I.

Plant and Animal Biology

Classification of Plants and Animals

 Aristotle was the first to group organisms according to

structural similarities hence called the Father of Ancient
Taxonomy

 Carolus Linnaeus is the Father of Taxonomy.

 Used morphology (the comparative study of organismal
form) for arranging specimens in collections
 Creator of Binomial Nomenclature
 Creator Linnean or Hierarchical Taxonomic System of
Classification

 Binomial Nomenclature is the formal naming system for living

LET Reviewer: organisms.
 Linnaeus’ system of naming organism
Science Major  Commonly referred to as the Scientific Name.
 Composed of two (clue: Binomial) underlined or italicized
terms; the first term indicates Genus (starts in capital
letters and is always a noun), and the second term
indicates Species Epithet (starts in small letters, and is
usually an adjective).
Ex. Human – Homo sapiens

 Linnaean or Hierarchical Taxonomic System of Classification

is the science of classifying organisms to construct
internationally shared classification systems.
 Composed of Eight (8) Taxa (Levels):
Dear - Domain
King - Kingdom
Philip - Phylum
Came - Class
Over - Order
For - Family
Good - Genus
Soup - Species

Jose Martin Moises

BIOLOGY  Domain is the most general classification of organisms

  spore-bearing group of non-vascular plants
A. Eukarya  haploid gamete-bearing forms (gametophytes)
 a domain comprising all eukaryotes, organisms
whose cells… d. Anthocerophyta
a. have a membrane-bound nucleus,  hornworts
b. with DNA contained in chromosomes,  spore-bearing group of non-vascular plants
c. can reproduce either by mitosis or meiosis  don’t have true roots (only rhizoids), stems, and
 is where Kingdom Plantae and Animalia belong leaves (only gametophyte)
(along with Kingdom Fungi and Protista)
e. Cycadophyta
 Kingdom is a taxonomic rank subdividing Domain,  cycads
further subdivided by Phyla.  cone-bearing vascular plants
 gymnosperm
A. Plantae
 non-motile f. Coniferophyta
 autotrophs (can make their food)  pines and spruces
 reproduce asexually or sexually  cone-bearing vascular plants
 contains the outer cell wall and a large central  gymnosperms
vacuole
 have cell walls g. Gnetophyta
 welwitschia and ephedra
B. Animalia  cone-bearing vascular plants
 motile  gymnosperms
 heterotrophs (can’t make their food)
 reproduce asexually or sexually h. Ginkgophyta
 ginkgo biloba
 Phylum is a taxonomic ranking that subdivides Kingdom  dioecious: exposed male and female seed
but is further subdivided into Class.  gymnosperms

A. Kingdom Plantae: 12 Phyla i. Anthophyta

 Rose
a. Sphenophyta  largest and youngest phylum of the plant kingdom
 horsetail: the only living member  split into two groups: monocot and dicot
 spore-bearing group of vascular plants  use pollen to fertilize the ovule
 non-seed  vascular plants
 non-flowering  angiosperms

b. Bryophyta j. Lycophyta
 mosses  club and spike mosses
 spore-bearing group of non-vascular plants  spore-bearing vascular plants
 don’t have true roots (only rhizoids), stems, and
leaves (only gametophyte) k. Pteridophyta
 ferns
c. Marchantiophyta (then Hepaticophyta)  believe to be the first plant to evolve on land
 liverworts  vascular plant
  seedless; reproduce through spores f. Arthropoda
 antheridia: male sex organs,  grasshoppers, spiders, crabs, and centipedes
archegonia: female sex organs  have exoskeletons; jointed appendages

l. Psilophyta g. Mollusca
 whisk broom  gastropods (univalves), bivalves, and
 no leaves, no roots cephalopods
 invertebrates
B. Kingdom Animalia: 10 Phyla  gastropods (univalves), bivalves, and cephalopods

a. Porifera h. Echinodermata
 sponges  sea stars, urchins, and sand dollars
 sessile and non-motile  have endoskeletons
 have a porous body  can regenerate body parts; spiny-skinned
 spongocoel: pores where water enters that allow animals
food gathering, respiration, and waste removal
 hermaphrodite: both produce egg and sperm cells i. Hemichordata
 reproduce by fragmentation/gamete formation  acorn worms and Balanoglossus
 invertebrates; pore-bearing animals  no post-anal tail
 have proboscis
b. Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
 hydra (alone), corals (live together), and jellyfish j. Chordata
 have cnidocytes/nematocytes: stinging cells  Salpa, Lancelets, and humans
 can regenerate body parts  have a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, and a post-
 have two forms of the body: anal tail
(1) polyp (sessile and cylindrical)
(2) medusa (umbrella-typed and motile) C. Class is a taxonomic ranking that subdivides Phylum
 has coelenteron:  has one opening, which serves but is further subdivided into Order.
as both the mouth and anus
 reproduce asexually (budding) and sexually D. Order is a taxonomic ranking that subdivides Class but
 invertebrates; stinging animals is further subdivided into Family.

c. Platyhelminthes E. Family is a taxonomic ranking that subdivides Order

 flatworms, tapeworms, and flukes but is further subdivided into Genus. The first terms in
 flat and ribbon-like organisms the Scientific Names.

d. Nematoda F. Genus is a taxonomic ranking that subdivides Family

 roundworms, Ascaris, and hookworms but is further subdivided into Species. The first term in
 long, cylindrical, and slender organisms the scientific name starts in capital letters.

e. Annelida G. Species is a taxonomic ranking subdivides Genus and is

 earthworms and leeches the second term in the scientific name is the Species
 have segmented, repeated body parts that starts in small letters.
 segmented worms
  Food – some consume plants (herbivores); some consume
other animals (carnivores), and some consume both
(omnivores).

Basic Needs of Plants and Animals to Survive  Water – makes 70% of the animal’s body, helps in digestion,
filtration, and excretion of body waste, and maintains stable
Needs of [Most] Plants to Survive body temperature.

 Light  Shelter/Habitat – protection of offspring, protection from

 mostly are collected from the Sun, and can be from predators, and protection from elements (rain, direct sunlight,
artificial sources etc)
 needed to make C6H12O6 (glucose) in leaf cell’s chloroplast
 absorbed by chlorophyll (located in the chloroplast)  Air – specifically Oxygen is needed to carry out the reactions
that release and transform energy from food. Carbon dioxide
 Air (CO2) is released as a waste product during these processes.
 Absorbed CO2 (Carbon dioxide) is chemically combined
with H2O (water) to form C6H12O6 (glucose) and O2 (Oxygen
gas) in the process called photosynthesis, which happens Homeostasis and Energy Acquisition
day and night.
photosynthesis:  Homeostasis – coined by Walter B. Cannon, a system’s
ability, or the regulatory mechanism to maintain a stable
internal environment, and have two forms:
 Absorbed O2 (Oxygen gas) to respire to break down
molecules of C6H12O6 (glucose) to make energy [as ATP] in  Negative Feedback – more common, involve the
the process called cellular respiration, which happens at organism regulating a stimulus; the body’s reaction to
night because of the absence of sunlight. bringing the organism’s body back to equilibrium
cellular respiration: (counteracting).

 Positive Feedback – enhance stimulus, causing it to

 Water rise then bring it to normal.
 are absorbed through roots from the soil and are
transported through the xylem along with dissolved  Homeostasis in Plants
nutrients.
Plants maintain homeostasis through their stomata. When
 Nutrients the stomata are open, water (in the form of vapor) is
 dissolved nutrients like Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), released and gasses are exchanged. If closed, the release of
and Potassium (K) are absorbed from the soil through water vapor is restricted and no exchange of gasses takes
roots and transported also through the xylem. place. Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells that
change shape when the stomata open or close.
 Space to grow
 used to spread out, absorb water and nutrients, and for Stomata
leaves to absorb light. Stimulus
High Low
Light Intensity Open Close
Needs of Animals to Survive CO2
Close Open
Concentration
 Humidity Open Close - plants living in the desert and/or
Temperature Close Open terrestrial habitats where water is
Water Level Open Close scarce
- have small, thick leaves
A. Osmoregulation – water regulation Ex. Cacti

 Transpiration – removal of water in the form of B. Excretion – the result of the continuous cycle of
water vapor from the leaf which has three catabolic (breaking down molecules) and anabolic
types: (forming of a new product) processes
(1) Stomatal Transpiration, transpiration
through stomata;  Diffusion – the removal of excess CO2 and O2,
(2) Lenticular Transpiration, transpiration and water from leaf and young stem through
through lenticels; and stomata and some plants, in roots. Excess ions
(3) Cuticular Transpiration, transpiration are combined with organic components and are
through cuticles. deposited in dead cells like heartwood and
bark.
 Guttation – remove water vapors from special
water pores called hydathodes at the leaves’ C. Thermoregulation – the regulation of
tip, mostly on plants living in tropical rain temperature within a range
forests. Normal Temperature: 10 – 35 ºC

a. Hydrophytes  Homeostasis in Animals

- plants living in freshwater
- allows the loss of excess water Animals maintain homeostasis by feedback systems
- has wide leaf (means more stomata) to within the body. They maintain homeostasis with the help
facilitate more transpiration of the receptors – receive information about the changes
Ex. Water Lily in the external environment and transmit it to the control
center of the brain, command center in the brain -
b. Halophytes receives and processes information from the receptors to
- plants living in the soil that absorbs the effectors, and effectors - responds to the commands
water, and have higher salt of the control center by either opposing or enhancing the
concentration and low water potential stimulus.
- have salt glands present in leaves
Ex. Cord Glass A. Osmoregulation – the maintenance of constant
osmotic conditions (water and solute
c. Mesophytes concentrations) in the body.
- plants living in places with moderate
water  Osmosis is the movement of water across a
- may allow or may not allow the loss of selectively permeable membrane while
water depending on its availability Osmolarity refers to how much solutes are
- dependent on water supply dissolved in a solution.
Ex. Roses, Gumamela
a. Osmoconformers
d. Xerophytes
 - animals that are in osmotic by the kidney, forming dilute urine by
equilibrium with their environment reabsorbing sodium chloride.
(isosmotic) 2. SECOND, salt-absorbing cells in the
gills [of fishes] transport salt ions like
* Stenohaline – animals restricted to sodium and chloride (in small quantities
living in a narrow salinity range. in freshwater) from the water to the
Ex. Marine Spider Crab blood together with the salt present in
the fish’s food, replacing salt lost by
diffusion.
b. Osmoregulators 3. THIRD, other freshwater animals
- expand energy to control water [crayfish, aquatic insect larvae, clams]
uptake and loss in the environment excrete excess water as urine and
of the hyperosmotic (high osmotic replace lost salt by active ion transport
pressure) or hypoosmotic (low osmotic across the gills.
pressure). 4. FOURTH, amphibians compensate for
the salt loss by actively absorbing salt
* Euryhaline – animals that can from the water using their skin.
survive a wide range of salinity
changes, by demonstrating varying Salt and Water Balance in Seawater
powers of osmoregulation.
Ex. Brackish-water Shore Crab, a Saltwater fishes
hyperosmotic regulator - marine body fishes are hypoosmotic
(maintains body fluids more regulators: drink seawater, seawater
concentrated than surrounding absorbed in intestines, excess salt
water) (NaCl) carried by the blood to the salt-
secreting cells in gills; remaining ions
Salt and Water Balance in Freshwater in intestines are voided with feces or
excreted by the kidney
Freshwater animals - elasmobranchs (sharks and rays)
- hyperosmotic regulators, freshwater retain urea allowing it to accumulate in
fishes maintain internal osmotic the blood and body tissues and raising
concentrations lower than marine the blood osmolarity to equal or slightly
organisms exceed that of seawater
- must keep the salt concentration of
their body fluids higher than that of Salt and Water Balance in Terrestrial
the water in which they live Animals
- water enters their bodies osmotically,
and salt is lost by outward diffusion Terrestrial animals
- lose water by evaporation from
Freshwater Animals Defenses Against Water respiratory and body surfaces,
Gain and Salt Loss excretion in urine, and elimination in
feces
1. FIRST, water enters the body [of - replace such losses by consuming
fishes] by osmosis and is pumped out water in food, drinking water when
available, and retaining metabolic
 water formed in cells by oxidation of
metabolic fuel molecules 5. Guanotelism - process of excretion in the
(carbohydrates and fats) form of guanine
- arthropods (desert roaches, certain * guanotelic animals – animals that
ticks and mites, and mealworms) exhibit guanotelism
absorb water vapor directly from Ex. birds, lizards, spiders, scorpions
atmospheric air
6. Dual Excretion - animals performing two
B. Excretion - the elimination of metabolic waste modes of excretion
products from the animal body to regulate body Ex.
fluids and tissues composition.  earthworms excrete ammonia
when water is sufficient, while
they excrete urea in drier
Modes of Excretion surroundings.
 lung fishes and Xenopus (African
1. Ammonotelism – major mode of toad) in water – ammonotelic, in
elimination of nitrogenous waste (excretory moist air or mud during summer -
product) mainly in the form of ammonia ureotelic
* ammonotelic animals - animals that
exhibit ammonotelism Excretory Organs
Ex. Aquatic animals (bony fishes,
aquatic amphibians) 1. Invertebrates

