-dose chemotherapy and radiation (mainly in children being
treated for existing cancers)
• Hormonal drugs
• Immune-suppressing drugs (taken by transplant recipients)
• Radioactive materials, e.g., radon
 Risk factors for cancer
• Age
• Alcohol
• Cancer-Causing Substances
• Chronic Inflammation
• Diet
• Hormones
• Immunosuppression
• Infectious Agents
• Obesity
• Radiation
• Sunlight
• Tobacco
 Cancer treatment
• The goal of cancer treatment is to achieve a cure for
cancer, allowing to live a normal life span. This may or may
not be possible, depending on the specific situation. If a
cure isn't possible, treatments may be used to shrink
cancer or slow the growth of cancer to allow to live
symptom free for as long as possible.
• Cancer treatments may be used as:
• Primary treatment. The goal of a primary treatment is to
completely remove the cancer from body or kill all the
cancer cells.
• Any cancer treatment can be used as a primary treatment,
but the most common primary cancer treatment for the
most common types of cancer is surgery.
• Adjuvant treatment. The goal of adjuvant
therapy is to kill any cancer cells that may
remain after primary treatment in order to
reduce the chance that the cancer will recur.
• Any cancer treatment can be used as an
adjuvant therapy. Common adjuvant therapies
include chemotherapy, radiation therapy and
hormone therapy.
• Neoadjuvant therapy is similar, but treatments are
used before the primary treatment in order to make
the primary treatment easier or more effective.
• Palliative treatment. Palliative treatments may help
relieve side effects of treatment or signs and
symptoms caused by cancer itself. Surgery, radiation,
chemotherapy and hormone therapy can all be used
to relieve symptoms. Other medications may relieve
symptoms such as pain and shortness of breath.
• Palliative treatment can be used at the same time as
other treatments intended to cure your cancer.
• Surgery. The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer or as much of the cancer as
possible.
• Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
• Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as
X-rays or protons, to kill cancer cells. Radiation treatment can come from a
machine outside your body (external beam radiation), or it can be placed inside
your body (brachytherapy).
• Bone marrow transplant. Your bone marrow is the material inside your bones that
makes blood cells from blood stem cells. A bone marrow transplant, also knowns as
a stem cell transplant, can use own bone marrow stem cells or those from a donor.
• A bone marrow transplant allows doctor to use higher doses of chemotherapy to
treat cancer. It may also be used to replace diseased bone marrow.
• Immunotherapy. Immunotherapy, also known as biological therapy, uses body's
immune system to fight cancer. Cancer can survive unchecked in body because
immune system doesn't recognize it as an intruder. Immunotherapy can help
immune system "see" the cancer and attack it.
• Hormone therapy. Some types of cancer are fueled by body's hormones.
Examples include breast cancer and prostate cancer. Removing those
hormones from the body or blocking their effects may cause the cancer
cells to stop growing.
• Targeted drug therapy. Targeted drug treatment focuses on specific
abnormalities within cancer cells that allow them to survive.
• Cryoablation. This treatment kills cancer cells with cold. During
cryoablation, a thin, wandlike needle (cryoprobe) is inserted through skin
and directly into the cancerous tumor. A gas is pumped into the cryoprobe
in order to freeze the tissue. Then the tissue is allowed to thaw. The
freezing and thawing process is repeated several times during the same
treatment session in order to kill the cancer cells.
• Radiofrequency ablation. This treatment uses electrical energy to heat
cancer cells, causing them to die. During radiofrequency ablation, a doctor
guides a thin needle through the skin or through an incision and into the
cancer tissue. High-frequency energy passes through the needle and
causes the surrounding tissue to heat up, killing the nearby cells.
 GENERAL SYSYTEMIC REACTIONS
• ABNORMALITUIES IN METABOLISM
• Anorexia
• Wasting
• Malabsorption
• Fluid –electrolite balance
• Anaemia
• Taste and appetite changes
• Food aversions
• Hypercalcaemia
• osteomalacia
Nutritional problems of cancer therapy
• Problems related to surgery
• Problems related to radiotherapy
• Problems related to chemotherapy
 Nutritional requirement
• Objectives
• To meet increased metabolic demand
• To alleviate symptoms
• Energy----

• Protein
• Vitamins
• fluid
 Dietary management
• Nausea and vomitting---
• Dry mouth—
• Taste alteration
• Loss of appetite
• Sore mouth
• Swallowing problems
• Early sateity
 Role of food in the prevention of
cancer
• Nutrients as cancer preventing agents
• beta carotene and vit.e and C
• Selenium, Mn, Zn,Cu Fe –components of
antioxident enzymes---- glutathione peroxide
and (se) manganese superoxide dismutase,
cu,Zn superoxide dismutase--- enzyme
catalases
• Phytochemicals as anticancer agents
• Biologically active components- eg– glucosinolates,
indoles, isothiocyanates,flavanoids,phenols, protease
inhibitors,plant sterols,allium compounds and
limonene------
• Action—(induction of detoxificatioon
enzymes,inhibition of nitrisoamine formation,
provision of substrate for formation of anti neoplastic
agents.dilution and binding of carcinogens in the
digestive tract,alteration of hormone metabolism,)
• Terpens-beta carotene
• Lycopene-distruct free radicals
• Limonoids- detoxifies carsinogens
• Flavanoids—phenolsphenolic compounds
• Isoflavone
• Thiols-cruciferous vegetablews
• Organosulpher compounds
• Lignans
• Phytic acids
• Probiotics and prebiotics-intestinal integrity
• Probiotics –beneficial bacteria
• Prebiotics that helps the growth of
probiotics-(fiber)
• 1Probiotics inhibit the growth of non-beneficial
microorganisms(-lactobacillus and bifidobacteria)
• 2they produce organic acid that reduce the
intestinal ph and retard the growth of pathogenic
bacteria
• Resistant starch
• Fibre
• Dilutes bile acids
• Production of SCF
• Butyrate is anti neoplastic
• Speedds transit time- carcinogens in contact with
intestinal wall for much shorter period
• Dilute carcinogens
• FOS(fructo oligo saccharides
• Physical activity and cancer
It may lower cancer risk
by helping control
weight,, and strengthen
the immune system; and
it can boost quality of life
during cancer treatment