Muscular

Original tempo and muscular adaptations

Paper DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2022.105335

Effect of different eccentric tempos on hypertrophy

and strength of the lower limbs
AUTHORS: Paulo H.S.M. Azevedo1, Matheus G. D. Oliveira2, Brad J. Schoenfeld3 Corresponding author:
Paulo Henrique Silva Marques
1 de Azevedo
Postgraduate Program in Human Movement Sciences and Rehabilitation of Federal University of Sao Paulo, