CEMENT

- Cement and concrete might be synonymous as

household terms, but are by nature different.
- Cement, an ultrafine gray powder, binds sand
and rocks into a matrix of concrete.
- Assyrians and Babylonians used clay for this
purpose, and the Egyptians advanced to the
discovery of lime and gypsum mortar as a
binding agent for building such structures as the
Pyramids.
- The Greeks made further improvements and
finally the Romans developed cement that
produced structures of remarkable durability.

Natural cement was produced by burning a naturally Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but
occurring mixture of lime and clay. contributes very little to strength. Its use allowslower kiln
temperatures in portland cement manufacturing. Most
HYDRAULIC CEMENT portland cement color effects are due to C4AF.
- A cement which possesses the property of
hardening in combination with water What causes hardening of HYDRAULIC CEMENT?
When water Portland its cement is mixed with chemical
Types of hydraulic cement: compound constituents undergo a series of chemical
PORTLAND CEMENT reactions that cause it to harden (or set) which is called
It is the product obtained by pulverizing clinker HYDRATION. These chemical reactions all involve the
consisting of hydraulic calcium silicates to which some addition of water to the basic chemical compounds.
calcium sulfate has usually been provided as an
interground addition. The density of Portland cement What was the earliest use of Portland Cement?
particles is about 3.15Mg/cu.m. The first use of Portland cement was in mortars. It was
but a short step from its use exclusively in mortar for
Who is Joseph Aspdin? stone masonry to its use with stones broken into small
- In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and mason fragments and mixed with mortar in concrete.
in Leeds, England, took out a patent on
hydraulic cement that he called Portland CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS
cement because its hydration product • NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines
resembled a building stone quarried on the Isle • ASTM – American Society of Testing and Materials
of Portland off the British coast. Aspdin's • AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
method involved the careful proportioning of • ACI – American Concrete Institute
limestone and clay, pulverizing them, and • AREA – American Railway Engineering Association
burning the mixture into clinker, which was then • AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and
ground into finished cement. Transportation Officials
• AWS – American Welded Society
Main Constituents in a Typical Portland Cement • ASEP – Association of Structural Engineers of the
Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly Philippines
and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. Portland cements with higher percentages of STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT
C3S will exhibit higher early strength. ASTM C150 – Standard Specification for Portland
Cement. It provides 5 types of Portland Cement.
Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and
is largely responsible for strength increases beyond one 5 Types of Portland Cement
week. Type I - Ordinary Portland Cement
- General-purpose cement suitable for most
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens the purposes.
quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat almost
immediately and contributes somewhat to early Type II - Moderate Heat Cement / Moderate Sulfate
strength. Gypsum is added to portland cement to retard Resistance
hydration. Without gypsum, hydration would cause - The cement possesses moderate resistance to
portland cement to set almost immediately after adding sulfate attack because of certain limitations on
water. composition. If moderate heat of hydration is
desired, however, the optional limit on heat of
hydration should be invoked when specifying or
ordering.

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Type III - High Early Strength Portland Cement
- Used when high early strength is needed. It is SOLUTIONS
often produced by grinding Type I clinker finer or 1. More fines by using pozzolan
by altering the chemical composition of cement. 2. Adjust grading of aggregates
Strength gain is double that of Type I cement in 3. Introduce Entrained Air
the first 24 hours. 4. Reduce water content

