Department of Chemistry

Faculty of Science
Al-Balqa Applied University
DR. Basel M. Alsaida
Prepared By:
Roa’a Shehadeh Ekram al-zghoul
Rania al-heta Taima’a al-saleem
Sara al-habahbeh
Contents:
Experiment 1: UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS

Experiment 2: molar mass of volatile liquid

Experiment 3: Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry

Experiment 4: Steam Distillation

Experiment 5: Binary Solid-Liquid Phase Diagram

Experiment 6: Particle in a Box

Experiment 7: Nano-Materials technology

Experiment 8: pKa of Methyl Red

Experiment 9: Freezing point depression

 Uncertainty in measurements
Introduction

All the measurements have a certain degree of uncertainty regardless of

their precision and accuracy. This is because of two factors, the limitation of
the measuring instrument (called systematic error) and the skill of the
experimenter doing the measurements (called random error). Too often,
we come across values that are very close to each other and their average
values. In such cases, we can say that the measurement is correct and
precise. Specifying the uncertainty formula chemistry is important as it will
help us to study the overall effect on output.
1.Random error: introduces variability between different measurements
of the same thing.
2.systematic error: skews your measurement away from the true value
in a specific direction.

Error Vs Uncertainty
Error is a difference between true value and measured value.
Whereas, uncertainty is a range.
Any parameter which cannot be expressed with certainty is associated
with uncertainty.
It exists in all quantitative measurements.
Uncertainty is quantitative indication of the quality of the result.
It is the interval around the estimated value between which the true
value of the measured parameter is expected to lie.`
Tools used:
1-Top loading balance 2-Analytical balance

3-Graduated cylinder 4- Pipette

Procedure
Part [1]
-fill 10 ml of water in Erlenmeyer flask.
-measure the mass of water that was filled on a top loading balance.
-Comparing the results of each flask to each other -Calculate the
error.
Part [2]
-fill 10 ml of water in Erlenmeyer flask.
-measure the mass of water that was filled on analytical balance.
-Comparing the results of each flask to each other.
Data and calculation
∑ 𝒙𝒊
(𝒂𝒗𝒈)𝐱̅ =
𝒏
∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏(𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐
(𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)𝝈 = √
𝑵−𝟏
𝒙𝑬 − 𝒙𝑨
(𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 )%𝑬 = | | ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒙𝑨
𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
(𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 )%𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = |
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 | ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐

GC/AB P/AB P/TB Actual

10.1

10

9.9

9.8

9.7

9.6

9.5

9.4

9.3

9.2

9.1
9.65 9.7 9.75 9.8 9.85 9.9 9.95
%difference:
1. GC/TB and GC/AB: 4.924%
2. GC/TB and V(G)P/TB: 4.496%
3. GC/TB and V(G)P/AB: 1.804%
4. GC/AB and V(G)P/TB: 6.527%
5. GC/AB and V(G)P/AB: 6.76%
6. V(G)P/TB and V(G)P/AB: .231%
Conclusion
In this experiment we measured mass of water by
using four apparatuses (graduated cylinder, pipette) to
measure volume and (Top loading balance, Analytical
balance) to measure mass.
We used (GC with TB, GC/AB, P/TB, P/AB) to measure 10 ml
of water and weigh it by balances and record the results 10
times to calculate uncertainty.
Our part was by using (GC with AB) .
𝒙𝑬 −𝒙𝑨
(𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 )%𝑬 = | | ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒙𝑨
10−9.307
= 𝐴
∗ 100%

= 6.9303%

Sources of error in our exp:

1. reading of the cylinder (not from meniscus or the
bottom of the U-Shape)
2. maybe we misreading a weighing records .
3. graduated cylinder less accurate than pipette.

Analytical balance with pipette is the best

Tools with lowest percentage error
 Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry
Introduction

Thermodynamics
and Electrochemistry

galvanic cell electrolytic cell

A galvanic cell is the one in which an

oxidation-reduction chemical reaction
occurs spontaneously to generate
electrical energy.
Chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy.

