FLUID MECHANICS II

LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ASIA, LAHORE
Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fluid Mechanics-II

Lab Manual

Lab Instructor: Engr. Adnan Majeed

Submitted By: _________________

Roll No: _________________

Session: _________________

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Table of Contents
Sr. Page
Description
No. No.
To verify the 'Impulse Momentum Principle' for a jet of water striking on 90°

1 deflectors and to investigate the effect of velocity of flow on impulse force of the 4
jet for various deflectors

2 To study the Pelton Wheel Turbine and Turgo Impulse Turbine 8

3 To study the Francis Reaction Turbine 17

To perform experiment on Pelton Wheel Turbine and hence to plot its

4 24
characteristic curves

To perform experiment on Francis Reaction Turbine and hence to plot its

5 32
characteristic curves

6 To study the Single Stage Centrifugal Pump 37

To perform experiment on "Single Stage Centrifugal Pump" & hence to plot its
7 44
Characteristic Curves

To perform experiment on the "Double Acting Reciprocal Pump" and to

8 47
determine co- efficient of discharge and Slip of the Pump

To establish steady uniform flow conditions in laboratory flume and to determine

9 52
the Chezy‟s constant “C” & Manning‟s roughness coefficient “n”.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
To verify the 'Impulse Momentum Principle' for a jet of water striking on 90°, 120°
and 180° deflectors and to investigate the effect of velocity of flow on impulse
force of the jet for various deflectors.

Apparatus:

i. Impact of Jet Apparatus with Deflectors

ii. Hydraulic Bench
iii. Stop Watch
iv. Thermometer

Related Theory:

a) Impulse Momentum Principle:

It states that the algebraic sum of all the external forces acting on the control volume of the fluid
is equal to the rate of change of momentum (Douglas, 2003).

According to Newton's second law of motion.

Where, ΣF is the net force, m is the mass of the object and a is the acceleration or rate of change
of velocity.

So we can write.

and rearranging

* +

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( )

Where, M is the mass flow rate and dV is the change in velocity.

The theoretical force is calculated as

Fth = QV= a V2

Where, a is the area of flow and V is the velocity of the fluid.

b) Impact of Jet Apparatus:

Impact of jet apparatus is a very simple apparatus, which directly measures the impulse force of
the jet by an equivalent weight placed in the pan. Direction of axis of jet is vertical. Impact of jet
apparatus consists of the following parts:
1. Nozzle
2. Valve
3. Glass chamber
4. Vertical rod having collar on upper part
5. Flat & Curve plates (deflectors)
6. Weights
7. Pointer
8. Hydraulic Bench
The conceptual diagram of the apparatus is shown.

Fig : Conceptual diagram of the Impact of Jet Apparatus

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Procedure:

1. Level the apparatus.

2. At zero loads and zero flow rate, adjust the position of the pointer.
3. Switch on the pump.
4. Place the load of 100 gm and gradually open the valve till collar reaches its original
position. Note down the time t to collect the known volume of water.
5. Repeat step 4 for 100 gm. load increments till the valve is completely opened.
6. Switch off the motor of the pump.

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Diameter of Jet = d =
Area of Jet = A =
Volume Collected = 5 liters =
Temperature = T =
Density of water = ρ =

Mass
Sr. Fexp = M x g Time Q= V= Fth = KƿQV Log Log
Deflector (M) Log V
No. Fth Fexp

gm Kg N Sec m3/sec m/sec N

Comments:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
To Study the 'Pelton Wheel Turbine'

Theory:

Introduction:

Power generation means production of electrical energy, which is the most useful form of energy
and can easily be transmitted from one place to another just by using cables. The component of
the hydropower plant where turbines and generators are installed is called the Powerhouse.

Objective of study of a machine:

By study of a machine, it is meant to know about:

1) Functions of machine
2) Main components
3) Function of each component
4) Working of the machine
5) Physical inspection

Turbine:

It is a machine, which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Hydraulic energy is
available in the river in the form of head (usually raised) and discharges, whereas rotation of the
shaft of the turbine gives a feeling of the mechanical energy.

Types of Turbine:

1. Impulse Turbine / Velocity Turbine

2. Reaction Turbine / Pressure Turbine
1. Impulse Turbine:

In this type of turbine, the total energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy in the form

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of a jet of water by providing nozzle at the end of the Penstock. This jet strikes on the buckets of
the wheel of the turbine, which applies an impulse force on the buckets and a torque on the
runner of the turbine, which rotates the turbine runner. As runner is keyed to the shaft so this
mechanical energy is transmitted to the shaft. In the field, shaft, of the turbine is coupled with the
shaft of the generator and hence mechanical energy produced by the turbine is transmitted to the
Generator, the jet of water is open to atmosphere, so the pressure energy of the jet is zero; it has
only very high kinetic energy that is why 'Impulse Turbine' is also called as 'Velocity Turbine'.