2. Ureotelism – major mode of elimination of a. Contractile Vacuole

nitrogenous waste in the form of less toxic - an organ of water balance that
urea that is converted by the liver from expels excess water gained by
ammonia (NH3) which is excreted in urine. osmosis in freshwater unicellular
* ureotelic animals - animals that exhibit eukaryotes
ureotelism - [intracellular contractile vacuole] not
Ex. Humans, turtles, frogs, sharks a true excretory organ in freshwater
unicellular eukaryotes and freshwater
3. Uricotelism – major mode of elimination sponges
of nitrogenous waste is in the form of uric - rare or absent in marine organism
acid isosmotic with saltwater
* uricotelic animals - animals that
exhibit uricotelism b. Nephridium
Ex. Birds, Helix (land snails), cockroach, - most common type of invertebrate
lizard, snakes excretory organ
- a tubular structure designed to
4. Aminotelism - minor mode of elimination maintain appropriate osmotic balance
of nitrogenous waste (excretory product) - protonephridium, or also known as
mainly in the form of excess amino acid. the flame cell system, simplest
* aminotelic animals - animals that arrangement of nephridium
exhibit aminotelism - protonephridial system comprises
Ex. Some mollusks and echinoderms two highly branched duct systems
 distributed throughout the body, - Each nephron begins with an
each branch terminating in a “flame expanded chamber, the Bowman’s
cell” capsule, containing a ball of
- fluid enters through the flame cells, intertwined capillaries, the
where rhythmical beating of the glomerulus, which together form
flagellar tuft creates a negative the renal corpuscle.
pressure that draws fluid into the
tubular portion of the system. - nephron, basic functional unit
- urine is formed by three well-defined
* protonephridium – closed system, physiological processes: filtration,
tubules are closed on the inner reabsorption, and secretion
end and urine is formed from a fluid
that must first enter the tubules by a. Glomerular Filtration
being transported across flame cells – the first process of urine
formation where glomerulus acts
* metanephridium - open, or “true,” as a specialized mechanical
nephridium, tubule is open at both filter because diameter of the
ends, allowing fluid to be swept into afferent arteriole entering the
the tubule through a ciliated funnel- glomerulus is greater than that
like opening, possesses of the exiting efferent arteriole,
nephrostome - a metanephridium providing the high hydrostatic
surrounded by a network of blood pressure that allows formation of
vessels that assists in reabsorption the glomerular filtrate, which
from the tubular fluid of water and produces an almost protein-free
valuable materials such as salts, filtrate of the plasma in the fluid-
sugars, and amino acids filled space of the Bowman’s
capsule as a result of high blood
c. Arthropod Kidneys pressure across glomerular
- crustaceans, have paired antennal capillary walls arteriole
glands of crustaceans located in the
central part of the head, a basic b. Tubular Reabsorption
nephridial organ but lack open - approximately 60% of the
nephrostomes filtrate volume and nutrients
are reabsorbed in the proximal
2. Vertebrates convoluted tubule
- much of this reabsorption is by
i. Kidney active transport, in which
cellular energy is used to
* Human Kidney transport materials from
- less than 1% of the body weight, tubular fluid to the
yet they receive 20% to 25% of surrounding capillary network
the total cardiac output—1440 to and into the blood circulation
1800 liters of blood each day - transport maximum, upper limit
- have approximately 2 million to the amount of substance that
nephrons can be reabsorbed
 c. Tubular Secretion Ectotherms Temperature Independence
- nephron secretes materials
across the tubular epithelium 1. Behavioral Adjustments –
and into the filtrate regulating body temperature
- reverse of tubular reabsorption, behaviorally, seeking areas in their
carrier proteins in the tubular environment where term is
epithelial cells selectively favorable to their environment
transport substances from blood
in capillaries outside the tubule 2. Metabolic Adjustments –
to the filtrate inside the tubule temperature compensation,
- enables a kidney to increase maintaining body temperature by
the urine concentrations of maintaining
materials to be excreted, such as
hydrogen and potassium ions, d. Endotherms – warm-bloodied, can
drugs, and various foreign organic regenerate and retain metabolic heat to
materials elevate body temperature to a high but
stable environment, eat more food than
d. Water Secretion ectotherms
- fluid intake is high, kidney Ex. mammals, birds
excretes dilute urine, saving salts
and excreting water Bergmann’s Rule
Individuals of a given species are larger in
C. Thermoregulation – a mechanism to preserve a cold climates than in warm climates
stable internal temperature in order to survive,
body temperature drops too low, metabolic Allen’s Rule
processes slow, reducing amount of energy the Individuals of a given species have shorter
animal can muster for activity and extremities in cold climates than those
reproduction, body temperature too high, in warm climates
metabolic reactions unbalanced and enzymatic
activity is hampered or even destroyed Van’t Hoff’s Rule
For every temperature rise of 10ºC, rate
a. Poikilothermic – body temperature of biochemical reactions double
fluctuates with environmental temperature
b. Homeothermic – have constant body Concept: Size is inversely proportional to
temperature, regulated independent of how fast heat is loss or gain.
environmental temperature
Temperature Regulation in Endotherms
c. Ectotherms – cold-bloodied, body
temperature determined solely by 1. Adaptations for Hot Environment
environmental context, [many] exploit – [in desert] smaller desert
environment behaviorally to select areas of mammals are mostly fossorial,
more favorable temperature living mainly in the ground, and
Ex. fishes, amphibians, reptiles, nocturnal, active at night, prevent
invertebrates body temperature rise through
 evaporative cooling by sweating during the summer, breathing rates
and panting. and metabolism decrease when
temperatures are high, food is
2. Adaptations for Cold scarce, or dehydration threatens
Environments
- [birds] two major mechanisms: (1) • Energy Acquisition in Plants and Animals
decreased conductance, reduction
of heat loss by increasing the  sunlight – the main source of energy
effectiveness of the insulation,
and (2) increased heat production
- countercurrent heat exchange, Two Method Sunlight Maintain the Orderliness
mechanism that enables fluids at of Life
different temperatures flowing in
channels in opposite directions to 1. Direct – the process of photosynthesis in
exchange their heat content without producing complex organic compounds
mixing
- augmented muscular activity, 2. Indirect – respiration of organic compounds
production of heat through exercise either by the organism itself or by another
or shivering organism
- nonshivering thermogenesis,
production of heat through
increased oxidation of foods,
Types of Organisms (Based on Methods of
especially from Supplying Energy and Maintaining Orderliness)
stores of brown fat
A. Photoautotrophs – organisms gathering
3. Adaptive Hypothermia for Birds energy directly from the sun and use it to
and Animals assimilate small inorganic molecules into
- daily torpor, adaptive their own tissues
hypothermia that provides an Ex. green plants
enormous saving of energy to small
endotherms, maintaining high
B. Autotrophs – organisms incapable of
body temperatures when active
photosynthesis, but take in organic
but allowing their body
temperature to drop profoundly molecules from food as an energy source
when inactive and asleep Ex. animals

- hibernation, [animals in northern II. Genetics

temperate region] prolonged and
controlled state of dormancy during  Genetic - branch of Science that deals with the study
winter, when awakening from of heredity and variation
hibernation, animals shiver and
employ nonshivering
Theories on Genetics
thermogenesis

- estivation, a state of dormancy a. Theory of Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis –

an archaic scientific theory which stated that living
 organisms could arise from nonliving matter and from each parent) that occurs during the
that such a process was regular in nature posited by development of egg and sperm cells (meiosis)
Aristotle but was disproved by Louis Pasteur  Chromosomes - thread-like structures located
inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells
b. Theory of Epigenesis – a theory proposed by made of protein and a single molecule of
William Harvey stating that an organism develops deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
from the fertilized egg by a succession of the  Chromatin - a mass of genetic material
developmental events that eventually transform the composed of DNA and proteins that condense
egg into an adult to form chromosomes during eukaryotic cell
division located in the nucleus of our cells
c. Theory of Preformationism – states a that fertilized
egg contains a complete miniature adult called a Cell Cycle
homunculus Event that occur from the completion of one division
until the completion of the next division.
d. Cell Theory – states that all organisms are
composed of basic structural units called cells 1. Interphase - longest stage in the eukaryote cell
derived from preexisting cells proposed by Matthias cycle where cell acquires nutrients, creates, and
Schleiden and Theodor Schwann uses proteins and other molecules, and starts the
process of cell division by replicating the DNA as
e. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance – inherited preparation for mitosis taking place in cytoplasm
traits are controlled by genes residing on and nucleus
chromosomes faithfully transmitted through
gametes a. Gap 0 - referred to as the resting phase;
cell will leave the cycle and quit dividing
 Alleles – an alternative form of genes that may be a temporary resting period or
 Phenotype – the expressed observable trait more permanent
 Genotype – set of alleles carried by an organism Ex. Amitotic Cell: Neurons, Skeletal and
Cardiac muscles
Mitosis and Meiosis
b. Gap 1 - cell performs its normal functions,
A. Mitosis – leads to production of two cells with the and grows in size replicating organelles as
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell necessary and move to next phase after
synthesizing enough ribosomes
B. Meiosis – reduces the number of chromosomes by  G1 checkpoint - checks cell size,
half that leads to the production of gametes that nutrients, molecular signals, and
may either be sex cells or spores characterized by DNA integrity
only haploid set of chromosomes
c. S-Phase - cell synthesizes and doubles its
 Crossing-Over - refers to the exchange of DNA DNA with number of chromosomes still
between paired homologous chromosomes (one constant process called semiconservative
replication
 d. Gap 2 - cell continues its growth phase as Gene Expression: From DNA to Phenotype
it prepares for cell division, mitochondria
will divide and continue to grow until the 1. Transcription – occurs in the nucleus where
start of mitosis nucleotide sequence in one strand of DNA is used
 G2 checkpoint – checks for DNA to construct complementary RNA sequence called
damage and DNA replication messenger RNA (mRNA)
completeness damaged and prevent  Leading Strand – [5’  3’]
cancer  Lagging Strand – [3’  5’]