Type IV - Low Heat Portland Cement / Moderate Sulfate Entrained Air

Resistance - Creation of tiny air bubbles in concrete
- Used when hydration heat must be minimized in - The bubbles are introduced into the concrete by
large volume applications such as gravity dams. the addition to the mix of an air entraining agent.
- To increase the durability of the hardened
Type V - High Sulfate Resistance concrete and also increases the workability of
- Used as a precaution against severe sulfate the concrete while in the plastic state.
action - principally where soils or groundwaters
have high sulfate content. It gains strength at a Pozzolan can be classified into 2:
slower rate than Type I cement. 1. Natural Pozzolan – a raw material that is
found in natural deposits
In addition, portland cement can also be specified under 2. Fly Ash – byproduct from burning
ASTM C1157 (Standard Performance Specification for pulverized coal in electric power
Hydraulic Cement) generating plants. It is collected from
- Type GU – General Use the exhaust gases. As the fused material
- Type HE – High Early strength rises, it cools and solidifies into spherical
- Type MS – Moderate Sulfate Resistance glassy particles.
- Type HS – High Sulfate Resistance Specifications: ASTM C618 (classification of Class
- Type MH – Moderate Heat of Hydration C and class F)
- Type LH – Low Heat of Hydration
Fly Ash
POZZOLAN o Class C – has a high lime content and is
a siliceous and aluminous material in finely divided form self-cementing. Used for soil
react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures stabilization of road bases. Used for clay
to form compounds having cementitious properties. subgrade improvement as road
There are both natural and artificial pozzolan. subgrade material. Used at dosages of
15-25 % by mass of cementitious
What does POZZOLAN do in concrete? material.
- As the definition implies, a pozzolan combines o Class F - has little lime and is purely
with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate pozzolanic. Used as dosages of 15-50%
similar to that produced by hydration of portland by mass.
cement. Most of the other pozzolans decrease
the water demand Blended Cement
- Pozzolans reduce bleeding because of fineness, o ASTM C595 – provides prescriptive
reduce the maximum rise in temperature when based specifications for specific blended
used in large amounts (more than 15%) by mass cements that consist of Portland cement
of cementitious material) because of the slower clinker ground or blended with suitable
rate of chemical reactions which reduce the rise proportions of GGBFS (Ground
in temperature. Granulated Blast Furnace Slag or natural
or artificial pozzolan)
BLEEDING o These include the Portland pozzolan
- Appearance of water on the surface of the cement, Portland blast furnace slag and
concrete after it has consolidated but before it is slag cement.
set. GGBFS
- obtained by quenching molten iron slag from a
CAUSES blast furnace in water or steam, to produce a
1. Lack of fines glassy, granular product that is then dried and
2. Too much water content in the mix ground into a fine powder.
- Used as a replacement of Portland cementing
PROBLEMS amounts typically between 25 and 70% of the
1. Delays the finishing operation total mass of cementitious material.
2. High water cement ratio
3. Poor bond between layers
4. Poor pump ability
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CONSISTENCY
- relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed
cement to flow. It includes the entire range of
fluidity from the driest to the wettest possible
mixtures.

PLASTIC CONSISTENCY
- Indicates a condition where applied stress will
result in continuous deformation without
rupture. A plastic mixture possesses cohesion
and does not crumble. It flows sluggishly and
without segregation.

WORKABILITY
- The property of freshly mixed concrete that
determines the ease with which it can be mixed,
placed, consolidated and finished to a
homogeneous condition.

SETTING OF CEMENT
The paste formed when cement is mixed with water
remains plastic for not a very long time, it stiffens and
sets.

SETTING TIME
- Describes the stiffening of fresh cement paste.
Onset of rigidity occurs.

SETTING PROCESS
• INITIAL SETTING
- Before the time of setting, it is possible to disturb
the concrete and remix it without injury. Later
revibration can be beneficial, but as the
reactions between the cement and water
continue, the mass loses its plasticity.

• FINAL SETTING
- Hardening begins, which indicates that a useful
and measurable strength is developing.
- Setting and hardening result from continuing
reaction between the cementitious material and
water

SETTING TIME MEASURED

- Use of gillmore needles
- Use of Vicat Apparatus

Factors affecting the time of setting

• cement composition
• water cement ratio
• temperature
• admixture

When the cement hydrates faster, the time of setting is

reduced. Time of setting decreases as the temperature
increases. Admixture increases or decreases depending
on the type

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AGGREGATES angular particles can take advantage of this
Is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed property and offset the increase in water
stones, crushed hydraulic cement or air-cooled iron blast required to produce concrete with cement
furnace slag with hydraulic cement to produce either content and strength equal to that of a smooth-
concrete or mortar. stone mix.