Types of Impulse Turbine:

(i) Pelton Wheel

(ii) Turgo Turbine

Pelton Wheel:

Pelton Wheel was first introduced by the Lester A. Pelton (1829-1908) in California (Massey,
1990). In Pelton wheel the total available energy of the fluid is converted into kinetic energy in
the form of jet of water by providing a nozzle(s). Jet of water strikes on the splitter of the
buckets, which are mounted on the periphery of the wheel (Douglas, 1989). The laboratory
layout of the Pelton Wheel is to be drawn in the given space for Figure 3.1. Splitter of a bucket
divides the jet of water into two parts, half jet of water glides on the one side and half on the
other side of the bucket, exerting an impulse force on the buckets and torque on the runner,
which will produce the rotation of the wheel. In this way hydraulic energy is converted into
mechanical energy.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fig. : Schematic diagram of Impulse Turbine

As jet of water is divided into two equal parts so shaft of the turbine is free of any axial thrust.
As jet strikes tangentially to the wheel so Pelton Wheel is also known as 'Tangential Flow
Turbine'.
Main Components of Pelton Wheel:
The Pelton Wheel consists of the following components:
1) Nozzle
2) Spear Headed Needle
3) Runner
4) Shaft
5) Casing
6) Braking Drum
7) Tachometer
8) Drum Cooling Pipes
9) Bourdon Gauge

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1) Nozzle:

It is short converging tube fitted at end of the penstock. The nozzle is so designed that
contraction ratio is optimum for least losses, hence maximum efficiency.

Function:

It converts the total energy of water into the Kinetic Energy in the form of jet of water.

2) Spear Headed Needle:

It is the conical needle kept inside the nozzle and can axially move in the forward and backward
direction by turning the handle accordingly (in the field by the Governor). It acts as a valve for
the nozzle. The backward and forward movement of the needle increases and decreases the area
of flow, respectively, which in turn changes the flow rate through the nozzle.

Function:
It regulates the flow through the nozzle keeping constant diameter of the jet.

3) Runner:

The runner of the Pelton Wheel Turbine consists of a number of double cupped buckets,
hemispherical or ellipsoidal in shape, fixed to the periphery of the wheel at equal spacing
(Thanikachalam, 1993). The buckets may be bolted to the wheel if diameter is too large or cast
monolithically for small sizes. Each bucket has a sharp edge at the mid in radial direction called
the Splitter. The jet strikes each bucket at this splitter and is divided into two parts, thus avoiding
any unbalanced thrust on the shaft.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fig.: The Runner of Pelton Wheel Turbine

The splitter of the bucket is to rear full impact of jet hence it is made very strong. Therefore, it is
not practical to provide a sharp edge and zero angles at the center of the bucket. Usually this
angle is kept 3-6 degrees. The Runner is made of brass. Its internal surface is made smooth to
minimize the frictional losses.

Fig. Orthographic projections for the bucket of the Peloton Wheel

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Function:

Runner converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and transmits this mechanical energy
to the shaft.
4) Shaft:

It is a rotating rod of the turbine supported by the bearings. The runner is keyed to the shaft
which is made of mild steel.

Function:

It transmits mechanical energy from the runner to the Braking Drum (Generator in the field).

5) Casing:

The cover provided around the Runner is known as casing. It is made of cast iron; its upper part
can be easily removed as it is bolted with the lower part. The pressure of water inside the casing
is atmospheric (Douglas, 1989).

Functions:

Casing does not maintain any hydraulic pressure.

Following are its main functions:

(i) To provide safety around Runner or to avoid accidents
(ii) To limit the splashing of water and to guide that water to the tailrace channel.

6) Braking Drum:
A rotating drum used to measure the brake power of the turbine is called as Braking Drum. One
side of the drum has a clamp for the application of braking torque and on the other side there is
a lever system arrangement for measuring this torque by applying known weights.

Function:
It is used to measure the brake power or output power of the turbine.
7) Tachometer:

A gauge used to measure the revolution per minute (rpm) of the runner is termed as tachometer.

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It is attached on the far end of the shaft by a belt and gives a direct reading.

Function:
It gives the rpm of the shaft at un-braked and various braked positions.

8) Drum Cooling Pipes:

When brakes are applied to the rotating braking drum, a lot of heat energy is generated which
may burn the leather brake shoes. In order to keep the Braking Drum in cool state, fresh water is
circulated through the chamber in the Braking Drum. The cooling pipe system consist of the two
1/2" diameter pipes, i.e. (i) inflow or supply pipe having a valve (ii) outflow pipe or discharge
pipe.

Function:
It avoids burning of the leather brake shoes during the experiment, when brakes are being
applied for a long duration.

9) Bourdon Gauge:

It is a gauge, which is used to measure the pressure head of water at the base of the nozzle.
(3.1)

Where, H is the head available at the base of the nozzle, Hg is the head given by the gauge at its
centroid and Z is the vertical distance between the center of the nozzle base and the center of the
bourdon gauge (elevation correction). It measures the pressure head at the base of the nozzle.

Turgo Turbine:
The Turgo Turbine is a type of Impulse Turbine in which the jet enters the runner from and side
and is discharged at the other side by gliding over the internal curved surface of the bucket as
there is no splitter in the mid. So there may be an axial thrust on the turbine shaft.
The runner is formed from a single casting with integral buckets or blades; it is usually of bronze
and of cast steel for high heads.