2. Mitosis or M-Phase - cell growth and protein 2. Translation – mRNA consists of linear series of
production stop, energy is focused on the complex nucleotide triplets called a codon, enters the
and orderly division into two similar daughter cytoplasm, and binds with ribosome to construct
cells protein with the aid of transfer mRNA (tRNA)

a. Prophase - chromosomes become visible,  Protein – functional gene product in most

spindle fibers form, and nuclear envelope eukaryotic cells
breaks up  Enzymes – largest category of protein serving as
biological catalyst
b. Metaphase - chromosomes line in the
middle of the cell and spindle fibers pull Mendelian Genetics/Transmission Genetics
them
 Spindle Checkpoint – checks for  Monohybrid Cross – mating true-breeding
chromosome attachment to spindle individuals from two parent strains each with
fiber contrasting forms of character
 Selfing – self-fertilization of individuals from first
c. Anaphase - chromatids separate and move generation
to the poles; spindle fibers pull them  P1 – parental generation; original parents
 F1 – first filial generation
d. Telophase - chromosomes disappear and  F2 – second filial generation resulted from self-
nucleus envelope forms daughter cells fertilized F1
DNA Four Postulates
James Watson and Francis Crick described the a. Unit Factor (Genes) – genetic characters are
structure of DNA, a long double-stranded helix made up controlled by unit factors existing in pairs in
of subunits called nucleotides containing nitrogenous individuals
base pairs: Adenine and Thymine (bonded by 2 weak b. Dominance/Recessiveness – one unit factor is
hydrogen bonds), and Guanine and Cytosine (bonded by dominant over recessive when present in single
3 weak hydrogen bond individual
c. Segregation – paired unit factor separate enabling
gamete to receive one during gamete formation
 d. Independent Assortment – possible combinations animal’s somatic cell into an egg cell
of gamete should be of equal frequency that has had its nucleus
and DNA removed developing into
Biotechnology – the use of recombinant DNA technology an embryo that contains the
and other molecular techniques to make products same genes as the cell donor implanted
into an adult female’s uterus to grow
A. Recombinant DNA technology
Genetic Technology in Medicine
a. CRISPR-Cas – molecular mechanism found in
bacteria that has the potential to revolutionize our 1. Genetically Modified Medicines - GMOs that are
ability to rewrite the DNA sequence of genes from intended to use as medicinal agents
any organism Ex. Gardasil vaccine to prevent human
 Vectors – carrier DNA molecules where DNA papillomavirus, and the mRNA COVID-19
fragments produced by the action of a vaccines Pfizer and Moderna, GM mosquitoes
restriction enzyme called plasmids to prevent malaria and sterile technique to kill
 Clones - organism that is genetically identical dengue-causing mosquito
to the original cell or organism from which it
is derived 2. Biological Medicines – medicines derived or
 Genomic Libraries - collection of produced from GMOs
clones/copies of smaller-sized genomic DNA Ex. genetically modified (GM) bacteria to
fragments, used in various downstream produce insulin
applications
3. Gene Therapy - introduction of a normal gene
b. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) - into an individual’s genome using a virus in order
organisms whose DNA has been altered using to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease
genetic engineering techniques to produce
desired traits Genetic Technology in Agriculture
 Transgenic Organisms – organism created
after the transfer of heritable trait across 1. Resistance to Herbicide - introduction of a
species using recombinant DNA herbicide-resistant bacterial gene into plant DNA
makes the plant resistant to that herbicide
c. Cloning - technique scientists use to make increasing total yield of these crops as farmers
exact genetic copies of living things use less toxic herbicides and do not need to spray
as often 
1. Embryo Twinning – splitting
an embryo in half then placed in a 2. Insect and Viral Resistance - insertion of a
mother’s uterus that develops into a toxin-producing gene from bacteria into the DNA
unique animal sharing the same genes of corn and cotton makes plant resistant to some
insects and protects them from disease
2. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer -
transfer the DNA from an
III. Cell and Molecular Biology  Flagella - membrane that is in a helical
shape important for the mobility of an
 Cell Biology - deals with cellular mechanisms of the cell organism from one place to another place
involving the processes and anatomy of the cell
B. Eukaryotic Cell - cells with a true nucleus,
 Molecular Biology - involves the study of molecular contain a membrane-bound nucleus with many
level mechanisms, concentrating more on DNA based cell organelles to make several cellular functions
techniques and expression of genes within the system
 Plasma Membrane – semi-permeable
membranes that behave as a boundary of a
Cell Structure and Functions
cell that controls what goes in and out of
the cell with double-layered wall of
A. Prokaryotic Cell – unicellular which forms a
Phospholipid bilayer.
colony where few are photosynthetic, and get  Nucleus – stockroom for the cell’s genetic
nourished on living things and dead things, and materials in the form of DNA and keep all
reproduce asexually by binary fission, the essential information, which are vital
transformation, conjugation, transduction for a cell to control.
 Capsule – the greasy outer coating of the  Nuclear Membrane – double membrane
cell wall that protects the cell from getting layer that surrounds the nucleus and it
dry plays a part in the entry and exit of
 Cell Wall – the stronger and rigid resources within the nucleus
structure, which provides the shape and  Nucleolus – non-membrane-bound
protects the inside organelles of a cell organelle, which is located within the
 Cell Membrane – inner delicate structure, nucleus.
which plays an important role in regulating  Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell
the entry and exit of any materials in the playing a vital part in the synthesis of ATP
cell acting as a permeable membrane and transforms glucose into ATP.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - responsible for
 Cytoplasm – the viscous membrane, which
the production and secretion of steroid
is lying in between the cell membrane and
hormones
nucleoid
 Rough ER – rough because of the
 Nucleoid – the cytoplasm region covering presence of ribosomes;
genetic material makes, folds, and modifies
 Ribosome – consists of both RNA and proteins that are destined for other
proteins, supports protein synthesis in the organelles, the cell membrane, or
cell the outside of the cell
 Pili - the thinnest tissue of a prokaryotic  Smooth ER - synthesis and storage
cell consist of a protein complex named of lipids; helps detoxify harmful
pilin and involved during sexual substances
reproduction
  Ribosome: It is in the cytoplasm. They are  Francesco Redi is the father of modern
the spot for cells protein synthesis, which parasitology
is made of ribosomal RNA and proteins.
 Golgi Bodies: helps in storing, carrying  Parasites – organisms that may be endoparasites
materials within the cell named the “post (internal) or ectoparasites (external) that infect an
office” of a cell organism
 Lysosomes - have digestive enzymes to
break down macromolecules plays a vital  Host an organism that harbors parasites
part in protecting the cell by destroying a. Definitive Host – aka final host or primary
foreign bodies entering the cell host organism in which a parasite becomes
 Cytoplasm - gel-like substance that fills sexually matured or goes through its sexual
the inside of a cell, surrounding the cycle; mostly vertebrate
nucleus and other organelles Ex. tapeworm makes use of humans as
 Chromosomes - rod-shaped structures, their definitive host
which are made of proteins and DNA play a b. Intermediate Host – aka secondary host,
vital part in determining the sex of an where parasites develop but not to the point
individual of reaching (sexual) maturity
c. Paratenic Host – aka transport host in
which it does not undergo any development
IV. Microbiology and Parasitology but remains alive until it finds a definitive or
intermediate host
 Microbiology – the study of the biology of microscopic d. Reservoir Host – host where the parasite
organisms - viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa lives and multiplies but usually without
damaging the host
 Antoine van Leeuwenhoek is the Father of
Microbiology  Vector – organism that carries a disease-causing
organism
 Louis Pasteur is the Father of Modern a. Biological Vector – a living thing that
Microbiology carries the disease-causing agent or
causative organism and/or develops an
 Microbes – short for microorganisms, minute, infected organism in its body from reservoirs
unicellular organisms that are invisible to the to the host
naked eye that makes up 60% of Earth’s living Ex. Anopheles mosquito carrying parasitic
matter malaria disease
b. Phoretic/Mechanical Vector - picks up an
 Zoonosis - animal diseases that are transmissible infectious agent on the outside of its body
to human and transmits it in a passive manner
Ex. Flies carrying Salmonella on their
 Parasitology – the study of parasitic organisms body

Classifications of Microorganisms
 to produce viral proteins, then the genomic
A. Virus RNA can serve as the mRNA,
– virion, complete, infective form of a virus (2) negative-strand virus (-) – the genome is
outside a host cell, with a core of RNA or DNA complementary to the viral mRNA
and a capsid (3) retroviruses - have an RNA genome that is
– obligatory intracellular parasites, require reverse-transcribed into DNA by the enzyme
living host cells in order to multiply reverse transcriptase
– acellular, nonliving microscopic particles that
enter a living cell called a host that reproduces Shapes of Virus/Capsid Architecture
by using the synthesizing machinery of the
cell and destroys it Structures of these capsids are revealed by
– host range, a suitable spectrum of cells for a electron microscopy and x-ray crytallography
particular virus to infect
– viral Species, groups of viruses sharing the 1. Helical – rodlike or threadlike appearance
same genetic information and ecological niche Ex. Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Rabies and
(host range) Ebola
– tissue tropism, a virus targeting only a 2. Polyhedral – most are Icosahedral soccer
specific set of cells ball-like shape
Ex. Polio Virus, Adenovirus
Viral Structure 3. Enveloped – can be enveloped helical or
polyhedral viruses
1. Nucleic Acid Ex. Influenza (enveloped helical), Human
- made up of genetic material/nucleic Herpes (enveloped polyhedral)
acid that can either be DNA or RNA 4. Complex – have a binal, or two-fold,
2. Capsid and Envelope symmetry neither icosahedral nor helical,
- has a protein shell that protects specific to bacteriophage, a virus that
genetic material or viral genome infects bacteria
called capsid (protein sheath) built
from a protein subunit called Important Human Viral Disease
capsomeres
- envelope, consisting of some  Chickenpox caused by varicella-zoster
combination of lipids, proteins, and virus (DNA)
carbohydrates  Hepatitis B caused by hepadnavirus
(DNA)
DNA – replicated in the nucleus of eukaryotic  Herpes caused by herpes simplex virus
host cells (DNA)
 Mononucleosis caused by Eipstein-Barr
RNA: virus (DNA)
(1) positive-strand viruses (+) – genome has  Smallpox caused by variola virus (DNA)
the same base sequence as the mRNA used  AIDS caused by HIV (-RNA)
 Polio caused by enterovirus (+RNA)
  West Nile Fever caused by flavivirus
(+RNA) 1. Immunity – lysogenic cells became immune to
 Ebola caused by filovirus (-RNA) reinfection by the same phage
 Influenza caused by influenza virus (- 2. Phage Conversion – alteration of phenotypes or
RNA) characteristics of a lysogenic bacterium by the
 Measles caused by paramyxoviruses (- prophage
RNA) Ex. Vibrio Cholerae causes Cholera,
 SARS caused by coronavirus (-RNA) Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes
 Rabies caused by rhabdovirus (-RNA) Diphtheria
3. Specialized Transduction – picking up phage
Reproductive Cycles of a Bacteriophage coat and transferring to another bacterium

 Lytic Cycle – viral reproduction cycle which  Prion – abnormal protein as the infectious
results in the destruction of the infected cell agent that causes TSEs
and its membrane
 Viroids – infectious disease agents in plants,
Steps in Lytic Cycle with no protein coat
1. Attachment (Absorption) – virus contacts the
cell and bound to it  Oncogenic Virus – causing cancer cells
2. Penetration – release or injection of the viral
genome into the host  Oncolytic Viruses – virus that infect and
3. biosynthesis – virus takes over cell lyse cancer cells
replication and protein synthesis machinery
4. Assembly/Maturation – components are  Latent Viral Infections – virus remains in
assembled to produce mature virus particles the host cells for long periods without
5. Release – mature virus particles are released producing an infection
through the action of enzymes or by budding Ex. Cold Sores and Shingles

 Lysogenic Cycle – also called temperate phages,  Persistent Viral Infection – disease
capable of latent infection by integrating nucleic acid processes that occur over a long period of
into the genome of an infected host cell called time and are generally fatal
lysogenic cells Ex. HIV/AIDS, Liver and Cervical Cancer

