Department of Civil Engineering

University of South Asia

Lab Manual
Engineering Mechanics (CE 122)

Name of Student: ______________ Roll No.____________

Session: _______________ Group: ____________

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Description Page No.

1 Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab………………………………………... 1

2 Study of System of Units……………………………………………………… 3
3 Measurements of Various Objects and Determination of Area and Volume in
SI and FPS Systems…………………………………………………………… 6
4 Determination of Forces in Tie and Jib of a Simple “JIB-CRANE” by
experimental, Analytical and Graphical Method……………………………… 8
5 Verification of the Principle of Moments……………………………………... 12
6 To Determine the Reactions of a Simply Supported Beam by Experimental
and Analytical Methods……………………………………………………….. 15
7 To Locate Centroid of Different Shapes Experimentally and Analytically…… 18
8 To Determine Tension in Various Parts of a Flexible Cable………………….. 21
9 To Determine Co-Efficient Of Friction between Various Surfaces…………… 24
10 To Determine Moment of Inertia of Fly Wheel……………………………….. 28
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab…………………………................. 1

Figure 4.1: Jib Crane Model……………………………………………….................... 8
Figure 4.2: Concurrent forces at B…………………………………………………….. 9
Figure 4.3: Illustration of Graphical Method………………………………………….. 10
Figure 5.1: Principle of Moments Model Apparatus…………………………………... 12
Figure 5.2: Illustration of Moment…………………………………………………….. 12
Figure 5.3: Illustration of Verignon's Theorem………………………………………... 12
Figure 6.1: Beams……………………………………………………………………… 15
Figure 6.2: Types of Beams on the Basis of Determinacy…………………………….. 15
Figure 6.3: Types of Beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Shape…………………... 15
Figure 6.4: Types of beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Area…………………….. 16
Figure 7.1: Illustration of Centroid…………………………………………….............. 18
Figure 7.2: Different Shapes to Determine the Centroid……………………................. 19
Figure 8.1: Flexible Cable Model……………………………………………………… 21
Figure 8.2: Categories of Equilibrium…………………………………………………. 22
Figure 9.1: Angle of Internal Friction…………………………………………………. 25
Figure 9.2: Friction Apparatus Model………………………………………………… 26
Figure 10.1: Fly Wheel Apparatus Model…………………………………………….. 29
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1.1: Details of Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab…………………………….. 2

Table 2.1: Basic SI and FPS Units………………………………………………………... 3
Table 2.2: Mass Force Relations………………………………………………………….. 4
Table 2.3: Important Conversion Factors………………………………………………… 4
Table 2.4: Important Prefixes……………………………………………………………... 5
Table 3.1: Observations and Calculations for Different Specimen ………………………. 6
Table 3.2: Observations and Calculations……………………………………………........ 7
Table 4.1: Calculations and Observations for Determination of Forces………………….. 10
Table 4.2: Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Values…………………………....... 10
Table 5.1: Calculations and Observations Set 1………………………………………….. 13
Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations Set 2………………………………………….. 13
Table 7.1: Calculations and Observations Set 3………………………………………….. 13
Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations for Reactions of Simply Supported Beam……. 16
Table 7.1: Observations and Calculations for Center of Gravity of Different Shapes…… 19
Table 8.1: Observations and Calculations for Tension in Cable………………………….. 23
Table 9.1: Observations and Calculations for Friction between Various Surfaces……….. 27
Table 10.1: Observations and Calculations for Moment of Inertia……………………….. 29
Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 1
Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab
Date:

PURPOSE:
Layout of Engineering Mechanics lab (List of experiments and location of their respective
apparatus)

Figure 1.1: Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab

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LAYOUT DETAILS:
Dimensions:

Table1.1: Details of Layout of Engineering Mechanics Lab

Sr. Location Name of the

Description
No. No. Apparatus

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Experiment No. 2

Study of System of Units

Date:

PURPOSE:
To Study System of units

THEORY:

System of units and Conversion factors:

System of units used:
1. CGS (using Centimeter, Gram, Second)
2. SI (System International using Meter, Kilogram, Second)
3. FPS (using Foot, Pound, Second) also called US Customary Units

Note: SI and FPS are used in engineering works.