The construction of the Turgo Turbine is similar to Pelton Wheel, except the shape of the
buckets of the runner and jet that does not strike normal to the shaft. Shape of bucket is hemi

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

spherical or spoon shape without splitter so jet of water enters from one side and leaves from the
other side.

OBSERVATIONS

Sr.
Description Pelton Wheel
No.

Number of buckets of the Runner

1

2 Least count of the Bourdon Gauge

3 Elevation correction for the Bourdon Gauge

4 Least count of the Tachometer

5 Minimum reading of the Tachometer

6 Maximum reading of the Tachometer

Main components of Turgo Turbine:

The Turgo turbine consists of the following components:
1) Nozzle
2) Spear Headed Needle
3) Runner
4) Shaft
5) Casing
6) Braking Drum
7) Tachometer
8) Drum Cooling Pipes
9) Bourdon Gauge

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Differentiate between Pelton wheel turbine and Turgo Turbine?

The main differences are:
1) Shape of Buckets: Buckets of a pelton wheel has a splitter but there is no splitter in the
bucket of a Turgo turbine.
2) Angle of Jet: the angle between the axis of shaft and that of nozzle is 90° for pelton
wheel while it is acute for a Turgo Turbine. Thus, axial thrust is easily developed in a
Turgo Turbine.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
To study the Francis Reaction Turbine

Theory:

Reaction Turbine:

In this turbine water is supplied to the runner with pressure energy as well as kinetic energy. It
works due to the drop of pressure energy between the inlet and outlet of the casing. Water glides
over the vanes and applies a torque on the runner, which produces the rotation of the shaft.

Types of Reaction Turbine:

1. Francis Turbine
2. Kaplan Turbine
Types of the Reaction Turbine according to the direction of flow:

1. Axial Flow Reaction Turbine (Kaplan Turbine)

2. Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
i) Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine (Francis Turbine)
ii) Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
3. Mixed Flow Reaction Turbine (all modern types of turbines are mixed flow)

In Radial flow reaction turbines, the fluid flows mainly in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
the rotation (James, 2003).

Francis Reaction Turbine:

It is an inward radial flow reaction turbine in which vanes are radial at inlet and discharge is
radial at outlet.

Main Components/Parts of the Francis Reaction Turbine:

1) Spiral Casing

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2) Guide Mechanism
i) Fixed Guide Blades
ii) Moveable Guide Blades
3) Runner
4) Shaft
5) Draft Tube
6) Braking Drum
7) Flywheel
8) Tachometer
9) Governor

Fig: Laboratory Layout of the Francis Reaction Turbine

1. Spiral Casing:

It is a closed (air tight) chamber, which accommodates the guide mechanism and runner. Cross-
sectional area of the casing reduces in the direction of flow, which converts pressure energy of
water into kinetic energy. Pressure energy at the inlet of the casing is above atmospheric and at
the outlet of the casing it is below atmospheric (-ve).

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2. Guide Mechanism:

These are the guide blades, which guide the water to flow towards the runner with least losses of
energy. Guide mechanism consists of the following:
i. Fixed Guide Blades
ii. Moveable Guide Blades
i. Fixed Guide Blades:

There are the blades, which are fixed in position, and they guide the flow of water cowards
movable guide blades in the proper direction with the minimum loss of energy.

ii. Moveable Guide Blades:

Moveable guide blades consist of number of blades, which can rotate about their frictionless
pivots.

Functions:

i) To guide the water coming from the fixed guide blades to the runner in proper direction
for shock less entry to the runner.
ii) To regulate the How of water to the runner and to maintain the constant speed of the
turbine.
3. Runner:

It is rotating wheel of the Francis Reaction Turbine, which is keyed to the shaft of the turbine. It
consists of series of curved vanes connected with circular discs on both sides. The surface of the
runner is made smooth to minimize the losses due to friction. For low heads, the runner may be
made of cast friction. For higher head' it is made of steel or alloy.

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Fig: Section of the scroll casing showing the guide mechanism and runner of Francis
Reaction Turbine
Function:
It converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
4. Shaft:

Ii is a rotating rod supported by the bearings. It transmits mechanical energy from runner to the
Braking Drum.
5. Draft Tube:

It is a diverging pipe which connects the outlet of the casing and the trail race level (T.R.L).
Lower end of the Draft Tube is kept submerged. Pressure at the inlet of the Draft Tube is -ve and
at outlet it is atmospheric.
Functions:

i. It enables the turbine to be installed above the tailrace level without loosing any
appreciable loss of energy (head) to facilitate the easy inspection and maintenance and
to prevent from rusting.
ii. As the area of flow of the Draft Tube gradually increases so it increases the
pressure energy from -ve at inlet to atmospheric at outlet of the Draft Tube.

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iii. To decrease velocity of flow gradually from inlet to outlet of Draft Tube.
6. Braking Drum:

A rotating drum used to measure the brake power of the turbine is called as Braking Drum. One
side of the drum has a clamp for the application of braking torque and on the other side there is a
lever system arrangement for measuring this torque by applying known weights.

7. Drum Cooling Pipes:

When brakes are applied to the rotating braking drum, a lot of heat energy is generated which
may burn the leather brake shoes. In order to keep the Braking Drum in cool state, fresh water is
circulated through the chamber in the Braking Drum. The cooling pipe system consist of the two
1
/2" diameter pipes, i.e. (i) inflow or supply pipe having a valve, (ii) outflow pipe or discharge
pipe.

8. Flywheel:

It is a wheel of large diameter in which heavy mass is kept away from the center and is keyed to
the same shaft. It keeps the shaft rotating for certain time due to inertial effect even water supply
is stopped. It also clamps the small discontinuities in the rotation of the shaft and maintains
smooth rotation of the shaft.

9. Tachometer:

A gauge used to measure the speed of rotation of the runner in terms of revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.). It is attached to the shaft through a belt and gives a direct reading.

10. Governor:
Load on the turbine never remains constant, which will affect the efficiency of the machine.
Governor is a machine, which is attached to the turbine, to keep the r.p.m. of the shaft constant,
i.e. equal to normal speed, to maintain its maximum.

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OBSERVATIONS FOR FRANCIS REACTION TURBINE

Sr. No. Questions Answers

1 Units of Bourdon gauge fitted on Casing

2 Range of Bourdon gauge fitted on Casing

3 Units of Bourdon gauge on inlet of Draft Tube

4 Range of Bourdon gauge on inlet of Draft Tube

Elevation Correction for Bourdon gauge on

5 inlet of Draft Tube

Number of moveable guide blades

6

7 Minimum scale of Tachometer

8 Maximum range of Tachometer

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Water Circulation in Francis Turbine:

Underground Reservoir

Pump

Penstock

Scroll Casing

Fixed Guide
Blades

Moveable
Guide Blades

Runner

Draft Tube

Underground Reservoir

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EXPERIMENT N0. 04

To perform experiment on Pelton Wheel Turbine and hence to plot its

characteristic curves.
Apparatus:
i. Pelton Wheel Turbine
ii. Tachometer
iii. Stop Watch
Related Theory:

a) Introduction:

In this type of turbine total energy of the fluid is converted into the kinetic energy in the
form of jet of water through nozzle and then the jet of water impinges on splitters of the
series of buckets, which are mounted on the wheel. A torque will be produced equal to
the product of force and radius, which rotates the runner. As the runner is keyed with the
shaft, so mechanical energy is transmitted to the shaft and shaft is attached to the Braking
Drum. Impulse turbine is a tangential flow turbine.

b) Braking Torque:

Product of radius of brake drum and weight or load is called Braking Torque. It is applied
to the rotating drum to apply brake on it.

T = (w2 - w1) × r

Where, T is the braking torque, w1 and w2 are the weight readings from spring balance
and r is radius of brake drum.

c) Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.):

It is the output power available at the shaft of Pelton Wheel Turbine and is measured by
applying brakes to the rotating braking drum.

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Where, P0 is the output power or brake power, N is the r.p.m. of the shaft at braked
position and T is the braking torque.

1 H.P. is the rate of performing 550 ft-lbs of work per second. (1 H.P. = 746 watts)

d) Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.):

It is the input power supplied to the Pelton Wheel in hydraulic form.

Where, is the specific weight of water, Q is the discharge through the nozzle and H is
the head available at the base of the nozzle (H = Hg + Z). Hg is the pressure head given
by the Bourdon Gauge and Z is the elevation correction.

e) Efficiency:

It is the %age ratio between the output power available at the shaft of Pelton Wheel
Turbine (B.H.P.) and input power supplied to it (I.H.P.).

( )
( )

f) Gate Opening:

It is the opening of the nozzle mouth in %age. Suppose if 6 turns are required in
anticlockwise direction for 100% gate opening then 3 turns in clockwise direction are
required for 50 % gate opening.

This experiment is being performed on two gate openings i.e. 100% and 50%.

g) Characteristic Curves:

It is the graphical representation of the response of Pelton Wheel Turbine at varying

speed (0-Nmax) for efficiency, output power and braking torque.

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Characteristics curves are required to study the behavior of the machine under varying
speed and to determine the important parameters of the machine, like maximum
efficiency of the machine, normal speed, maximum braking torque, maximum power and
maximum speed of the turbine etc.

A turbine is always designed and manufactured to work under a given set of conditions
such as discharge, head of water, speed, power generated, efficiency etc. but a turbine
may have to be used under conditions different than those for which it has been designed.
It is essential that exact behavior of turbine under varied conditions should be
predetermined. This can be predicted graphically by means of the characteristics curves.

These curves are drawn for constant head and discharge or constant input power.

The characteristics curves are provided by the Manufacturer of the turbine and are
essentially required at the time of its purchase.

h) Normal Speed:

It is the speed of the shaft of the turbine (r.p.m.) corresponding to its maximum
efficiency.

Procedure:

1. Switch on the motor of the pump.

2. Adjust the spear headed needle to have the 100% gate opening. This can be achieved by
completely closing the valve and then opening it by 6 turns.
3. Note down the head available at the bourdon gauge.
4. Note down the atmospheric temperature and determine the specific weight of water
corresponding to that temperature.
5. Note down the r.p.m. of the revolving shaft with the help of Tachometer.
6. Observe time required to fill the tank of known volume.
7. Put some load on the pan and apply brakes to the drum by tightening the clamp, which
will reduce the r.p.m. of the shaft. Note down the weight applied and the corresponding
speed into the table.

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8. Repeat step 7 by taking load increments of 5 or 10 N till the r.p.m. are reduced to 600.
9. Repeat steps 2 to 8 for 50% gate opening, which can be achieved by turning the handle
of spear headed needle 3 turns in the forward direction.
10. Switch off the motor of the pump.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

For 100% Gate Opening

Parameter Value Unit

Head measured by Gauge = Hg m

Vertical distance between center of nozzle

m
base and the center of bourdon gauge = Z

Available Head = H = Hg + Z m

Volume of water collected = Vol. m3

Temperature = T °C

Radius of Brake Drum = r m

Specific Weight = N/m3

Time to collect water = t Sec

Flow Rate = Q = m3/s

Pin = QH Watts

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For 100% Gate Opening

Overall Turbine
Torque Shaft Brake Power
Spring Balance Efficiency
Speed (Output)
Reading
Sr.
No. ɳ=( )
W1 W2 T = (W1 - W2) x r N

N N N-m R.P.M. Watts %

10

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For 50% Gate Opening

Parameter Value Unit

Head measured by Gauge = Hg m

Vertical distance between center of nozzle

m
base and the center of bourdon gauge = Z

Available Head = H = Hg + Z m

Volume of water collected = Vol. m3

Temperature = T °C

Radius of Brake Drum = r m

Specific Weight = N/m3

Time to collect water = t Sec

Flow Rate = Q = m3/s

Pin = QH Watts

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For 50% Gate Opening

Overall Turbine
Torque Shaft Brake Power
Spring Balance Efficiency
Speed (Output)
Reading
Sr.
No. ɳ=( )
W1 W2 T = (W1 - W2) x r N

N N N-m R.P.M. Watts %

10

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Comparison of Results for Two-Gate Openings

For 100% Gate For 50% Gate

Description
Opening Opening

Head (m of water)

Maximum Power (watts)

Maximum Efficiency (%)

Maximum Speed (R.P.M)

Normal Speed (No) (R.P.M)

Maximum Torque (N-m)

Normal Torque (To) (N-m)

Precautions:

While applying brakes on the braking drum, don't forget to open the valve of the drum-
cooling pipe to avoid burning or the leather brake shoes.

Comments:

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EXPERIMENT N0. 05

To perform experiment on Francis Reaction Turbine and hence to plot its

characteristic curves.
Apparatus:
i. Francis Reaction Turbine
ii. Tachometer
iii. Stop Watch
Related Theory:
a) Introduction:

In this type of turbine water is supplied to the runner with pressure energy. Cross-
sectional area of the casing reduces in the direction of flow, which converts pressure
energy of water into kinetic energy. Water glides over the vanes and applies a torque on
the runner, which produces the rotation of the shaft So the runner converts the kinetic
energy into mechanical energy and it transmits this mechanical energy on shaft of
turbine.

Francis Reaction Turbine works due to the drop of pressure energy between the inlet and
outlet of the casing. Pressure energy at the inlet of the casing is above atmospheric and at
the outlet of the casing it is below atmospheric (-ve). It is an inward radial flow reaction
turbine in which vanes are radial at inlet and discharge is radial at outlet.

b) Braking Torque:

Product of radius of brake disc and weight or load is called Braking Torque. The turbine
is loaded by a disc brake and the resulting torque measured by spring force balance.

T=w×r

Where, T is the braking torque (N-m), w is the weight readings from spring balance (N)
and r is radius of disc brake (m).

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c) Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.):

It is the output power available at the shaft of Francis Reaction Turbine and is measured
by applying load on disc brakes.

Where, P0 is the output power or brake power (Watts), N is the r.p.m. of the shaft at
braked position and T is the braking torque (N-m).

1 H.P. is the rate of performing 550 ft-lbs of work per second. (1 H.P. = 746 watts)

d) Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.):

It is the input power supplied to the Francis Reaction Turbine in hydraulic form.

Where, Pin is the input power (Watts), is the specific weight of water (N/m3), Q is the
discharge through the nozzle (m3/sec) and H is the available head measured by the
Bourdon Gauge (m).

e) Efficiency:

It is the %age ratio between the output power available at the shaft of Francis Reaction
Turbine (B.H.P.) and input power supplied to it (I.H.P.).

( )
( )

f) Guide Blades Opening:

It is the movement of the guide blades in %age. This experiment is being performed on
two guide blades openings i.e. 100% and 50%.

g) Characteristic Curves:

It is the graphical representation of the response of Francis Reaction Turbine at varying

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speed (0-Nmax) for efficiency, output power and braking torque.

Characteristics curves are required to study the behavior of the machine under varying
speed and to determine the important parameters of the machine, like maximum
efficiency of the machine, normal speed, maximum braking torque, maximum power and
maximum speed of the turbine etc.

A turbine is always designed and manufactured to work under a given set of conditions
such as discharge, head of water, speed, power generated, efficiency etc. but a turbine
may have to be used under conditions different than those for which it has been designed.
It is essential that exact behavior of turbine under varied conditions should be
predetermined. This can be predicted graphically by means of the characteristics curves.