An electrolytic cell is the one in which

electrolysis process takes place, a
chemical compound is disintegrated by
passing electricity through it. The
chemical reaction taking place is not
self-generated (spontaneous), it is
forced by employing a voltage.
The purpose of this experiment
study the electrochemistry of voltaic (galvanic) cells and in the process
determine the values of the thermodynamic functions ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S. and
construct electrochemical cells by combining different metallic systems
and their solutions. Measuring the potential of the prepared cells at
various temperatures will render the values of the thermodynamic
functions ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S corresponding to the electrochemical system
studied.
Theory:
If a piece of zinc metal is immersed into a solution containing
copper (II) ions, zinc will be oxidized by the copper (II) ions. Put
different, Zinc loses electrons and is oxidized while copper (II) ions
gain electrons and are reduced. We can conveniently express these
two processes by the following two half-reactions, which add to
give the overall redox reaction

Reactions of Daniel cell at cathode and anode are:

At cathode: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu

At anode: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–

The potential of the cell under standard conditions (1 M for

solutions, 1 atm for gases, pure solids or liquids for other
substances) and at a fixed temperature (25°C) is called the
standard cell potential (E°cell).

° ° °
𝐄𝐜ⅇ𝐥𝐥 = 𝐄𝐨𝐱𝐝 + 𝐄𝐫ⅇ𝐝
 The potential of the cell under non-standard conditions. The
Nernst equation gives us the relationship between the overall cell
potential difference for a redox reaction ∆Ecell and the
concentrations of the metal-ion solutions. The Nernst equation is:

° 𝐑𝐓
𝚫𝐄𝐂ⅇ𝐥𝐥 = 𝚫𝐄𝐜ⅇ𝐥𝐥 − 𝒍𝒏 𝑸
𝐧𝐅

The mathematical form of ∆G is the following:

∆𝐆 = ∆𝐇 − 𝐓∆𝑺

The cell potential of a redox process is related to the

free-energy change as follows:
∆𝐆° = −𝐧𝐅𝐄°
Procedure
Equipment and Reagents:
1. Nickel, Copper, Iron, and Zinc strips
2. Steel wool/sand paper
3. U-tube filled with KNO3 to work as a salt bridge
4. DC Voltmeter to measure the cell potential (electromotive force in mV)
5. 1.0 M solutions of Cu(NO3)2, , Zn(NO3)2 , Ni(NO3)2, KNO3 and 0.77 M
FeSO4.(This solution is prepared from ferrous ammonium sulfate
hexahydrate, 300g/L, and finally acidifying with 3M Sulfuric Acid.)
6. 50mL test tubes, clamps, wire and alligator clips
Part 1: Constructing various types of cells
In this part you will construct four cells using metallic electrodes,
1.0 M solutions, voltmeter and wires as shown in Fig :
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢
𝐹𝑒|𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐹𝑒
𝐶𝑢|𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖Al𝑎𝑞3+(1.0𝑀)|Al
Part 2: Measurement of emf at various temperatures
Select any one cell with constant emf to measure the potential at
various temperatures. The beaker should be filled with an
ice/water mixture and stirred to measure the emf at lower
temperatures.
Part 3: Measurement of emf at various concentrations.
Select any cell from part to measure the potential at various
concentrations.

Data and Calculations

Part 1:
Galvanic cell E°cell N ∆G° = -nFE°
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢 0.808 2 -155,920
𝐹𝑒|𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢 0.650 2 -125,430
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐹𝑒 0.300 2 -578,91
𝐶𝑢|𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖Al𝑎𝑞3+(1.0𝑀)|Al 1.650 6 -955,204
Part 2:
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢
temp(celsius) E°cell ΔG=-nFE°cell
10 0.901 -173866.5683
15 0.885 -170779.0376
20 0.85 -164025.0644
25 0.821 -158428.9151
30 0.797 -153797.6192
35 0.781 -150710.0886
40 0.772 -148973.3526
45 0.769 -148394.4406

Temperature Vs E°cell
0.92

0.9

0.88

0.86

0.84

0.82

0.8

0.78

0.76
0 10 20 30 40 50

temperature Vs ΔG
-145000
0 10 20 30 40 50
-150000

-155000

-160000

-165000

-170000

-175000

-180000
Part 3:
M1V1 = M2V2
M E°cell(V)