TWO GROUPS BY SIZE Resistance to Freezing and Thawing

COARSE AGGREGATES – retained sieve no 4 (4.75mm) - The pore structure, absorption, porosity, and
FINE AGGREGATES – passing sieve no 4 (4.75mm) permeability of aggregates are especially
important if they are used to make concrete
Fine Aggregates exposed to repeated cycles of freezing and
- The material, which is passed through thawing. Aggregates that become critically
4.7625mm sieve, is termed as fine aggregates. saturated and then freeze cannot accommodate
Usually natural river sand is used as fine the expansion of the frozen water.
aggregates. But places where natural sand is not
available economically, finely crushed stone may A method prescribed in ‘‘Test Method for Resistance of
be used as fine aggregates. Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing,’’ ASTM C666,
measures concrete performance by weight changes, a
Coarse Aggregates reduction in the dynamic modulus of elasticity, and
- The material retained on 4.7625mm size sieve is increases in sample length.
termed as coarse aggregates. Broken stone is
generally used as coarse aggregates. For thin Impurities in Aggregates
slabs, and walls, the maximum size of coarse - Erratic setting times and rates of hardening may
aggregates should be limited to one third the be caused by organic impurities in the
thickness of the concrete section. aggregates, primarily the sand. The presence of
- These typically have specific gravities between these impurities can be investigated by a method
2.0 and 3.0. given in ‘‘Test Method for Organic Impurities in
Fine Aggregates for Concrete,’’ ASTM C40.
Hardness
- Coarse-aggregate hardness is measured by the STORING AND HANDLING AGREGGATES TO OBTAIN
Los Angeles Abrasion Test, ASTM C131 or C595. UNIFORMITY FROM BATCH TO BATCH
These tests break the aggregate down by
impacting it with steel balls in a steel tumbler. THREE PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS
The resulting breakdown is not directly related 1. SEGREGATION
to the abrasion an aggregate receives in service, 2. CONTAMINATION
but the results can be empirically related to 3. MAINTENANCE OF UNIFORM AND STABLE
concretes exhibiting service lives. MOISTURE CONTENT IN THE AGGREGATES AS
BATCHED.
Soundness
- Aggregate soundness is measured by ASTM C88, SOLUTIONS
‘‘Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by 1. SEGREGATION – separate the material into
Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magneisum Sulfate.’’ several size fractions and batch these fractions
This test measures the amount of aggregate separately.
degradation when exposed to alternating cycles 2. CONTAMINATION – exclusion of deleterious
of wetting and drying in a sulfate solution. materials
3. Coarse aggregate is produced in a number of
Particle Shape nominal sizes in ASTM C33
- Natural sand and gravel have a round, smooth 4. Fine aggregate is generally damp, and rarely
particle shape. Crushed aggregate (coarse and segregates in handling and batching
fine) may have shapes that are flat and
elongated, angular, cubical, disk, or rodlike. WATER
These shapes result from the crushing • Any water that is potable is acceptable as mixing
equipment employed and the aggregate water. Tests should be performed, to determine
mineralogy. Extreme angularity and elongation if desired properties can be achieved.
increase the amount of cement required to give • ASTM C94 – acceptance criteria for mixing water
strength, difficulty in finishing, and effort • Impurities that make water not fit for drinking
required to pump the concrete. may affect the setting time, strength,
- Flat and elongated particles also increase the appearance, and resistance to degradation
amount of required mixing water. The bond
between angular particles is greater than that
between smooth particles. Properly graded
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ADMIXTURES freezing, permeability, and concentration of salt
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies four in pores.
major reasons for using admixtures: 3. Osmotic pressure—Water moves from the gel to
• To reduce the cost of concrete construction capillaries to satisfy thermodynamic equilibrium
• To achieve the certain properties in concrete and equalize alkali concentrations. Voids permit
more effectively water to flow from the interlayer hydration
• To ensure the quality of concrete during the space and capillaries into the air voids, where it
stages of mixing, transporting, placing and curing has room to freeze without damaging the parts.
in adverse weather conditions.
• To overcome certain emergencies during Air entrainment is recommended for all concrete
concrete operations exposed to freezing.
In addition,
The effectiveness of admixture depends upon these • improves durability
factors: • improves concrete’s resistance to several
1. type, brand and amount of cement; destructive factors, including freeze–thaw
2. water content cycles, deicers and salts, sulfates, and alkali–
3. aggregate shape silica reactivity
4. gradation and proportions • increases the workability of fresh concrete.
5. mixing time
6. slump Air entrainment decreases the strength of concrete, as
7. temperatures of concrete and air. shown in Figure 6.8.

Some admixtures are charged into the mix as solutions.

The liquid should be considered part of the mixing water
in such cases.

Admixtures are classified by the following chemical and

functional physical characteristics:
1. air entrainers
2. water reducers
3. retarders
4. hydration controller admixtures
5. accelerators
6. specialty admixtures
Air entrainers are usually liquid and should meet the
Air-Entraining Admixtures
specifications of ASTM C260. The agents enhance air
entrainment by lowering the surface tension of the
mixing water.

ASTM C260
- The ‘‘Standard Specification for AirEntraining
Admixtures for Concrete,’’ covers materials for
use of air-entraining admixtures to be added to
concrete in the field.

