Chapter-1: Vector Analysis

Scalars and vectors

Scalars are those physical quantities which are completely characterized by their magnitudes such
as temperature, density et cetera. Vectors are those physical quantities which are completely
characterized by their magnitude as well as direction such as velocity, acceleration et cetera.
Moreover, vectors must follow the vector algebra.

Geometrically, vectors are represented by a straight line with an arrow on one of its ends. The
length of line is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and arrow head gives the direction of
that vector. In texts, vectors are represented by the bold faced letters.

Multiplication of two vectors

Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors: The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors A and B is
defined by A ⋅ B = A B cos θ ; here A and B are the magnitudes of A and B and θ is angle between
them i.e. the smaller angle between them when placed tail to tail. The
quantity A B cos θ is a scalar so it is also called the scalar product. B
θ
A
Geometrically, it is equal to the product of magnitude of A and projection
of B along A. It can also be shown that A ⋅ B = B ⋅ A and A ⋅ (B + C) = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ C . If two vectors
are parallel, then A ⋅ B = AB . In particular for any vector A, A ⋅ A = A 2 . If A and B are
perpendicular to each other, then A ⋅ B = 0

Vector (or cross) product of two vectors: The vector (or cross) product of two vectors A and B is
defined by A × B = A B sin θ nˆ ; here A and B are the magnitudes of A and B and θ is angle between
them also n̂ is unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing both A and B. The direction of n̂
is determined by using right hand rule. According to this rule when we curl n̂
fingers of our right hand in the direction of rotation of screw, then the thumb B
points the direction of n̂ . θ
A
Geometrically | A × B | gives the area of parallelogram generated by A and B. Also it can be noted
that A × B ≠ B × A . If two vectors A and B are parallel, then A × B = 0 i.e. in particular A × A = 0
for any vector A. Z
A
Components of a vector k̂
Let us consider three dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate systems XYZ. Az
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Suppose i , j and k be the mutually perpendicular unit vectors along X-, Y- ˆ
i Ax ĵ Y
and Z- axes respectively. Then obviously we can have Ay
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1 and iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0 X

also iˆ × iˆ =ˆj × ˆj =kˆ × kˆ =0 , iˆ × ˆj =kˆ, ˆj × kˆ =iˆ, kˆ × iˆ =ˆj and iˆ × ˆj =− ˆj × iˆ and so on.

Again any vector A can be written as
A = iˆAx + ˆjAy + kˆAz
Here Ax, Ay and Az are numbers (scalars) and are called components of A along X-, Y- and Z- axes.
Now,
A ⋅ B = (iˆAx + ˆjAy + kˆAz ) ⋅ (iˆBx + ˆjB y + kˆBz ) = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
And also,

1
 A × B = (iˆAx + ˆjAy + kˆAz ) × (iˆBx + ˆjB y + kˆBz )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= ( Ay B z − Az B y ) iˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj + ( Ax B y − Ay Bx ) kˆ

Triple products
Scalar triple product of three vectors A, B and C is defined by
A ⋅ (B × C) = B ⋅ (C × A) = C ⋅ ( A × B)
Vector triple product of three vectors A, B and C is defined by
A × (B × C) = B ( A ⋅ C) − C ( A ⋅ B)
( A × B) × C = −C × ( A × B)
= − A(C ⋅ B) + B(C ⋅ A)
= B( A ⋅ C) − A(B ⋅ C)
∴ A × (B × C) ≠ ( A × B) × C

Scalar field and vector field

The region of the space defined by a scalar function is called the scalar field for example
temperature field, density field etc. The region of space defined by a vector point function is called
vector field for example electric field produced by a point positive charge is a vector field.
1 q 
E= rˆ gives direction and magnitude of electric field at position r from the source, also it
4πε 0 r 2

is function of position.
b
Line integral of vector field

Suppose a vector point function F ( x, y, z ) is defined in some region of space
 dl θ
with positions a and b . The line integral of F is defined as the integral of F
 +q r
tangential component of F along the curved path from a to b .
b
  a
= ∫ F ⋅ dl
i.e., line integral
a
 
Suppose F be a force that produces a small displacement dl , then small amount of work done
 
dW is equal to dW = F ⋅ dl . So, the total amount of work done is given by the line integral as
 