1 0.819

0.5 0.796

0.25 0.754

0.125 0.738

0.0625 0.729

0.0313 0.705

E°cell(V) Vs M
0.84

0.82

0.8

0.78

0.76

0.74

0.72

0.7

0.68
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Conclusion
The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate the different
relationships between cell potentials and the various values that
are calculated with the cell potential value. The cell potential of
three reactions (Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe,Cu/Al and Zn/Fe) were measured
giving a cell potential of 0.808 ,0.650, 0.300 and 1.650 V,
respectively. The voltage of a Cu/Zn cell was then measured at
different temperatures and then used to calculate Gibbs Free
Energy, which was graphed vs. the temperature in celesuis.
although it is clear that this is incorrect, because as temperature
decreased, Gibbs Free Energy should increase, giving a negative
slope. Never the less, this slope was used to find a negative change
in entropy value, which led to a cell which is only spontaneous at
low temperatures. This should not be the case for a Cu/Zn cell, and
thus, some appreciable error must have occurred. This error most
likely occurred due to a problem with the voltmeter. The
mechanism may have just been faulty from the beginning, or
perhaps the battery was dying during the experiment. Either way,
performing the experiment again with a new voltmeter would
most likely solve the issues related to this experiment. Regardless
of the error that occurred, and the consequent inaccurate results,
the relationship of cell potential to half-cell potential, Gibbs Free
Energy, enthalpy and entropy was well represented, and from that
point of view, the experimental goals were met, yielding the
experiment to be a success.
 Binary Solid – Liquid Phase Diagram
Introduction
Binary System: The mixing of two substance is the multi
component solid – liquid equilibrium, and we will study the
equilibrium that occurs between the solid – liquid phases.

Theory:
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a
substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure. A
typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis and temperature on the
x-axis. As we cross the lines or curves on the phase diagram, a phase
change occurs. In addition, two states of the substance coexist in
equilibrium on the lines or curves.

Figure 1 Temperature–composition phase diagram for a binary system

exhibiting a eutectic point.
The purpose of this experiment s to use thermal analysis to
study naphthalene-biphenyl (two combined components) to
determine the freezing point of the system at atmospheric
pressure. From the experiment, it will be possible to develop
the resulting solid-liquid phase diagram.
Gibbs Phase Rule The Gibbs phase rule is a method of calculating
degrees of freedom of a system. Degrees of freedom are the
intensive properties (independent of system size) for the system.
The phase rule is given by the following equation:

𝐹 =2+𝐶−𝜋
where: F = degrees of freedom (intensive properties)
c = number of chemical species
π = number of phases in the system
In a system with two components and two phases, like the naphthalene-
biphenyl mixture used in this lab, the degree of freedom is 2
(2 + 2 components – 2 phases=2)

EXPERIMENTAL:

1. Hot Water Bath

2. Heat Resistant Test Tubes
3. Chemical materials include reagent grade naphthalene and biphenyl
Data and calculation:
pure naphthalene (5 g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
pure Na (5g)
92
85 0 88
76 30 84
80
75 60 76
72
73 90 68
65 120 64
60
55 150 56
52

temp
48 180 48
35.5 210 44
40
27.5 240 36
20 270 32
28
15 300 24
20
11.5 330 16
10 360 12
8
9 390 4
0
7.5 420
0 200 400 600
5 450 time
4 480
4 510
3.5 540
3.5 570

Na(5g) + Bi (0.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
80 0
72.5 30 Na (5g)+ Bi (0.67)
72 60 84
71 90 80
76
67 120 72
64 150 68
64
59 180 60
56
55 210 52
47 240 48
temp

44
38.5 270 40
36
33 300 32
27 330 28
24
22 360 20
17 390 16
12
13 420 8
4
11.5 450 0
9 480 0 200
time
400 600
7 510
6 540
5 570
3.5 600
 Na(5g)+Bi (1.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
85.5 0 Na (5g)+ Bi (1.67)
82.5 30 92
62.5 60 88
84
61.5 90 80
76
60 120 72
58 150 68
64
53 180 60
56
50.5 210 52

temp
48
45 240 44
40
40.5 270 36
36 300 32
28
32.5 330 24
20
29 360 16
12
25.5 390 8
21.5 420 4
0
18 450 0 200 400 600
time
15 480
10 510
5 540
4 570

Na(5g)+Bi (2.5g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
73 0
55 30
Na (5g)+ Bi (2.5g)
54 60 80
76
53 90 72
52.5 120 68
64
48 150 60
44 180 56
52
42 210 48
temp