Prophage – integrated phage genome B. Bacteria

- unicellular/single-celled organisms capable of
Induction – the switch from lysogenic prophage forming a complex community of different species
to a lytic cycle, the result of stress-induced called a biofilm
protease that can destroy repressor protein that - no membrane-bound organelles like the
keeps prophage silent nucleus, instead have a single circular
chromosome made up of DNA called nucleoid
Results of Lysogeny
 - have cell walls constructed mainly by
peptidoglycan 1. Internal Membrane – function in
- cell division by binary fission respiration or photosynthesis
- used flagellum to propel organisms in fluid 2. Nucleoid Regions – don’t possess linear
environments chromosomes, genes encoded within a
-bacterial endospores, allow bacteria to survive single double-stranded ring that is highly
adverse environmental condition condensed to form a visible region
3. Ribosomes – smaller than eukaryotic
The Basic Forms (Shapes) ribosomes
1. Bacillus (rod-shaped)
2. Coccus (spherical- or ovoid-shaped) Additional
3. Spirillum (long and helical-shaped) – aka
spirochaetes 4. S-layer – (some) additional protein or
glycoprotein layer forms a rigid para-
Gram Stain – the staining process of identifying crystalline surface, often involving adhesion to
the types of bacteria surfaces or protection
5. Capsule – (some) additional gelatinous layer
Types of Bacteria (By Staining) surrounding the other wall layers, enables the
1. Gram-Positive – have thicker cell to adhere to surfaces and to other cells
peptidoglycan wall and stain purple color and to evade immune response by interfering
2. Gram-Negative - contain less with recognition by phagocytic cells
peptidoglycan and do not retain the purple- 6. Flagella - spin like a propeller, moving the
colored dye, can be stained with a red cell through a liquid environment
counterstain, and then appear dark pink 7. Pili - hairlike structures that occur on the
cells of some gram-negative that function for
Bacterial Genetics adhesion, and have a role in the exchange of
genetic information
Prokaryotes do not reproduce sexually but can 8. Endospores - highly resistant to
exchange DNA between different cells horizontally. environmental stress, like heat they can
germinate and return to normal cell division
Conjugation – causes the horizontal gene to form new individuals after decades or even
transfer, the movement of genes from one cell to centuries, bacteria that cause tetanus,
another botulism, and anthrax are all capable of
forming spores.
Transduction – the movement of genes from one
cell to another by means of viruses Prokaryotic Metabolism

Transformation – bacteria pick up genetic Acquisition of Carbon and Energy

material directly from the environment

Bacterial Structure
 1. Photoautotrophs – capable of carrying out  Peptic ulcers caused by Helicobacter
photosynthesis, use energy from sunlight pylori
to build organic molecules of CO2  Plague caused by Yersinia pestis
Ex. Cyanobacteria – use chlorophyll as a  Pneumonia caused by Streptococcus,
key-capturing pigment, H2O electron donor Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Haemophilus
and release O2 as by-product  Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium
2. Chemolithoautotrophs – obtaining energy tuberculosis
by ordering inorganic substances  Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella typhi
Ex. Nitrifiers – oxidize ammonia/nitrate to  Typhus caused by Rickettsia typhi
obtain energy in the process called
nitrification C. Fungi
3. Photoheterotrophs – purple and green - eukaryote; have membrane-bound organelles
non-sulfur bacteria using light as energy - can be single-cell or multicellular
source but obtain Carbon from organic - reproduction may be either sexual or asexual
molecules such as carbohydrates and - not photosynthetic; no chloroplast/chlorophyll
alcohols - specialized to extract and absorb
4. Chemoheterotrophs – obtain carbon nutrients from their surroundings by secreting
atoms and energy from organic molecules extracellular enzymes like cellulase to
Ex. human beings and non-photosynthetic decompose plants
eukaryotes - Mycology, the study of fungi
Bacterial Diseases
Vegetative Structure of Filamentous Fungi
 Bubonic Plague caused by Yersinia pestis
 Anthrax caused by Bacillus anthracis 1. Hyphae – long strings of cell; thread-like
 Botulism caused by Clostridium filaments with one or more cells
botulinum surrounded by a tubular cell wall made
 Chlamydia caused by Chlamydia up of chitin with branches called
trachomatis Penicillium
 Cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae a. Septate Hyphae (monokaryotic)–
 Dental Caries caused by Streptococcus hyphae containing cross-walls called
mutans, and Streptococcus sobrinus septa that divide it into distinct one-
 Diphtheria caused by Corynebacterium nucleus cell-like units called
diphtheriae uninucleate
 Gonorrhea caused by Neisseria b. Coenocytic Hyphae (bikaryotic) –
gonorrhoeae hyphae that does not contain septa and
 Hansen disease (leprosy) caused by appear as a big, long, continuous cells
Mycobacterium leprae with many nuclei or multinucleated
 Lyme disease caused by Borrelia c. Vegetative Hypha – portion of a hypha
burgdorferi that obtains nutrients
 d. Reproductive/Aerial Hypha – portion
concerned with reproduction; bears
reproductive spores B. Sexual Reproduction – mating between two
2. Mycelium – a mass of hyphae visible to the haploid hyphae that results to the production of
unaided eye sexual spores where two types sexual
3. Thallus – the body of a fungus reproduction occur:

Reproduction of Fungi (1) Homothallic – self-fertilization, both

mating organs are present in the same
Fungi can reproduce sexually and/or asexually. mycelium
Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and (2) Heterothallic – cross-pollination, require
asexually, while the so-called imperfect fungi two different, but compatible, mycelia to
reproduce only asexually (by mitosis). reproduce sexually

Spores – the most common means of which is consist of three phases and an
reproduction among fungi, may form as a intervening stage:
result of either asexual or sexual processes,
and they are often dispersed by the wind 1. Plasmogamy Phase – haploid nucleus of a
donor cell (+) penetrate the cytoplasm of a
A. Asexual Reproduction – can reproduce recipient cell (-)
asexually by producing two types of asexual 2. Dikaryon Stage - an intervening dikaryotic
fungal spores during mitosis: stage (1x + 1x) occurs before the parental
nuclei fuse and form a diploid nucleus (for
(1) Conidiospore (aka Conidium) – unicellular some fungi)
or multicellular spore not enclosed in a sac 3. Karyogamy Phase – the (+) and (-) nuclei
(2) Sporangiospore – formed in sporangium fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus
from a haploid parent cell 4. Meiosis – diploid nucleus produces sexual
spores that is either zygospores (in
that develops into new haploid individuals Zygomycota), ascospores (in Ascomycota),
without being fertilized or basidiospores (in Basidiomycota) that
germinate to start the haploid stage, which
 Fission – parent elongates, its nucleus eventually creates more haploid mycelia
divides and two offspring cells are produced
 Budding – means of reproduction for yeast Dimorphic Fungi – fungi exhibiting dimorphism
that does not produce spores, parent cell of which fungi can grow as multicellular or
forms a protuberance (bud); parent cell unicellular in response to its environment
divides its nucleus into two, where one
migrates to the bud, breaking and forming Fungal Diseases
offspring genetically identical to the parent Any fungal infection is called mycosis. There are
 Fragmentation – hyphae disjoins and each five classification of mycoses:
form becomes another organism
(1) Systemic – fungal infections deep within  Pneumocystis – opportunistic pathogen
the body, usually caused by fungi that live in to those with a compromised immune
the soil, spores transmitted through inhalation, system and is life-threatening to those
inhalation typically begin in lungs and spread with AIDS
 Histoplasmosis – a lung infection  Mucormycosis – caused by Rhyzopus
caused by inhaling Histoplasma and Mucor affecting those with diabetes
capsulatum spores mellitus, leukemia and those with
 Coccidioidomycosis or Valley Fever – suppressed immune system
severe pneumonia or lung infection that  Aspergillosis – caused by Aspergillus
can spread throughout the body caused that occurs in those with lung disease or
by Coccidioides cancer
 Candidiasis – yeast infection caused by
(2) Subcutaneous – fungal infection beneath Candida albicans; name and location
the skin caused by saprophytic fungi living in of Candidiasis:
the soil and vegetation; direct implantation of Thrush — a common name for
spore into a puncture wound in the skin the mouth infection, affects
 Sporotrichosis or Rose Gardener’s moist surfaces around the lips,
Disease caused by Sporothrix inside the cheeks, and on the
tongue and palate
(3) Dermatomycoses/Cutaneous – caused by Esophagitis — infections of the
dermatophytes, fungi that infect only mouth that spread to the
epidermis, hair, and nails esophagus
 Tinea Corporis or Ringworm Cutaneous (skin) candidiasis —
Tinea Cruris or Jock Itch causes skin infections, common
Tinea Pedis or Athlete’s Foot sites include the diaper area; the
hands of people who routinely
(4) Superficial – localized along hair shafts and wear rubber gloves; the rim of
in superficial epidermal cells skin at the base of the
 Pityriasis Versicolor caused by fingernail, areas around the
Malassezia furfur groin, and in the crease of the
 Black Piedra caused by Piedraia buttocks; and the skin folds
hortae under large breasts
 White Piedra caused by Trichosporon Vaginal Yeast Infections —
beigelii women more susceptible to
vaginal yeast infections if
(5) Opportunistic – generally harmless in its pregnant or have diabetes; use
normal habitat but can become pathogenic in of antibiotics or birth control
host seriously debilitated or traumatized, under pills and douching (vaginal
treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics, washing)
whose immune system is suppressed or with Deep Candidiasis - contaminates
an immune disorder the bloodstream and spread
 throughout the body, causing stem-like, often hollow stipes, and
severe infection common in leaflike blades; some are buoyed by
newborns with very low birth floating, gas-filled bladder called
weights and in people with pneumatocyst
severely weakened immune
systems from illness or 2. Pellicle – a thickened cell membrane
medications such as anticancer 3. Stigma or Eyespot – a light-sensing
drugs organelle
4. Flagella
D. Protist
– many are unicellular but numerous colonial Reproduction of Algae
and multicellular groups exist Algae can reproduce in three methods;
– represent all symmetries and exhibit all types vegetative, asexually, or sexually.
of nutrition
– ancestral protist: origin of eukaryotes (1) Vegetative Reproduction – method of
propagation where a body part separates to
a. Algae give rise to new organisms
– Phycology or Algology is the study of algae (a) Binary Fission (also called Cell Division)
can be unicellular or multicellular - parent cell divides (longitudinal or
– eukaryotic photoautotrophs lacking roots, transverse) into two similar parts that
leaves, and stems develop as organisms and are similar to
– lack embryos of a plant: true roots, stems, the parent cell
and leaves. (b) Fragmentation – algae splits into
– mostly aquatic fragments that develop into matured, fully
grown individuals that are identical to
 Diatoms - usually unicellular algae that their parents
live in both freshwater and seawater; (2) Asexual Reproduction - production of
important members of the phytoplankton; progeny without the union of cells or nuclear
have silicon dioxide in their cell walls thus, material; formation of certain type of spores
have cell walls made of glass — either naked or newly walled that
 Dinoflagellates - microscopic, unicellular, germinates into a new organism
flagellated, often photosynthetic algae; (3) Sexual Reproduction - gametes fuse to
producing much of the oxygen in our form zygote
atmosphere (a) Autogamy - fusing gametes are
developed from the same mother cell and
Vegetative Structure after fusion they form zygote
1. Thalus – body of multicellular alga; (b) Hologamy - some unicellular member the
lacks xylem and phloem vegetative cells of different strains
 seaweeds – larger multicellular (+ and -) behave as gametes and after
algae: consist of the branched fusion they form zygote
holdfast, anchor alga to a rock; with
 (c) Isogamy - process of union, between two – unicellular, eukaryotic organisms
gametes which are morphologically and – term means “first animal”
physiologically similar — after fusion they
form zygote Stages of Protozoan’s Life
(d) Anisogamy - process the uniting gametes
are morphologically and physiologically (A) Trophozoite – feeding and growing stage,
different the motile, feeding, dividing stage in a
(e) Oogamy - advanced process where protozoan’s life cycle
fertilization takes place between a small (B) Cyst Stage - nonmotile, dormant, survival
motile male gamete (sperm or stage; allows protozoan to survive when food,
antherozoides) with a large non-motile moisture, or oxygen are lacking, the
female gamete (egg or ovum) temperature is not suitable, and toxic
chemicals are present
Algal Diseases
Reproduction of Protozoans
 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) is
caused by Gambierdiscus spp. and Protozoans mostly reproduce asexually and
Fukuyoa spp. sexually for some.
Toxin: Ciguatoxins
(1) Asexual Reproduction
 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) (a) Schizogony – multiple fission; the
nucleus undergoes multiple divisions before
is caused by Karenia brevis
the cell divides, a small portion of cytoplasm
Toxin: Brevetoxins
concentrates around each nucleus and
single cells separate into daughter cells
 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) (2) Sexual Reproduction
also known as red tide is caused by (a) Conjugation – for ciliates (like
Alexandrium Paramecium); two cells fuse and a haploid
Toxin: Saxitoxins nucleus, the micronucleus, from each cell
migrates
 Domoic Acid Poisoning and Amnesiac
Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) caused by Protozoan Diseases
Pseudo-nitzschia sp.
Toxin: Domoic Acid  Giardial enteritis caused by Giardia
intestinalis
 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) is
caused by Dinophysis  Urethritis or Vaginitis caused by
Toxin: Okadaic Acid Trichomonas vaginalis