W = ∫ F ⋅ dl b

Line integral of electric field

The electric field intensity around a point positive charge in a
c E
space is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge. dl θ
The small amount of work done ( dW ) when a unit positive charge dr
 r
moves from position a to position b in electric field E is given +q
 
by dW = E ⋅ dl . So, the total work done is then
b
  a
= ∫ E ⋅ dl
W
a

2
 b
ˆ ˆ ) ⋅ (idx
+ ˆjE y + kE ˆ )
ˆ + ˆjdy + kdz
or, W = ∫ (iE
a
x z

b
or, W= ∫ ( E dx + E dy + E dz )
a
x y z

b b b
or, W = ∫ Ex dx + ∫ E y dy + ∫ Ez dz
a a a
b
 1 q  
Also, the electric field is given as E =
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ so the line integral is W
= ∫ ⋅ dl
a
E

b
b b 
  ⌠ 1 q  q ⌠ rˆ ⋅ dl
Therefore, = ∫a E ⋅ dl ⌡ 4πε 0 r=
2
rˆ ⋅ dl 
4πε 0 ⌡ r 2
a a

since rˆ ⋅ dl = dl cos θ = dr
b b
b
  q ⌠ dr q  1 q 1 1
Therefore, ∫ E ⋅ dl
=  =  − r = 4πε  − 
a
4πε 0 ⌡ r 2
4πε 0 a 0  ra rb 
a

Thus, line integral only depends on the initial and final positions a and b i.e. it does not depend on
the path followed by the unit positive charge.

The force for which work done by it only depends upon the initial and final positions but not on
the actual path followed is called the conservative force. Therefore, the electric field due to
stationary charges is a conservative field. For conservative field, the line integral for closed path
such as acba is written as
 
∫ E ⋅ dl
b
    b  
∫ ⋅ dl =
Now, E ∫ E ⋅ dl + ∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
a a

So, for conservative field, the total work done in a closed path is zero.

Electric potential and potential difference

The electric potential at a point is defined as the potential energy of a unit positive charge kept at
that point. It is numerically equal to the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point against the electric field.

The potential difference between any two points in an electric field is defined as the amount of
work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other point against the electric
field.

The amount of work done by the electric field when a unit positive charge moves from point a to
b
 
point b is given by the line integral ∫ E ⋅ dl . But we know the electric field is a conservative field.
a

So, when a unit positive charge moves from point b to point a against the field, the work done
b
 
would be − ∫ E ⋅ dl . This work done is equal to the gain in potential energy. Thus, potential
a

difference between points a and b is given by

3
 b
 
− ∫ E ⋅ dl
Vb − Va =
a

This relation only allows us to calculate the potential difference between the given two points. If
we want to calculate the potential at a given point, we must require zero potential at the other
point. Potential is assumed to be zero at infinity. So, for point a is at infinity, Va = 0 and hence
b
 
Vb = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
∞
This relation gives potential at point b. Also it is a scalar point function i.e., a scalar quantity and
function of position of the point.

Gradient of scalar field (Relation between E and V)

Since we know the potential difference for any two points a and b is
b
 
Vb − Va =− ∫ E ⋅ dl
a
b b b b b
or, ∫ dV =
− ∫ (iE ˆ ) ⋅ (idx
ˆ x + ˆjE y + kE ˆ )=
ˆ + ˆjdy + kdz − ∫ Ex dx − ∫ E y dy − ∫ Ez dz
z
a a a a a

or, dV = − E x dx − E y dy − E z dz (1)
Now from the theorem of partial derivatives, dV can be written as
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Equating coefficients of dx, dy and dz in (1) and (2) we find
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − and E z = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now as we know
E = iˆE x + ˆjE y + kˆE z
 ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V 
= −  iˆ + j +k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂ ∂ ∂
= − iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= − ∇V
Thus, E = −∇V

This is the relation between electric field (E) and electric potential (V) and it shows that electric
field is equal to negative gradient of potential.
∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V  ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ 
The quantity iˆ +j +k = i + j + k V is called gradient of V or grad V or ∇V
∂x ∂x ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
(read as nabla V or del V). The symbol ∇ stands for ∇ = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ . ∇ is a vector operator
∂x ∂y ∂z
and produces a vector function when operates on scalar function.