44
39 240 40
35.5 270 36
32
32.5 300 28
29.5 330 24
20
27 360 16
12
21.5 390 8
18.5 420 4
0
15.5 450 0 200 400 600
time
10 480
8 510
6 540
3 570
2 600
 pure Bi(5g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec) pure Bi (5g)
75 0 80
76
69.5 30 72
68
69 60 64
64 90 60
56
59 120 52
55.5 150 48

temp
44
49 180 40
36
43 210 32
39 240 28
24
27 270 20
22 300 16
12
18 330 8
4
14 360 0
11 390 0 200
time
400 600
9 420
7.5 450
6 480
5.5 510
4.5 540

Bi(5g)+ Na (0.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
69 0
60 30 Bi (5g)+ Na (0.67g)
76
58 60 72
56.5 90 68
64
55.5 120 60
54 150 56
52
52.5 180 48
49.5 210 44
temp

40
45.5 240 36
41 270 32
28
36 300 24
31.5 330 20
16
28 360 12
23.5 390 8
4
19 420 0
15 450 0 200
time
400 600
12 480
10 510
8 540
7 570
6 600
 Bi(5g)+ Na (1.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
89.5 0
58.5 30 Bi (5g)+ Na (1.67g)
50 60 96
92
46.5 90 88
84
45.5 120 80
76
43.5 150 72
68
41 180 64
60
40 210 56

temp
52
39 240 48
44
37 270 40
34.5 300 36
32
32 330 28
24
27.5 360 20
16
25.5 390 12
8
18.5 420 4
0
15 450 0 200 400 600
time
11.5 480
9.5 510
7.5 540
5 570
4.5 600

Bi(5g)+ Na (2.5g)
Temp (Celsius) time(sec)
76
Bi (5g)+ Na (2.5g)
71 0 72
49 30 68
64
40 60 60
37 90 56
35.5 120 52
48
35 150 44
35 180 40
temp

36
33.5 210 32
31.5 240 28
31 270 24
20
30 300 16
29.5 330 12
8
28 360 4
27 390 0
25 420 0 200 400 600
23.5 450 time

18 480
10 510
7 540
5.5 570
3.5 600
 mix (Na ,Bi)
temp Mixture
time(sec)
(Celsius) 56
51 0 52
48
39 30
44
37 60 40
36.5 90 36
36 120 32

temp
35.5 150 28
24
34.5 180
20
33.5 210 16
31.5 240 12
30 270 8
29.5 300 4
0
27.5 330 0 200 400 600
time
26 360
24.5 390
23 420
20.5 450
17.5 480
14 510
11 540
7.5 570
5 600
4 630
3 660

Mole fraction temp temp Vs mole fraction

90 100% Bi 0% Bi
0 69.5 0% Na 100% Na
80
0.33 47.3 70
25% Bi
75% Bi 75% Na 12% Bi
0.25 52.5 60 25% Na 88% Na
88% Bi
0.12 61.2 50 12% Na
33% Bi
67% Bi
0.5 36 40
33% Na
67% Na
30 50% Bi
0.67 54 50% Na
20
0.75 62 10
0.88 72 Eutectic Point
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
1 77
figure (a )
CONCLUSIONS
• The solid-liquid phase diagram for naphthalene-biphenyl is
shown in figure a. It reflects closely the sample data given,
and the freezing points of both components are precise to
reference numbers.
• Error from loss of substance accounted partially for
variances in points from the melting (freezing) point line.
• The eutectic point calculated from this lab is approximately
36.0°C. Melting point of biphenyl was calculated to be about
69.5°C and that of naphthalene was about 77°C.
Sources of Error:
• There were a few sources of error in this experiment, but the
largest source involved the mixing of chemicals. Each time more
biphenyl was added to the compound, some residue was left in the
plastic tray. Another aspect of this occurred because, as the
experiment progressed, the temperature was lowered.
This caused the solution, while in liquid form, to solidify on the
upper portion of the test tube. This inhibited the stirring and
lessened the volume of the solution that was being cooled to the
freezing point.
• To accommodate for solution solidifying at the top of the test
tube, it would be useful to use either bigger test tubes or less
substance so the test tube does not become overfilled – and can
therefore be completely submerged into the water bath to above
the level of the solution. This way, all of the solution melts each
time more solid chemical is added.
• Test tube tongs and a scale closer to the laboratory site would be
beneficial for
safety concerns. Workers used bare hands (or latex gloved hands)
to carry hot test tube, increasing the risk of burns. Carrying
chemicals across the room is also potentially hazardous should one
trip. A shorter distance minimizes that risk.