Table 2.1: Basic SI and FPS Units

Quantity Dimension SI Unit FPS Unit

Length L Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Kilogram
Mass M Slug
(kg)
Time T Second (s) Second (s)
Force F Newton (N) Pound (lb)

Note: The pound is used to express force as well as mass. lbf represents pound expressing
force and lbm is pound expressing mass.

Newton: A force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a 1 kg mass.

I N = I kg × 1 m/s2
W = mg (g = 9.81 m/s2)

Slug: Mass which is given an acceleration of 1ft/s2 when acted upon by a force of 1 lbf.

1 S = 1 lb_
1 ft/s2
m = W(g = 32.2 ft/s2)
g

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Mass Force relations:

Table 2.2: Mass Force Relations

Mass(kg) Mass(lbm) Weight(lbf) Weight(N) Mass(S)

1 2.204 2.204 9.807 -
0.454 1 1 4.45 -
14.6 32.2 32.2 143.28 1

Important Conversion Factors:

Table 2.3: Important Conversion Factors

LENGTH: AREA:

1 m = 3.281 ft 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2(i.e. 3.2812 ft2)

1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 “murabba” = 25 acre
I mile = 1.609 km = 5280 ft 1 acre = 8 kanals = 43560 sq ft
1 yard = 3 ft 1 kanal = 20 marlas
1 marla = 272.25 sq ft
(in commercial area 1 marla = 225 sq ft)
1 hector = 10,000 m2 = 107640 ft2

VOLUME:

1 m3 = 35.311 ft3(i.e. 3.2813 ft3) Note: Tarbela = 9.74 MAF, Mangla

= 219.97 gallon (UK) = 6.34 MAF
= 264.17 gallon (US)
Discharge units (Vol. discharged rate)
MAF = Million acre per feet =Cumics (m3/s)
MCM = Million cubic meters (For large storage e.g. = Cusecs (ft3/s)
water reservoirs) 1 Cumic = 35.311 Cusec
*1 MAF = 1 million, 1 acre areas of I ft depth.

MASS: FORCE/WEIGHT:

1 kg = 2.204 lbs 1 lbf = 4.45 N

1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg 1 N = 0.2248 lbf
1 ton (UK) = 1016 kg
1 ton (US) = 908.1 kg *Note: Commercially we take 1 ton = 1000
kg = 2240 lbs

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PRESSURE/STRESS/MODULUS:

N_ = Pascal (standard multiples → kPa, MPa, GPa)

m2
N_ = MPa = 106 N_
mm2 mm2

I bar = 100 kPa = 14.504 psi = 750.56 mmHg = 10.215 mH2O

Important Prefixes:

Table 2.4: Important Prefixes

SYMBOL NAME FACTOR

T Tera 1012
G Giga 109
M Mega 106
K Kilo 103
H Hecto 102
Da Deca 101
D Deci 10-1
C Centi 10-2
M Milli 10-3
Μ Micro 10-6
N Nano 10-9
P Pico 10-12

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 3
Measurements of Various Objects and Determination of Area and
Volume in SI and FPS Systems

Date:

PURPOSE:
To carry out measurements of various objects and determination of area and volume in SI and
FPS Systems.

APPARATUS:
Steel cabinets, metallic measuring tape.

PROCEDURE:
1. Startingwith one of the faces of the cabinet, measure both its dimension in feet. Take
measurement of each dimension thrice at different positions e.g. for the length-height face
(front face) measure the length and the height thrice and average the measurements to get
one value for each side.
2. Repeat this procedure for the other 2 faces i.e. width-height (side face) and length-width
face (top face).Finally the 3 measurements for a particular dimension of a face should be
averaged and recorded.
3. Once the dimensions in feet have been determined, repeat the above procedure by
measuring in meters.
4. Finally determine the area of the 3 face of cabinet in ft2 as well as m2 and volume of
cabinet in ft3 and m3. Tabulate results.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 3.1: Observations and Calculations

Dimension 1 2 3 Avg.
Ft
Length
M

Ft
Width
M

Ft
Height
M

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Table 3.2: Observations and Calculations

Face 1 2 3 Avg.
ft2
L-W
m2

ft2
L-H
m2

ft2
W-H
m2

ft3
Volume
m3

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The tape should be kept horizontal when taking the measurements.