4
Physical significance of gradient of scalar
The direction of ∇φ for a given scalar function φ is same as the direction of maximum increase of
φ at the given point. The magnitude | ∇φ | gives the slope (i.e. rate of increase) of φ at the given
point along normal to φ . That means direction of ∇φ is normal to φ at a given point. So, gradient
of scalar function can be defined as the maximum rate of change of scalar function at a given
point.

The operator ∇ can act in three ways

a) On a scalar function ϕ and produces a vector
 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ϕ =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ ϕ
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ
= iˆ +j +k
∂x ∂x ∂z
And it is called the gradient of ϕ i.e. grad ϕ .

b) On a vector function A with dot product and produces a scalar

 ∂ ∂  ˆ
∇=
 ∂x
∂
⋅ A  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  ⋅ iA
∂y ∂z 
( ˆ ˆ
x + jAy + kAz )
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
And it is called the divergence of A i.e. div A.

c) On a vector function A with cross product and produces a vector

 ∂ ∂ ∂
(
∇ × A =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  × iˆAx + ˆjAy + kˆAz )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
iˆ ˆj kˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
 ∂A ∂Ay  ˆ ∂Ax ∂Az  ˆ ∂Ay ∂Ax 
= iˆ z −  + j −  + k − 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
And it is called curl of A i.e. curl A.

Divergence of vector field (Divergence in Cartesian co-ordinates)

"The divergence of a vector A is defined as the limit of surface integral per unit volume as volume
enclosed by that surface approaches to zero" i.e., if A be a vector and dS the small surface then
lim 1
dτ → 0 dτ ∫S
= div A A ⋅ dS

where dτ is the small volume enclosed by that surface.

Suppose an elemental parallelopiped with dimensions dx , dy , dz and volume dτ = dx dy dz as

shown in figure. Consider a vector point function A with components Ax , A y and Az along the
coordinate axes respectively.
5
 Z
Now we calculate the flux of vector A entering from area
EBOG and leaving from DCPF. Since product of normal C
B
component of vector and area gives the flux, the flux
Ay Ay +
∂Ay
dy
through area EBOG is given by Ay ( y ) dx dz D ∂y

and flux leaving from DCPF is Ay ( y + dy ) dx dz E P Y

expanding this expression using Taylor’s series O dz dx
 ∂Ay  G
Ay ( y + dy ) dx dz =  Ay ( y ) + dy + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ dx dz dy F
∂y X
 
 ∂Ay 
=  Ay ( y ) + dy  dx dz ; neglecting
 ∂y 
higher order terms.
So, the net flux along Y-axis is
 ∂A  ∂A
φ y =  Ay ( y ) + y dy  dx dz − Ay ( y ) dx dz = y dx dy dz
 ∂y  ∂y
∂Ay
∴φ y = dτ
∂y
Similarly, the net flux along X and Z axes are
∂A ∂A
φ x = x dτ and φ z = z dτ
∂x ∂z
Thus, total flux through the volume dτ is
 ∂A ∂Ay ∂A 
∫S A ⋅ dS =ϕ =ϕ x + ϕ y + ϕ z = ∂xx + ∂y + ∂zz  dτ
Now from the definition of divergence,
lim 1 lim 1  ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az  ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
div A =
dτ → 0 dτ S ∫ A ⋅ dS =
dτ → 0 dτ  ∂x
 +
∂y
+
∂z
 dτ =
 ∂x
+
∂y
+
∂z

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

∴ div A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

Also,
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az  ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
∂x
+
∂y
+ =  i
∂z  ∂x
+ j
∂y
∂
∂z 
(
+ kˆ  ⋅ iˆAx + ˆjAy + kˆAz = ∇ ⋅ A )
∂Ax ∂A y ∂Az
∴ div A = ∇ ⋅ A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

Physical significance of the divergence of a vector

The divergence of a vector A (div A or ∇ ⋅ A) is a measure
of how much the vector A spreads out (diverges) from the Positive divergence
(source)
Negative divergence Zero divergence
(sink) (solenoidal)
point concerned.