WATER REDUCERS
Air entrainers produce tiny air bubbles in the hardened Water reducers increase the mobility of the cement
concrete to provide space for water to expand upon particles in the plastic mix, allowing workability to be
freezing (Figure 6.9). As moisture within the concrete achieved at lower water contents.
pore structure freezes, three mechanisms contribute to
the development of internal stresses in the concrete: Water reducers are produced with different levels of
effectiveness:
1. Critical saturation—Upon freezing, water 1. Conventional
expands in volume by 9%. If the percent 2. mid-range, and
saturation exceeds 91.7%, the volume increase 3. High range
generates stress in the concrete.
2. Hydraulic pressure—Freezing water draws
unfrozen water to it. The unfrozen water moving
throughout the concrete pores generates stress,
depending on length of flow path, rate of

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Figure 6.10 shows concrete without the addition of Referring to the appropriate cases in the table
admixture and with the addition of conventional, mid-
range, and high-range water reducers.

Water reducing admixtures can be used indirectly to gain

strength.

Hewlett (1988) demonstrated that water reducers can

actually be used to accomplish three different objectives:
1. Adding a water reducer without altering the
other quantities in the mix increases the slump, RETARDERS
which is a measure of concrete consistency and Used to delay the initial set of concrete. Retarders are
an indicator of workability. used for several reasons, such as the following:
2. The strength of the mix can be increased by using 1. offsetting the effect of hot weather
the water reducer by lowering the quantity of 2. allowing for unusual placement or long-haul
water and keeping the cement content constant. distances
3. The cost of the mix, which is primarily 3. providing time for special finishes (e.g., exposed
determined by the amount of cement, can be aggregate)
reduced. In this case, the water reducer allows a
decrease in the amount of water. The amount of In addition
cement is then reduced to keep the water– • Retarders can reduce the strength of concrete at
cement ratio equal to the original mix. Thus, the early ages (e.g., 1 to 3 days).
quality of the mix, as measured by compressive • entrain air and improve workability
strength, is kept constant, although the amount • increase the time required for the initial set but
of cement is decreased reduce the time between the initial and final set.
The properties of retarders vary with the
Superplasticizers (plasticizers), or highrange water materials used in the mix and with job
reducers, can either greatly increase the flow of the fresh conditions.
concrete or reduce the amount of water required for a
given consistency. Thus, the use and effect of retarders must be evaluated
experimentally during the mix design process
When superplasticizers are used, the fresh concrete
stays workable for a short time, 30–60 minutes, and is HYDRATION CONTROL ADMIXTURES
followed by a rapid loss in workability. - These admixtures have the ability to stop and
reactivate the hydration process of concrete.
- They consist of two parts: a stabilizer and an
activator.
- Adding the stabilizer completely stops the
hydration of the cementing materials for up to
72 hours.
- Adding the activator to the stabilized concrete
reestablishes normal hydration and setting.
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Accelerators are used to • gas-forming agents
1. increase rate of strength gain • coloring agents
2. reduce the amount of time before finishing • shrinkage reducing
operations begin SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
3. reduce curing time • These materials have been used to improve
4. plug leaks under hydraulic pressure efficiently some properties of concrete and reduce the
problem of discarding them.
Calcium chloride is the most widely used accelerator • These supplementary cementitious materials
(ASTM D98). Both initial and final set times are reduced include fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
with calcium chloride. slag, silica fume, and natural pozzolan.

FLY ASH
- Fly ash is the most commonly used pozzolan in
civil engineering structures.
- Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired electricity
production. Combusting pulverized coal in an
electric power plant burns off the carbon and
most volatile materials.

The PCA recommends against using calcium chloride

under the following conditions:
1. concrete is prestressed
2. concrete contains embedded aluminum such as
conduits, especially if the aluminum is in contact
with steel
3. concrete is subjected to alkali-aggregate
reaction
4. concrete is in contact with water or soils
containing sulfates
5. concrete is placed during hot weather
6. mass applications of concrete

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) recommends the

following limits to watersoluble chloride ion content
based on percent weight of cement:

Fly ash is primarily a silica glass composed of

silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide
(Fe2O3), and lime (CaO).

Fly ash is classified (ASTM C618) as follows:

Several alternatives to the use of calcium chloride are
- Class N—Raw or calcined natural pozzolans,
available. These include the following:
including diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts
1. using high early strength (Type III) cement
and shales, ruffs and volcanic ashes or pumicites,
2. increasing cement content
and some calcined clays and shales
3. curing at higher temperatures
- Class F—Fly ash with pozzolan properties
4. using non–calcium chloride accelerators
- Class C—Fly ash with pozzolan and cementitious
properties.
SPECIALTY ADMIXTURES
Class F fly ash usually has less than 5% CaO but may
• Examples of specialty admixtures include:
contain up to 10%. Class C fly ash has 15% to 30% CaO.
• workability retaining
• corrosion inhibitors
Advantages:
• damp-proofing agents
• increases the workability of the fresh concrete
• permeability-reducing agents
• extends the hydration process
• fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal
• allowing a greater strength development
admixtures
• reduced porosity
• pumping aids
• bonding agents
Studies have shown that concrete containing more than
• grouting agents
20% fly ash by weight of cement has a much smaller pore
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size distribution than portland cement concrete without temperatures to form compounds possessing
fly ash. The lower heat of hydration reduces the early cementitious properties (ASTM C595).
strength of the concrete so the curing period may need - Naturally occurring pozzolans, such as fine
to be extended. The extended reaction permits a volcanic ash, combined with burned lime, were
continuous gaining of strength beyond what can be used about 2000 years ago for building
accomplished with plain portland cement. construction, and pozzolan continues to be used
SLAG CEMENT today.
- Slag cement is made from iron blast furnace slag.
It is a nonmetallic hydraulic cement consisting
basically of silicates and aluminosilicates of
calcium, which is developed in a molten
condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. The specific gravity of slag cement is in
the range of 2.85 to 2.95.
- Slag cement commonly constitutes between
30% and 45% of the cementing material in the
mix. Some slag concretes have a slag component
of 70% or more of the cementitious material.

SILICA FUME
Silica fume is a by-product of the production of silicon
metal or ferrosilicon alloys.

ASTM C494
‘‘Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures
for Concrete

Can we combine two admixtures?

YES!
- The combination of admixtures used in a
concrete mix should be carefully evaluated and
One of the most beneficial uses for silica fume is as a tested to ensure that the desired properties are
mineral admixture in concrete. Because of its chemical achieved.
and physical properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan. TYPE PROPERTY
Concrete containing silica fume can have very high
A Water Reducer
strength and can be very durable.
B Set Retarder
C Set Accelerator
Silica fume is available from suppliers of concrete
D Water Reducer and Set Retarder
admixtures and, when specified, is simply added during
concrete production either in wet or dry forms. Placing, E Water Reducer and Set Accelerator
finishing, and curing silica fume concrete require special F High-range Water Reducer
attention on the part of the concrete contractor. G High-range Water Reducer and Set Retarder

The quality of silica fume is specified by ASTM C 1240 Self-Leveling Flowing Concrete
and AASHTO M 307.
In addition to producing high-strength concrete, silica
fume can reduce concrete corrosion induced by deicing
or marine salts. Silica fume concrete with a low water
content is highly resistant to penetration by chloride
ions.

Natural Pozzolans
- A pozzolan is a siliceous and aluminous material
which, in itself, possesses little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided
form and in the presence of moisture, react
chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary

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Self-compacting

Good workability

DO DIFFERENT ADMIXTURES OF A GIVEN TYPE

Corrosion Inhibitors ALWAYS PERFORM THE SAME?
- Reinforcing steel in concrete usually is protected
against corrosion by the high alkalinity of the - NOT ALWAYS. PERFORM SIMILARLY BUT TO A
concrete, which creates a passivating layer at the DIFFERENT DEGREE AND SOMETIMES WITH
steel surface. To inhibit corrosion, calcium- INSUFFICIENT OR UNEXPECTED RESULTS.
nitrate admixtures are added to the concrete at - The reason for this is the great variety in the
the time of batching. composition of all the ingredients of concrete,
particularly the cementitious material.

Are retarding admixtures reliable as to the time of

setting?
- Yes. In addition to variation in the dosage of the
retarding admixture and properties of cement,
initial and final times of setting of the concrete
depend on the water cement ratio,
temperature of the concrete and ambient
conditions.

What is the effect of water-reducing admixtures on

drying shrinkage?
Internal-barrier admixtures
- Very little. Although the use of water-reducing
- Added to the concrete to protect the reinforcing
admixtures will permit a reduction in water
steel from corrosion. Internalbarrier admixtures
content of the concrete mixture, it will usually
come in two groups, waterproofing and damp
not result in a decrease in drying shrinkage.
proofing compounds - The second consists of
agents that create an organic film around the
reinforcing steel, supplementing the passivating(
protect against contamination) layer.