BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY

CHAPTER XII

KEY CONCEPTS

Biodiversity - multitude of living organisms and how they interact with each other and their
environment

Gene of heredity

Species-group of interbreeding organisms with the same structures

Niche-the physical environment to which a species has become adapted as well as its role as
producer and consumer of food resources Habitat-the area where an organism lives

Speciation-formation of new organism Extinction - the total disappearance of a species

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity or biological diversity, is a vast concept that means a lot of things. First, that living
organisms are numerous, from the minute to the largest creatures and are composed of several
species or groups; these organisms interact with one another and with nonliving things. Second,
living organisms are abundant in habitats supplying all the foods and requirements that they
need. Third, organisms have different growth and metabolic characteristics unique to a
particular group and variable reproductive patterns; some have more species while others have
less. And fourth, that biodiversity is essential to human survival. The latter is the most important
because without diversity, life can be dull and boring, with scarce resources, there would not be
enough food and medicines, and the like.

Biodiversity is the variety of life in the simplest term. It is the contraction of two words - biological
diversity, which refers to the number, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes not
just species but ecosystems-the multitude of living organisms across all levels and how they
interact with each other and with their surrounding environment--as well. Thus, this includes the
interdependence/interrelationships of all living things in the areas where they live called
habitats, whether artificial or natural. Living organisms adapt to the physical characteristics of
these areas and develop their niche, the ecological role they play in the environment.

Biodiversity serves as sources of food and energy in addition to water and clean air. Through
biodiversity, we have an access to natural services like water purification, soil fertility, waste
disposal, pest control and aesthetic pleasure (e.g., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Jasminum sambac,
Rosa sp., etc.). Biodiversity also enables the discovery and use of plants as medicines,
microorganisms as sources of antibiotics, and marine animals for various compounds of
industrial use.
The three components of biodiversity include: diversity of genes or genetic diversity, diversity of
number of species or species diversity and variety of ecosystems or community or ecological
diversity (Braun & Amman, 2002).

Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to variation or differences in the genes of a species of individuals.

Genes are segments of DNA which dictate the traits or characteristics of an organism.
Considered as a variation in small scale, its impact however, is on a large scale. Gene
differences contribute remarkably in the adaptive potential of the species that can more
importantly lead to microevolution. This variation enables one species to adapt to changing
environment, and the likelihood of perpetuation of a new population.

Hogs, for example, are of the same species but of different breeds. Gumamela (Hibiscus
rosasinesis) are composed of different varieties. Insects belong to different orders.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a specific group of yeasts but may exhibit different metabolic
characteristics. A fungal pathogen may either infect a specific single crop or different varieties of
it at varying degrees. The virulence genes vary from one organism to another or from one
species to another. A crop may be grouped differentially based on gene markers which is now a
trend in studying genetic diversity. Why are these so? These boil down to differences in DNA
sequence and the percentage of nucleotides present.
Species Diversity

The second component of biodiversity is the diversity of number of species or species diversity.
involves a combination of species number (ie., species richness) and their relative abundance in
a particular area (ie, species evenness). The latter is measure of whether a particular
ecosystem is dominated by a single species or if similar number of individuals is present.
Evenness may either be high (ie., all species are represented by the same number of
individuals) or low (ie, some species are represented by many individuals while others are not).
a

Species is a group of interbreeding organisms with similar structures. Around the world, about
1.5 million species are known but according to scientists and taxonomists, this is just a fraction
of what is currently existing (Convention on Biological Diversity). New species are added every
day. It is believed that insects are the most diverse. A gram of soil is composed of different
species of microbes. A drop of sea water may hold a number of planktonic species. Birds,
rabbits, alligators, fishes, dragonflies and cats are all different species.

Community or Ecological Diversity

Community diversity or ecological diversity refers to a variety of ecosystems in a given region.

Ecosystem is a biological community including all of the abiotic factors that affect them (Molles,
Jr., 2008). Aquatic ecosystems may be freshwater, marine, estuary and coastal. Terrestrial
ecosystem may be grassland, forest, desert and the like. These ecosystems cater a wide range
of species population that interact with one another forming a community. Their survival and
interactions are mediated and influenced by a variety of nonliving or abiotic factors such as air,
water, temperature, humidity, pH, light intensity, current and many more.

Ecosystem diversity is of huge importance from the point of interesting species and complexity
of niches. An ecosystem also interacts with another ecosystem in a specific overlapping region
known as ecotone, and thus, may affect each other's sustainability.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity affects humans on various aspects: economy, health and culture, aesthetic and
environmental issues.

The fundamental importance of biodiversity is that it is our source of foods, clothing, shelter and
medicines. Biodiversity is also a source of raw materials for industrial activities. Humans enjoy
different products and goods, clean air and water, soil and water resources due to biodiversity.
Life would be so boring if there is no variation around us.

Two fundamental sciences, taxonomy and ecology, generate knowledge and information to fully
understand the importance of biodiversity for human survival. However, there are some
limitations like:

1. Biodiversity conservation strategies focused on research and policy on global scale without
too much effect on local diversity.

2. Lack of site-specific data on species composition of communities.

3. Biodiversity studies lacking in taxonomic precision.

4. Few taxonomists.

5. Insufficient biodiversity inventory and assessment.

Nevertheless, the benefits of biodiversity still share in the pie of the economy. Tourists come and
go to enjoy diverse Philippine flora and fauna; natural products and medicines from plants and
actinomycetes abound; soil and water resources are conserved; and water flow is regulated in
various communities.