b. Protozoans
– Protozoology is the study of protozoans  Leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania
  Hypodermis – also called subcutaneous tissue or
 African Trypanosomiasis/African superficial fascia; where the skin rest but not part
Sleeping Sickness caused by of the skin
Trypanosoma brucei
Organs:
 Amebic Dysentery caused by
Entamoeba histolytica 1. Skin – made up of two major tissue layers:
(1) Dermis, tissue below the epidermis
 Malaria caused by Plasmodium responsible for structural strength and
flexibility of the skin; divided into two layers:
reticular layer – dense irregular connective
V. Anatomy and Physiology tissue and the main layer of the dermis that
forms cleavage lines, and the papillary layer
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s – loose connective tissue that brings blood
structure vessels closer to epidermis and forms
fingerprints and footprints
Physiology is the scientific investigation of the processes or  Striae or Stretch Marks – visible lines
functions of living things result when skin is overstretched and
the dermis ruptures
Organ Systems of the Human Body
(2) Epidermis, the outermost part of the body,
1) Integumentary System protecting from dehydration, trauma and
infections, and produces Vitamin D; divided
Functions: into strata:
Stratum Basale: cuboidal/columnar cells;
a. Protection – skin provides protection against deepest portion of the
abrasion and UV light, prevents entry of epidermis; production of
microorganisms, and prevents dehydration cells (melanocytes)
b. Sensation – has sensory receptors that can Stratum Spinosum: consists of 8-10 layers of
detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain many-sided cells; production
c. Temperature Regulation – body temperature of keratin fibers and
is regulated by controlling blood flow through formation of lamellar bodies
the skin and the activity of sweat glands Stratum Granulosum: consist of 2 to 5
d. Vitamin D Production – when exposed to the diamond-shaped cells;
UV, the skin produces molecules that can be production of keratohyalin
transformed to vitamin D Stratum Lucidum: thin, clear zone above
e. Excretion – waste products are lost through stratum granulosum and
the skin and in gland secretions consist of several layers of
dead cells; dispersion of
keratohyalin around keratin
fibers
 Stratum Corneum: last and most superficial Cuticle, a thin line of tissue that is located
stratum; composed of at the base of the nail and overlaps the nail
approximately 25 or more plate,
layers of dead squamous cells; Nail Folds, folds of the skin located on the
provision of structural sides of the nail plate
strength by keratin within the Lunula, a white-colored half-moon-shaped
cells area located at the base of the nail plate
Matrix, the part of the nail that is not
 Keratinocytes – cells of the epidermis
visible, is located underneath the cuticle, this
that produces keratin
is the area responsible for the growth of the
 Keratinization – a process where
cells change shape and chemical fingernail.
composition when moving from deep
epidermal layers to the surface 3. Hair – primarily comprised of a fibrous protein
and contains a very small amount of lipids
 Melanocytes – cells of the epidermis (fats) and water; helps protect the skin,
contributing to skin color regulate body temperature, lends itself to the
 Melanin – term to describe a group evaporation and perspiration process, and
of pigments responsible for skin, helps with the nerve sensing functions of the
hair, and eye color integumentary system
 Melanosomes – package of melanin
into vesicles 4. Glands – has four types of exocrine glands,
 Albinism – recessive genetic trait of which secrete some type of substance outside
the inability to produce tyrosinase the cells and body:
causing lack of pigment Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands that are
hollow, cylindrical structures under the skin;
 Langerhans Cells – part of the immune
they excrete sweat via very small openings at
system
the skin’s surface; emit perspiration to help
cool the body off when the body temperature
 Merkel’s Cells – specialized epidermal
cells responsible for detecting light touch rises
and superficial pressure Sebaceous glands: very small tubular-shaped
glands, located in the dermis, which are
2. Nail - protects the fingers and toes from injury responsible for releasing oil into the hair
or trauma and assists with the sense of touch; follicle to help lubricate and protect the hair
made up of parts: shaft, keeping it from becoming hard and
Nail Plate, part of the nail that is visible, brittle. 
Nail Bed, skin that lies beneath the nail Ceruminous glands: Located in the ear canal,
plate, ceruminous glands function along with
sebaceous glands to produce ear wax or
cerumen. 
 Mammary glands: Underdeveloped in men surrounding the cells; helps your bones move
and produce breastmilk in women after smoothly past each other in your joints
giving birth  Chondroblast – cells that produce new
cartilage matrix that contains collagen
which provides strength, when matrix
Diseases of Integumentary System: surrounds a chondroblast it is called
chondrocytes that occupies space
A. Bacterial Infections – pimples, boils, within the matric called lacuna
carbuncles, and impetigo, erysipelas, and  Perichondrium – double-layered
acne connective tissue sheath covering most
B. Viral Infections – Chicken pox, Measles, cartilage
Rubella, Herpes simplex and Warts  Articular – the cartilage covering the
C. Fungal Infection – Ringworm ends of bones where they come together
D. Decubitus Ulcer – bedsores or pressure sores to form joints
E. Bullae – blisters
F. Psoriasis – silvery scales (2) Fibrocartilage: strongest and least flexible
G. Eczema and Dermatitis – inflammation in the of the three types; special type of connective
skin tissue intermediate between dense connective
H. Vitiligo – patches of white skin tissue and hyaline cartilage
I. Skin Cancer
(3) Elastic: most flexible cartilage; supports
2) Skeletal System parts of your body that need to bend and move
to function
Functions:
2. Bones - form the scaffolding that holds the
a. Support – bear weight and major supporting body together and allows it to move; support
tissue of the body body structure, protect key organs, and enable
b. Protection – protects other organs like the the body to move; produce bone marrow and
skull protecting the brain and the ribcage blood cells, and act as a storage area for
protecting the heart and the lungs minerals, particularly calcium
c. Movement – production of body movements
d. Storage – some minerals are taken into the Shapes
bone and stored (1) Long Bones – longer than they are wide
e. Blood Cells Production – bone with cavities Structure:
filled with bone marrow give rise to blood cells Diaphysis: shaft, primarily composed of
and platelets compact bones which is mostly bone
matrix with few small spaces; medullary
Organs: cavity – large space of a diaphysis of a
long bone
1. Cartilage – comes in three types: Epiphysis: end of the bone, primarily
(1) Hyaline: most bones develop from; consist composed of cancellous or spongy bone
of specialized cells that produce a matrix
 which is mostly small spaces or cavities or epiphyses but contain an interior framework
surrounded by bone matrix of cancellous bone sandwiched between two
Epiphyseal Plate: or growth plate is a layers of compact bone
hyaline cartilage located between
diaphysis and epiphysis (4) Irregular Bones – for bones with shapes
 Epiphyseal Line – when bone that don’t fit with other three; have
stops growing in length and composition same to epiphyses of the long
epiphyseal plate become ossified bone

The cavities of cancellous bones and  Sinuses – air-filled spaces of some flat
medullary cavity are filled with marrow. and irregular bones of the skull which
are lined up by mucus
 Red Marrow – site of blood cell
formation Bones in the Body
Adult skeleton has 206 bones.
 Yellow Marrow – made up of
adipose tissues; replaces red (a) Cranium/Skull – protects brain; supports
marrow in skulls and limbs as organ of vision, hearing, smell, and taste
children mature  Sagittal Suture – join paired parietal
bones at the midline
 Periosteum – connective tissue  Coronal Suture – connect parietal
membrane that covers the outer bones to frontal bones
surface of the bone  Lambdoid Suture – joins parietal bones
to occipital bone
 Perforating/Sharpey’s Fibers -  Sutural Bones – extra small
bundles of collagen fibers that bones forming along lambdoid
strengthens attachment of suture
tendons and ligaments to the
bones (b) Hyoid – part of adult skull; has no direct
bony attachment to the skull; provide
 Endosteum – connective tissue attachment for some tongue muscles
membrane that lines the internal
surfaces of all cavities within
(c) Vertebral Column – consist of 26 bones: 7
bones
cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5
(2) Short Bones – as broad as they are long; lumbar vertebrae, one sacral bone and one
have composition same to epiphyses of the long coccygeal; developing embryo has 34 vertebrae
bone but five sacral bone fused to form one bone
same with 4 or 5 coccygeal bones
(3) Flat Bones – relatively thin, flattened shape
and usually curved; usually have no diaphysis
(d) Thoracic/Rib Cage – protects vital organs
within the thorax (g) Pelvic Girdle – consist of left and right
 true ribs – aka vertebrosternal ribs; coxae or hipbones; each coxa is formed by the
superior seven pairs attach directly to fusion of three bones: ilium (groin), ischium
sternum through costal cartilages (hip) and pubis (genital hair)
 false ribs – inferior five ribs; do not  Femur – thigh bone
attach directly the sternum; two groups:  Patella – knee cap
 vertebrochondral ribs – the 8th,  Leg – consists of two bones: tibia, the
9th and 10th ribs; joined by larger of the two and supports most
common cartilage to the costal weight leg and fibula has a small
cartilage of the seventh rib proximal head that articulates the tibia
 floating/vertebral ribs – the 11th  Leg – consists of 7 tarsal bones, 5
and 12th ribs that does not attach metatarsal bones, talus (ankle bone),
to sternum and calcaneus (heel)