2. The tape should not be sagging during measurement.
3. Take the measurements of a side at reasonably spaced distances.
4. Do not take measurements from irregular edges

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Experiment No. 4
Determination of Forces in Tie and Jib of a Simple “JIB-CRANE” by
Experimental, Analytical and Graphical Method

Date:

PURPOSE:
A

To determine forces in tie and jib of a simple JIB-CRANE by

Tie
experimental, analytical and graphical method. B

Jib
APPARATUS:
C
Jib crane model (figure 4.1), weights and meter rule or steel Weight
tape.
Figure 4.1: Jib Crane Model
THEORY:
CRANES (TYPES & FUNCTIONS):

A crane is a piece of construction equipment used to hoist heavy loads and move them short
distances. Generally speaking, a crane is a steel boom mounted on a hinge to a platform or
tower with a sturdy cable running through it on pulleys. Usually, the cable ends in a hook on
one end and is raised or lowered by a winch attached to the platform. The boom can also be
raised and lowered, and the entire platform can turn or slew. Most cranes today are hydraulic.
They can be either mobile or stationary and vary in size and shape due to their functions.

The following are the basic types of cranes used for various purposes.

1. Bridge/Overhead Crane: It consists of a bridge girder supported by towers or girders.

The bridge has a pulley that moves a cable back and forth horizontally. These crane
models are often suspended from the ceilings of warehouses.
 Gantry Crane:This is a bridge crane used with girders that move along tracks. These
are common on piers or in shipyards.
2. Crawler/Mobile Crane: Any kind of mobile crane with steel truss or telescopic boom
mounted on a mobile platform, which may be rail, wheeled (including "truck" carriers)
or caterpillar tracks.
3. Construction Crane: Any kind of crane can be used in construction, but the most
common kind of construction crane is a tower crane which is used to build large steel
structures.
4. Floating crane: A crane mounted on a barge used in bridge building and port
construction.
5. Jib Crane: A jib crane is like a bridge crane except that it only has one girder which is
usually attached to a vertical column.
6. Stationary Crane: Any crane with an immobile platform. Most tower crane models are
of this variety.

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7. Telescopic crane: A type of crane whose boom consists of a number of tubes fitted one
inside the other. A hydraulic mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or
decrease the length of the boom.

EQUILIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT FORCES:

Concurrent forces: Forces, whose lines of action, coincide at a single point are called as
concurrent forces.

Equilibrium:
It is the state of a body in which the resultant of all forces and moments on it is zero
OR
A body is in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces and moments acting on it, is zero.

There are 2 types of equilibrium:

 Static equilibrium
 Dynamic equilibrium (not dealt here)

Its conditions: For a body to be in equilibrium the following conditions must be true:
1. The sum of all the forces applied on body is zero.
2. The net moment of all the forces on the body is zero.

Expressing mathematically,
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ----- (1) ΣMo = 0 ----- (2)

PROCEDURE:

1. Note the zero error of spring balance.

2. Apply weight at hanger and observe spring balance reading and geometrical observations
i.e. AB, BC and AC (constant).
3. Calculate the angles α, β and γ from the geometrical lengths using Cosine Law.
4. Repeat above steps by increasing weight in hanger
5. Determine forces in tie and jib analytically and graphically.

Analytical Method:

Analyze the concurrent forces at B using conditions of

static equilibrium (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0)
From the figure 4.2, we have;
 ΣFx = 0 → FT Sinα − FJ Sinγ = 0
 ΣFy = 0 → FT Cosα + FJ Cosγ = W
Using these relations we can work out the magnitude of
Figure 4.2: Concurrent forces at B
the unknown forces.

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Graphical Method:

1. Select a suitable scale for forces i.e. 1 cm → 1 N

2. Draw a vertical line whose length represents magnitude of force applied at hanger.
3. Knowing α and γ, draw two lines from vertical line such
that they intersect at one point as shown in figure 4.3.
4. The length of two lines gives the magnitude of forces in
tie and jib.
5. The direction can be found using head to tail rule.