Threats to Biodiversity

SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

A number of factors negatively affect biodiversity. Their effects may be at an organismal level or
if in a larger scale, at an ecosystem level. These include (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment,
2005; Amman, 2005; Braun & Amman, 2002):

Habitat destruction

Loss of biodiversity can be the worst end result of numerous anthropogenic activities. These
activities include urbanization, construction, agricultural land development, logging, river
damming and use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. Each of these destroys habitats in
one way or another.

2.

3.

Pollution

Pollution is a condition in which there is an unnatural increase in the concentrations of

naturally-occurring environmental compounds such as heavy metals, radionuclides, nitrates,
phosphates, cyanides, agricultural wastes, sewage, pathogens, gases, particulates and many
more. Their high concentrations can make an environment unfavorable for the survival of a
particular organism. Even too much light can become a pollutant and thus can affect
biodiversity. For instance, the occurrence of city lights at night may affect the behavior and
activities of nocturnal animals.

Introduction of non-native species and new varieties

Non-native species or Invasive Alien Species (IAS) includes exotic micro- and macro- species
introduced accidentally or deliberately, to a place that is not part of their natural habitat or
distributional range (De Silva, 1989). Their introduction to the local community could become a
threat to other organisms as they become invasive especially if they have an ecological niche
similar with the native ones. The introduced species may outcompete the native species for
nutrients and food leading to the latter's population decline and extinction at worst. In addition,
this may also result to its rapid proliferation if it does not have any natural predator in the
receiving area.

Some invasive species affecting the aquaculture industry include Janitor fish, Clown knife fish,
giant snakehead, Black-chin tilapia and Jaguar guapote (Agasen, 2005; Guerrero, 2002; Juliano
et al., 1989).

The worst invasive plant species found in the Philippines include Chromolaena odorata, Mikania
micrantha, Leucaena leucocephala, Lantana camara, Imperata cylindrica, Hiptage benghalensis
and Eichhornia crassipes (Joshi nd:.ISSG2006a; Uriarte et al, 2007).
4. Global climate change
The gradual increase of world's temperature also threatens biodiversity. Global warming entails
the following: meltdown of icebergs in polar regions leading to sea level rise, increase in amount
of rainfalls, too hot summers and too cold winters, frequent grass and forest fires, changes in
sea temperature, etc. Each of these brings about a negative impact to world's biodiversity. This
remains true especially to species that are incapable of adapting to this changing environment.

5. Exploitation

Any form of abuse to flora and fauna threatens biological diversity, Collecting them in huge
amounts may threaten their proliferation. Gathering these organisms, especially the endangered
ones, for trading is an act punishable by law.

6. Overpopulation

Human overpopulation poses the greatest threat to biodiversity. As population increases, the
demand for all human needs and wants also increase. As this demand increases, the need for
our natural resources also increases. Human beings are at that point that they get too much
from the environment but do not contribute to their replacement.

Conserving Biodiversity

Strategies to conserve biodiversity need realistic solution and will need to involve a
multidisciplinary strategies, including political, socioeconomic and scientific input, in which all
major stakeholders (government, non-government, national and international organizations)
must participate. Researches can be done. Proper investigations on environmental problems
can be used for policy making. Relevant information maybe given to local communities
regarding sustainable use of biodiversity.

How can biodiversity loss be prevented? Diversity can be prevented through appropriate
research, government legislation, education and awareness and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Researches focusing on the biodiversity of various organisms are still few. Many species have
yet to be discovered. Their needs and characteristics specially their perpetuation deserve
attention.

Education and awareness activities have started and are being done continuously. This,
however, should be emphasized to everyone while they are still young or in their pre-school
age. More often than not, only the adults are the focus of these activities. In addition,
sustainable use of biodiversity should be given emphasis.
Community based programs are also initiated to help conserve biodiversity. People involved
themselves in the conservation projects like in the rehabilitation of the Apo Island in Dumaguete
City.

Government legislation. There are laws and orders to save biodiversity in the Philippines. These
laws never forget preserving the wellness and the betterment of the Philippine nature, these
laws are made by various people and many of them are implemented but others are not that
implemented. Examples of these laws are as follows:

Executive Order

No. 247
Prescribing guidelines and establishing a regulatory framework for the prospecting of biological
and genetic resources, their by-products and derivatives, for scientific and commercial
purposes; and other purposes.

Act No. 2590

An act for the protection of game and fish.

RA 7308
An act to promote and develop the seed industry in the Philippines and create a National Seed
Industry Council and for other purposes.

RA 7586
National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992

RA 7611
Strategic Environmental Plan for Palawan Act

RA 7900
High-value Crops Developmental Act of 1995

RA 7942
Philippine Mining Code

RA 8371
Recognizing the Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities Indigenous People

RA 9147
Wildlife Protection Act

RA 8485
Promote Animal Welfare in the Philippines
PD 1433
Plant Quarantine Decree of 1978 Environmental Impact Statement System Law

PD 1586 EO 192
Reorganization of the DENR

Proc. No. 926

Establishing Subic Watershed Forest Reserve

Dao 02
Establishing protection for ancestral homelands.