These curves are drawn for constant head and discharge or constant input power.

The characteristics curves are provided by the Manufacturer of the turbine and are
essentially required at the time of its purchase.

h) Normal Speed:

It is the speed of the shaft of the turbine (r.p.m.) corresponding to its maximum
efficiency.

Procedure:

1. Set the brake adjustments and spring balance at zero.

2. Set the adjustable guide blades at fully openings.
3. Switch on the motor of the pump and note down the H from bourdon gauge and a value
of discharge from the flow meter.
4. Start applying weight with an increase of 0.5N weight and two turns of brake
adjustment gauge.
5. Find R.P.M. for each set of weight.
6. Switch off the motor of the pump.

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Observations & Calculations

For 100% Guide Blade Opening

Parameter Value Unit

Available Head measured by Gauge = H m

Flow Rate = Q m3/s

Horizontal distance from disc center to center
m
of disc caliper (or radius of disc brake) = r
Temperature = T °C

Specific Weight of water = N/m3

Water Input Power = Pin = QH Watts

Spring Brake Power Overall Turbine

Balance Torque (Output Power) Efficiency
Shaft
Reading T=Wxr
Speed ɳt = ( )
(Load)
Sr.
No.

W N T Po ɳt

(N) (R.P.M) (N-m) (W) %

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

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Precautions:

1. Be careful when finding R.P.M. using tachometer as it is very close to the rotating shaft.
2. Avoid parallax error while noting the burden gauge reading and flow meter.

Comments:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT No. 06

To study the Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Theory:
i. Pump:

A machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (lrving, 1981). It is used to
move liquids from one point (lower level) to another point (higher level) and it produces head
(H) and flow (Q) in liquids (increase energy or head of liquids).

ii. Types of Pumps:

There are many types of pumps which are available in the market, following are the common
types:

1. Centrifugal Pump
2. Reciprocating Pump
3. Turbine Pump
4. Submersible Pump
5. Pneumatic Pump/Air Ejector Pump
6. Rotary Pump
7. Screw Pump
8. Chain Pump
9. Pump Turbine

1. Centrifugal Pump:

It is a pump, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by the action of centrifugal
force, which is produced by rotating the impeller. It is believed that the idea of lifting water by
centrifugal force was first given by an Italian scientist and engineer L. D. Vinci in the end of
sixteenth century (Khurmi, 1988). A Centrifugal Pump consists of an impeller, which carries a
number of backward curve vanes and rotates in the casing. Liquid enters the impeller through the
center, and work is done as it passes centrifugally outwards, so that it leaves the impeller at high
velocity, and in the casing part of the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure
energy.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Classification of the Centrifugal Pumps based on stages / No. Impellers:

i. Single stage centrifugal pump

ii. Double stage centrifugal pump
iii. Multi-stage centrifugal pump
i. Single Stage Centrifugal Pump:

If the pump has one impeller or the shaft then the pump is called as Single Stage
Centrifugal Pump.

ii. Double Stage Centrifugal Pump:

It is a Centrifugal Pump having two impellers keyed to the same shaft.

iii. Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump:

If the Centrifugal Pump has more than one impeller keyed to the same shaft then it is
called a Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump.

Functions:

A Multistage Centrifugal Pump can be used:

1. To increase head/energy of water.
2. To supply water to high-rise buildings or high levels.
3. To lift water from very deep aquifers.

The photograph of the Centrifugal Pump

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fig: Section of Centrifugal Pump

iv. Components of Single Stage Centrifugal Pump:

There are three main components of Double Stage Centrifugal Pump.

1. Suction Pipe
2. Main Centrifugal Pump
3. Delivery Pipe

1. Suction Pipe:

It is a pipeline connected with the pump on upstream side. Pressure in this pipe is below
atmospheric and a small opening in this pipe may stop working of the pump. The diameter of
suction pipe is always kept greater than the delivery pipe. Suction pine consists of:

i. Strainer
ii. Suction Flange
iii. Foot Valve
iv. Suction Gauge
i. Strainer:

It is a grating or screen provided at the foot of the suction pipe, it would not allow entrance

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

of the solid matters e.g. wooden pieces, fishes and light stones etc. into the suction pipe
which otherwise may damage the pump.
ii. Suction Flange:
It is the flange to connect suction pipe with the pump.
iii. Foot Valve:
It is a one directional valve provided at the foot of the suction pipe. It permits flow only in
one direction i.e. towards the pump.
Functions:
Before starting the pump, it facilitates to hold the primed water in the suction pipe and
casing.
After switching off the pump, it keeps water in the suction pipe and does not allow to drain(if
100% water tight).