Gauss’s divergence Theorem

It states that "the surface integral of a vector over a closed surface is equal to the volume integral
of the divergence of that vector over the entire volume enclosed by that surface" i.e.,
∫ A ⋅ dS =
S
∫ div A dV
V

6
To prove this theorem, let us assume a surface S having volume V. We
now subdivide this surface in to large number of small cells; each cells
having volumes ∆v1 , ∆v 2 , ∆v3 , ….. and enclosed by surfaces s1 , s2 , s3 ,... ds i

Now for any volume element in the interior part, the total flux entering is
equal to the flux leaving from the adjacent volume element. So total
interior flux is canceled out and the net flux from the surface is only due to small surfaces on the
boundary. So, for ith cell with volume ∆vi bounded by surface si, it is clear that
 
∫A ⋅ d
= S ∑ ∫ ⋅ dsi
A
i
s si

If there are infinite number of cells, volume of each cell tends to zero. Thus, taking limit as volume
of each cell approaches to zero, we get
lim  1  
= ∫SA ⋅ d S ∑  ∫s ⋅ dsi  ∆vi
∆vi → 0 i  ∆vi 
A
i 
For infinite number of cells, summation may be replaced by integration and limit of the quantity
inside the bracket is divergence of A. i.e.
∫ A ⋅ dS = ∫ div A dV= ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dV
S V V

This proves the divergence theorem and this theorem is used to change surface integral to volume
integral or vice-versa.

Divergence of electric field

q
From Gauss’s law of electrostatics, ∫ E ⋅ dS =
s
ε 0

if there is continuous distribution of charge with ρ as charge density (charge per unit volume),
then
1
∫ E ⋅ dS =∫ ρ dV
s
ε0 V

using Gauss’s divergence theorem, ∫ E ⋅ dS= ∫ (∇ ⋅ E) dV

s V

1 ρ
∴∫ (∇
= ⋅ E) dV = ∫ ρ dV ∫ε dV
V
ε0 V V 0

ρ
∴∇⋅E =
ε0
This is differential form of Gauss’s law i.e. the divergence of electric field at any point is equal to
1
ε times the charge density at that point. The electric displacement vector is defined as
0

D = ε 0 E so,
ε 0∇ ⋅ E = ρ ⇒ ∇ ⋅ ε 0E = ρ ⇒ ∇ ⋅ D = ρ
i.e. divergence of electric displacement vector at any point in medium is equal to charge density at
that point.

7
Poisson’s equation and Laplace equation
We know from Gauss’s law of electrostatics,
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
Also the electric field E is given as E = −∇V ; V is potential. So,
ρ ρ ρ
∇ ⋅ (−∇V ) = or, − ∇ ⋅∇V = ∴ ∇ 2V = −
ε0 ε0 ε0
This equation is called Poisson’s equation. The operator ∇ 2 is called Laplacian. Thus,
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ 2 = ∇ ⋅ ∇ =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  ⋅  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∴∇ 2 =
+ +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
This is expression for Laplacian in Cartesian co-ordinates. Again for region where there is no free
charge so that ρ = 0 , Poisson’s equation reduces to
∇ 2V = 0
This equation is known as Laplace equation.
Z
P (r , θ , φ )
Laplace equation in spherical and cylindrical polar co-ordinates
r
In spherical polar co-ordinates,
θ
x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ and z = r cosθ
Y
The Laplace equation in terms of spherical co-ordinates is
φ
1 ∂  2 ∂V  1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂ 2V X
∇ 2V =  r  +  sin θ  + =0 Spherical polar co-ordinates
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  r 2 sin θ ∂φ 2
Z
P (r ,φ , z )
In cylindrical polar co-ordinates,
x = r cos φ , y = r sin φ and z = z
The Laplace equation in terms of cylindrical co-ordinates is
1 ∂  ∂V  1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V Y
∇ 2V = r + + =0
r ∂r  ∂r  r 2 ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 φ r
X
Cylindrical polar co-ordinates
The curl of a vector function
The line integral for a vector field around a closed path is equal to zero and such vector fields are
called irrotational vector fields. In figure, let plane of rectangular loop PQRS is perpendicular to
the vector field A. The line integral for closed path PQRSP is R
Q
    R   S   P  
∫ ⋅ dl =
 A ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl
P Q R S
S
= 0+0+0+0 A
=0
Now let us rotate the plane. When plane is parallel to the field then Q
Q R S P Q R
             
∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ A ⋅ dl − ∫ A ⋅ dl
 P Q R S P S P

Since value of field at each point varies, the line integral has some finite non zero value. And at
some particular position it has maximum value. Such vector field for which line integral around a
closed path is not equal to zero is called rotational field.
8
"The component of curl of vector field A is defined as the limiting value of line integral per unit
area of closed loop when area of loop approaches to zero"
lim 1   lim 1  
i.e.(curl
= A ) ⋅ nˆ
s→0 s ∫ A ⋅ dl

C
∇ × A ) ⋅ nˆ
or, (=
s→0 s ∫ A ⋅ dl

C

where n̂ is unit vector perpendicular to the surface bounded by the loop.

Z

Physical significance of curl

The curl of vector A (curl A or ∇ × A ) gives the measurement of rotation
of vector around the point concerned. Y
X
Expression of curl in Cartesian co-ordinates
Let Ax , Ay and Az are the components of a vector A on Cartesian co-
Z
ordinate axes. Suppose a closed path PQRSP is taken as shown in
figure. Let dy and dz be the length and height of loop parallel to Y S R
and Z axes. Now line integral for closed path PQRSP is
Q dz
    R   S   P  
∫ A ⋅ dl =
 ∫ ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl
A P dy Q
P Q R S Y
= Ay ( z ) dy + Az ( y + dy ) dz − Ay ( z + dz ) dy − Az ( y ) dz X
Using Taylor’s series expansion and neglecting higher order terms,
  ∂A ∂Ay
∫ ⋅=
 A dl Ay ( z ) dy + Az ( y ) dz + z dy dz − Ay ( z ) dy −
∂y ∂z
dy dz − Az ( y ) dz

 ∂Az ∂Ay   ∂Az ∂Ay 

=
 −  dy dz =
 −  ds
 ∂y ∂z   ∂y ∂z 
where, ds = dx dy is area of loop.
So, x-component of curl is
lim 1  1  ∂Az ∂Ay 
 lim ∂Az ∂Ay
(curl A ) x =
ds → 0 ds ∫ A ⋅ dl
  =
ds → 0 ds  ∂y
−  ds =
∂z  ∂y
−
∂z
∂A
Similarly, (curl A) y = ∂Ax − ∂Az and (curl A) z = y − ∂Ax
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Therefore,
∇ × A or curl A = iˆ(curl A) x + ˆj (curl A) y + kˆ(curl A) z
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 ∂A ∂Ay   ∂A ∂A   ∂A ∂A  ∂ ∂ ∂
= iˆ z −  + ˆj  x − z  + kˆ y − x  =
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
Stoke’s Theorem
The Stoke’s theorem states that "the line integral of a vector around a
closed curve is equal to the surface integral of curl of same vector over ∆si
the surface bounded by the curve" i.e. Ci
 
∫ ⋅=
A dl ∫ curl A ⋅ dS
C S

where C is closed curve which bounds the surface S.

Let a surface S bounded by curve C is divided in to large number of cells. Suppose surface area of
ith cell is ∆si and curve bounding it is Ci . As contribution to the line integral due to each

9
intermediate cell is canceled by the adjacent cell; we can write sum of the line integrals around
each Ci is equal to the line integral around the boundary curve. Thus,
   
dl ∑ 
∫ A ⋅ = ∫ A ⋅ dl
C i Ci

Now suppose that there are infinite numbers of cells such that the area of each cell tends to zero.
So, taking limit as ∆si → 0 , we find
  lim  1
  

=∫ A ⋅ dl
 ∑
∆si → 0 i
 ∫ A ⋅ dl  ∆s
 i
C  ∆si
 Ci 
= ∫ curl A ⋅ nˆ dS
S
 
∫ A ⋅ dl=
∴
C
∫ curl A ⋅ dS= ∫ ( ∇ × A ) ⋅ dS
S S

This proves the Stoke’s theorem and is used to change the line integral to surface integral or vice-
versa.