CHAPTER XIII

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH, AND POLITICS

KEY CONCEPTS

GMO-genetically modified organism

Vector- usually a plasmid or cosmid that accepts foreign DNA and serve as vehicle for
transformation Plasmid-extrachromosomal element capable of independent replication
Cloning/Genetic engineering technique used to alter or move genetic material (genes) of living
cells
Restriction enzyme - enzyme that cuts the DNA

What are GMOs?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms with foreign genes incorporated into
their genome such that they exhibit different but desirable properties that do not occur naturally
by mating and/or natural recombination (Key, 2008). The foreign genes may come from
bacteria, viruses, insects, animals or even humans. These genes are carefully studied and
selected to achieve the goal of improving a particular organism or make this organism a vehicle
for faster and efficient manufacturing and delivery of a product. The modification can be
transgenic, whereby the organism contains DNA from another species, or cisgenic, whereby it
contains DNA from a member of the same species but doesn't occur naturally (Sutherland,
2014). The latter form is generally viewed as a safer practice, although there are concerns for all
types of genetic modification. GMOs can include plants, animals, and microorganisms. GMOs
have been approved by regulatory agencies for commercial production and consumption, while
others are currently undergoing regulatory evaluation (Center for Ecogenetics and
Environmental Health). Still other GMOs are in experimental stages and confined to scientific
laboratory research.

The Making of GMOs, Steps in Cloning

Cloning requires a source of DNA or a donor organism. The DNA is cut with restriction enzyme
and is ligated to a vector, usually a plasmid, previously cut with another restriction enzyme
compatible with the first enzyme used. After ligation, the chimeric molecules are transformed in
competent cells (usually Escherichia coli) and then screened for the presence of genes of
interest.

Several organisms have been genetically modified since the introduction of technologies and
discovery of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) double helix structure. GM crops were first
commercialized in 1996 and only from countries that planted transgenic crops to about 11
million hectares (Brankow & Lovre, 2015). In 2011, the area had expanded to 160 million
hectares in 29 countries. Soybeans, maize, cotton, and canola remain to be the leading GM
crops. Other crops include eggplant, Jatropha, rice, sugar beets, cassava, papaya, banana,
tomatoes, potatoes, squash, peas and alfalfa. GM animals, on the other hand, include fishes,
cows, chickens, pigs, etc.

The GM crops are listed below (Phillips, 2008; Fridovich-Keil et al., nd; Johnson & O'Connor,
2015; Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health).

1. Corn
Corn was first genetically modified with the insertion of toxin gene from the bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis. With the commercialization of Bt corn, an increase in corn production was realized
because of its resistance to the attack of corn borer.

2. Cotton
Almost half of cottons grown in the world have been genetically modified to resist pests and
pesticides. However, it was reported to have had devastating results in Indian agriculture. In the
Philippines, experiments to develop local Bt corn variety are being performed to prevent
bollworm damage.

3. Jatropha
Jatropha seeds are similar to palm oil. It can be used as biofuel and a high source of protein for
livestock. However, planting Jatropha, has caused destruction of the native plants.

4. Rice
Golden rice is the genetically modified rice containing beta cantene a precursor of vitamin A.
The golden rice is still in the research stage but once it becomes a developed variety and
commercialized many Filipinos will benefit from it. In relation, studies are being done to address
the pervasive and persistent Vitamin A deficiency problem and at the same time make Golden
Rice more profitable to farmers by adding tungro and bacterial leaf blight (BLB) resistance to
this GM crop.

5. Soy
More than 90 percent of soybeans grown in the United States are genetically modified to be
herbicide resistant.
6. Sugar Beets
Sugar beets were engineered to grow faster and to be more resistant to weeds. However a
federal judge put a halt on processing GMO sugar beets due to failure of USDA to present an
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Many environmentalists and researchers are concerned
that GMO sugar beets could have serious impact on the environment and other crops.

7. Cassava
Cassava is a starchy plant like potato that is consumed by many people across the globe like
Africa. The first GMO cassava plant was engineered in 1955. Cassava was supposed to be
virus and pest resistant but farmers reported that in few years the GMO cassava lose their anti-
virus resistant quality.

8. Papaya
Papaya, also known as Carica papaya L., has Caribbean coast of Central America as the point
of origin. It was first genetically modified in Hawaii and introduced to the market in 1999. The
GM lines were developed to resist infection by papaya ringspot virus (PRSV).

9. Banana
Majority of bananas in the US are genetically modified.

10. Eggplant
The first GM eggplant (Bt eggplant) in South and Southeast Asia, the new pest-resistant
eggplant, was developed by the Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company (Mahyco) based in Jaina,
India. In the Philippines, Bt eggplant was developed to address eggplant fruit and shoot borer
(EFSB), Leucinodes orboralis, using modern biotechnological techniques.

11. Tomatoes
Many tomatoes have been genetically modified in US but GM tomatoes are banned in Europe.

Flavr Savr is the first commercially grown GM tomato granted with a license for human
consumption. Produced by Calgene, a Californian company, it was first sold in 1994 after the US
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) completed its evaluation.

12. Apple
Scientists are now able to deactivate the gene for polyphenol oxidase (PPO), an enzyme which
causes the browning of apples.