Figure 4.3: Illustration of Graphical

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS: Method

Table 4.1: Calculations and Observations for Determination of Forces

Load
Lengths (cm) Angles ( º) FT (N) FJ (N)
(W)
N AB AC BC Α β γ EXP ANA GRAP ANA GRA

Comparison of results:

Table 4.2: Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Values

%age % difference = E − A× 100

Load %age difference(FT)
difference(FJ) E
(N) *This gives difference of “A” w.r.t. “E”.
E -A E-G A–G A-G

Note: L.C of spring balance = 0.2 lb, Zero error = 1 lb = 4.45 N

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. First of all the initial errors in the apparatus should be noted.

2. Care should be taken, when loading or unloading heavier weights from the hanger to
avoid any injury in case a weight falls.
3. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus.
4. Too heavy loading should be avoided.

COMMENTS:

The tabulated results of the experiment, on comparison clearly show that, the analytical and
experimental methods are much more accurate compared to the graphical method; when
dealing with problems involving forces in equilibrium.

Hence the former two methods are preferable when we need accuracy. However the
advantage of the graphical method is that it provides a visual image of the concerned
problem, which makes it more comprehendible.

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 5
Verification of the Principle of Moments

Date:

PURPOSE:
PULLEY

To verify the principle of moments.

DISC

APPARATUS:

Moment balancing apparatus, weights, hangers and ruler or WEIGHTS

measuring tape. Figure 5.1: Principle of Moments Model

Apparatus
THEORY:
MOMENTS
M
Moment: The tendency of a force to move a body about an axis
in its direction of application is called its moment. It is denoted by
F
“M”.
Moment is also referred to as torque. It is a vector quantity and r
O
obeys all laws of combinations. d

Axis: It is any line which is neither intersecting nor parallel to line

of action of the force. Figure 5.2: Illustration of
Moment
Magnitude of moment: The magnitude of a moment is the
vector product of the force and its moment arm from the axis of rotation as shown in figure
5.2. It is directly proportional to the magnitude of force as well as the moment arm.

Vector terms: M = r × F Scalar terms: MO = F.d

= r (F Sin α)
= (r Sin α) F
P
Where, r = position vector which runs from moment reference F
point to line of application of force.
q
Sign convention: C.C.W = + ive, C.W = − ive. O p
D
Verignon’s theorem: Moment of a force about any point is equal
to the sum of moments generated by components of that Figure 5.3: Illustration of
Verignon's Theorem
force about the same point. Figure 5.3 is the illustration of
Verignon’s Theorem.

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PROCEDURE:

1. In this experiment we will confirm the validity of the principle of moments by recording
the magnitudes of all the moments acting on the apparatus disc and see whether the CW
moments are equal to CCW moments or not. For this we will record the magnitudes and
moment arm of all the forces acting on the disc under a certain set of weights.
2. First of all paste a sheet of graph paper on the disc.
3. The first set of readings is taken by simply considering the weights of the hangers only
(no load readings).
4. Allow the disc to come to equilibrium and then record the five weights as F1, F2, F3, F4
and F5.
5. Now carefully trace the location of all the five strings on the graph paper. The lines thus
obtained represent the lines of action of all the forces on the disc.
6. Very carefully measure and record the perpendicular distances of these lines of action
from the center of the disc.
7. Calculate the moments of all the forces. Also distinguish CW and CCW moments.
8. Repeat the above procedure by putting other suitable weights in the five hangers.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 5.1: Calculations and Observations Set 1
Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

ΣM=
Table 5.2: Calculations and Observations Set 2
Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

ΣM=

Table 5.3: Calculations and Observations Set 3

Weights (N) Moment arm Moment (Nm)
Hanger Weight Total Mm m CCW CW

ΣM=

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. When measuring the perpendicular distance, the ruler should be kept perpendicular to the
string representing the line of action of force.
2. There should be no kinks or twists in the strings of the moment apparatus. .
3. The disc should be allowed to come to equilibrium before carrying out any
measurements.

COMMENTS:

According to theprinciple of moments, for a body in static equilibrium the sum of clockwise
moments is equal to the sum of anti clockwise moments. Hence the difference of two types of
moments should be equal to zero.

The experiment carried out here, however shows slight differences in the sums of clockwise
and anti clockwise moments which is due to experimental errors in measurements on the part
of the person carrying out the experiment.

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Experiment No. 6
To Determine the Reactions of a Simply Supported Beam by
Experimental and Analytical Methods.

