Chapter 10

Flow, Pumps, and Piping Design

Amne El Cheikh, PhD.

 Outline
• The distribution of fluids by pipes, ducts, and conduits is essential to
all heating and cooling systems.
• Fluids→ gases, vapors, liquids, mixtures of liquid and vapor.
• For the overall design of the building system, water, vapor, and air are
of greatest importance.
• In this chapter:
• Fundamentals of incompressible flow of fluids such as air and water in conduits
• The basics of centrifugal pumps
• Develops simple design procedures for water and steam piping systems
Outline
1. Fluid Flow Basics
a) Mass and energy rate balances
b) Lost head
c) System characteristic
d) Flow measurement
2. Centrifugal Pumps
3. Combined system and pump characteristics
4. Piping system fundamentals
a) Basic open-loop system
b) Basics closed-loop system
c) Pipe sizing criteria
d) Pipe sizing
Fluid Flow Basics
• Fluid flow basics are necessary at the beginning for the analysis of piping design.
a) Mass and necessary energy rate balances
For adiabatic, steady flow of a fluid in a pipe or conduit: first law of thermodynamics:
2 2
𝑃1 𝑉1ത 𝑔𝑧1 𝑃2 𝑉2 ത 𝑔𝑧2 𝑔
+ + = + + + w + ℓ𝑓
𝜌1 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜌2 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

Where:
P=static pressure, lbf/ft2 or N/m2
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑓𝑡\sec 𝑜𝑟 𝑚\sec.
𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓𝑡/ sec 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/ sec 2
𝑔𝑐 = 𝑐𝑠𝑡. = 32.17 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡 Τ(𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐2)=1.0(kg−m)/(N−s2)
𝑧 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚
𝑤 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏. 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽Τ𝐾𝑔
𝑙𝑓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚
Fluid Flow Basics
→Conservation of mass: one-dimensional flow
𝑚 = 𝜌1𝑉ത 1𝐴1 = 𝜌2𝑉ത 2𝐴2
Where:

𝑚ሶ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑙𝑏𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑓𝑡2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚2
→For incompressible fluid:
𝑄 = 𝑉ത 1𝐴1 = 𝑉ത 2𝐴2
Where:

𝑄ሶ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑓𝑡3Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑚3/𝑠

Fluid Flow Basics
→Other useful forms of the energy balance:
• Units of pressure:
2 2
ഥ1
𝜌1 𝑉 𝜌1 𝑔𝑧1 ഥ2
𝜌2 𝑉 𝜌2 𝑔𝑧2 𝜌2 𝑔
𝑃1 + + = 𝑃2 + + + 𝜌2 w + ℓ
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑓
• Units of length (head):
𝑔𝑐 𝑃1 ഥ1 2
𝑉 𝑔𝑐 𝑃2 ഥ2 2
𝑉 𝑔𝑐
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + w + ℓ𝑓
𝑔 𝜌1 2𝑔 𝑔 𝜌2 2𝑔 𝑔
• Work power (work per unit time): ft.lbf/sec or W:
𝑃 −𝑃 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑔 ഥ 2 ഥ 2
𝑧1−𝑧2 𝑔
𝑊ሶ = 𝑚𝑤
ሶ = 𝑚ሶ [ 1 2 + 1 2 + − 𝑙 ]
𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑓
For water flow: velocity terms are negligible.
For gas flow (air): Potential energy terms are neglected
No fan, pump, or turbine: W≈0
Fluid Flow Basics
• Total pressure=static pressure + velocity pressure
𝜌𝑉ത 2
𝑃0 = 𝑃 +
2𝑔𝑐
In terms of head:
𝑔𝑐𝑃0 𝑔𝑐𝑃 𝑉ത 2
= +
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
• Total head and rearrangement form:

𝑔𝑐 𝑃01 − 𝑃02 𝑔𝑐𝑤

+ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = + 𝑙𝑓
𝑔 𝜌 𝑔
 Fluid Flow Basics
b) Lost head:
For incompressible flow:
𝐿 𝑉ത 2
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑓 ft or m of fluid flowing
𝐷 2𝑔
Where:
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚
𝑉ത = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑡, 𝑓𝑡Τsec 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚Τ𝑠2
For conduit of non-circular cross section:
4 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟: 𝐷ℎ =
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Restricted to turbulent flow and cross-sectional geometries without extremely sharp corners.
 Fluid Flow Basics
Moody diagram
𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒; 𝑒Τ𝐷

ത
𝜌𝑉𝐷 ത
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜐
Laminar zone →𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒
Transition zone →𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒; 𝑒Τ𝐷
Turbulent zone →𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑒Τ𝐷
Fluid Flow Basics
• Absolute roughness (e) for common pipes and conduits

• For high Re and e/D:

1
= 1.14 + 2 log 𝐷ൗ𝑒
𝑓
• For the region between smooth pipes and complete turbulence:
1 𝐷 9.3
= 1.14 + 2 log ൗ𝑒 − 2log[1 +
𝑓 𝑅𝑒 𝑒ൗ𝐷 𝑓
• Appendix A →viscosity for water, air and refrigerants
Fluid Flow Basics
Tables C1 and C2 →diameter for 𝑒/𝐷 calculations
 Fluid Flow Basics
• To prevent freezing, it is often necessary to use a secondary coolant (brine solution) possibly a mixture of
ethylene glycol and water
Viscosity data for water and various solutions of ethylene glycol
Specific gravity table

𝜇(𝑙𝑏𝑚Τ𝑓𝑡 − sec) = 1490 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

1 𝑁−𝑠
2
= 103𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑚
 Example 10-1
• Compare the lost head for water and a 30 percent ethylene glycol
solution flowing at the rate of 110 gallons per minute (gpm) in a 3 in.
standard (Schedule 40) commercial steel pipe 200 ft in length. The
temperature of the water is 50 F.
Fluid Flow Basics
c) System Characteristic:
Behavior of a piping system:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑔𝑐 𝑃01 −𝑃02
• 𝐻𝑝 = ഥ 2)
+ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + 𝑙𝑓 ≈ 𝑉ത 2
gρ(≈𝑉
• 𝐻𝑝 represents the total head required to produce the change in static, velocity and elevation head
and to offset lost head
Fluid Flow Basics
Parallel circuits:

𝐻𝑃,𝑎𝑏 = 𝐻𝑝,𝑎 = 𝐻𝑝,𝑏

𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑎 + 𝑄ሶ 𝑏

Series circuits:

𝐻𝑃,𝑎𝑏 = 𝐻𝑝,𝑎 + 𝐻𝑝,𝑏

𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑎 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑏
Fluid Flow Basics
d) Flow Measurement
• For control purposes →Measurements of flow rate in piping and duct systems are required
The pitot tube
ቐ The Orifice
The Venturi meter

• Applying the energy balance on a streamline between the

tip of the pitot tube and a point a short distance upstream:

2
𝑃1 𝑉ത1 𝑃2 𝑃02
+ = =
𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝜌 𝜌
 Flow Measurement
Traverse the pipe or duct and to integrate either graphically or numerically
to find the average velocity in the duct
For control purposes: A centerline value is sufficient
 Example 10-2
• A pitot tube is installed in an air duct on the center line. The velocity
pressure as indicated by an inclined gage is 0.32 in. of water, the air
temperature is 60 F, and barometric pressure is 29.92 in. of mercury.
Assuming that fully developed turbulent flow exists where the
average velocity is approximately 82 percent of the center-line value,
compute the volume and mass flow rates for a 10 in. diameter duct.
Flow Measurement The orifice introduces an appreciable loss in total
pressure->discharge coefficient:
𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
• The orifice: square edged orifice: 𝐶=
𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

Derived with the

lost energy =0
 Flow Measurement

1 − 𝐴1Τ𝐴2 2 : velocity of approach factor combined with C:

-> flow coefficient Cd:
 Centrifugal Pumps
• The centrifugal pump is the most commonly used type of pumps in
HVAC systems:
• Essential parts:

High High
Fluid Volute,
Impeller Kinetic Static
Diffuser
Energy Pressure
Centrifugal Pumps
Pumps • Single-suction (one inlet side)
• Double-suction (two inlet sides)

• Total dynamic load furnished by a pump:

• Lost head unavailable efficiency

• Efficiency: ratio of the useful power actually imparted to the fluid to
the shaft power input:
Centrifugal Pumps:
We deduce the shaft power:

If the static pressure of the fluid entering a pump approaches the vapor pressure of
the liquid too closely, vapor bubbles will form in the impeller passages.
noise and probable damage of the pump (cavitation)
NPSHR (required net positive suction head): Pressure excess of the vapor
pressure required to prevent cavitation. f( speed, capacity).
Centrifugal Pumps:
NPSHA: available net positive suction head