13. Peas
GM peas were created by inserting kidney beans genes into the peas DNA resulting to the
production of protein with pesticidal ability.

14. Yellow crookneck squash or zucchini

GM zucchini are resistant to viruses.
15. Alfalfa
GM alfalfa was developed to produce a crop that will survive exposure to glyphosate herbicide.

Impacts of GMOs

Defined and known useful genes when inserted into an organism will definitely affect the growth
pattern, behavior and products of the said organism in a short span time saving a lot of pesos in
conducting research when compared to traditional breeding GMOs have been around for
several years and their impacts are already felt. of

Through the GM technologies, "designer crops" can be produced. These are crops with more
nutrients, pesticide resistant, insect resistant, require less inputs to grow and produce more
yield (Vaesa, 2013; Huesing & English, 2018).

Some agricultural soils are saline. This condition hamper the growth of crops because they can
not grow well or sometimes the crops are unable to grow. Thus, there is a need to research to
up with salt tolerant organisms.

The commercialization of Bt corn is very useful to farmers as they were able to have increased
income (Huesing & English, 2018).

Growing GM plants allows the farmers to spend less time and money in pesticides and
herbicides.

Papaya resistant to Papaya Ringspot Virus and with delayed ripening command a good place in
export market.

GMO foods are also now available in the market. In other parts of the world, GMOs are
considered to have health threats (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2012).

The downside of farming with GMOs include "creating super weeds" that have evolved a
resistance to glyphosate, a common herbicide in GMO food production.

CHAPTER XV GENE THERAPY

KEY CONCEPTS
Gene - a part of a cell in a living thing that controls what it looks like, how it grows, and how it
develops
Genetic disorders - a disease that is caused by an abnormality in an individual's DNA
Vector - an organism that does not cause disease itself, but which carry the DNA from one host
to another
Defective gene - a gene that does not work properly
An Introduction to Gene Therapy

When a gene is mutated, the gene that codes for the normal protein is altered and results in
producing an abnormal or nonfunctional protein. Inheriting a defective gene can cause a wide
range of disorders such as cystic fibrosis and haemophilia. It can also cause susceptibility to
some cancers.

Genetic diseases are treated by repairing the damaged gene responsible for the disease.
Through the introduction of a normal copy of the gene instead of using drugs of surgery, the
cells can produce the normal functional protein. This technique is known as gene therapy which
was developed in 1972. This is a promising treatment option, but had, so far, limited success in
treating human diseases (Misra, 2013; Verma & Somia, 1997).

Gene therapy remains risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safe and
effective. It is currently being tested only for diseases that have no other cures.

New trait

New gene

Blastocyst stage

Figure 15.1. Germline gene therapy (Source: http://fome.utm.my/ongsimet/files/2016/04/4.jpg)

Delivery of Genes During Gene Therapy

There are several ways by which therapeutic genes are delivered to the body. The cells with the
defective gene are taken from the body and the therapeutic gene is either 'spliced or injected
into these cells. They are left to grow in the laboratory and then returned into the person. The
techniques used are as follows.

1. Use of vector. The therapeutic genes are placed inside a harmless virus, where most of
its own genes are removed or have been deactivated. This virus works by entering into
the cell, taking over its DNA and forcing it to produce more viruses. Similarly, a
deactivated virus can enter the specific cell and deliver the working gene.

2. Use of stem cells. Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to
differentiate into specialized cell types. They are the foundation for every organ and
tissue in the body. They have the potential to develop into cells with different functions.
Stem cells are then manipulated in the laboratory to accept new genes that can then
change their characteristics. Thus, when the stem cells grow, divide, and differentiate
they already carry the manipulated genes that would enable them to treat the disease.
For example, specific gene that could resist chemotherapy might be inserted into a stem
cell that could make it better able to survive chemotherapy.

There are two types of gene therapy depending on the types of cells treated. If the cell to be
treated is any cell of the body aside from sperm or egg cell it is called somatic gene therapy.
However, the effects of this method will not be passed on to the next generation, so the patient's
offspring still have a chance of contracting the diseases. When the cells used are either sperm
or egg cells, the process is known as germline gene therapy (Chatterjee, Singh, & Saluja,
2013),

Somatic Gene Therapy

Somatic cell gene therapy is effective in treating various kinds of diseases such as cystic
fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, cancer, and certain infectious diseases. The effectiveness of
somatic gene therapy is usually short-lived. Somatic gene therapy can be broadly divided into
two categories:

1. Ex vivo gene therapy

Genetic manipulation of cells is done outside the body, which is well suited in targeting a specific
organ rather than treating the whole organism.

Ex vivo gene therapy modifies the cells outside the body and transplanted back after selection
and amplification. Genetic alteration is usually done by using a viral vector, which carries the
corrected gene back to the patient's body. This can be very promising on bone marrow stem
cells, liver cells, blood vessel smooth muscle cells, tumor- infiltrating lymphocytes for cancer
treatment, blindness, treatment for leukemia and other cancers. Advances in gene therapy are
also achieved in corneal disease, glaucoma, retinal degeneration, stroke and multiple sclerosis
through genetic re- programming of cells to replace degenerate cells and through more refined
neuroprotection, modulation of inflammation and replacement of deficient protein
(Gregory-Evans, Bashar & Tan, 2012).