(e) Sternum – aka breastbone; sword-shaped Arches – distribute the weight of the body
composed of three parts: manubrium, sword between the heel and ball of the foot
handle; body, the blade, and xiphoid process,
the sword tip 3. Tendons – attach muscles to the bone; a
type of dense, regular connective tissue
(f) Pectoral Girdle – aka shoulder; consist of primarily made of strands of protein called
two bones attach to the upper limb; each pair collagen
is composed of scapula (shoulder blade) –
serves as attachment site for shoulder, back 4. Ligaments - connect two bones and stabilize
and arm muscles, and clavicle (collarbone) – organs
holds shoulder away from the body
 Humerus – the arm bone 5. Joints – also called articulations; named
according to the bones or portions of the bones
 Forearm – has two bones: ulna, medial
that are united at the joint
side of the forearm with the little finger;
radius, lateral or the thumb side of the Major Kinds of Joints
forearm
 Wrist – composed of 8 carpal bones (1) Fibrous – consists of two bones that are
divided into two rows united by fibrous connective tissue, have no
 Hand – metacarpals, attached to the cavity, and exhibit little to no movements
carpal bones and constitute bony
framework of the hand; composed of (a) Sutures – seams between the bones of
five digits: one thumb (with two the skull; sutural ligament, form when two
phalanges) and four fingers (with three layers of periosteum plus the dense fibrous
phalanges ; phalanges, small long bones connective tissue in between; fontanels,
 membranous areas in the newborn that
make skull flexible during birth and allow b. Saddle – consist of two saddle-shaped
growth of head after birth articulating surfaces oriented at right
 Synostosis – results when two angles to each other; biaxial joints
bones grow together across a joint to Ex. Carpometacarpal Joints
form a single bone
c. Hinge – monoaxial joints consist of a
(b) Syndesmosis – fibrous joints in which convex cylinder in one bone applied to
the bones are farther apart that in a corresponding concavity in the other
suture and are joined by ligaments bone
Ex. Elbow and Knee Joints
(c) Gomphoses – specialized joints consist
of pegs that fit into sockets and that are d. Pivot – monoaxial joints that restrict
held in place by fine bundles regular movements to rotation around a single
collagenous connective tissue axis
Ex. Atlanto-Axial (Neck) and Proximal
(2) Cartilaginous – unite two bones by means Radioulnar (Radius and Ulna)
of either hyaline cartilage of fibrocartilage
e. Ball-and-Socket – consists of a ball at
(a) Synchondrosis – consists of two bones the end of one bone and a socket in an
joined by hyaline cartilage where little to no adjacent bone in which portion of the
movement occurs ball fits; multiaxial joints
Ex. Shoulder and Hip Joints
(b) Symphysis – consists of fibrocartilage
uniting two bones f. Ellipsoid/Condyloid – modified ball-
and-socket joints; articular surfaces are
(3) Synovial – contain synovial fluid and allow ellipsoid rather than spherical in shape;
considerable movement between articulating biaxial joints
bones Ex. Wrist and Metacarpophalengeal
(knuckle) Joints
Types of Synovial Joints
Classified according to shape adjoining Movements
articular surfaces a. Monoaxial – occurring around one axis
b. Biaxial – occurring around two axes
a. Plane/Gliding – consists of two opposed situated at right angles to each other
flat surfaces of about equal size in which c. Multiaxial – occurring around several
a slight amount of gliding motion can axes
occur
Ex. Intercarpal and Intertarsal, Diseases of Skeletal System:
Sternoclavicular, and Vertebrocostal
Joints A. Arthritis - joint inflammation
  Osteoarthritis - degenerative joint f. Constriction of Organ and Vessels –
disease, which usually results from the constriction of smooth muscle within the walls
infection and trauma of the joint or the of internal organs and vessels causes
process of aging constriction
B. Bone Cancer - unwanted growth of g. Heart Beat – contraction of cardiac muscle
neoplastic tissue mass in the bone causes heart to beat, propelling blood to all
C. Kelso's Hunchback - kyphosis or simply parts of the body
roundback, the over-curvature of the thoracic
vertebrae in the upper back region of the Properties:
vertebral column
D. Rickets - condition that affects the bone 1. Contractility – ability of muscle to shorten
development in children and causes the hard with force
bony structures to become softer and weaker, 2. Excitability – capacity of muscle to respond to
thus leading to mild or relatively severe case a stimulus
of bone deformities; deficiency or impaired 3. Extensibility – muscle can be stretched to its
metabolism of vitamin D, calcium, or normal resting length and beyond limited
phosphorus degree
E. Osteoporosis - porous bones; loss of the 4. Elasticity – ability of muscle to recoil to its
bone mass owing an imbalance of the bone original resting length after it has been
formation and the bone resorption stretched

3) Muscular System Types:

Functions: a. Skeletal – also known as striated muscles;

with its associated tissue constitutes about
a. Body Movement – skeletal muscles attached 40% of the body’s weight and is responsible for
bones are responsible for most body locomotion, facial expression, posture, and
movements other movements; composed of skeletal muscle
b. Maintenance of Posture – skeletal muscles fibers developed from less mature
constantly maintain tone that keeps us multinucleated cells called myoblast,
standing sitting and standing erect surrounded by delicate network of loose tissue
c. Respiration – muscle of the thorax are called endomysium surrounded by heavier
responsible for movements necessary for connective tissue called perimysium and
respiration surrounded by third dense collagenous
d. Production of Body Heat – when skeletal connective called epimysium; fascia
muscles contract, heat is given off as a by- connective tissue that covers body and
product critical to maintenance of body surround individual muscles or group of
temperature muscles; motor neurons are specialized nerve
e. Communication – involved in speaking, cells located in brainstem or spinal cord with
writing, typing, gesturing, and facial expression axons extending to skeletal muscle fibers
Ex. Biceps and Triceps
 b. Smooth – most widely distributed type of respiration, efficient but slowly by aerobic
muscle in the body; performs variety of respiration
functions including propelling urine, mixing
food in the stomach and intestines, dilating 4) Lymphatic System
and constricting the pupils, and regulating
blood flow; has two types: visceral or unitary, Functions:
more common and occurs in digestive,
reproductive and urinary tract, and multiunit, a. Fluid Balance - maintain fluid (lymph) balance
occurs as sheet in the body by collecting excess fluid and
Ex. found in walls of hollow internal organs particulate matter from tissues and depositing
like blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, them in the bloodstream
bladder, and uterus b. Fat Absorption – absorbs fat and other
c. Cardiac – found only in the heart and its substances from the digestive track through
contractions provide major force for lacteals located in the lining of small intestines
c. Defense – microorganisms and other foreign
Diseases of the Muscular System: substances are filtered from lymph to lymph
nodes and from blood by spleen
A. Muscular Atrophy – decrease in the size of
muscles Organs:
 Disuse Atrophy – muscular atrophy
results from lack of muscle use a. Lymphatic Vessels - network of capillaries
 Denervation Atrophy – results when (microvessels) and a large network of tubes
nerves that supply skeletal muscles are located throughout your body that transport
severed lymph away from tissues
B. Muscular Dystrophy – also called
myopathies or group of disease that destroy b. Tonsils – provide protection to pharynx against
skeletal muscle tissue; usually inherited bacteria and other potentially harmful material
C. Fibrositis – inflammation in the fibrous
connective tissue c. Lymph Nodes – filter lymph removing bacteria
D. Fibrosis – scarring, replacement of damaged and other materials
cardiac muscle or skeletal muscle by
connective tissue d. Spleen – largest lymphatic organ that
E. Cramps – pain, spastic contractions of produces lymphocytes, which are important
muscles elements in the immune system

Fatigue – decreased ability to do work caused by Diseases of the Lymphatic System

central nervous system depletion of ATP in muscles
A. Lymphadenitis – inflammation of the lymph
ATP – the source of energy for muscle nodes caused by trapped microorganism and
contractions; can be synthesized with ADP reacting destroyed in the lymph nodes
with creatine phosphate, less efficient by anaerobic
 B. Bubonic Plague – caused by Yersinia pestis B. Lower Respiratory Tract
transferred from rats to humans a. Larynx or Voice Box – consists of the
outer casing of nine cartilages, with six paired
C. Elephantiasis – caused by long, slender and three unpaired: adam’s apple is largest,
roundworm Wuchereria bancrafti cricoid is most inferior and forms base of the
larynx, and epiglottis covers the opening of
D. Lymphoma – neoplasm (tumor) of lymphatic larynx and prevents the entrance of other
tissue materials
a. Hodgkin’s Lymphoma b. Trachea or Windpipe - delivers air from
b. Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma the upper respiratory tract to the bronchi
c. Tracheobronchial Tree or Bronchi – can
5) Respiratory System be subdivided based on function
 Conducting Zone – passageway for air
Functions: movement and helps remove debris
from the air and move it out
a. Gas Exchange – allows oxygen to enter blood  Respiratory Zone – site of gas
and carbon dioxide to leave the blood exchange between the air and blood
b. Regulation of blood pH – alter blood pH by d. Lungs – principal organ for respiration and
changing blood carbon dioxide level largest organ based on volume
c. Voice Production – air movement passing
vocal fold makes sound and speech possible Diseases of Respiratory System
d. Olfaction – sensation of smell when airborne
molecules are borne into nasal cavity A. Bronchitis – inflammation bronchi caused by
e. Protection – prevents entry of some irritants
microorganism in the body and removing them
from respiratory surfaces B. Emphysema – destruction of alveolar walls

Organs: C. Cystic Fibrosis – inherited disease affecting

secretory cells linings in lungs, and some
A. Upper Respiratory Tract glands
a. Nose or Nasus – consist of external nose,
visible structure forming a prominent feature in D. Pulmonary Fibrosis – replacement of lung
face and the nasal cavity, extends from nares tissue with fibrous connective tissue making
or nostrils (external opening of nasal cavity; lungs less elastic and breathing difficult
passageway of air; cleans and warm air) to
choanae (opening into larynx) E. Lung or Bronchiogenic Cancer
b. Pharynx – common opening of digestive
and respiratory system receiving air from nasal F. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – also known
cavity and receive air, water, and food from the as crib death; infant stops breathing during
oral cavity sleep
 G. Strep Throat – caused by Streptococcus Organs:
pyogenes, the inflammation of pharynx
accompanied by fever a. Oral Cavity – function include ingestion
(where food are introduced first), taste
H. Diphtheria - caused by Corynebacterium (stimulation of taste buds in tongue),
diphtheria, grayish membrane forms in throat mastication (breakdown of food with teeth),
blocking passage of air digestion (chemical digestion, amylase begins
carbohydrates digestion), protection and
I. Whooping Cough – caused by Bardatella communication
pertussis, cause loss of cilia of respiratory Composed of the labia or lips, palate and
epithelium palatine tonsils, tongue, teeth, and salivary
glands
J. Tuberculosis – caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, bacteria form lesions called b. Pharynx – functions include swallowing
tubercles (movement of bolus to esophagus), breathing
(passageway of air), and protection
K. Pneumonia – infection of the lungs caused by (production of mucus); transports food from
bacteria, some from virus, fungi, or protist pharynx to stomach

6) Digestive System c. Esophagus – function include propulsion

(peristaltic contraction moving bolus to
Functions: stomach)
a. Ingestion – introduction solid or liquid food
into stomach d. Stomach – function include storage
b. Mastication – process of chewing food by the (expansion of stomach to hold food until
teeth digestion), digestion (digestion of protein with
c. Propulsion – movement of food from one end actions of HCl and pepsin), and absorption
of digestive tract to the other (little absorption)
d. Mixing – food is mixed by moving it back and
forth within digestive tract e. Small Intestine – functions include
e. Secretion – secretions are added to lubricate, neutralization (stomach acid is neutralize by
liquefy, and digest food bicarbonate ions from pancreas and bile from
f. Digestion – breakdown of large organic liver), digestion (complete breakdown of food
molecules into component parts for the body to due to enzymes from pancreas and its lining),
utilize absorption (most nutrients are passively or
g. Absorption – movement of molecules out of actively absorbed), and mixing and propulsion
digestive tract into the circulation (segmental contraction mix chyme and
h. Elimination – process of removing waste peristaltic contraction move chyme to large
product in the body through defecation intestines)
(elimination of semisolid waste product)
Parts:
  Duodenum – first part of small intestine b. Ulcerative Colitis – limited to mucosa
where food first enter from stomach to of large intestines, mucosa inflammation
small intestine curving around the
pancreas B. Irritable Bowel Syndrome – disorder of
 Jejunum – middle section of small unknown cause characterize by abnormal
intestine with many blood vessels which intestinal mobility having alternating bouts of
give it its red color constipation (low bowel movement) and
 Ileum – last and longest section of small diarrhea (high bowel movement)
intestine where most water and
nutrients are absorbed C. Malabsorption Syndrome or Sprue –
spectrum of disorders in small intestine that
f. Liver – largest internal organ in the body that result to abnormal nutrient absorption
produces bile, stores glycogen
D. Enteritis – inflammation of the intestines that
g. Large Intestine or Colon – functions include can result in diarrhea, dehydration, fatigue,
absorption (colon absorbs salt, water, and and weight loss
vitamins), storage (holds feces until
elimination), and mixing and propulsion E. Colon Cancer – correlated with diets low in
(movement of feces toward anus) fiber and high in fats