NPSHA>NPSHR cavitation
Centrifugal Pumps:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Pump performance: f(Qcapacity, impeller diameter)
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑅
Example 10-3
• Suppose the pump of Fig. 10-11 is installed in a system as shown in Fig. 10-12.
The pump is operating at 3500 rpm with the 6 in. impeller and delivering 200
gpm. The suction line is standard 4 in. pipe that has an inside diameter of
4.026 in. Compute the NPSHA, and compare it with the NPSHR. The water
temperature is 60 F.
Centrifugal Pumps:
The pump foundation, usually concrete, should be sufficiently rigid to
support the pump base plate Maintain alignment between the
pump and motor
The pump foundation should weigh at least 212 times the total pump
and motor weight for vibration and sound control
Expansion joints are required on both the suction and discharge sides
of the pump to isolate expansion and contraction forces
Combined System and Pump Characteristic
Combined System and Pump Characteristic
Example 10-4
• A water piping system has been designed to distribute 150 gpm, and the total
head requirement is 36 ft. Select a pump, using the data of Fig. 10-11, and
specify the power rating for the electric motor.
 Affinity Laws
Modify the performance of a pump by changing the rotational speed or
impeller diameter.
affinity laws for pumps:
1) For constant impeller diameter 2) For Constant rotating speed
 Example 10-5
• The 1750 rpm pump with 7 in. impeller of Fig. 10-11 is operating in a system
as shown as point 1 of Fig. 10-16. It is desired to reduce the pump speed
until the flow rate is 100 gpm. Find the new pump head, shaft power, and
efficiency.
Piping System Fundamentals
Closed-Loop Systems:
• A closed-loop system has no more than one interface with a compressible gas or
flexible surface such as an open or closed expansion tank
• There is no motivation of flow by static head in a closed system and the entire
system is filled with liquid.
• There are two main groups of components: thermal and hydraulic
• The thermal components are the source, chiller or boiler, the load, cooling or
heating coils, and the expansion tank
• The hydraulic components are the distribution system, the pump, and the
expansion tank
• The expansion tank serves both the thermal and hydraulic functions
• Actual systems will have additional components such as isolation and control
valves, flow meters, expansion joints, pump and pipe supports…
Piping System Fundamentals
Pipe Sizing Criteria:
• Piping systems often pass through or near occupied spaces where noise generated by the
flowing fluid may be objectionable
• A common recommendation sets a velocity limit of 4 ft/sec or 1.2 m/s for pipes 2 in. and
smaller
• For larger sizes a limit on the head loss of 4 ft per 100 ft of pipe is imposed
• This corresponds to about 0.4 kPa/m in SI units
• These criteria should not be treated as hard rules but rather as guides.
• Noise is caused by entrained air, locations where abrupt pressure drops occur, and
turbulence in general
• If these factors can be minimized, the given criteria can be relaxed
• Open systems such as cooling tower circuits are remote from occupied spaces. Therefore,
somewhat higher velocities may be used in such a case.
• A reasonable effort to design a balanced system will prevent drastic valve adjustments and
will contribute to a quieter system.
Piping System Fundamentals
Pipe Sizing:
• After the piping layout has been completed, the problem of sizing the pipe consists
mostly of applying the design criteria discussed earlier
• Where possible the pipes should be sized so that drastic valve adjustments are not
required
• To facilitate the actual pipe sizing and computation of head loss, charts for pipe and
copper tubing have been developed
• These figures are based on 60 F (16 C) water and give head losses that are about
10% high for hot water
• Examination of the charts shows that head loss may be obtained directly from the
flow rate and nominal pipe size or from flow rate and water velocity
• When the head loss and flow rate are specified, a pipe size and velocity may be
obtained
Piping System Fundamentals
Piping System Fundamentals
Piping System Fundamentals
Pipe Sizing:
• Pipe fittings and valves also introduce losses in head. These losses are usually
allowed for by use of a resistance coefficient K, which is the number of
velocity heads lost because of the valve or fitting:
ഥ2
𝑉 𝐿
𝑙𝑓 = 𝑘 , 𝑘= 𝑓
2𝑔 𝐷
• The ratio L/D is the equivalent length, in pipe diameters, of straight pipe that
will cause the same pressure loss as the valve or fitting under the same flow
conditions.
Piping System Fundamentals
Example 10-6
• Compute the lost head for a 150 ft run of standard pipe, having a diameter of
3 in. The pipe run has three standard 90-degree elbows, a globe valve, and a
gate valve. One hundred gpm of water flows in the pipe.
Valves, strainers and other devices
Coefficient Cv: equal to the flow rate of water at 60F in gpm, which will give a
pressure loss of 1 lbf/in2 (2.31 ft of water).

gpm

Flow rate of any fluid:

𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =

In SI units: Cvs: 15C of water—pressure loss =1kPa:

Example 10-7
• A strainer has a Cν rating of 60. It is to be used in a system to filter 50 gpm of
water. What head loss can be expected?
Example 10-8
• Figure 10-23 shows a closed, constant flow two-pipe water system such as might be found
in an equipment room. The terminal units a, b, and c are air-handling units that contain
air-to-water finned tube heat exchangers. An actual system could contain a hot water
generator or a chiller; a chiller is to be considered here. Size the piping and specify the
pumping requirements
Expansion Tank
• The expansion tank is a much more important element of a piping system than
generally thought
• The expansion tank provides for changes in volume, may be part of the air-
elimination system, and establishes a point of fixed pressure in the system
• This last purpose is very important. A point of fixed pressure is necessary to
establish the pressure at other points of the closed-loop system; otherwise the
system would be like an electrical circuit without a ground
• The location of the expansion tank then becomes an important design consideration
• One rule can be stated that has no exceptions: A system, no matter how large or
complex, must have only one expansion tank
• The pressures in the system should be analyzed to ensure that positive pressures
occur throughout.
Expansion Tank
• Sizing of the expansion tank is important and depends on the total volume of the system,
the maximum and minimum system pressures and temperatures, the piping material, the
type of tank, and how it is installed
• Expansion tanks are of two types. The first type is simply a tank where air is compressed
above the free liquid–air interface by system pressure
• The second type has a balloon-like bladder within the tank that contains the air. The
bladder does not fill the complete tank and is inflated, prior to filling the system, to the
pressure setting of the makeup water pressure regulator
• Either type can be used in hot or chilled water systems; however, the first type is usually
used in hot water systems because it provides a convenient place for air to collect when
released from the heated water in the boiler
• The second is the bladder type and is usually applied with chilled water systems because
cold water tends to absorb the air in the free surface type of tank and release it elsewhere
in the system, where it is removed.
• This process may eventually lead to a water-logged system where no compressible volume
exists. Drastic structural damage can occur with a water-logged system.
 Expansion Tank
• Consider the free liquid–air interface type where the water in the tank always remains at its initial
temperature (uninsulated and connected by a small pipe), the expansion and compression of the air in the
tank are isothermal, and the air in the tank is initially at atmospheric pressure. The resulting relation for the
tank volume is:
 Expansion Tank
• If the initial air charge in the tank is not compressed from atmospheric pressure but rather
is forced into the tank at the design operating pressure, as with a bladder-type tank, and
then expands or compresses isothermally, the following relation results:

• The expansion tank must be installed so that the assumptions made in deriving the
equations valid
• This generally means that the expansion tank is not insulated and is connected to the main
system by a relatively long, small-diameter pipe so that water from the system does not
circulate into the expansion tank
Example 10-9
• Compute the expansion tank volume for a chilled water system that contains 2000
gal of water. The system is regulated to 10 psig at the tank with an operating
temperature of 45 F. It is estimated that the maximum water temperature during
extended shutdown would be 100 F and a safety relief valve in the system is set for
35 psig. Assume standard barometric pressure and steel pipe.
Steam heating systems
Water vapor (steam) is distributed to the various terminal units, where it is
condensed, giving up latent heat, and the condensate is returned to the boiler. The
motive force for the steam is the pressure maintained in the boiler.
A condensate pump returns the liquid to the boiler.
Steam systems are very efficient in transporting energy.

One pound of water One pound of saturated

with ΔT(coil)=20F vapor at 5psig (35kPa)
70C→20 Btu (6W-hr) →950Btu(275 W.hr)

Cst. T Steam radiators

Min shaft energy required Steam-to-air coils

P-T dependence helpful for control Used to heat water, which is distributed and used
in water to air coils
Steam heating systems
In HVAC applications: P≤15psig [103 kPa]
• Piping circuit, more complicated: two phases : liquid and vapor.
Sizing system Components
After the steam distribution laid out
→various elements of the system can be sized, including the boiler.
→Boiler capacity (lbm/hr):

Steam piping design: vapor phase flowing

Return system: liquid and vapor (dry return) Manning Relation
liquid only (wet return) (Gravity flow in an
open Channel)
Darcy–Weisbach relations
Steam line sizing ΔP=f(capacity, velocity)
Steam line sizing
ΔP=f(capacity, velocity)

Criteria:
max ΔP=boiler pressure-pressure at the end of the system
4psi→15psi boiler pressure

Max V≤10,000 ft/min(50m/s)

Large pipes(12in,30cm)
Max V≤2000ft/min
(2 inch, 5cm and smaller pipes)
Steam line sizing • Velocity correction factors for other pressures
ΔP/L=f(Pboiler)
Common Pipe Fittings
Velocity Criterion
Acceptable boiler pressure
System pressure drop
Refer to Fig 10.48/10.49
Velocity Tables 10.4/10.5
Size piping for vented dry return systems
Sizing vented wet returns