The major steps in ex vivo gene therapy involve the isolation of the defective gene from the
patient. The isolated cells are then grown in cultures in the laboratory. Then, the therapeutic
genes are inserted or introduced to the grown cell cultures using vectors (viruses, liposomes).
The transformed cells are selected from the nontransformants and grown in the laboratory.
These selected cells are transplanted into the patient.

Ex Vivo Gene Therapy

(1) Therapeutic gene

Gene is inserted into viral DNA

Defective cells are removed from the patient
(2) Cells are grown in cultures
Cultured cells are infected with genetically altered visuses
Target cells are now genetically altered with therapeutic genes
(4) Cells are reintroduced into patient body
(5) Inside the body, the genetically altered cells produce the desired proteins encoded by the
therapeutic genes
Figure 15.2. Ex vivo gene therapy (Source:
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between- ex-vivo-and-vs-in-vivo-gene-therapy/)
Advantage of ex vivo gene therapy includes the ability to target selectively specific cell types for
production of the gene of interest before engrafting the cells into the host. Moreover, the
manipulated cells are immunocompatible since they are collected from the patient to avoid
rejection. On the other hand, one the disadvantages is that it is an intrinsically more invasive
process than injection of vector suspensions in in vivo gene therapy.

2. In vivo gene therapy

In vivo gene therapy involves the direct introduction of the genetic materials into the human
body. It can be applied to many tissues of the human body including liver, muscle, skin, lung,
spleen, brain, blood cells, etc. The corrected genes are introduced by the viral or nonviral-based
vectors into the patient. Several factors that may affect in vivo gene therapy include the
following:

a. Uptake of the therapeutic gene carrying vectors by the target cells

Appropriate vectors should be used to efficiently deliver the corrected genes inside the target
cells.

b. Intracellular degradation The therapeutic gene should reach the target cell without being
degraded.

c. Expression ability of the gene

The therapeutic gene should be expressed in the target cell.

The physical methods for in vivo gene delivery are mechanical, electrical, ultrasonic,
hydrodynamic, and laser-based energy.

In vivo gene delivery is simple because it is accomplished by the single step of direct vector
injection into the desired target organ and minimally invasive. However, it is also
disadvantageous because of nonspecificity of target cell infection. Various cell types including
neurons, glia, and vascular cells can be infected when in vivo vectors are injected in the CNS.
Another disadvantage is its possibility to cause toxicity and elicit immune responses ("Difference
Between Ex Vivo and In Vivo Gene Therapy." Difference Between. Com. April 26, 2017).

Tissueinjection
DNA liposome
Recombinant virus
Systemic infusion
Biolistic gene gun
plasmid DNA

Figure 15.3. In vivo gene therapy (Source:

http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-]
ex-vivo-and-vs-in-vivo-gene-therapy/)
Germline Gene Therapy

In germline gene therapy, the cells are modified by the introduction of functional genes into their
genomes. This effect will be passed on to the patient's children and
subsequent generations because gene transfer can occur in all cells of the developing embryo.
Thus, there is a possibility of permanently removing an inherited disorder from a family line.
However, it is not allowed to be done in humans, because of ethical issues and fear of altering
the human genes. Creating "super" human beings or "architectured" human beings and the
ethical issue of playing "gods" are additional restrictions. This technology should not be used for
non-disease conditions such as functional enhancement or "cosmetic purposes." Examples of
this are treatment of baldness by gene transfer into follicle cells, increasing body size using
growth hormone gene, or increasing muscle mass using dystrophin gene (National Human
Genome Research Institute. www.genome.gov).

Problems Associated with Gene Therapy

While gene therapy is considered a breakthrough, there are also some problems associated
with it as follows (Porteus, Connelly, & Pruett, 2006; Chatterjee, Singh, & Saluja, 2013; Mali,
2013):

1. Gene therapy is short-lived in nature; thus, patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of
gene therapy.
2. When the defense system is low due to gene therapy there is a risk of further advancement in
the illness. Hence, there is a difficulty for gene therapy to be repeated.
3. Viral vectors could disrupt vital genes resulting to another disease or predisposition to cancer.
They may also cause toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and
targeting. The deactivated viruses might target other cells as well as the intended cells.
4. There is an occurrence of multi-gene disorders, like heart disease, high blood pressure,
Alzheimer's disease, arthritis and diabetes.
5. Overexpression of delivered genes can contribute to oncogenesis by removing controls on
normal cell cycle regulation. The therapeutic gene produce too much of the missing enzyme or
protein, causing other health problems.
6. The therapeutic gene might be slotted into the wrong spot.
7. Other genes may be accidentally delivered to the cell.
8. The deactivated virus may be contagious.

CHAPTER XVI
CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENERGY CRISIS

KEY CONCEPTS
Weather the condition of the atmosphere like heat, dryness, sunshine, wind and rain at a given
place at a given time
Climate the weather condition occurring in a region for a longer period of time
Climate Change the changes in the regional or global climate pattern brought about by the
increase of atmospheric temperature
Renewable Energy - the energy supply that are replenished through natural
processes

Weather, Climate and the Causes of Climate Change

The overall state of the atmosphere that is influenced by marine environments, terrestrial areas
and ice sheets in a given period of time is referred to as weather. Weather
condition evident in a region for a period of time is climate. In the Philippines, there are four
existing climate zones where varying wet and dry condition exist throughout the year. The
change in the regional or global climate pattern brought about by the increase of atmospheric
temperature is known as climate change.