Priming:

It is the process of filling of water in Centrifugal Pump from foot valve to delivery valve
including casing before starting the pump.

iv. Suction Gauge:

It is a Bourdon Gauge provided on the suction side of the pump to measure the Manometric
Suction Head (Hms).
2. Main Centrifugal Pump:
It consists of the following components:
i. Spiral Casing
ii. Impellers
iii. Shaft
iv. Priming Funnel
v. Air Relief Valves
vi. Stuffing Boxes
i. Spiral Casing:

It is an airtight chamber, which accommodates the rotating impeller. The area of flow of the
casing gradually increases in the direction of flow of water to convert kinetic energy in to

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

pressure energy. Pressure at the inlet of the casing is below atmospheric and at the outlet
above atmospheric i.e. opposite to the Francis Reaction Turbine.

ii. Impellers:

These are rotating wheels in the Single Stage Centrifugal Pump and consist of series of
radial backward curved blades or vanes in between two circular discs. Due to rotation of
the impeller centrifugal force is produced on the liquid, which produces kinetic energy in
the liquid. Water enters at the center of the impeller and moves more or less radially
outward and then leaves from outer periphery of the impeller with a very high kinetic
energy. The materials used for impeller are Bronze, Brass and Cast Iron.
iii. Shaft:
It is a rotating rod supported by the bearings.
Function:
It transmits mechanical energy from the Motor to the Pump (impellers).
iv. Priming Funnel:
It is the funnel to prime the pump.
v. Air Relief Valves:
These are the valves used to remove air from casing while priming.
vi. Stuffing Boxes:

At the contact points between the rotating shaft and the stationary casing, there are chances
of leakage of water due to which casing cannot maintain pressure inside The contact points
should be filled with the sealing material to make it air tight. The boxes in which sealing
material is filled are called Stuffing Boxes. Usually Jute strings along with grease are used
as sealing material. This material allows the rotation of the shaft without any leakage at the
contact points.

3. Delivery Pipe:
A pipeline provided on the downstream or delivery side of the pump is known as Delivery
Pipe. The pressure in this pipe is above atmospheric.
It consists of the following components:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

i. Delivery Gauge
ii. Delivery Flange
iii. Delivery Valve
i. Delivery Gauge:

It is a Bourdon Gauge connected on the delivery side of the pump to measure the pressure on
delivery side.

ii. Delivery Flange:

These are the flanges to connect the delivery pipe with the Centrifugal Pump.

iii. Delivery Valve:

It is a gate valve on the delivery side of the pump to control or regulate the discharge.

Functions:

1. To control the flow rate through the pump.

2. It also facilitates to hold the primed water on delivery side.

Observations for Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Sr. No. Questions Answers

1 Units of Bourdon gauge on suction side

2 Range of Bourdon gauge on suction side

3 Elevation correction for Bourdon gauge on suction side (Zs)

4 Units of Bourdon gauge on delivery side

5 Range of Bourdon gauge on delivery side

6 Elevation Correction for Bourdon gauge on delivery side (Zd)

7 Diameter of suction pipe is greater than delivery pipe (True /False)

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Water Circulation through Single Stage Centrifugal Pump:

Underground Reservoir

Strainer

Foot Valve

Suction Pipe

Eye of
Impeller

Center of
Impeller

Casing of
Impeller

Delivery
Pipe

Underground Reservoir

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT No. 07
To perform experiment on "Single Stage Centrifugal Pump" & hence to plot its
Characteristic Curves
Apparatus:
i. Single Stage Centrifugal Pump with gauges at delivery and suction side
ii. Discharge Measuring Tank
iii. Stop Watches (2 Nos.)
iv. Energy Meter/Watt Meter
Related Theory:
a) Introduction of Centrifugal Pump:

It is a pump, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by the action of
centrifugal force, which is produced by rotating the impeller. A Centrifugal Pump
consists of an impeller, which carries a number of backward curve vanes and rotates in
the casing. Liquid enters the impeller through the center, and work is done as it passes
centrifugally outwards, so that it leaves the impeller at high velocity, and in the casing
part of the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy.
b) Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.) for Pump:
It is the power supplied at the shaft of the pump or input power for the pump.

( ) ( ) ( )

c) Water Horse Power (W.H.P.):

It is the output power of the centrifugal pump or power produced by the pump.
( ) ( )

Where, is the specific weight of the water at room temperature, Q is the flow rate
through the pump and Hm the total manometric head developed by the pump.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Hms is the manometric suction head, Hmd is the manometric delivery head and can be
obtained by applying elevation corrections.
( )
( )
Where, Zs and Zd are the elevation corrections on suction and delivery sides of the pump
respectively.
d) Overall Efficiency:
It is the ratio between Water Horse Power (W.H.P.) and Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.)
and is expressed in percentage.
( )
( ) ( )

e) Characteristics Curves:
These are the curves, which give complete response of the Centrifugal Pump for
efficiency, output power and manometric head against varying discharge from minimum
(0) to maximum. These curves are provided by the manufacturer and are required at the
time of purchase of the pump.
f) Shut-off Head:
It is the head developed by the Centrifugal Pump when delivery valve is completely
closed (Q = 0) and pump is in operation. It is the maximum head produced by a pump.
Procedure:
1. Prime the pump to remove all the air from the suction as well as delivery pipes by
opening the air relief valves of the casing and allowing the water to flow from the
priming funnel.
2. Switch on the motor of the pump.
3. Open the delivery valve fully to have maximum discharge and note down the followings:
i. Reading of the suction gauge = (Hms)obs
ii. Reading of the delivery gauge = (Hmd)obs
iii. Elevation correction for delivery pipe
iv. Elevation correction for suction pipe
4. Note down the input power from energy meter in Watts.
5. Note down the time for 5 liter discharge of water.