Curl of electric field

1 q
We know the electric field E due to stationary charge q is given by E = rˆ ; taking curl of
4πε 0 r 2
this expression, we get
 1 q 
∇×E = ∇× rˆ 
 4πε 0 r 
2


q  r  q 1   1  
= ∇× 3  =  r 3 (∇ × r ) + ∇  r 3  × r  [∇ × (ϕ A) = ϕ∇ × A + ∇ϕ × A ]
4πε 0  r  4πε 0    

here ∇ × r = 0
and ∇ 13  = −3 r −3−2 r = − 35 r so, ∇  13  × r =− 35 (r × r ) =0
r  r r  r
Therefore, ∇ × E = 0 .

Thus, curl of electric field due to stationary charges is zero i.e. the electric field due to stationary
charges is irrotational or the curl less field.

This can also be proved by using Stoke's theorem. We know the line integral for any closed path C
for E is zero; then from Stoke's theorem for any closed path C bounding surface S, we have
 
∫ curl E ⋅ dS= ∫ ( ∇ × E ) ⋅ dS= 
S S
∫ E ⋅ dl= C
0

∴∇ × E = 0

Related Problems

1. Find the gradients of the following functions:

2 2 2
a) f ( x, y, z ) = x + y + z .
2 3 4
b) f ( x, y, z ) = x y z .
x
c) f ( x, y, z ) = e sin( y ) ln( z ).

10
 
2. Let r be the vector from some fixed point ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the point ( x, y, z ) , and let r be its length. Show
that
2 
a) ∇( r ) =
2r
1 rˆ
b) ∇  = − 2 ( r̂ is unit vector in the direction of r)
r r
n
c) What is the general formula for ∇( r ) ?

3. Calculate the divergence and curls of the following vector functions:


a) v1 =x 2 iˆ + 3 xz 2 ˆj − 2 xzkˆ

b) v2 =xyiˆ + 2 yzjˆ + 3 zxkˆ

c) v3 =y 2 iˆ + (2 xy + z 2 ) ˆj + 2 yzkˆ

4. Calculate the Laplacian of the following functions:

2
a) T = x + 2 xy + 3 z + 4 b) T = sin x sin y sin z

c) T = e
−5 x
sin 4 y cos3 z d) v =x 2iˆ + 3 xz 2 ˆj − 2 xzkˆ

5. Prove that the divergence of a curl is always zero. Check it for the function v =xyiˆ + 2 yzjˆ + 3 zxkˆ .

2 3 4
6. Prove that the curl of a gradient is always zero. Check it for the function f ( x, y, z ) = x y z .

   
7. a) Let F1 = x 2 kˆ and F2 = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ . Calculate the divergence and curl of F1 and F2 . Which one can
be written as gradient of scalar and curl of a vector?

b) Show that F3 = yziˆ + zxjˆ + xykˆ can be written both as the gradient of a scalar and as the curl of a
vector.

8. One of these is an impossible electrostatic field. Which one?

 
a) E = k[( xy )iˆ + (2 yz ) ˆj + (3 xz ) kˆ] b) E= k[( y )iˆ + (2 xy + z ) ˆj + (2 yz ) kˆ]
2 2

(Here k is a constant with the appropriate units.)

    
9*. If A is constant vector and r is the vector from the origin to the point ( x, y, z ) , show that (r − A) ⋅ A =
0
     
is the equation of plane and ( r − A) ⋅ r = 0 is equation of a sphere. Also prove that ∇( A ⋅ r ) = A.

10*. Find gradient for ellipsoid ϕ = ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 at point (−1,1,0) .

Find the divergence and curl of the vector iˆ( x + yz ) + ˆj ( y + zx) + kˆ( z + xy ) at (0, −1,1) .
2 2 2
11*.

  
12*. If r is the vector from the origin to the point ( x, y, z ) and u is any vector; prove the formulas ∇ ⋅ r = 3 ;
   
∇ × r = 0 and (u ⋅∇)r = u .
13*. If r is the magnitude of the vector from the origin to the point ( x, y, z ) and f ( r ) is an arbitrary function of

r df
r, prove that ∇f ( r ) =
r dr
   dϕ
 r dF  
14*. Prove that ∇ ⋅ F ( r )= ⋅ and ∇ϕ (ξ ) = A if ξ= A ⋅ r .
r dr dξ
− r /λ
q e 
15*. The screened Coulomb potential is ϕ = . Calculate the corresponding electric field in terms of r .
4πε 0 r
11