Type 1- Two pronounced seasons: Dry from November to April, wet during rest of the year.
Type II- No dry season with a very pronounced rainfall from November to April and wet during
rest of the year.
Type III- Seasons are not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April, wet during
rest of the year.
Type IV - Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed through the year.

Changes in the climatic condition were observed over the past millions of years due to certain
natural processes such as volcanic eruptions and the variation of Sun's radiation. Studies have
considered that the sun's energy is the ultimate driver of climate on earth as sunlight is reflected
by the different surfaces of the planet.

Over the past century, the increase in greenhouse gases concentration most especially carbon
dioxide (C*O_{2}) chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane (C*H_{4}) and nitrous oxide (N_{2}*O)
has contributed greatly to climate change. The rise of sea level and the decrease of global ice
sheets and glaciers have been attributed to such condition. Increased concentration of C*O_{2}
and C*H_{4} in the atmosphere reduces the amount of light that is reflected back into space
(Figure 16.2). These conditions have shown the reinforcing feedback process that is happening
to our environment.

Several environmental changes have been recorded in more advanced countries with respect to
the increase of global temperature (Figure 16.3) as reported by the Australian Academy of
Sciences in 2015. They are as follows:

• Mountain glaciers have been shrinking and contributing to global sea level rise since about
1850 but accelerated melting has significantly started in the 1990's.

• Increased discharge of melted ice into the Earth's ocean due to the disappearance of the
Greenland and West Antarctic Ice Sheets since 1990.

● Sea ice cover and thickness have reduced significantly since 1987.

Shifts in the ocean and wind currents in the Southern Ocean have changed the amas covered
by ice due to constant warming. The thinning of the ozone lover has been linked with the
strengthening circumpolar winds around An increased amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
most especially during Antarctica

warmer season has been recorded since 1980 Ocean and fresh water surface dilution occurred
due to increased rainfall in some parts of the world. Even ocean currents have changed in
response to the variations in surface winds, ocean temperature and ocean saltiness. These
changes include a southward shift of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and of the East
Australian Current.

increasing southward penetration Organismal shifts in distribution and life cycles coincide with
the variations in temperature around the globe.
Human activities were considered as major contributors to climate change. CO, centration in the
atmosphere increased from 280 to 396 ppm for the periods 1800 to 2011 Constant exchanges
of CO, occur between the atmosphere, terrestrial and marine environment as plants grow, die,
decay and as the carbon-rich water circulates in the cor. This carbon cycling (Figure 16.4) was
considered to be in balance and in a steady state until when human-induced CO, emissions
started in the 19th century.

Most events that contributed to the increase in CO, concentration are the excessive combustion
of fossil fuel, manufacture of cement and deforestation. The dependence of the global growth in
energy consumption and utilization in connection with the growing economic activities most
especially in Asian countries have increased fil fuel combustion to about 3.2% per year from
2000 to 2010.

Although a steady increase of C*O_{2} concentration has been noted, yearly variations were
recorded and attributed to different weather patterns and by some volcanic activities around the
globe. Their temporary reducing effects were identified as they promote plant growth and as
volcanic haze cools the atmosphere.

Looking at how nature cycles C*O_{2} over the last 50 years brought us into the understanding
that 25% of the total emission were absorbed by the oceans, 30% were taken up on land and
the remaining 45% were just accumulated in the atmosphere (Figure 16.5 and 16.6). From
these findings, the increased absorption of the world's ocean has been linked with events like
ocean acidification and coral bleaching. Both conditions not only harm ocean dwellers but also
pose a great threat to human food supplies.

Global Impact of Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention (UNFCCC, 2007) emphasized that impacts and
vulnerability to climate vary between regions of the globe. Some of these regions include Africa,
Asia, Latin America and some Small Islands, Below is the summarized information regarding the
impact, vulnerability and adaptive capacity of each region to climate change based on the
studies conducted by Boko et al (2007), Christensen et al. (2007), Cruz et al. (2007), Magrin et
al. (2007) and Mimura et al. (2007).

Africa
It is expected that the temperature in this continent will increase by about 1.5%
than the global average that will result to a warmer subtropical region. In addition,
decreased annual rainfall is expected in several areas such as the Mediterranean Africa,
Northern Sahara and Southern Africa which may trigger desertification in many areas,
On the contrary, it is expected that increased annual mean rainfall is expected in East
Africa and in the dry Sahel area.

The drier condition in majority of the areas in Africa could pose a more severe
water and food shortage to about 220 million people by 2020. Agricultural production
could be compromised since it is heavily dependent on good water source to grow crops
and support livestock needs. With the projected worsening condition, human health is
expected to suffer from several diseases like malaria, dengue fever, meningitis, cholera,
etc. because they are transmitted by vectors.

In general, Africa has a low adaptive capacity to the impact of climate change
due to some of the nation's existing developmental challenges like low GDP per capita,
widespread endemic poverty, weak institutions, low levels of education and low levels of
primary health.