Date:

PURPOSE:
Determination of reactions of a simply supported beam for different loadings by experimental
and analytical methods.

APPARATUS:

Model of a simply supported beam, spring balance, weights, hangers, meter rule or steel tape.

THEORY:
BEAMS

Beam: It is a structural member that is designed to resist forces transverse to its axis.
As shown in figure 6.1
Note: A column is a special cantilever beam.

Types of beams:
Figure 6.1: Beams
1. On the basis of determinacy:

a. Statically determinate beam: A beam b.Statically indeterminate beam: The beam

having less than or equal to 3 unknown with greater than 3 unknown external
external forces. forces.

As shown in figure 6.2, Examples of statically indeterminate beams are:

FIXED BEAM (I.D) PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM (I.D) CONTINUOUS BEAM (I.D)
Figure 6.2: Types of Beams on the Basis of Determinacy

2. On the basis of cross sectional shape: The types of beams on the basis of shapes are:
rectangular, square, circular, box, channel, T, L, double L and I section, as shown in
figure 6.3

RECT. SQUARE CIRCLE BOX CHANNEL “T” “I”

Figure 6.3: Types of Beams on the Basis of Cross Sectional Shape
Note: Among these mentioned types “I” section is the most economical .

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3. On the basis of material:

a. Built up beam: A beam which is b.Composite beam: The beam which is
fabricated by 2 or more pieces of fabricated by more than 2 materials e.g.
material joined together to form one R.C.C. beam.
piece e.g. I section using plate girders.
4. On the basis of cross-sectional area:
As shown in figure 6.4 following are the types of beams on the basis of cross sectional area;

a. Prismatic beam: A beam having constant cross-section area throughout

their length.

b. Non prismatic beam: Beam having variable cross-sectional area

through its length.
Figure 6.4: Types
of beams on the
c. Concealed beam: A beam, concealed in the roof slab, by positioning its Basis of Cross
bottom at the same level as that of the ceiling so that it is apparently Sectional Area
invisible from the interior of the building.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
2. Note the readings on the 2 spring balances when the beam is not loaded.
3. Hang the weights W1 and W2 in the hangers at any arbitrary points A and B respectively
and note the corresponding readings of the spring balances.
4. Repeat the above procedure by altering the weights and the distances “a” and “b” as
shown in the diagram to get at least 5 sets of readings.
5. For each set calculate the magnitudes of reactions RA and RB using the conditions of
equilibrium i.e. ΣFy = 0 and ΣMo = 0.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:c = ”

Table 6.1: Calculations and Observations for the Reactions of Simply Supported Beam

Weights (N) Distances (m) RA(N) RB (N)

W1 W2 a b EXP ANA %DIFF EXP ANA %DIFF

% difference = RA(exp) − RA(ana) × 100

RA(ana)

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PRECAUTIONS:

4. Initial errors should be taken into account.

5. Beam must be horizontal when not loaded.
6. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus
7. The hanger hooks must remain transverse to the beam.

COMMENTS:

The results suggest that the experimental method is comparatively more accurate than the
analytical method.

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Experiment No. 7
To Locate Centroid of Different Shapes Experimentally and
Analytically
Date:

PURPOSE:
To locate centroid (centre of gravity) of different
shapes/figures experimentally and analytically.

OBJECTIVE:

 To understand, how the centre of gravity is determined

experimentally for irregular geometrical shapes
 Comparison of experimentally and analytically determined
centroid (centre of gravity) Figure 7.1: Illustration of Centre
of Gravity

APPARATUS:
Various irregular geometric shapes, graph paper, cutter, pencil, eraser, scotch tape, plumb
bob, thread, nail and measuring tape.

THEORY:
Centre of gravity: The centre of gravity of a body is the point within or near a body where
the whole weight of the body appears to act, as shown in figure 7.1.
Centre of mass: The specific point where the entire mass of the body can be assumed to be
concentrated.
Note: Under ordinary conditions the centre of gravity and center of mass of a body coincide.

Centroid: The geometrical center of an object is called its centroid.

1st moment of area: The product of the area and the perpendicular distance from the centroid
of the area to the moment axis.
The shapes:For analytical analysis different shapes and their dimensions are shown in figure 7.2.

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Figure 7.2: Different Shapes to Determine the Centroid

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a lamina is taken and small holes are drilled near its edges.
2. The outline of the lamina is traced on a graph sheet and its cutout using a cutter is pasted
on it
3. The lamina is now suspended through one of the holes with the graph side up along with
a plumb line.
4. It is allowed to come to rest and then the thread of the plumb bob is traced on the graph
paper using a mirror.
5. This procedure is repeated to get at least 3 lines on the lamina which should coincide.
6. The point at which these 3 lines coincide is the center of gravity of the shape represented
by the lamina.

These steps are repeated for the remaining laminas of other shapes.

CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

Table 7.1: Observations and Calculations for Center of Gravity of Different Shapes

EXP ANA
Shapes Remarks
x (mm) y (mm) x (mm) y (mm)

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The holes drilled in lamina must not be too large.

2. When suspended the lamina should be allowed to hang freely.
3. The parallax error must be avoided when tracing the plumb line using a mirror.
4. Pencil used should be sharp to determine the location of CG as accurately as possible.

COMMENTS:

A comparison of the results of the analytical and experimental techniques show differences
but are approximately the same. However it can be said that the analytical method is more
accurate.

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Experiment No. 8
To Determine Tension in Various Parts of a Flexible Cable

Date:

PURPOSE:

To determine tension in various parts of a flexible cable

under one-point loading by experimental and analytical
methods.
Figure 8.1: Flexible Cable Model
APPARATUS:

Flexible cable Model (Figure 8.1), 2 spring balances, weights, hanger and measuring
tape.

THEORY:

FORCES & EQUILIBRIUM

Force: The action of one body on another is called as a force OR the action on a body which
tends to change its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line.
A force is completely specified by its: magnitude, direction, line of action and
point of application.

Types of forces:
5. On the basis of contact:
c.Body force: A remote action force is called a body force. It is
named so because it acts on the whole volume of the body e.g.
magnetic force, gravitational force, electrostatic forces.

d. Contact force: The force generated by the contact of a body with

another body is a contact force e.g. friction, forces generated in
collisions or simple contact between bodies.

6. On the basis of extent:

a. Concentrated force: A force whose area of action is very small
compared to the body’s area e.g. the weight of a fan on ceiling,
pin pierced into a surface.

b. Distributed force: A force whose area of action is large i.e.

comparable to the area of the body e.g. large box placed on table.
A distributed load is of 2 types:
 Uniformly distributed load (U.D.L)
 Varying distributed load (V.D.L)

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7. On the basis of effect:

c. Tensile force: A force which tends to pull (elongate) the body
producing tension effect. (Acts away from joint) e.g. force in a
wire used to suspend an object.

d.Compressive force: A force which tends to push (compress) the

body producing compressive effect. (Acts towards joint) e.g.
pushing a spring.

Categories of equilibrium: There are 4 main types of equilibrium as shown in figure 8.2:

 Collinear  Parallel equilibrium  Concurrent  General equilibrium.

equilibrium equilibrium

ΣFx = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣMO = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0,

ΣMO = 0
Figure 8.2: Categories of Equilibrium

USES:

1. Suspension bridges.
2. Electrical transmission system.
3. Cable cars ( Recreation and transmission)

PROCEDURE:

1. Note the zero error in both the spring balances.

2. Now hang a certain suitable weight W in the hanger at B and note the corresponding
readings of the spring balances.
3. Measure distances L1, L2 and H.
4. Find the experimental values of T1 and T2 from the spring balances.
5. Find the analytical values of T1 and T2 using the conditions of equilibrium.
6. Repeat the above procedure by altering the weight W at B as shown in the diagram to get
at least 5 sets of readings.
7. Compare the experimental and analytical values of T1 and T2.

Analytical method:
Analyze the concurrent forces at B using conditions of static equilibrium (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0)
From the diagram we have,
 ΣFx = 0 → T1Cosθ1 − T2Cos θ2 = 0
 ΣFy = 0 → T1Sinθ1 + T2Sin θ2 = W
 θ1 = Tan−1H & θ2 = Tan−1H
L1 L2
Using these relations we can work out the magnitude of the unknown forces.

