Chapter 4

Maxwell’s Equations

4.1 Fundamentals of vector calculus linear momentum is the angular momentum. The angu-
lar momentum acts in a direction perpendicular to momen-
4.1.1 Dot product or Scalar product tum and the radius vector. Thus angular momentum ( L) ® is
given by the cross product of radius vector (®
r ) and linear
The dot product of two vectors is defined as follows momentum ( p)® and hence L® = r® × p.
®
a®. b® = abcosθ (4.1)
4.1.3 Scalar field
here θ is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the
® If a® = ax iˆ + ay jˆ + az ẑ and b® = It is a function of a space whose value at each point is a
magnitudes of a® and b.
scalar quantity. For example potential setup by a charge in
bx iˆ + by jˆ + bz ẑ then the dot product or scalar product is
space.
given by

a®. b® = ax bx + ay by + az bz (4.2) 4.1.4 Vector field

The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity. It is a function of a space whose value at each point is
a vector quantity. Consider a region in the flowing water.
Each and every point can be associated with a vector whose
Physical Significance The dot product is mathemati-
magnitude represents the speed of flow and direction gives
cally put forward and could be applied in physics under
the direction of flow. Thus the whole region could be imag-
suitable circumstances. For example the work done is
ined filled with vectors and is an example of vector field.
maximum when the displacement is along the force. Thus
® and Consider a region surrounding a point charge. The electric
work done is defined as the dot product of force (F)
® and is a scalar quantity. Hence W = F. ®
® d. field at each and every point surrounding the charge could
displacement(d)
be represented by vectors and hence is a vector field.

4.1.2 Vector product or Cross product 4.1.5 The ∇ Operator

The vector product of two vectors is defined as follows In mathematics the following operator is used called ∇ op-
erator. When this operator acts on a scalar quantity it in-
a® × b® = a b sinθ n̂ (4.3)
structs to differentiate the scalar quantity. The operation of
∇ on a scalar quantity results in a vector quantity. The ∇
here θ is the angle between two vectors. a and b are the
® n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to operator is given by
magnitudes of a® and b.
® If a® = ax iˆ + ay jˆ + az ẑ and b® = bx iˆ + by jˆ + bz ẑ
both a® and b. ∂ ∂ ∂
then their cross product is given by ∇ = iˆ + jˆ + k̂ (4.5)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 iˆ jˆ k̂  Let T be a scalar function. Then ∇T states that the ∇
a® × b® = ax ay az 

(4.4) acts on T. There are three ways in which ∇ can act.
 b x b y bz 
1. On a scalar function ∇T called the Gradient.
The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
2. On a vector function via the dot product ∇. A® called
the Divergence.
Physical Significance The cross product is put forward
in mathematics an could be applied in physics under suit- 3. On a vector function via the cross product ∇× A® called
able circumstances. For a rotating body the moment of the Curl.

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4.1.6 The Gradient

Consider a scalar function V. The operator ∇ acting on the
scalar function V is given by

∂V ˆ ∂V ∂V
∇V = iˆ +j + k̂ (4.6)
∂x ∂y ∂z

The gradient ∇V points along the maximum variation of

the function V and the magnitude of ∇V gives the rate of
Figure 4.1: Positive, Negative and Zero Divergence
change in the maximal direction.

Physical significance: Let us consider a positive point

charge in space. Let the potential set up by the charge in 4.1.8 The Curl
the surrounding be V and is a scalar quantity. The potential
decreases as the distance from the charge increases. Thus
The curl of a vector field is could be constructed as follows
the gradient of potential results in the electric field strength
which is a vector quantity. This could be written as   
∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × H® = iˆ + jˆ + k̂ × Hx iˆ + Hy jˆ + Hz k̂
∂V ∂x ∂y ∂z
E® = − r̂ (4.7)
∂r
Here r is the position vector and r̂ is the unit vector along
position vector. The negative sign indicates the decrease in  iˆ

jˆ

k̂ 
potential. Thus the above equation could be written as ®
∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × H =  ∂x ∂y ∂z  (4.10)
H Hy H
∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V x z
E® = −∇V = i+ j+ k̂ (4.8)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Thus the Electric field strength is defined as negative of The equation 4.10 represents curl of H® and also it is evident
gradient of potential also known as grad V. that curl of a vector is a vector quantity.