Asia
Increase in the mean global temperature is expected in central Asia, the Tibetan plateau,
northern, eastern and southern Asia which leads to snow and ice reduction in the Himalayan
and Tibetan Glaciers. This would lead to increase in the number and severity of glacial
melt-related floods, slope destabilization followed by decrease in river flows as glaciers
disappear. Increasing temperature would also increase the frequency and intensity of extreme
events such as El Niño (drought during summer months) and La Niña (intense precipitation).
This would definitely affect the agricultural productivity in some areas. In addition, Asian health
conditions may be at risk of increased morbidity and mortality due to heat stress, severe cholera
and the changing dynamics of vector borne diseases.

In terrestrial ecosystems, rapid increase in the incidence of species extinction is projected as

climate change and habitat fragmentation increases due to the synergistic
impact of human activities and natural phenomenon. A more and serious condition can be felt in
the coastal areas, as millions of coastal inhabitants are affected by a rise in sea level and an
increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones.

The Philippines is considered one of the most affected countries by climate change. Aside from
fact that we cannot evade global impacts, our country also lacks the natural barriers such as
coral reefs and mangrove ecosystems due to the recorded accumulated 50% reduction since
1918. This natural structure serves as buffers for typhoons before they hit the coastal
communities. Geography of the Philippines also shows each area could face unique conditions
in relation to the impact of climate change.

Adaptive capacity in the ASEAN region varies between countries depending on their social
structure, economic capacity, geography and level of environmental degradation.

PHILIPPINE EXPOSURE MAP ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Pestreme rainfall vents, distorted water

Cluster III-extreme heating events, disturbed water budget, ana level rise

Cinder V-treme het

Genitores live the

Claster X-extreme heating events, Increasing ocean temperature extreme rainfall events,
disturbed water budget, sea level rise

Cluster IX-extreme heating events, extreme rainfall events, disturbed water bodget sea level
rise

Cluster V-extreme rainfall events, see level rise

VII

Curter VE-sa ris

Cluster Vilf-extrent heating events oc temperatore

Chantry VII-extre heatting Teasing som

IX

IX

Figure 16.7. Philippine exposure map on climate change (Source: Department of Environment
and Natural Resources)

Latin America

In Latin America, higher temperature is predicted than the dobal mean which generally leads to
the reduction of Andes glaciers and a decrease in the annual precipitation in most areas with
variability around the mountainous areas. On the contrary, increased precipitation during the
winter and summer are projected in Tierra del Fuego and South- Eastern South, America
respectively.

Some of the possible extreme events that may be experienced by the inhabitants of this region
are severe floods, landslides, dry spells, drought and heat waves in the mega cities. The
agricultural sector has projected that about 50% of the agricultural lands will be subjected to
desertification and salinization in the next 20 to 30 years. This would affect food security and
health among others.

Adaptive capacity for these regions is limited by high infant mortality, low secondary school
enrolment and high levels of inequality in income and access to fresh water and health care.

Small Islands
It is expected that all small islands in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and North and South Pacific
will experience warming which would increase the annual rainfall and will expose these islands
in increasing intensity of tropical cyclones, storm surge, coral bleaching and land inundation.

The same scenario will be felt on food security as affected by sea-level rise, inundation, soil
salinization, seawater intrusion into freshwater sources, and decline in freshwater supply.
Limited size, proneness to natural hazards and external shocks enhance the vulnerability of the
islands to climate change thus their adaptive capacity and adaptation cost are high and are
highly dependent on their GDP.

Global Energy Crisis and Climate Change

The rapid conversion modernization of communities and of individual lifestyle has been seen to
be very much dependent on different technologies that make life convenient. From the
smartphones and laptops intended for communication and education, television and
entertainment sets at home, electric stoves and laundry equipment, propelling engine of
vehicles to the well-lighted street, all needs electricity - energy. An unexpected cut in energy
supply will make life a bit difficult and frustrating since almost all work activities are linked to it.

Many might not know that planet Earth through its increasing human population is facing a
serious energy crisis, which is anchored on the escalating global energy demand derived from
fossil-based fuels. This process has not only depleted our non-renewable sources but it has
also created a steady increase in the global carbon emissions and in the average global
temperature. Many nations and scientific communities have accepted that these events
occurred due to anthropogenic activities The International Energy Agency has outlined several
actions that are to be implemented until 2030. Some of these would include the use of energy
efficient technologies, low- carbon energy technologies, enhanced generation integration
through renewable energy sources, increase in nuclear energy base load provider, the use of
energy plants capable of capturing and storing carbon, and most importantly shifting from
combustion - powered vehicles to hybrid and electric vehicles by 60%

In December 2015, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change called for the
leaders of developing and developed countries to meet in Paris, France to make a significant
commitment in addressing climate change which is known as the Paris Agreement. However,
even before the commencement of the Paris climate conference, some countries already
submitted their proposed climate commitments which include targets for emission reductions.
About 187 countries, accounting for 97 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, have
submitted their climate pledges based on the nationally determined contribution of each country.

Some of the major countries are as follows:

TODICE TECHNOLOGY AND SOOTY 179

1. United States will cut economy-wide emissions of greenhouse gas

to 26% by 2025 and make best efforts to reduce it to 28% 2. China will increase non-fossil fuels
sources to 20% of the energy mix.

and reduce carbon emissions by 60 to 65% from 2005 levels by 2030.