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CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:L1 = ”, L2 = ”

Table 8.1: Observations and Calculations for Tension in Cable

Weights Distances(“) T1(N) T2(N)

L1 L2 H EXP ANA %DIFF EXP ANA %DIFF

kg N cm cm cm N N N N

Note: Zero error of 1st spring balance = 0.5 lb = 2.225 N,

Zero error of 2nd spring balance = 1 lb = 4.45 N.

% difference = T (exp) − T (ana) × 100

T (ana)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Initial errors should be taken into account.

2. There should be not kinks in the wires.
3. No lateral movement or vibration should be allowed in the apparatus

COMMENTS:

The close values obtained from both the methods show that the 2 methods are close to each
other in precision. However the analytical method is relatively more accurate as it gives more
precise values. The graphical method has possibilities of errors.

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Experiment No. 9
To Determine Co-Efficient Of Friction between Various Surfaces

Date:

PURPOSE:
To verify laws of friction and to determine co-efficient of friction between various surfaces.

APPARATUS:
Smooth plane assembly, weights, hangers, measuring tape, different surfaces. (Wood, steel
and copper)
 Wood on wood,
 Steel on wood
 Copper on wood

THEORY:
Friction:
Friction is the resistance offered to relative lateral motion of a body by contact surfaces
between 2 bodies sliding over one another.
OR
Resistance to lateral motion, when one attempts to slide surface of one object over another
surface is called friction or traction

In our everyday life sometimes friction is useful and we need to increase it e.g. in brake
systems, everyday walking.
However on other occasions it can be a menace and need to be eliminated or decreased
because it causes energy losses in mechanical systems e.g. in machinery, pipes carrying fluid
flow, movement through a fluid.

Types of friction:
There are 3 main types of friction:
a. Static friction: It is the friction acting on a body when it is stationary i.e. when the 2
contact surfaces are static with respect to each another.
b. Limiting friction: It is the frictional force of maximum magnitude, generated between 2
contact surfaces when one body is on the verge of motion under the action of a force.
c. Dynamic friction: It is the frictional force generated when the 2 surfaces in contact move
relative to one another. Usually the dynamic friction is 25 % less than static friction.

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Other types of friction are:

a. Rolling friction: The frictional force between 2 bodies which are in circular motion with
respect to each other.
b. Sliding friction: The frictional force, when 2 bodies slide over each other.
c. Dry friction: When the 2 surfaces which are sliding with respect to one another are dry,
dry friction is said to be act.

Angle of internal friction:

A body on horizontal surface doesn’t move unless a certain force is applied. On an incline
which is moveable, the angle at which the x component of weight (i.e. component along the
incline) becomes equal to frictional force is called the angle of internal friction. (Refer to
Figure 9.1 below)

Figure 9.1: Angle of Internal Friction

Fluid friction: Friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas.
Remember that whenever a fluid is involved we are dealing with fluid friction.

Coulomb’s Theory of friction: The following are the important points of the Coulomb’s
theory of friction:
1. The force of friction is dependent on the nature of surfaces in contact.
2. Frictional force is independent of contact area.
3. Friction is independent of the velocity of motion
4. Friction is proportional to the normal reaction “N”.

Coefficient of friction: According to the last point in the Coulomb’s Theory of friction;
Friction is proportional to the normal reaction “N”.Expressing mathematically, we have
Ff α N
Ff = k N
Where k = the constant of proportionality between Ff and N. This is also denoted by the
Greek letter μ (meu). Hence we have
Ff = μ N

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PROCEDURE:
P
HORIZONTAL PLANE: (a)
4. The apparatus (Figure 9.2, a) is first set on a
horizontal sliding plane as shown in Fig. a. W (= N)

and the force P is increased by adding weights

to the hanger. P
5. The first reading is taken with the block alone (b)
6. The weights are then added to hanger until the
block just starts to move. W Sin θ y
7. This value of P at which the block just starts to θ
W Cos θ
move is recorded. θ W
8. Further readings for the coefficient of friction x
are taken by increasing the value of the normal
reaction (increasing W by adding more Figure 9.2: Friction Apparatus Model
weights).