4.1.7 The Divergence

The divergence of a vector field is mathematically written Physial significance : The curl of a vector function is a
® The vector field E is represented by E® = Ex iˆ +
as ∇. E. measure how much field swirls (curls) around the point of
Ey jˆ + Ez k̂. From the definition of the ∇ we can construct consideration. Consider a wire carrying electric current.
divergence as This sets magnetic field surrounding the wire. Consider a
point on the wire. The magnetic field lines curl or swirl
around the point. Higher the value of H® around the point
stronger will be the curl. If the field lines purely parallel
  
® ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ∂ 
∇. E = i +j + k̂ . Ex iˆ + Ey jˆ + Ez k̂ then it represents zero curl around the point. See fig 4.2.
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Ex ∂Ey ∂Ez

∇. E® = + + (4.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
From the equation 4.9 we observe that the divergence of a
vector field is a scalar quantity.

Physical significance : The physical significance of the

divergence of a vector function is it measures how much
the vector E spreads out (diverges) from a point of con-
sideration. For example if we consider a positive charge
in space the field lines diverge and hence it is positive di-
vergence. For a negative charge the field lines converge Figure 4.2: Curl of a magnetic field
and hence it is negative divergence. If the field lines or
parallel then it iszero divergence. See fig. 4.1.

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4.2 Line, Surface and Volume inte- M as in the figure. Consider n̂ a unit vector normal to ds
® The surface integral
and dS n̂ represents area vector of dS.
grals over the entire surface S is given by
4.2.1 Line integral ∫
A. ®
® dS (4.13)
Line integral is an expression of the form s
∫ A ∫
Here is the symbol used for surface integral. The sur-
A. ®
® dl (4.11) s
P

here A® represents the vector field and dl represents a in-

Figure 4.5: Surface Integral

Figure 4.3: Line Integral

face integral gives the net outward flux of the vector field
through the surface. For a closed surface the surface inte-
finitesimally small length at a point M along the path PQ gral is given by
®
in the field. The dot product A.vecdl and θ is the angle
®
∮
made dl with A. For a closed path the integral is written as ®
® dS
A. (4.14)
∮ s
A. ®
® dl (4.12)
In case of surface integral for a closed surface the n̂ chosen
∮ outwards. The surface integral could be applied to calcu-
is the symbol used for closed contour integral. This is late the net flux of the electric field through a surface in the
also called as circulation of A® around the closed path. The electric field.

4.2.3 Volume integral

Figure 4.4: Circulation of vector

Figure 4.6: Volume Integral

line integral concept can be applied to calculate the poten-
tial difference between to points in an electric field.
Consider a volume charge distribution in which charges
4.2.2 Surface integral are continuously distributed. Let v be the volume through
which the charges are distributed. Consider a point M in-
® consider
Consider a surface of area S in a vector field A. side the charge distribution. Let dv be a small volume
a small infinitesimal area dS on the surface around point around a point M. let ρv be the density of charges at M

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and is a scalar quantity. The net charge in the volume is

given by volume integral of the form
∮
ρv dv (4.15)
v
∮
here v
is the symbol for volume integral.