Parts: F. Constipation – slow movement of feces along

 Cecum – where food small intestine is large intestines making feces hard and dry
introduce, with an proximal end because of increase fluid absorption due to
extending in the form of a blind sac extended time
called vermiform appendix
 Colon – where remaining water and 7) Nervous System
electrolytes are absorbed, with friendly
gut bacteria breaking down remaining Functions:
carbohydrates to produce vitamins B
and K a. Sensory Input – sensory receptors monitor
 Rectum – where food waste in the form numerous external and internal stimuli
of feces is delivered to be eliminated b. Integration – process sensory input and
 Anus – canal feces will leave through initiate responses
c. Homeostasis – regulate and coordinate
Disease of the Digestive System activities of the nervous system
d. Mental Activity – brain is the center of mental
A. Inflammatory Bowel Disease – general name activities
given to Crohn’s Disease or Ulcerative Colitis e. Control of Muscles and Glands – skeletal
a. Crohn’s Disease – localized muscle contracts when stimulated by the
inflammatory degeneration along nervous system
digestive tract
 Types: c) Mesencephalon or
a. sensory neurons – convert signals from Midbrain – smallest region
the external environment into of brain stem containing
corresponding internal stimuli; conduct descending and ascending
action potential towards CNS nerve tracts; visual reflex
b. motor neurons – most common type of center and part of auditory
neuron and transmits information pathway
from the brain to the muscles of the d) Reticular Formation – a
body; conduct action potential away group of nuclei scattered in
from CNS toward muscles and glands the brainstem that controls
c. interneurons – help in passing signals cyclic activities like the
between two neurons sleep-wake cycle
2. Cerebellum – little brain; controls
Divisions: voluntary movements like
A. Central Nervous System – to analyze and walking, posture, balance,
integrate various intra- and extra-personal coordination, eye movements, and
information, as well as to generate a speech.
coordinated response to these stimuli 3. Diencephalon – part of the brain
between the brainstem and
Organs: cerebrum
a) Thalamus – largest part of
a. Brain – control center for many body diencephalon; relay motor
functions and sensory signals (except
1. Brainstem – connects brain the olfactory) to the cerebral
spinal cord to the remainder of cortex
the brain; sends messages to the b) Subthalamus - involved in
rest of your body to regulate movement regulation
balance, breathing, heart rate and c) Epithalamus - regulates
more; composed of: melatonin secretion
a) Medulla Oblongata - d) Hypothalamus – keeps the
transmit signals between body in homeostasis by
the spinal cord and the helping in the production
higher parts of the brain of hormones that regulate
and in control autonomic heart rate, body
activities, such as temperature, hunger, and
heartbeat and respiration control the release of
b) Pons – pathway for hormones in pituitary
descending and ascending glands
nerve tracts; relay between 4. Cerebrum - responsible for
cerebrum and cerebellum receiving and giving meaning to
information from the sense
organs; control your ability to hearing, sight, touch, and
read, write and speak; for smell
learning, logic, and reasoning; b. Spinal Cord – communication link
send signals to muscles regarding between the brain and the PNS;
what to do; divided into left and integrates incoming information and
right hemisphere by longitudinal produces responses through reflex
fissure mechanism; extends from foramen
a) Frontal Lobe – important magnum (biggest hole in the base of the
in voluntary motor skull through which the spinal cord
function, motivation, passes) to the second lumbar vertebra
aggression, sense of smell with 33 vertebrae in total; composed of:
and mood; manage a) Cervical – seven in the neck
thinking, emotions, b) Thoracic – twelve in the torso
personality, judgment, self- c) Lumbar – five in the lower back
control, muscle control and d) Sacral - five sacral and 3-5
movements, memory coccygeal vertebrae are fused into
storage the sacrum and coccyx bones
b) Temporal Lobe – receives Surrounded by meninges, connective
and evaluates input for tissue membrane
smell and hearing; a) Dura Mater second lumbar
understanding language, vertebra – the most superficial
memory acquisition, face and thickest membrane
recognition, object surrounding the spinal cord to the
recognition, perception and epineurium of the spinal nerves
processing auditory b) Arachnoid Mater – thin and
information wispy with space in between
c) Occipital Lobe – functions called subdural space containing
in the reception and a small amount of serous fluid
integration of visual input; c) Pia Mater – bound tightly to the
controlling vision and surface of the brain and spinal
visual processing cord
d) Parietal Lobe – major
center for reception and Reflex Arc – functional unit of
evaluation of sensory nervous system
information for taste and
touch; major interpreter of B. Peripheral Nervous System – consists of
the sensory world; vital for sensory receptors, nerves, ganglia, and
sensory perception and plexuses
integration, including the
management of taste, 1. Sensory or Afferent Division –
transmits electric signals called action
 potential from sensory receptors to a. Neurons or Nerve Cells – receive and
CNS transmit action potentials to other
2. Motor or Efferent Division – transmit neurons or to effector organs
action potentials from CNS to effector Parts:
organs 1. Soma – neuron cell body
a. Somatic Nervous System – 2. Dendrites – branch-like structures
transmits action potentials from that receive messages from other
CNS to skeletal muscles thus neurons and allow the transmission
voluntarily controlling skeletal of messages to the cell body
muscles 3. Axons - tube-like structure that
 Synapse – junction of a nerve cell carries electrical impulse from the
with another cell cell body to the axon terminals that
a) Chemical Synapse – pass the impulse to another neuron
action potential affects
other neurons through a Diseases of the Nervous System
gap present between two
neurons; initiates the A. Sclerosis - a disease of the nervous system
release of chemical that can be of two types:
messengers known as a. Multiple Sclerosis - degenerative and
neurotransmitters chronic disease axons of the cells of the
b) Electrical Synapse - two nervous system (neurons) are
neurons are connected by progressively losing myelin
a gap junction; helping in b. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis – a
the direct transmission of a progressive and neurodegenerative
positive electrical signal disease where motor neurons of the
brain and spinal cord are altered and
b. Autonomic Nervous System – progressively deteriorate
transmits action potential from
CNS to smooth and cardiac B. Epilepsy - recurrence of seizures due to
muscles, and certain glands; hyperactivation of certain groups of neurons
subdivided into two subdivisions:
sympathetic, prepares body for C. Cerebrovascular Diseases – also known as
physical activity, and strokes where blood flow to a part of the brain
parasympathetic, regulates stops
resting or vegetative functions
(digesting or urinating)
D. Dementia - involves severe impairment of
cognitive functions such as memory,
Organs:
reasoning, attention, intellectual capacity,
etc.
8) Endocrine System – composed of glands that secrete Hormones:
chemical signals to the circulatory system  Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or
 Hormones – secretory products of endocrine vasopressin) - regulates the water
glands balance and sodium levels
 Ligand – the traditional definition of hormones  Oxytocin – stored and released by
as a chemical signal pituitary which is created by the
 Target Tissues – specific tissues at another hypothalamus that helps labor to
site of the body that influence activity of those progress during childbirth by sending
tissues signals to their uterus to contract and
breast milk to flow in female, and in
Function: moving sperm in male
a. Metabolism and Tissue Maturation – b) Adenohypophysis/Anterior Pituitary –
regulates the rate of metabolism and influences arises as an out pocketing of the roof of
the maturation of tissues the embryonic oral cavity; produce
b. Ion Regulation – helps regulate blood pH as hormones called tropic hormones
well as Na, K, and Ca concentration in blood Hormones:
c. Water Balance – regulates water by controlling  Adrenocorticotropic hormone
solute concentration in the blood (ACTH or corticotrophin) - plays a
d. Immune System Regulation – helps control role in how your body responds to
the production of immune cells stress by stimulating adrenal glands
e. Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Regulation – to produce cortisol (stress hormone)
regulate heart rate and blood pressure and  Follicle-stimulating hormone
helps prepare the body for physical activity (FSH) – also known as
f. Control Blood Glucose and Other Nutrients
gonadotrophic hormone that
g. Control Reproductive Functions – controls
stimulates sperm production in
the development and functions of reproductive
male and stimulates the ovaries to
system in male and females
h. Uterine Contractions and Milk Release – produce estrogen and in egg
regulates urine contractions during delivery development in female
and stimulates milk release in lactating  Growth hormone or Somatotropin
females (GH) - stimulates growth in
children, and helps maintain
Glands and Hormones healthy muscles and bones and
impacts fat distribution in adults
1. Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis – small, pea-  Luteinizing hormone (LH) -
sized gland located at the base of brain below stimulates ovulation in female and
hypothalamus; also known as the “master testosterone production in male
glands” for it regulates other endocrine glands;  Prolactin - stimulates breast milk
divided into two parts:
production (lactation) after giving
a) Neurohypophysis/Posterior Pituitary
birth; can affect fertility and sexual
– continuous with the brain
functions in adults
  Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) – stimulates the thyroid to 3. Thyroid – butterfly-shaped gland that
produce thyroid hormones that produces hormones necessary for
manage metabolism, energy levels metabolism and development located in the
and nervous system front part of your neck
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone – Hormones:
increase melanin production in  Triiodothyronine (T3) – helps maintain
melanocytes muscle control, brain function and
development, heart, and digestive
2. Hypothalamus – involved in autonomic function
function control, endocrine function control,  Tetraiodothyronine (T4) – also called
homeostasis, motor function control, food and thyroxine; regulate how much thyroid
water intake regulation and sleep-wake cycle hormone is being produced at any
regulation given time
Hormones:
 Anti-Diuretic Hormone (Vasopressin) – 4. Parathyroid – secretes hormones that is
regulates water levels and influence important in regulation of calcium level in
blood volume and blood pressure body fluids (blood) that targets bone, kidney,
 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone – and intestines located in the front of your neck
acts on the pituitary gland causing Hormone:
the release of hormones in response  Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – hormone
to stress parathyroid glands make and release
 Oxytocin – influences sexual and to control the level of calcium in
social behavior blood
 Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone –
stimulates the pituitary to release 5. Adrenal – also called the suprarenal glands
hormones that influence the that produce hormones that help you cope
development of reproductive system
with stress, regulate blood pressure, and
structures
balance salt and water can be found on top of
 Somatostatin - inhibits the release of
each kidney
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
and growth hormone (GH) a) Adrenal Medulla
 Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Hormones:
- stimulates the release of growth  Epinephrine/Adrenaline – part
hormone by the pituitary of “fight-or-flight” response;
 Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone - increased cardiac output, blood
stimulates the pituitary to release flow, glucose, and fatty acid levels
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)  Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline –
that regulates metabolism, growth, heart precursor of the formation of
rate, and body temperature adrenaline;  breaks down fat and
 increases your blood sugar
levels to give you that extra 8. Thymus – butterfly-shape or thyme leaf-shape
burst of energy gland that produce T cells and trains
b) Adrenal Cortex – synthesis of hormones immune system to protect the body against
Hormones: infections, even cancer located in front of the
 Mineralocorticoids – heart
corticosteroid hormone that Hormone:
influence salt and water  Thymosin - stimulates the
balances  development of disease-fighting T
 Glucocorticoids – corticosteroids cells
effective at reducing inflammation
and suppressing the immune 9. Ovaries – function depends on the secretion
system involved in the of FSH and LH
metabolism of carbohydrates, Hormones:
proteins, and fats  Estrogen - regulates the female
 Androgen – stimulate pubic and reproductive system and secondary
axillary hair growth and sexual sex characteristics
drives in females and effect is  Progesterone - facilitates ovulation to
negligible in men pregnancy, prepares the uterus for
implantation and maintain a healthy
6. Pancreas – located in your abdomen behind pregnancy to menopause in women
your stomach involve controlling blood sugar  Inhibin – inhibits the secretion of
levels FSH
Hormones:  Relaxin – increases flexibility of
 Insulin – helps cells use glucose from connective tissues of pubis and dilate
food for energy and keeps blood sugar the cervix of the uterus
levels stable
 Glucagon - helps regulate blood sugar 10.Testes - function depends on the secretion
levels by raising them when they are of FSH and LH
too low Hormones:
 Somatostatin – regulate release of  Testosterone – regulates production of
hormones like inhibiting the release of sperm cell and maintenance of male
GH reproductive organs
 Inhibin – inhibits secretion of FSH
7. Pineal – pinecone-shape gland that controls
sleep-and-wake cycle Diseases of the Endocrine System
Hormone:
 Melatonin - regulates sleep patterns A. Dwarfism – short stature due to delayed
also called circadian rhythms bone growth from lack of GH secretion
 J. Cushing’s Syndrome – hypersecretion of
B. Gigantism – exaggerated and prolonged cortisol and androgens which results to lung
growth in long bones caused by chronic cancer
hypersecretion of GH before complete
ossification of epiphysial plate K. Adrenogenital Syndrome – development of
secondary sexual characteristic in male
C. Acromegaly – increased diameter in children and masculinity in female
fingers, toes, hands, and feet with no children
increase in height occurring after
complete ossification of epiphysial plate L. Diabetes Mellitus – inadequate secretion of
insulin or inability of tissues to respond to
D. Hypothyroidism – condition resulting from insulin
decreased production of thyroid hormones a. Type I/Insulin-dependent – results
that results to iodine deficiency, decreased from diminished insulin secretion
metabolic rate, low body temperature and b. Types II/Noninsulin-dependent –
cold tolerance results from the inability of target
tissues to respond to insulin
E. Hyperthyroidism – also called Toxic Goiter
overproduction of hormones by the thyroid 9) Cardiovascular System
gland that results to Grave’s disease,
increased metabolic rate, low body Two Blood Circulatory Systems
temperature and cold tolerance 1. Pulmonary - circulatory system moves blood
between the heart and lungs where oxygen
F. Hypoparathyroidism - abnormally low enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
levels of parathyroid hormone the blood