INCLINED PLANE:
1. For the smooth plane assembly is inclined at an angle to the horizontal and the horizontal
and vertical measurements (x and y) are taken to determine the angle of incline (θ) as
shown in Fig b.
2. The first reading is taken with the block alone
3. The weights are then added to hanger until the block just starts to move.
4. This value of P at which the block just starts to move is recorded along with weight of
block W.
5. Further readings for the coefficient of friction are taken by increasing the value of the
normal reaction (increasing W by adding more weights).

These procedures are repeated for the other surfaces to be investigated.

Analytical procedure:

For the horizontal plane: For inclined plane:

Using the condition of equilibrium:
μ=P  ΣFx = 0 we get
N P − W Sin θ = Ff
P − W Sin θ = μ N
Where P = Force applied, and P − W Sin θ = μ W Cos θ
N = Normal reaction
W = Total weight of the block μ = P − W Sin θ
W Cos θ

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CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:

x= ,y=
Hence θ = Tan −1 ( / ) = º

Table 9.1: Observations and Calculations for Friction between Various Surfaces

Wood on Wood Steel on Wood Copper on Wood

HORIZONTAL PLANE
N P µ N P μ N P µ

Average ► Average ► Average ►

INCLINED PLANE
W P μ W P μ W P µ

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Too much weight should not be added suddenly to the hangers

2. The observers must stand clear of the apparatus to avoid any weight falling and hurting
someone.
3. A person should stand next to the block to prevent the block from skidding off the ramp.
4. There should not be any kink in the string.

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No. 10
To Determine Moment of Inertia of Fly Wheel

Date:

PURPOSE:
To measure the energy of a rotating fly wheel and determine the moment of Inertia of the
flywheel

APPARATUS:

 Fly wheel mounted on a wall,

 Stop watch,
 Vernier Calliper,
 Thread
 Weights (1/2kgf., 1kgf, 100gmf, 50gmf, 20gmf, 10gmf ),

THEORY:

The principal of conservation of energy is made use of in determining the M.I. of the fly
wheel. It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it can be
transferred from one form into any forms in which the energy exist. As the fly wheel revolves
due to a falling weight attached to the axis. The potential energy of the falling weight is equal
to the K.E. of the falling body when it drops off plus the energy stored in the fly wheel at that
instant plus the energy lost in the friction in bearings while the body is descending. Even the
energy stored in the fly wheel is lost in overcoming friction in bearing (after the weight has
dropped off) bringing the wheel to a standstill.

From law of conservation of energy:

Formulae: W*H = Wv2/2g + Iω2 (for negligible bearing friction)

Whereas,
v = u+at
v2 = u2+2aH
ω = v/r
W= weight falling in N
H = height from which the weight fall in meter
V = Linear velocity in m/s at the end of fall of H
I = Moment of Inertia of fly wheel in kgm2
ω = Angular velocity of shaft in radian/sec.
r = Radius of shaft in m
Therefore, I = 2* (W*H – (Wv2/2g))/ ω2

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Figure 10.1: Fly Wheel Apparatus Model

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter of the shaft with the help of vernier calliper and find the mean
radius of the shaft(r).
2. Wrap the cotton string round the shaft and suspend weight (W) so that fly can rotate
easily.
3. Now marked the height (H) for weight W from centre of mass of Weight W to the earth
and keep it same for different value of W in each observation.
4. Place a weight (W) hold the Pan in which this weight is placed. Release weight (W) and
start the stop watch simultaneously. Stop the watch as soon as the falling weight has
touched the level ground. This gives the time (t).
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of ‘W’. Repeat the experiment ten times.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Diameter of shaft = _____________m

2. Radius of shaft (r) = _____________ m

Table 10.1: Observations and Calculations for Moment of Inertia

No. of
Falling No. of 2 2
Sr. Time of fall Rotations Height of
Weight Turns of
No. of weight (t) of wheel Fall (h) 2
(m) String (n)
(N)
kg sec m m4
1
2
3

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Note the time accurately to the fraction of a second.

2. Friction in the bearings should be minimum possible.
3. Overlapping of the string should be avoided.
4. Mark the height carefully from the centre of mass of weights to the ground.

COMMENTS:

1. There may be positive or negative error in Vernier calliper.

2. There may be error in recording time intervals (in fraction of seconds).
3. There may be little friction in bearings.

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