Figure 4.8: Gauss divergence theorem

4.3 Some Theorems of Electrostat-
ics, Electricity, Magnetism and
Statement: The Gauss divergence theorem states that
Electromagnetic induction the integral of the normal component of the flux density
over a closed surface of any shape in an electric field is
4.3.1 Gauss flux theorem - Gauss’ law in equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux
electrostatics throughout the space enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
Mathematically
Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a ∮ ∮
surface of any shape enclose these charges and is called a D. ® = (∇. D)
® dS ® dv (4.18)
Gaussian surface. Let q be the charge enclosed by a closed s v

surface S. The closed surface could be considered to be

made up of number of elementary surfaces dS. If D ® is the Proof
electric flux density at dS then the surface integral gives Consider a volume v enclosed by a Gaussian surface S. Let
the total electric flux over the surface S could be obtained a charge dQ be enclosed by a small volume dv inside the
as Gaussian surface. If ρ is the density of charges and may
vary inside the volume v then the charge density associated
with volume dv is given by
dQ
ρv =
dv
Thus
dQ = ρv dv
Thus the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
give by ∮ ∮
Q= dQ = ρv dv
Figure 4.7: Gauss’ Flux Theorem - Electrostatics v v
Substituting for ρv from Maxwell’s First equation 4.18 we
get
∮ Õ
φ= D. ® =
® dS q (4.16)
∮
s
® dv
Q = (∇. D)
v
here φ is the total flux and q = (q1 + q2 + ...) is the total
Í
According to Gauss’ law of electrostatics we have
charge enclosed by the surface. ∮
Q= D. ®
® dS
s

4.3.2 Gauss Divergence Theorem Thus equating the equations for Q we get
∮ ∮
®
Divergence of D ® ®
D. dS = (∇. D)® dv (4.19)
s v
Consider a vector field D.® Consider a point P in the
Thus Gauss divergence theorem. Divergence theorem re-
vector field. Let ρv be the density of charges at the point lates the surface integral with volume integral.
® is given by
P. It can be shown that the divergence of the D

® = ρv
∇. D (4.17)
4.3.3 Stokes’ Theorem
Stokes, theorem relates surface integral with line integral
This is also the Maxwell’s first equation. (Circulation of a vector field around a closed path).

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4.3.5 Amperes Law

Statement: The circulation of magnetic field strength
H® along a closed path is equal to the net current enclosed
(Ienc ) by the loop. Mathematically
∮
H. ® = Ienc
® dl (4.23)

By applying stokes’ theorem we get

∫
® dS
(∇ × H). ® = Ienc (4.24)
Figure 4.9: Stokes’ theorem s

The equation for Ienc could be obtained as

∮
Statement: The surface integral of curl of F® throughout Ienc = J. ®
® dS (4.25)
a chosen surface is equal to the circulation of the F® around s

the boundary of the chosen surface. Equating equations 4.24 and 4.25 we get
Mathematically ∫ ∮
∫ ∮ ® ®
(∇ × H). dS = J. ®
® dS
® ®
(∇ × F). dS = F. ®
® dl (4.20) s s
s
Thus we get the amperes law as
4.3.4 Gauss’ law of Magnetostatics ∇ × H® = J® (4.26)
Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a Thus Amperes circuital law and another Maxwell’s equa-
magnetic field. The magnetic fields lines exist in closed tion.
loops. Hence for every flux line that enters the closed sur-
face a flux line emerges out else where. Thus for a closed
surface in a magnetic field the total inward flux(Positive) 4.3.6 Biot-Savart Law
is equal to total outward flux(Negative). Thus the net flux Considera a portion of a conductor carrying current I.
through the Gaussian surface is zero. Thus it could be writ- Let dl be infinitesimally small elemental length of the con-
ten ∮ ductor at M. Consider a point P near The conductor. Let
B. ® =0
® dS (4.21) M®P be the the vector joining the element with the point
s
and of length r with r̂ being the unit vector. θ is the an-
Here B® magnetic flux density. Applying Gauss divergence gle made by M P with the element. Biot-Savart law states
theorem we get the magnitude and direction of the small magnetic field at
P due to the elemental length dl of the current carrying
conductor.