G. Hyperparathyroidism - excess parathyroid a. Path of Oxygenated Blood

hormone due to over activity of parathyroid
glands Lungs > Pulmonary Veins > Left Atrium >

H. Addison’s Disease – abnormally low level of Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve > Left Ventricle >
aldosterone and cortisol; suspected to be an Aortic
autoimmune disease
Semilunar Valve > Aorta > Body Tissues
I. Aldosteronism – excess production of
aldosterone with primary aldosteronism
resulting to adrenal cortex tumor and 2. Systemic - main blood circulatory system
secondary, occurring when there is that transports blood to the organs, tissues,
overproduction of renin and cells throughout the body

a. Path of Deoxygenated Blood

 1. Plasma – a colloid and the liquid part of
Body Tissues > Superior (blood from head, the blood consist of 91% water and 9%
neck, upper limb, and chest) and Inferior other substances including plasma
(blood from trunks, viscera, and lower proteins:
limbs) Vena Cava > albumin – partly responsible for
blood viscosity and osmotic pressure,
Right Atrium > Tricuspid Valve > Right acts as buffer
Ventricle > globulin – transport molecules
(lipids, hormones, ions, and antibodies
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve > fibrinogens – responsible for
formation of blood clot
Pulmonary Trunk > Pulmonary Arteries >
2. Red Blood Cells or Erythrocytes –
Lungs biconcave disk without nucleus that
transport oxygen from lungs to
various tissues of the body and carbon
Functions: dioxide from tissues to lungs; main
component is hemoglobin, a pigmented
a. Transport of Nutrients, Gases and Waste red protein
Products - to transport nutrients, gases, and
waste products around the body 3. White Blood Cells or Leukocytes –
b. Protection - to protect the body from infection lacks hemoglobin but have nucleus that
and blood loss detect and deal with infections or foreign
c. Thermoregulation - to help the body maintain molecules that enter body with five
a constant body temperature types:
d. Fluid Balance - to help maintain fluid balance Neutrophils – most common types
within the body of WBC that phagocytize bacteria,
antigen-antibody complexes, and other
Organs: foreign matter
Eosinophils – enter tissues during
A. Blood – transport gasses, nutrients and waste inflammatory reaction to produce
product, transport processed molecules enzyme that destroys histamine, and
(vitamins produced in the body) and regulatory also release toxic chemicals to attack
molecules (hormones and enzymes, regulates parasites (tapeworms, flukes, pinworms,
pH and osmosis, maintains body temperature, and hookworms
protects against foreign substance and clot Basophils – least common WBC that
formation contains and release histamine to
increase inflammation, and release
Components of Blood heparin to inhibits blood clotting
Lymphocytes – smallest WBC with
two main types: T lymphocytes (T cells)
 that control body’s immune system A- A+, A-, AB+, A-, O-
response and directly attack and kill AB-
infected cells and tumor cells, and B O- Universal O-
lymphocytes (B cells) that make Donor
antibodies that target viruses, bacteria, B- B+, B-, AB+, B-, O-
and other foreign invaders AB-
Monocytes – largest WBC that AB- AB+, AB- AB-, A-, B-, O-
phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell
fragments and other debris within the Rh Blood Group – first studied in rhesus
tissues and its increase is associated monkeys, blood group with the presence or
with chronic infections absence with Rh factor (Rhesus Factor) a type
of protein on the outside or surface of your red
4. Platelets or Thrombocytes – minute blood cells
fragments of cells consisting of small
amount of cytoplasm surrounded by Diagnostic Blood Test
plasma membrane that prevents blood 1. Type and Cross-Match – to prevent
loss by forming platelets plugs, which transfusion reaction
seal holes in small vessels and promote 2. Complete Blood Count – analysis of the
formation and contraction of clots to seal blood that provides much information
off larger wounds
B. Heart – generate blood pressure, routing
Hemostasis – body's way of stopping bleeding blood, ensuring one-way blood flow, and
and repairing damaged blood vessels regulating blood supply

Platelet Plug – an accumulation of platelets Anatomy of the Heart

that can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
1. Pericardium or Pericardial Sac – a
Coagulation/Blood Clotting – results in double-layered closed sac that
formation of network of threadlike protein fiber, surrounds the heart
fibrin 2. Heart Wall – composed of three layers:
a. Epicardium – thin serous
ABO Blood Group membrane that constitutes
smooth outer surface of the
Type Donates to Receives heart
from b. Myocardium – composed of
A+ A+, AB+ A+, A-, O+, O- cardiac muscle cells responsible
O+ O+, A+, B+, O+, O- for the ability of the heart to
AB+ contract
B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O- c. Endocardium – consist of
AB+ AB+ Universal simple squamous epithelium
Recipient
 allowing blood to move easily chronic bleeding through small vessels
through heart and capillaries

C. Blood Vessels -  highways of life, carrying F. Leukemia – cancers of the red bone
oxygen and nutrients to every cell and marrow in which abnormal production of
removing waste products one or more of the WBC types occur

Types of Blood Vessels G. Angina Pectoris -pain that results from

1. Arteries - strong and muscular, a reduction in blood supply to cardiac
carrying oxygen-rich blood away from muscle
the heart under high pressure
2. Veins - thinner and less elastic, H. Myocardial Infarction – prolonged lack
carrying oxygen-poor blood back to the of blood flow to a cardiac muscle that
heart with the help of valves that results to lack of oxygen and ultimately
prevent backflow cellular death
3. Capillaries - smallest and thinnest
blood vessels, forming a network that 10) Urinary System
connects the arterioles and venules
and allow the exchange of Functions:
gases, nutrients, and waste between
the blood and the cells a. Filtration – filter waste from blood
b. Excretion of Waste Product – transport waste
Diseases of Cardiovascular System product in the form of urine out of the body

A. Erythrocytosis – overabundance of red Organs:

blood cells
a. Kidney – bean-shape filters blood, regulates
B. Anemia – deficiency of hemoglobin in blood volume, blood solutes, pH of
blood caused by decreased number of extracellular fluid, RBC synthesis and vitamin
RBC D synthesis
 Nephrons – histological and functional
C. Von Willebrand’s Disease – common unit of kidney
inherited bleeding disorder characterized
by excessive mucocutaneous bleeding b. Ureters – carry urine from kidney to urinary
bladder
D. Hemophilia – genetic disorder in which
clotting is abnormal or present c. Bladder – triangle-shaped, hollow organ that
relax and expand to store urine and empty it to
E. Thrombocytopenia – number of urethra
platelets is greatly reduced resulting to
 d. Urethra – tube that carries urine from bladder a. Production of Androgen – maintain male
to outside the body reproductive function and promote
spermatogenesis
Diseases in the Urinary System b. Transport of Sperm to Female
Reproductive Organ - transportation of
A. Urinary Tract Cancer the content of the internal and external
organs to the female reproductive tract for
B. Incontinence – inability to control urine flow fertilization during sexual intercourse.
due to too weak or too active sphincter muscles
of urethra Organs:

C. Interstitial Cystitis – also known as painful a. Scrotum – contains the testes, with outer
bladder syndrome where there is an layer consist of loose connective tissue and
inflammation in the bladder layer of smooth muscle dartos that
becomes firm and wrinkled once exposed to
D. Neprolith - kidney stones; forms when mineral cold temperature
and acid salts crystalizes
b. Perineum – area between thighs bounded
E. Kidney Failure – kidneys are damaged and by symphysis pubis
unable to filter blood properly as a result of
chronic kidney disease c. Testes – small ovoid organs with exocrine
secretions of sperm cells and endocrine
F. Urinary Tract Infection – cause by bacteria or secretions of testosterone
virus entering and infecting urinary tract  Spermatogenesis – sperm cell
development, sperm cell is haploid
11) Reproductive System with 23 chromosomes
A. Male Reproductive System d. Penis – transports urine from bladder;
expulsion of semen from testes
Male Sexual Act
e. Ducts
 Erection – penis becomes enlarged and
rigid  Epididymis – comma-shaped
 Emission – accumulation of sperm cells structure on the posterior side of
and secretion of accessory glands in the testes consist of head, body, and tail
urethra where final maturation of sperm
 Ejaculation – movement of semen out of occurs
urethra
 Ductus Deferens – associated with
Functions:
blood vessels and nerves that
supplies testes
 b. Uterine/Fallopian Tube – transport sperm
 Ejaculatory Duct – delivers sperm toward egg cell released by ovary and allow
into urethra; add prostatic fluid passage of fertilized egg back to uterus for
necessary for sperm function implantation

 Urethra – passageway for both urine c. Uterus – where fertilized egg implants
and male reproductive fluids during pregnancy, where baby develops
and where menstruation occurs
f. Accessory Glands
d. Vagina – receives penis during intercourse,
 Seminal Vesicles – sac-shaped allows menstrual flow and childbirth
glands that produce fluids (60%)
containing fructose and fibrinogen e. Vulva/Pudendum - external genital organ
that will turn into semen  Vestibule – space which vagina
opens posteriorly and urethra
 Prostate Glands – produce fluids anteriorly
that also make up the sperm (30%)
that make seminal fluid more pH  Labia minora – forms borders on
neutral each side of vestibule

 Bulbourethral Glands – add fluid to  Labia majora – enclose and protect

semen (5%) the other external genital organs

 Clitoris – small erectile structure

B. Female Reproductive System
f. Mammary Glands – organ of milk
Functions: production

a. Production of Sex Hormones – Diseases in Reproductive Organs

production of egg cells that will be fertilized
b. Nurture Developing Offspring – the A. Male
fertilized egg will be transporter to the
uterus where life develops a. Erectile dysfunction (ED) - regular and
repeated inability of a sexually mature
Organs: male to obtain or maintain an erection of
a. Ovaries – female glands where egg cells the penis
form and where estrogen and progesterone
are made b. Epididymitis - inflammation of the
 Oogenesis – production of epididymis
secondary oocyte within ovary
 c. Prostate Cancer - glandular cells of the A. Meteorology
prostate mutate into tumor cells B. Astronomy
C. Environmental Science
B. Female

a. Endometriosis - kind of tissue that

normally lines the uterus grows somewhere
else

b. Uterine Fibroids – formation of

noncancerous tumors

c. Gynecological Cancers - any cancer that

starts in a woman’s reproductive organs

d. Interstitial cystitis – a chronic bladder

condition resulting in recurring discomfort
or pain in the bladder or surrounding
pelvic region

e. Ectopic Pregnancy – implantation occur

elsewhere other than uterus

f. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) –

woman’s ovaries or adrenal glands produce
more male hormones than normal

CHEMISTRY
I. Inorganic Chemistry
II. Organic Chemistry
III. Biochemistry

PHYSICS
I. Classical Physics
A. Thermodynamics
B. Electricity
C. Magnetism
D. Waves and Optics
II. Modern Physics

EARTH SCIENCE