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6. Repeat the step number 3, 4 & 5 for different valve openings till complete closure.
7. Switch off the motor of the pump.
8. Note down the temperature to have the specific weight of water.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS
Elevation correction for suction pipe = Zs = cm = m
Elevation correction for delivery pipe = Zd = cm = m
Temperature =
= N/m3
Volume of water = 5 liter = 0.005 m3
1mm of Hg = 0.016m of water

Hms Hmd
Hm=Hms+Hmd t Q= Pin
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
Sr.
No.
mm
m of m of m of mm of
of Bar m of water Sec m3/sec Watt Watt %
water water water water
Hg

1
2
3
4
5
6

Precautions:

1. Priming should be done before starting the pump.

2. Delivery valve should be closed before priming.
3. Funnel valve should be closed before switching on the motor of the pump to avoid
splashing of water from the funnel.

Comments:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

EXPERIMENT No. 08
To perform experiment on the "Double Acting Reciprocal Pump" and to determine
co-efficient of discharge and Slip of the Pump
Apparatus:
i. Double Acting Reciprocating Pump
ii. Discharge Measuring Container
iii. Tachometer
iv. Stop Watch
Related Theory:

a) Reciprocating Pump:

Reciprocating Pump is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic

energy by the reciprocating action of the plunger or piston in a cylinder. It is also called a
positive displacement action pump as it discharges a definite quantity of liquid during the
displacement of its piston or plunger in the cylinder. The reciprocating pump is always
used for providing very high pressures (Lewitt, 1993).

b) Types of Reciprocating Pump:

i. Single Reciprocating Pump
ii. Double Reciprocating Pump
i. Single Reciprocating Pump:
It has only one suction stroke and one delivery stroke per revolution of the crank for
each cylinder.
ii. Double Reciprocating Pump:
It makes two suction strokes and two delivery strokes per revolution of the crank for
each cylinder.
c) Theoretical Discharge:
It is the discharge of the Reciprocating Pump, which is computed on the basis of some
theoretical equation. For Double Acting Reciprocal Pump:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Where, L is the stroke length = twice of radius of crankshaft, A is the cross-sectional area
of piston = πD2/4, D is the diameter of the cylinder, N is the number of revolutions of the
crankshaft per minute and Q is the discharge of pump.

d) Actual Discharge:

It is the discharge which is actually produced by the pump.

e) Slip:

The difference between the theoretical discharge and the actual discharge is known as
Slip of the Pump, it is often expressed in percentage.

( )

Sometimes actual discharge may be more than the theoretical discharge and this is known
as -ve slip. It happens when length of delivery pipe is very small as compared to the
suction pipe and pump is running at high speed. Delivery valve opens before the
completion of suction stroke and some water is pushed in delivery pipe before piston
commences its delivery stroke.

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fig: The photograph of the Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

f) Coefficient of Discharge:

It may be defined as the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge. It is denoted by

Cd.

g) Volumetric Efficiency:

It is the coefficient of discharge expressed in percentage. For zero slip, the volumetric
efficiency is 100%.
Mathematically

ɳ vol = x 100

Procedure:
1. Switch on the motor of the pump.
2. Measure the discharge by noting the time required to fill the 5 liter container.
3. Measure the R.P.M. of the crank shaft.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 three times to have a mean reading.

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 Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Fig: Schematic diagram of Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Volume of water collected =

Stroke Length =
Diameter of Piston = D =
Area of Plunger/Piston = A = =

N t Slip = Vol. Efficiency = Cd x 100

Sr. No.

R.P.M. m3/sec sec m3/sec - m3/sec %

Average

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Precautions:
1. Place the tachometer carefully right next to strip.
2. Avoid parallax error while reading the quantity of water collected in tank
3. Carefully plug in the socket.
Comments:

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Experiment No 09

To establish steady uniform flow conditions in laboratory flume and to determine

the Chezy‟s constant “C” & Manning‟s roughness coefficient “n”.
Apparatus:

 Glass sided tilting lab flume with electric motor.

 Point gauge to measure depth of flow
 Stopwatch
Related Theory:
Manning’s Roughness formula:
The Manning formula states;
V= 1/n *R2/3*S1/2
Where,
V is cross- sectional average velocity
N is Manning Co-efficient
R is hydraulic radius
S is the slope of water surface

Hydraulic Radius:
It is a measure of channel efficiency

R=A/P
Where,
R is the hydraulic radius
A is cross sectional area of flow
P is wetted perimeter.
Chezy’s equation:
Chezy‟s formula can be used to calculate mean flow velocity
V=C (RS)1/2

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Fluid Mechanics II Manual

Where,
V is mean velocity
C is chezy,s roughness
R is hydraulic radius
S is slop of channal
Relationship between ‘c’ and ‘n’:
C=1/n*R1/6

Procedure:
 Measure channel width
 Switch on the machine
 Wait to stabilize the water in flume
 Set the slope
 Measure the volume in a specific time
 Note down the depth of flow at different points
 Calculate Co-efficient „c‟ and „n‟ accordingly by given formula.

Observation and Calculations

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