3. India will reduce emissions intensity by 33 to 35% by 2030, increase cumulative electric
power capacity from non-fossil fuel energy resources to 40% by 2030, and create additional
carbon sequestration of 2.5 to 3 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by 2030. Mexico will
cut greenhouse gas and short-lived climate pollutants to

25% by 2030, implying a reduction of 22 percent for greenhouse gas

emissions and 51 percent for black carbon.

5. European Union will reduce emissions to at least 40% by 2030 through

domestic measures.

6. Brazil will reduce economy-wide greenhouse gas emissions by 37% by 2025 by increasing
renewable resources to 45% of the energy mix by 2030, and by increasing the share of
non-hydropower renewables in the electricity mix to 23 percent by 2030.

7. South Korea will reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 37% by 2030

across all economic sectors. 8. Indonesia will cut emissions by 29% in 2030. 9. Japan will
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 26% in 2030. 10. Australia will reduce economy-wide
greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28% in 2030.

This initiative indicates a stronger transparency and accountability system for all countries
where they will report the greenhouse gas inventories and projections that will be subjected to
technical expert review. This agreement may not solve our climate change problem but will
eventually ignite a new wave of global climate action that will create a more aggressive action in
the future.

Renewable and Other Alternative Sources of Energy

Humans become more dependent on coal and fossil fuels as sources of energy starting from
the year 1800, but scientists have realized that these sources will not last forever and their
continued use contributes to environmental pollution.

Renewable energy sources are energy supplies that are replenished through natural processes
and their energy comes ultimately from the sun. Despite being renewable, they can still become
exhausted if humans will not utilize them wisely. Alternatives energy sources are not renewable,
but they use the energy more efficiently than older technologies. This will enable humans to
lengthen the lifespan of coal and fossil fuel sources.

Types of Renewable and Alternative Forms of Energy Some of the renewable energy sources
listed in the handbook of alternative energy of the State of Virginia (2014) used today are as
follows:

1. Hydropower which is generated by releasing flowing water through channels installed with
turbines. This is considered as one of the oldest and largest renewable power sources. The use
of hydropower does not contribute to any emission of pollutants in the atmosphere, but the
establishment of dams significantly pose major ecological problems such as habitat modification
and water quality problems.

2. Biomass consists of organic matter such as industrial and agricultural wastes that serve as
the second main source of renewable energy. Heat or energy is generated as it is burned
directly but, it is considered to be cleaner than coal since it emits lesser amount in the
atmosphere. Biomass can also be used as indirect source of energy through the process of
gasification where a combustible gas like methane is produced when biomass decomposes.
Energy that can be used is produced when methane is burned.

3. Geothermal energy is harnessed from deep underground chambers with high temperature
originating from the earth's core. Steams produced from these chambers cause turbine to move
and later generate energy. In a sense, some may consider this as renewable sources since it
may take hundreds of millions of years before the core of our planet cool down.

4. Solar energy comes directly from the sun. This can be harnessed when the sun's heat is
converted to electricity using solar cells of photovoltaic technology. There can be an active or
passive system in the utilization of the sun's heat. In active systems, solar collectors use
circulating air or liquid to bring heat in areas where it is needed in certain facilities while in
passive systems, facilities are built with specific structures such as windows and other heat
absorbing surfaces to maximize heating most especially during cold seasons. Both systems are
suitable for residential use.

5. Wind energy is generated when aerodynamic blades attached to a hub turn due to current.
The hub is connected to a shaft that the generator.

6. Fuel cells are alternative energy devices that use chemical reactions to generate heat or
electricity. Unlike batteries that depend on the activity of the stored chemicals within them, fuel
cells generate energy depending on the availability of the raw materials.

In the Philippines, renewable energy resources include solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and
biomass. These resources cover about 24% of the total energy needs of our country, that is
about 21,979,459 megawatt-hour of electrical energy out of 90, 797, 891 megawatt-hour (Figure
16.9). Furthermore, the Department of Energy through the Renewable Energy Law (R.A. 9513)
that promotes the development, utilization and commercialization of renewable energy
resources, provide incentives to project proponents that utilize resources. Some efforts of the
transportation industries in the country is to offer and utilize electric vehicles such as bicycle,
tricycles and jeepneys (Figure 16.10). This direction is given by the government to replace the
traditional vehicles with electric ones.

Some Energy Tips and Recommendations

The Department of Mines, Mineral and Energy of the State of Virginia in the United States has
identified some tips and recommendations in relation to renewable energy.

1. The use of renewable energy systems should be considered in every nation since it produces
clean and non-polluting energy aiding also in the preservation of our natural environment. The
burden of having high cost of investment in establishing such energy sources can be balanced
by their long-term saving.

2. Small communities located near streams should at least develop small microhydropower
systems to power community lights and other house needs. 3. Solar panels are suggested to be
installed in the roof of individual houses to generate

electricity for household use.

4. When space and annual wind current is available, small residential wind energy systems
should be established to provide a clean, non-polluting source of electricity.

5. When several renewable energy sources are available, a hybrid power system that combine
different renewable energy sources should be used to produce electricity.

6. Utilize fuel cells that combine hydrogen and oxygen without the need of combusting

these substances to generate electricity and gives off water vapor as by product.

7. Individuals and communities should take advantage of existing government programs on

renewable energy systems.

8. People should understand that reducing energy use through conservation and increased
efficiency will always be cheaper than installing a renewable energy system.