Figure 4.10: Gauss’ Flux Theorem - Magnetostatics

∮ ∮
B. ® =
® dS ® dv = 0
(∇. B)
s v Figure 4.11: Biot-Savart Law
Hence it could be written

∇. B® = 0 (4.22) ® is
The magnitude of the magnetic field dH
This is one of the Maxwell’s equations. 1. Proporitonal to the length of the element dl

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2. Proportional to the current through the element I. Using the Stokes’ theorem
∮ ∫
3. Proportional to the Sine of the angle θ, Sin(θ). ® = (∇ × E).
® dL
E. ® dS® (4.34)
s
4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance r.
and hence we can write
The direction of the magnetic field dH® is perpendicular ∫ ∫ ®
to the plane containing both the element and the vector r®. ® ® ∂B ®
(∇ × E). dS = − . dS (4.35)
Mathematically we get s s ∂t

I dl Sin(θ) Thus finally it reduces to

dH ∝
r2 ∂ B®
∇ × E® = − (4.36)
I dl Sin(θ) ∂t
dH = (4.27)
4πr 2 Thus Faraday’s law in differential (Point form) and one of
1
Here 4π is the proportionality constant. the above equation the Maxwell’s equations.
could be expressed in the vector form as
® 4.4 Equation of continuity
® = I dl × r̂
dH (4.28)
4πr 2 In all processes involving motion of charge carriers the
Thus the Biot-Savart Law. net charge is always conserved and is called the law of
conservation of charges.
4.3.7 Faraday’s Laws of electro-magnetic in-
duction Let us consider a volume V. Let the charges flow in to
and out of the volume V. Then the equation for the law of
Statement conservation could be written in the integral form as
1. When ever there is a change in magnetic flux linked
∮ ∫
® ® ∂
with the circuit an emf (e) is induced and is equal to J. dS = − ρv dV (4.37)
s ∂t v
rate of change of magnetic flux.
ρv is the volume density of charge and J® = Ne®v = ρv v® is
2. The em f induced is in such a direction that it apposes the current density.The negative sign indicates that the cur-
the cause. rent density is due to the decrease in positive charge den-
sity inside the volume. Using the Gauss divergence theo-
Mathematically the induced em f is given by
rem we can write
dφ ∮ ∮
e=− (4.29) J. ® = (∇. J).dV
® dS ®
dt s v
Here φ is magnetic flux linked with the circuit. For a coil Thus the equation 4.37 could be written as
of N turns the induced em f due to rate of change of flux is ∮ ∫
given by ® ∂
(∇. J).dV =− ρv dV
dφ v ∂t v
e = −N (4.30)
dt The above equation could be reduced to
∮ ∫
Faraday’s law in integral and differential forms ® ∂ ρv
(∇. J).dV =− dV
v v ∂t
For a conducting loop linked with change in magnetic flux
the rate of change flux is Thus the equation of continuity could be written as
∫ ® ∂ ρv
dφ
=
∂B ®
. dS (4.31) ∇. J® = − (4.38)
∂t
dt s ∂t
4.38 is also the law of conservation of charges.
The induced em f in the the circuit is given by
∮
®
® dL Discussion on equation of continuity :
e= E. (4.32)
In case of DC circuits for steady currents the inward flow
Substituting the above in the equation 4.29 we get
of charges is equal to the outward flow through a closed
∮ ∫
∂ B® ® surface and hence ∂ρ
∂t = 0. Thus the equation of continuity
v

E. ® =−
® dL . dS (4.33)
s ∂t becomes ∇. J® = 0.

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Hence equation 4.39 could be written as

!
∂D ®
®
∇. J = −∇.
∂t
!
∂ ®
D
∇. J® + =0
∂t

®
Hence for time varying
 circuits  ∇. J = 0 does not hold
®
good and instead ∇. J® + ∂∂tD = 0 has to be used. Also J®
® ®
in
 Amperes  Circuital law ∇ × H = J has to be replace with
®
J® + ∂∂tD Thus the Maxwell-Ampere law is given by

®
∂D
∇ × H® = J® + (4.40)
Figure 4.12: DC and AC circuits - Continuity equation ∂t
®
∂D
In the above equation ∂t is called displacement current.

In case of AC circuits containing capacitors the equa-

tion ∇. J® = 0 fails as follows. During the positive half 4.5.3 Expression for Displacement current
cycle, say, the capacitor charges. If we imagine a closed Consider an AC circuit containing a capacitor as shown in
surface enclosing the capacitor plate and the attached con- the figure 4.13
ductor there will be inward flow to the closed surface but
not outward flow. Thus in order to rescue the equation
of continuity Maxwell introduced the concept of displace-
ment current density.

4.5 Displacement Current

4.5.1 Definition
Displacement current density is a correction factor intro- Figure 4.13: Displacement current
duced by Maxwell in order to explain the continuity of
electric current in time-varying circuits. It has the same
The displacement current in terms of displacement cur-
unit as electric current density. Displacement current is as-
rent density is given by
sociated with magnetic current but it does not describe the
flow of charge. ®
!
∂D
ID = .A (4.41)
∂t
4.5.2 Maxwell-Ampere Law
Introducing the concept of displacement current for time Here A is the area of the capacitor plates.The elecric flux
varying circuits, Maxwell suggested corrections to the density D is give by
Amperes law. According to Gauss’ Law D = ǫE (4.42)

® = ρv
∇. D Here E is the electric field strength which is given by

Differentiating the above equation with respect to time V

E= (4.43)
d
∂  ®  ∂ ρv
∇. D = Here d is the separation between the capacitor plates. V
∂t ∂t
the applied potential is given by
∂D® ∂ ρv
∇. = (4.39) V = Vs e jwt (4.44)
∂t ∂t
The equation of continuity is given by Using equations 4.42, 4.43 and 4.44 we get
∂ ρv ǫ
∇. J® = − D= Vs e jωt (4.45)
∂t d

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Substituting for D in equation 4.41 from equation 4.45,

we get
∂ ǫ 
ID = Vs e jωt .A
∂t d
Executing differentiation the displacement current is given
by
jωǫ A
ID = Vs e jwt (4.46)
d

4.6 Maxwell’s Equations

Using the laws and theorems discussed in this chapter
Four Maxwell’s equations for time-varying fields could be
written as
® = ρv
1. Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics ∇. D
®
2. Faraday’s Law ∇ × E® = − ∂∂tB

3. Gauss’ Law of Magnetic fields ∇. B® = 0

®
4. Maxwell - Ampere Law ∇ × H® = J® + ∂D
∂t

The Four Maxwell’s equations for static fields could be

written as
® = ρv
1. ∇. D
2. ∇ × E® = 0

3. ∇. B® = 0

4. ∇ × H® = J®

The above equations are used to study the electromag-

netic waves.

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Chapter 5

Electromagnetic waves

5.1 Introduction As per the Maxwells equation ∇. D

ρv
® = ρv . Since D = ǫ E
®
it could be written as ∇. E = ǫ . Substituting in the above
The existence of EM waves was predicted by Maxwell the- equation we get
oretically using the point form of Faraday’s Law of electro- ρ 
v
magnetic induction. As per Faraday’s law a time varying ∇ × ∇ × E® = ∇ − ∇2 E® (5.6)
magnetic field induces electric field which varies with re- ǫ
spect to space and time. The reverse is also evident from Substituting equation 5.6 in equation 5.5 we get
the equations. Thus Electromagnetic wave is the propaga- ρ 
v ∂  
tion of energy in terms of varying electric and magnetic ∇ − ∇2 E® = −µ ∇ × H® (5.7)
fields which are in mutually perpendicular directions and ǫ ∂t
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Substituting equation 5.4 in 5.7 we have
!
ρ 
v ∂ ® ∂ E®
∇ − ∇2 E® = −µ J+ǫ (5.8)
5.2 Wave equation for EM waves in ǫ ∂t ∂t
vacuum in terms of electric field the above equation could be rewritten as
using Maxwell’s Equations
∂ 2 E® ∂ ®j ρ 
v
∇2 E® − µǫ = µ + ∇ (5.9)
Consider the Maxwell’s equations ∂t 2 ∂t ǫ
The LHS in equation 5.9 represents a propagating wave
∂ B®
∇ × E® = − (5.1) and the RHS the source of origin of the wave. Here µ
∂t and ǫ are respectively Absolute permeability and Absolute
® permittivity of isotropic homogeneous medium. In case of
∂D
∇ × H® = J® + (5.2) propagation of EM wave in free space ( J® = 0, ρv = 0)
∂t equation 5.9 reduces to
Substituting D = ǫ E and B = µH in the above equations
we get ∂ 2 E®
∇2 E® − µǫ =0 (5.10)
∂ H® ∂t 2
∇ × E® = −µ (5.3)
∂t Hence the electromagnetic wave equation in free space.
∂ E® Comparing the above equation with the general wave equa-
∇ × H® = J® + ǫ (5.4) tion we get the velocity of the EM wave
∂t
To derive wave equation in terms of electric field, the term 1
= µǫ (5.11)
H® has to be eliminated. Taking curl on both sides the equa- v2
tion 5.3 we get
hence velocity of the EM wave
∂  
∇ × ∇ × E® = −µ ∇ × H® (5.5) 1
∂t v=√ (5.12)
µǫ
According to vector analysis A × (B × C) = B(A.C) −
C(A.B). Thus The velocity of propagation of EM Wave in vacuum

1
≈ 3 × 108 ms−1
 
∇ × ∇ × E® = ∇ ∇. E® − ∇2 E® c= √ (5.13)
µ0 ǫ0

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5.3 Plane electromagnetic waves in electric field vector of this electromagnetic wave makes an
angle theta with respect to x-axis, say. This electric vec-
vacuum tor could be resolved into two perpendicular components
Electromagnetic waves that travels in one direction and E®x and E®y along x and y axes respectively. Based on the
uniform in the other two orthogonal directions is called magnitudes of the components and the phase difference be-
plane electromagnetic waves. For example consider a tween the components there are three kinds of polarization
plane electromagnetic wave traveling along z axis the elec- of electromagnetic waves. They are
tric and magnetic vibrations are uniform and confined to 1. Linearly Polarized EM waves
x-y plane.
2. Circularly Polarized EM waves
3. Electrically Polarized EM waves

Linear polarization In case of linear polarization the

amplitudes of E®x and E®y may or may not be equal and they
are in phase(in unison). Thus the projection of the resul-
tant E® on a plane (x-y plane) perpendicular to the direction
of propagation is a straight line. Thus linear polarization.

Circular polarization In case of circular polarization

the amplitudes of E®x and E®y are equal in magnitude and the
phase difference is 90°. Thus the projection of the resultant
traces a circle on the plane perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. Thus Circular polarization.
Figure 5.1: Plane Electromagnetic Waves
Elliptical polarization In case of circular polarization
the amplitudes of E®x and E®y are unequal in magnitude and
the phase difference is 90°. Thus the projection of the re-
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating sultant traces an ellipse on the plane perpendicular to the
along +ve x-axis. If the time varying electric and mag- direction of propagation. Thus Circular polarization.
netic fields are along y and z axes respectively then we can
write  
® 2π
E = A Cos (x − ct) iˆ (5.14)
λ
 
® 1 2π
B = A Cos (x − ct) jˆ (5.15)
c λ
The ratio of the amplitudes of Electric and Magnetic fields
from equations 5.14 and 5.15 is given by Figure 5.2: Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves
Ey
=c (5.16)
Bz
Here ’c’ is the velocity of light. The linear, circular and elliptical polarization are as
shown in the figure 5.2.

5.4 Polarization of Elecromagnetic

waves
5.4.1 Transverse nature of electromagnetic
waves
The electric and magnetic variations are mutually perpen-
dicular and perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Thus electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. Elec-
tromagnetic waves also exhibit polarization. Consider an
electromagnetic wave propagating along z-axis. The the

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