Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of ceramic waste powder as a binder replacement on the properties of

cement- and lime-based mortars
Mohsen Ebrahimi a, Abolfazl Eslami a, *, Iman Hajirasouliha b, Moein Ramezanpour a,
Kypros Pilakoutas b
a
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
b
Dept. of Civil & Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is responsible for 8% of worldwide carbon emissions and the construction
CWP industry is in need of alternatives to minimise its impact. Waste products from foundries and furnaces are prime
Pozzolan candidates as they can be high in reactive properties. This paper reports on the results of an experimental
Cement
investigation into the effect of ceramic waste powder (CWP) as a binder substitute in cement and lime-based
Lime
masonry mortars. As part of a comprehensive experimental investigation, standard cement and lime speci­
Mortar
Sustainability mens were made with replacement rates of 0–60% and 0–80%, respectively, and moist cured for up to 90 days.
Compressive strength The examined properties include compressive strength, tensile strength, dry bulk density and permeable voids,
Tensile strength drying shrinkage, and pH. Based on the obtained results, the compressive and tensile strengths of cement mortars
containing CWP not only experienced no significant adverse effect up to 50% replacement, but also increased at
the substitution percentages of 10–20%. For the hydrated lime mortars, the compressive and tensile strengths
were continuously enhanced up to 70% replacement of lime with CWP. These results were supported by the
outcomes of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. These findings
can introduce a useful application of CWP as a sustainable binder replacement in construction leading to
reducing the carbon footprint of construction materials and the adverse environmental impact of CWP disposal in
landfills.

1. Introduction health, highlighting the importance of using low-carbon, sustainable

and environmentally friendly materials. Consequently, many interna­
Widely used worldwide since ancient times, ceramics offer many tional environmental organizations such as United Nations Environment
conveniences to our daily life due to their excellent functional proper­ Programme (UNEP) aim to minimize CO2 emissions to tackle the climate
ties. Its production process, however, is accompanied with a significant change emergency [9]. The European Commission has also set an
amount of waste, ranging 3–7%, in the form of solid materials and dust ambitious target of carbon–neutral Europe by 2050 [10].
[1–3], much of which is disposed to landfill. The construction and de­ Additives in masonry mortars have long been used due to local
molition industries also produce ceramic wastes. availability, economic and sustainability reasons, as well as for
Apart from environmental issues caused by the disposal of waste improving mechanical properties [11,12]. Bi-products from furnaces
materials, the production of cementitious materials such as cement and and foundries such as slag, heat treated clay and wood ash are often
lime is one of the main sources of carbon foot-print. Cement production found in old mortars. Heat treated clays from ceramic and brick products
alone is responsible for 12–15% of the global energy consumption and were a common ingredient in ancient times and were used in particular
5–8% of carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from the calcination and when there was a lack of natural pozzolans [13].
combustion processes [4–7]. The annual cement consumption exceeds Ceramic wastes from tile production can be potentially used as
1.5 billion tons [8]. Lime production has the same issues, but with a aggregate and/or cement substitution in masonry mortars and concrete.
much lower consumption. Greenhouse gases, air pollutants and other A comprehensive review, on the use of recycled waste ceramic aggregate
environmental pollutants can destroy eco-systems and harm human as a granular substitution for both fine and coarse aggregates in concrete

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: a.eslami@yazd.ac.ir (A. Eslami).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131146
Received 7 February 2023; Received in revised form 17 March 2023; Accepted 20 March 2023
Available online 3 April 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Table 1 was more durable than their control counterpart, but without strength
Chemical and physical properties of cement used in this study. improvement. More recently, Chen et al. [21] assessed short- and long-
Chemical Cement ASTM physical Cement ASTM term properties of recycled aggregate concrete containing CWP replaced
Composition (%) C150 properties C150 for cement. They concluded CWP can enhance the long-term strength of
[27] [27] recycled aggregate concrete with best replacement levels at 10–20%.
Silica (SiO2) 21.56 – Specific 3150 – Hoppe Filho et al. [22] evaluated the microstructure and mechanical
density (kg/ properties of blended mortar by replacing 30% Portland cement with
m3) red CWP and concluded that such replacement can reduce the
Alumina 4.48 Specific 335
compressive strength by up to 16% at 182 days. However, microstruc­
≤6.0 ≥260
(Al2O3) surface area
(m2/kg) tural analysis of the concrete showed a denser structure as a result of
Calcium oxide 63.39 – CWP pozzolanic reactivity [23]. This led to reduced penetration of
(CaO) chloride ions and thus enhanced durability properties. Nonetheless, the
Magnesium 2.09 ≤6.0
pozzolanic activity was slow leading to a decrease in early age
oxide (MgO)
Sulfur trioxide 2.37 ≤6.0 compressive strength [24]. The pozzolanic reaction of CWP in cement-
(SO3) slag mortar was also confirmed by AlArab et al. [25]. On the other
Loss on 1.87 ≤3.0 hand, substituting air lime with waste glass and brick dust by 10–30% in
ignition lime mortar has led to higher compressive strength up to 69 and 51%,
(LOI)
respectively [26].
It is clear that CWP is a good candidate as a sustainable material for
[14], has confirmed that partial substitution reduces workability whilst cement replacement in concrete. However, the effects of using CWP with
enhancing compressive, flexural and durability performance. When high fineness as a binder replacement in masonry mortars have not been
used in lime and cement mortars, ceramic waste powder (CWP) also scrutinised in detail. Consequently, the current study evaluates the
shows remarkable pozzolanic activity [15–17]. Silica (SiO2) and optimal replacement rate of locally sourced CWP as a binder substitution
alumina (Al2O3) available in CWP may form calcium silicates and alu­ in masonry mortars through comparing different parameters including
minates when combined with Ca(OH)2 and water. These pozzolanic compressive and tensile strengths, drying shrinkage, dry bulk density,
reactions, however, are highly governed by the specific surface area of permeable voids and pH level up to the age of 90 days. Micro-scale
CWP, heating temperatures, and the amounts of silica and alumina in analyses were also conducted to explain and support the findings of
the amorphous state [13]. mechanical tests. The CWP used in this study is actually very fine
Brekailo et al. [18] examined the use of red ceramic powder and powder collected from the edge chamfering and cutting process during
concrete waste with lime-stone powder as a cement replacement (3, 5, the tile production.
12 and 20%) to achieve an eco-friendly mortar. The microstructural
properties of the resulting mortars were evaluated after external sul­
phate attack for 98 days. The expansion of cement mortar containing red
ceramic powder and concrete waste was higher than their control Table 2
counterparts with the red ceramic performing worse. Chokkalingham Chemical and physical properties of hydrated lime.
et al. [19] characterised cement-free geopolymer concrete incorporating Chemical Composition Lime (%) physical properties Lime
CWP and slag. Based on their findings, CWP as the sole binder signifi­ Silica (SiO2) 0.19 Specific density (kg/m3) 2.249
cantly reduced the mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete. A Alumina (Al2O3) 0.09 Specific surface area (m2 /kg) 670
binder mix containing 40 % CWP and 60% slag, however, outperformed Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.21
the control mix containing 100% slag. Kannan et al. [20] investigated Calcium oxide (CaO) 72.70
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.62
the mechanical and durability properties of high performance concrete
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 0.02
containing different percentages (10, 20, 30 and 40%) of CWP replaced Loss on ignition (LOI) 26.09
for cement. Based on their findings, concrete mixes incorporating CWP

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of cement, CWP, and hydrated lime.

2
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

2.2. Hydrated lime

The lime used in the current study was hydrated lime. Table 2
summarizes its physical properties and chemical composition deter­
mined based on ASTM C204 [28] and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis
[29]. In addition, the particle size distribution of lime is shown in Fig. 1.

2.3. Ceramic waste powder (CWP)

The ceramic waste used in the experimental program, was in the

form of dusts from the cutting saw (see Fig. 2), supplied by a local (Yazd
region Iran) ceramic manufacturer. As seen from the particle size dis­
tribution in Fig. 1, the CWP used in this study is much finer than cement.
Table 3 provides its chemical and physical characteristics determined
based on X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis [29] and ASTM C204 [28].
A comparison of the properties of CWP with the criteria of ASTM C618
[30], shown in Table 4, confirm that it is an ideal pozzolan.
Figs. 3 and 4 provide, respectively, the XRD analysis and SEM images
of the CWP used in this study. As observed in the SEM images, the
structure of CWP contains angular and irregular particles similar to what
is observed in Portland cement. This particular geometry of binder
particles can lead to enhance internal connections between aggregate
and binder paste. In addition, CWP contains high intensity of Quarts
peaks as observed in Fig. 3 referring to the existence of high percentage
Fig. 2. CWP used in this study. of SiO2. Further, the hump between 20˚to 30˚can confirm the amorphous
phase of SiO2 as discussed in past studies [15]. The amorphous phase of
SiO2 plays critical role in precipitating pozzolanic reactions. In general,
Table 3 all of the above-mentioned of these conditions, introduce CWP as a
Chemical and physical properties of CWP. potential material with high pozzolanic activity.
Chemical Composition CWP (%) physical properties CWP
3
2.4. Sand
Silica (SiO2) 59.9 Specific density (kg/m ) 2640
Alumina (Al2O3) 16.7 Specific surface area (m2 /kg) 414
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 5.74 Moisture content (%) 0.1 Standard silica sand as specified in ASTM C778 [31] was used as fine
Calcium oxide (CaO) 2.70 Mean particle size (µm) 3.33 aggregate for the mortars. The specific gravity and water absorption of
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.64 sand determined according to ASTM C778 [31] were found to be 1.6 (g/
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 0.21
cm3) and 0.3%, respectively. Table 5 presents the gradation of the sand.
Potassium oxide (K2O) 3.37
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 5.97
Loss on ignition (LOI) 1.5 2.5. Water

The test samples were prepared using tap water following ASTM
C109 [32].
Table 4
Comparison of the properties of CWP with ASTM C618 [30].
2.6. Specimen preparation
Properties CWP (%) ASTM C618 [30]

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 82.34 >70% Two series of mortar specimens were prepared: a) with type II
MgO 2.64 <5%
Portland cement and b) with hydrated lime as binders, using 0–60% and
SO3 0.21 <3%
LOI (loss of ignition) 1.5 <10%
0–70% substitution percentages of CWP, respectively as determined
Residue on the 45 µm sieve 13.43 <35% from pilot studies. Tables 6 and 7 summarize the details of the test
specimens. The test mixes were designated using a mnemonic system in
terms of letters and numbers. The letters “CM” and “LM” refer to the
2. Materials and specimens cement and hydrated lime mortars, respectively. The nomenclature
followed by a number indicating the CWP substitution percentages.
2.1. Cement According to ASTM C109 [32], the test specimens should comprise
one part of binder, 2.75 parts of sand, and a water to cement (W/C) ratio
The cement mortar specimens were prepared using type II Portland of 0.485. As a result, the control mixes (CM0 and LM0) were made with a
cement. For Portland cement, ASTM C150 [27] stipulates that the per­ W/C of 0.485 and W/L of 0.76. However, the rheology of the other test
centage of Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO and SO3 should not be less than 6% with a specimens was affected by the amount of CWP added. Thus, their water
loss of ignition (LOI) not more than 3%. Further, the specific surface area contents were adjusted to achieve a fluidity corresponding to their
of cement should be at least 260 m2/kg. As compared in Table 1, the control mixes based on ASTM C1437 [33]. The objective was to achieve
physical and chemical properties of the adopted cement determined a constant flow rate of 110 ± 5 mm after 25 drops of the flow table test.
based on ASTM C204 [28] and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis Tables 6 and 7 summarizes the details of all mixes considered in this
comply with the minimum requirements for Portland cement. In addi­ study including their water to binder (W/B) ratios.
tion, Fig. 1 illustrates the particle size distribution of the cement ranging The mortars were cast into cube moulds (50 mm) to determine their
from 0.2 to 100 µm determined by sieve analysis. compressive properties according to ASTM C109 [32]. Prismatic speci­
mens (40 × 40 × 160 mm) were made to determine the flexural strength
of mortars as suggested by ASTM C348 [34]. Prismatic specimens (2.5 ×

3
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 3. XRD pattern of CWP.

Fig. 4. SEM images of CWP.

Table 5 Table 6
Grading of the sand used to make mortar specimens. Details of cement mortar mixes.
Grading Passing sieve (%) ASTM C778 [31] Component CM0 CM10 CM20 CM30 CM40 CM50 CM60

1.18 mm (No. 16) 100 100 Cement (g) 500 450 400 350 300 250 200
600 μm (No. 30) 99.8 96–100 CWP (g) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
425 μm (No. 40) 60 60–75 Sand (g) 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375
300 μm (No. 50) 28.9 16–30 W/B 0.485 0.485 0.485 0.500 0.500 0.510 0.510
150 μm (No. 100) 0.5 0–4

4
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Table 7 pozzolan [13,20]. It should be noted that the strength enhancement in

Details of lime mortar mixes. CM60 from the age of 28 days to 56 days was lower than other speci­
Component LM0 LM20 LM40 LM60 LM70 LM80 mens. After 56 days, the compressive strength enhancement was negli­
gible for all specimens.
Lime (g) 500 400 300 200 150 100
CWP (g) 0 100 200 300 350 400 In the case of hydrated lime, the increase in compressive strength is
Sand (g) 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 spectacular, exceeding 7 times the control value at LM70 after 90 days of
W/B 0.760 0.710 0.660 0.610 0.575 0.550 curing. Though the strength reduces somewhat with time at LM80, it is
still 6 times higher than LM0. Such strength improvement is mainly due
to calcium silicates and aluminates ensuing from the pozzolanic re­
2.5 × 28.5 cm) were also cast for shrinkage tests ASTM C157 [35]. Three
actions of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) available in CWP with Ca
replicates were cast for each parameter in each mix series. The test
(OH)2 and water. These results introduce the CWP as an effective
specimens were stored at a temperature of 25 ± 1˚C and a relative hu­
pozzolan which can not only enhance the compressive strength in ma­
midity of 90 ± 5% (based on ASTM C511 [36]) until the day of testing.
sonry mortars but also reduce the binder consumption.
3. Experimental tests and results
3.2. Tensile strength
3.1. Compressive strength
The tensile strength of the cement and lime mortar mixes was
The compressive strength was determined from the cubes as speci­ assessed through the modulus of rupture obtained by flexural testing of
fied by ASTM C109 [32] after 28, 56, and 90 days from the day of prism specimens after 90 days of curing. Figs. 7 and 8, show the
casting. Figs. 5 and 6 show the average results for the specimens in both measured tensile strengths for the cement and lime mortar mixes,
cement and lime mortar series, respectively.
With the exception of CM60, the compressive strengths of all other
CM mixes were higher (up to 10%) or similar to that of the control mix. 28 days
In general, CM10 offered the best compressive strength (28.1 and 33.5
56 days
MPa at the age of 28 and 90 days, respectively) and the strength
decreased very gradually until CM50. However, the 90-day compressive 90 days
strength of CM60 was reduced remarkable (around 21%), indicating
that an excessive amount was being replaced. Thus, as far as the strength
parameter is concerned, the maximum replacement rate of CWP should
be kept at 50% through which similar strength can be offered with 50%
lower cement consumption. This distinguished pozzolanic performance
of the CWP used in the current study can be attributed to its high fine­
ness. As indicated in Table 3, the specific surface area of CWP is 414 m2
/kg which is even much higher than that of the used Portland cement
(335 m2 /kg). Such high fineness can be explained by the source of CWP
which is from the edge chamfering and cutting process during the tile LM0 LM20 LM40 LM60 LM70 LM80
production. The fineness of pozzolans in an influencing factor in accel­
erating the pozzolanic reactions introducing the used CWP as a super Fig. 6. Variation of compressive strength in lime mortar mixes.

28 days 56 days 90 days

CM0 CM10 CM20 CM30 CM40 CM50 CM60

Fig. 5. Variation of compressive strength in cement mortar mixes.

5
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 7. Tensile strength of cement mortar mixes at the age of 90 days.

Fig. 8. Tensile strength of lime mortar mixes at the age of 90 days.

respectively. The results follow a similar pattern to the compressive saturated in water. Subsequently, they were kept in boiling water for 5 h
tests. For the cement mortars, the tensile strength increases slightly at prior to determining the dry bulk density of each specimen. The dry bulk
CM10 (by 4%) and then gradually decreases with increasing replace­ density and the void percentages are then determined by:
ment, until CM60, when a sharper decrease is noticed. This remarkable
M1
strength reduction can be attributed to excess alumina (Al2 O3 ) provided Dry bulk density = [ ]×ρ (1)
M3 − M2
by using high volume of CWP in CM60. Al2 O3 is a main origin of
strength reduction in cementitious materials [16]. M3 − M1
Considering the hydrated lime mixes, a continuous tensile strength Voids = [ ] × 100 (2)
M3 − M2
enhancement was observed up to 70% replacement of lime by CWP. The
tensile strength of LM70 was approximately 7 times higher than that where M1 is the mass of oven-dried sample in air;M2 represents the
measured for LM0. While the tensile strength of LM0 was negligible, it apparent mass of sample in water after immersion and boiling; M3 is the
could reach to around 50% of CM0 after replacing 70% of lime with mass of surface-dry sample in air after immersion and boiling; and ρ
CWP. Thereafter, the tensile strength was reduced. In lime mortars, stands for the water density [37].
pozzolanic reactions of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) available in The results of the dry bulk density and volume of permeable voids at
CWP with Ca(OH)2 and water can lead to calcium silicates and alumi­ the age of 90 days are presented in Figs. 9 and 10. Due to the higher
nates. Nonetheless, 70% replacement of lime with CWP can be consid­ density of cement than CWP, the density of the samples decreases with
ered as an optimal substitution rate. increasing CWP replacement rate as also reported in past studies [38].
The lowest volume of permeable voids, however, belongs to CM10. This
3.3. Dry bulk density and permeable voids behaviour is aligned with the compressive and tensile strengths of CM10
which were the highest among all cement mortar mixes. In fact, the
The dry bulk density of hardened specimens was measured based on calcium silicates and aluminates ensuing from the pozzolanic reactions
ASTM C642 [37] as an average of three replicates. The specimens were of CWP have resulted in enhancing the integrity of the mortar, thus
initially oven-dried for 24 h at a temperature of 110 ± 5˚C and then increasing the compressive strength and decreasing the permeable

6
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 9. Dry bulk density and volume of permeable voids of fresh cement mortars at the age of 90 days.

Fig. 10. Dry bulk density and volume of permeable voids of fresh hydrated lime mortars at the age of 90 days.

voids. On the other hand, the highest permeable voids were measured cm3) was monitored during the curing time as shown in Fig. 11 for a
for CM60 for which the compressive and tensile strengths was the lowest typical specimen.
with a remarkable difference. Figs. 12 and 13 show the results of the drying shrinkage for all mortar
For the hydrated lime mortars, the dry bulk density is continuously mixes. The drying shrinkage values at the age of 28 days are presented in
decreased by increasing the substitution rate as CWP is denser than lime. Table 8. Clearly, the drying shrinkage of cement mortars reduces with
It should be mentioned that the permeable voids follow an opposite increasing CWP content up to the replacement rate of 40%. This lower
trend to the dry bulk density with the lowest value measured for LM70 drying shrinkage can be explained by considering the very fine particles
(around 14%). of CWP along with their pozzolanic characteristics. As indicated in
Table 3, the specific surface area of CWP is much higher than cement
which enhances the pozzolanic reactions in cementitious mortars. The
3.4. Drying shrinkage secondary calcium silicates and aluminates would reduce pores and
increase internal connectivity of the mortar [15]. Consequently, the
The drying shrinkage of the mixes was evaluated as per ASTM C157 absorbed water in mortar which is responsible for the drying shrinkage,
[35]. The change in length of the specially cast prisms (2.5 × 2.5 × 28.5

7
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

levels recorded for the cement mortar mixes. This may be due to the
pozzolanic reactions introduced by CWP resulting in hydration products
more similar to cement phases than lime.

3.5. pH level

The pH level of cementitious materials suspended in water with a

ratio of 1:1 can be quantified using the Thangavel and Rengaswamy’s
method [39] and ASTM D4972 [40]. According to this testing proced­
ure, the cured mortar was milled to pass a 2 mm (NO. 10) sieve. After­
wards, approximately 20 gr of the CWP was mixed with water for 3 min
continuously. The pH of the mortar was then determined using an
electrode.
The results of the pH tests at the age of 90 days are presented in
Table 8. It can be seen that, in general, increasing CWP reduces the pH of
all the mortars, but not to a great extent. This reduction is due to the
consumption of calcium hydroxide by CWP. Nonetheless, CM10 shows a
pH level similar to the control specimen, CM0. This is despite the re­
action of some calcium hydroxide of cement with silica and alumina of
CWP during the hydration process. In addition, CM20 shows an increase
in the pH levels, which might be due to the more permanent form of
sodium and magnesium hydroxide [41].
For the lime mortars, the rate of decrease in pH level was higher than
the cement mortars. This is mainly attributed to decreasing the calcium
hydroxide phase and consuming more calcium hydroxide as a result of
producing more C-S-H gel during the pozzolanic reactions [41].

3.6. Microscale analysis

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)

analyses were carried out at the Razi Metallurgical Research Centre, Iran
(see Fig. 14), to assess the microstructure and chemical composition of
the different mixes. For this purpose, only the specimens after 90-day
Fig. 11. Measurement of the drying shrinkage in a typical specimen. curing were examined.

is reduced. It is worth noting that the drying shrinkage of CM50 and 3.6.1. SEM results
CM60 was slightly higher than CM40, which may be due to the For microscale analysis, six mixes were selected for the sake of
increasing amount of non-reacted particles. Nonetheless, it seems that brevity. These include the control mixes (CM0 and LM0), the mixes with
drying shrinkage becomes stable for replacement rates higher than 40%. the highest compressive strength (CM10 and LM70), and two other
For the hydrated lime mixes, the shrinkage of specimens increases mixes where a substantial change in the mechanical properties was
substantially with increasing CWP substitution until 40%. For the higher observed (CM50 and LM20). Fig. 15 shows the SEM images of the
substitution percentages, the shrinkage become stable at around 800 selected mixes. Compared to the lime mortars, dense particles are more
µm/m which is close to the values recorded for CM0. In fact, the visible for the cement mortars. CM10 shows a dense surface with a small
shrinkage values in lime mortars rise with increasing CWP to reach the quantity of non-reacted and partially-reacted particles. Non-reacted and
partially reacted particles are more pronounced for CM0 than CM10.

Fig. 12. Drying shrinkage strain of cement mortars.

8
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 13. Drying shrinkage strain of hydrated lime mortars.

Table 8
Drying shrinkage and pH values of mortar mixtures after 28- and 90-day curing, respectively.
Cement mixes Hydrated lime mixes

CM0 CM10 CM20 CM30 CM40 CM50 CM60 LM0 LM20 LM40 LM60 LM70 LM80

Drying shrinkage (µm/m) 783 707 666 636 567 595 611 316 636 928 834 789 821
pH 12.80 12.79 12.82 12.80 12.71 12.54 12.39 12.94 12.88 12.78 12.77 12.52 12.48

As observed in Fig. 16, the highest intensities of portlandite are at 2-θ

equals 18, 29, 34, 47 and 51˚. It is well known that portlandite con­
sumptions in mortars with pozzolanic materials relates to the amount of
pozzolanic reaction [15,16,38]. The intensity of portlandite in CM10 is
lower than CM0 which can be explained by consumption of calcium
hydroxide by CWP leading to increased amount of C-S-H [38,50,51].
These observations can explain the outcomes of the compressive and
tensile strengths for CM0 and CM10 as discussed earlier.
The results of XRD analyses for LM0, LM20 and LM70 are compared
in Fig. 16d, 16e and 16f. Despite the high volume of SiO2 in CWP, the
amount of silica has not increased significantly with increasing substi­
Fig. 14. (a) XRD and (b) SEM testing devices. tution rate from 0 to 70%. This may be due to the reaction of silica
available in CWP with calcium hydroxide, which produces calcium sil­
Increasing CWP percentages from 10 to 50 % has led to augmenting the icate hydrate (C-S-H). It is worth mentioning that, XRD patterns show
non-reacted quartz (SiO2) with a poorer morphology structure resulting similar levels of portlandite peaks in LM70 than LM20.
in a high degree of porosity as also reported in other studies [38,42–44].
SEM illustration of CM50 proved that high replacement rates of CWP in 3.7. Environmental and economic considerations
cement mortars can negatively influence the C-S-H gel formulation and
generate more partially reacted gel such as Mullite and non-reacted Each ton of cement manufacturing is accompanied by the emission of
particles including quartz [11,45]. Considering the lime mixes, around 0.9 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) [16,52] along with a consid­
increasing the substitution rate from 20 to 70% enhanced the quantity of erable amount of NOx, SOx, and particles [52]. Using recycled or waste
the reacted particles [38,44] so that the solid surfaces are more pro­ materials and industrial by-products in the construction industry is a
nounced for LM70 as observed in Fig. 15. This observation is also viable approach to tackle these environmental issues [16,52]. CWP is
aligned with the outcomes of the mechanical tests. not biodegradable and hence it is important to find practical applica­
tions for this material to prevent it from landfill disposal [52]. Appli­
3.6.2. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) cation of CWP (in optimum quantities) in mortar production can not
Fig. 16 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of CM0, CM10, only provide important environmental advantages but can also improve
CM50, LM0, LM20 and LM70. The crystalline phases in the mortars both the mechanical and durability properties of the mortar. Other
include quartz, portlandite, calcite and vaterite. The high intensity experimental studies also confirm that adding up to 50% CWP can
quartz peaks in these six mortars can prove pure silica, generally improve the compressive strength and durability performance of mortar
observed in sand and CWP [46–48]. The higher intensity of calcite peak [1,20,53]. Currently, the price of CWP in Iran is at least 5 times lower
and lower amount of quartz observed in CM10 may be due to more than cement, whilst in European countries that ratio is much higher, up
stable pozzolanic reactions. In addition, the high intensity of quartz in to 20 times, depending on transport costs. Hence, from the Environ­
CM50 may be attributed to the high amount of non-reacted CWP mental and Economic perspective, it makes sense to use CWP as partial
[46,49]. cement replacement in mortars and most likely in concrete too.

9
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 15. SEM images of specimens after 90 days of curing.

10
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 16. XRD results of tested specimens.

11
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 16. (continued).

12
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

Fig. 16. (continued).

13
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

4. Conclusions Forming Agents for Sustainable Porous Ceramic Production: A Review, J. Clean.
Prod. 306 (2021) 127264.
[9] U. Environment, K.L. Scrivener, V.M. John, E.M. Gartner, Eco-efficient cements:
This study evaluates parametrically the efficiency of CWP as an Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials
environmental friendly binder substitution in cement and lime masonry industry, Cem. Concr. Res. 114 (2018) 2–26.
mortars by examining the mechanical, microstructure and durability [10] EuropeanUnion, Long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies
(LT-LEDS), 2018. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/climate-strategies-
properties of the mixes. targets/2050-long-term-strategy_en.
Based on the obtained results, the compressive and tensile strengths [11] S.V. Patankar, Y.M. Ghugal, S.S. Jamkar, Effect of concentration of sodium
of cement mortars marginally (up tp 10%) increased by replacing hydroxide and degree of heat curing on fly ash-based geopolymer mortar, Ind. J.
Mater. Sci. 2014 (2014) 1–6.
cement with CWP up to a replacement rate of 50% after 90 days. When [12] G.A. Hamdy, M.O.R. El-Hariri, M.F. Farag, Use of additives in mortar to enhance
the replacement rate reaches 60%, the strengths fall by up to 21% the compression and bond strength of masonry exposed to different environmental
indicating that the maximum substitution should be kept at 50%. conditions, J. Build. Eng. 25 (2019), 100765.
[13] G. Matias, P. Faria, I. Torres, Lime mortars with heat treated clays and ceramic
Nonetheless, the best performance in terms of mechanical, physical, waste: A review, Constr. Build. Mater. 73 (2014) 125–136.
durability and microstructure analysis belongs to 10–20% cement [14] H.M. Magbool, Utilisation of ceramic waste aggregate and its effect on Eco-friendly
replacement with CWP. For the hydrated lime mortars, the compressive concrete: A review, J. Build. Eng. 47 (2022) 103815.
[15] A.S. El-Dieb, D.M. Kanaan, Ceramic waste powder an alternative cement
and tensile strengths are substantially improved (up to 10 times) with replacement–Characterization and evaluation, Sustainable Materials and
increasing substation rate up to 70%. At 80% replacement, the Technologies 17 (2018) e00063.
compressive and tensile strengths are reduced somewhat, indicating a [16] M. Mohit, Y. Sharifi, Ceramic waste powder as alternative mortar-based
cementitious material, ACI Mater. J. 116 (6) (2019) 107–116.
saturation level at 70% substitution level. On the other hand, the drying
[17] G. Matias, P. Faria, I. Torres, Lime mortars with ceramic wastes: Characterization
shrinkage increases with CWP substitution reaching the levels similar to of components and their influence on the mechanical behaviour, Constr. Build.
those of the cement mortar mixes Mater. 73 (2014) 523–534.
Such replacements of binder with CWP can result in better perfor­ [18] F. Brekailo, E. Pereira, E. Pereira, M.M. Farias, R.A. Medeiros-Junior, Red ceramic
and concrete waste as replacement of portland cement: Microstructure aspect of
mance of masonry mortars and offer an economical and environmen­ eco-mortar in external sulfate attack, Clean. Mater. 3 (2022), 100034.
tally friendly approach to reduce the impact of cement/lime on climate [19] P. Chokkalingam, H. El-Hassan, A. El-Dieb, A. El-Mir, Development and
change. More experimental tests, however, are needed to be conducted characterization of ceramic waste powder-slag blended geopolymer concrete
designed using Taguchi method, Constr. Build. Mater. 349 (2022), 128744.
to confirm the outcomes of the current study. [20] D.M. Kannan, S.H. Aboubakr, A.S. El-Dieb, M.M. Reda Taha, High performance
concrete incorporating ceramic waste powder as large partial replacement of
Portland cement, Constr. Build. Mater. 144 (2017) 35–41.
CRediT authorship contribution statement [21] X. Chen, D. Zhang, S. Cheng, X. Xu, C. Zhao, X. Wang, Q. Wu, X. Bai, Sustainable
reuse of ceramic waste powder as a supplementary cementitious material in
Mohsen Ebrahimi: Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, recycled aggregate concrete: Mechanical properties, durability and microstructure
assessment, J. Build. Eng. 52 (2022), 104418.
Writing – original draft. Abolfazl Eslami: Conceptualization, Supervi­
[22] J. Hoppe Filho, C.A.O. Pires, O.D. Leite, M.R. Garcez, M.H.F. Medeiros, Red
sion, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. Iman Hajirasouliha: ceramic waste as supplementary cementitious material: Microstructure and
Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Moein mechanical properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 296 (2021) 123653.
[23] A. Alsaif, Utilization of ceramic waste as partially cement substitute – A review,
Ramezanpour: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – review &
Constr. Build. Mater. 300 (2021), 124009.
editing. Kypros Pilakoutas: Conceptualization, Writing – review & [24] L. Gautam, J.K. Jain, P. Kalla, S. Choudhary, A review on the utilization of ceramic
editing. waste in sustainable construction products, Mater. Today Proc. 43 (2021)
1884–1891.
[25] A. AlArab, B. Hamad, G. Chehab, J.J. Assaad, Use of Ceramic-Waste Powder as
Value-Added Pozzolanic Material with Improved Thermal Properties, J. Mater. Civ.
Declaration of Competing Interest Eng. 32 (9) (2020) 04020243.
[26] A. Ayat, H. Bouzerd, T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Navarro, M.L. Benmalek, Valorisation of
waste glass powder and brick dust in air-lime mortars for restoration of historical
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
buildings: Case study theatre of Skikda (Northern Algeria), Constr. Build. Mater.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence 315 (2022), 125681.
the work reported in this paper. [27] ASTM C150 / C150M-20., Standard Specification for Portland Cement, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020.
[28] ASTM C204–18e1., Standard Test Methods for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by
Data availability Air-Permeability Apparatus, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2018.
[29] ASTM E1621-13., Standard Guide for Elemental Analysis by Wavelength Dispersive
No data was used for the research described in the article. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2013.
[30] ASTM C618-19., Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
References Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA, 2019.
[31] ASTM C778-17. Standard Specification for Standard Sand, ASTM International,
[1] K. Xu, W. Huang, L. Zhang, S. Fu, M. Chen, S. Ding, B. Han, Mechanical properties
West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
of low-carbon ultrahigh-performance concrete with ceramic tile waste powder,
[32] ASTM C109 / C109M-20b. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Constr. Build. Mater. 287 (2021), 123036.
Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50 mm] Cube Specimens), ASTM
[2] X. Fang, D. Xuan, B. Zhan, W. Li, C.S. Poon, A novel upcycling technique of
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020.
recycled cement paste powder by a two-step carbonation process, J. Clean. Prod.
[33] ASTM C1437-20. Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar,
290 (2021), 125192.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020.
[3] L. Li, W. Liu, Q. You, M. Chen, Q. Zeng, Waste ceramic powder as a pozzolanic
[34] ASTM C348-21. Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement
supplementary filler of cement for developing sustainable building materials,
Mortars, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
J. Clean. Prod. 259 (2020), 120853.
[35] ASTM C157 / C157M-17. Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened
[4] J.M. Allwood, J.M. Cullen, R.L. Milford, Options for achieving a 50% cut in
Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
industrial carbon emissions by 2050, Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (6) (2010)
PA, 2017.
1888–1894.
[36] ASTM C511-19. Standard Specification for Mixing Rooms, Moist Cabinets, Moist
[5] S. Ray, M. Haque, M.N. Sakib, A.F. Mita, M.D.M. Rahman, B.B. Tanmoy, Use of
Rooms, and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and
ceramic wastes as aggregates in concrete production: A review, J. Build. Eng. 43
Concretes, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2019.
(2021) 102567.
[37] ASTM C642-13. Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in
[6] M. Ali, R. Saidur, M. Hossain, A review on emission analysis in cement industries,
Hardened Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (5) (2011) 2252–2261.
[38] M. Mohit, Y. Sharifi, Thermal and microstructure properties of cement mortar
[7] C. Meyer, The greening of the concrete industry, Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (8)
containing ceramic waste powder as alternative cementitious materials, Constr.
(2009) 601–605.
Build. Mater. 223 (2019) 643–656.
[8] S.Z. Salleh, A. Awang Kechik, A.H. Yusoff, M.A.A. Taib, M. Mohamad Nor,
[39] K. Thangavel, N. Rengaswamy, Relationship between chloride/hydroxide ratio and
M. Mohamad, T.G. Tan, A. Ali, M.N. Masri, J.J. Mohamed, S.K. Zakaria, J.G. Boon,
corrosion rate of steel in concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 20 (4) (1998) 283–292.
F. Budiman, P.T. Teo, Recycling Food, Agricultural, and Industrial Wastes as Pore-

14
M. Ebrahimi et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131146

[40] ASTM D4972-19. Standard Test Methods for pH of Soils, ASTM International, West [47] T. Kallel, A. Kallel, B. Samet, Durability of mortars made with sand washing waste,
Conshohocken, PA, 2019. Constr. Build. Mater. 122 (2016) 728–735.
[41] K. Byfors, Influence of silica fume and flyash on chloride diffusion and pH values in [48] M.K. Mohammed, A.R. Dawson, N.H. Thom, Production, microstructure and
cement paste, Cem. Concr. Res. 17 (1) (1987) 115–130. hydration of sustainable self-compacting concrete with different types of filler,
[42] H. Alanazi, J. Hu, Y.-R. Kim, Effect of slag, silica fume, and metakaolin on Constr. Build. Mater. 49 (2013) 84–92.
properties and performance of alkali-activated fly ash cured at ambient [49] P.O. Awoyera, J.O. Akinmusuru, J.M. Ndambuki, Green concrete production with
temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 197 (2019) 747–756. ceramic wastes and laterite, Constr. Build. Mater. 117 (2016) 29–36.
[43] G.F. Huseien, A.R.M. Sam, K.W. Shah, M.A. Asaad, M.M. Tahir, J. Mirza, Properties [50] M. Jamil, M. Khan, M. Karim, A. Kaish, M. Zain, Physical and chemical
of ceramic tile waste based alkali-activated mortars incorporating GBFS and fly contributions of Rice Husk Ash on the properties of mortar, Constr. Build. Mater.
ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 214 (2019) 355–368. 128 (2016) 185–198.
[44] G.F. Huseien, A.R.M. Sam, K.W. Shah, J. Mirza, Effects of ceramic tile powder [51] M. Khan, M. Jamil, M. Karim, M. Zain, A. Kaish, Filler effect of pozzolanic
waste on properties of self-compacted alkali-activated concrete, Constr. Build. materials on the strength and microstructure development of mortar, KSCE J. Civ.
Mater. 236 (2020), 117574. Eng. 21 (1) (2017) 274–284.
[45] G. Huseien, M. Ismail, M. Tahir, J. Mirza, A. Hussein, N. Khalid, N. Sarbini, Effect [52] J. Cattaneo, Glass recycling: market outlook, Resource Conservation Challenge
of binder to fine aggregate content on performance of sustainable alkali activated (RCC) 2008 Workshop, 2008.
mortars incorporating solid waste materials, Chemical, Eng. Trans. 63 (2018) [53] S.T. Aly, A.S. El-Dieb, M.R. Taha, Effect of High-Volume Ceramic Waste Powder as
667–672. Partial Cement Replacement on Fresh and Compressive Strength of Self-
[46] P. Awoyera, A. Dawson, N. Thom, J. Akinmusuru, Suitability of mortars produced Compacting Concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31 (2) (2019) 04018374.
using laterite and ceramic wastes: Mechanical and microscale analysis, Constr.
Build. Mater. 148 (2017) 195–203.

15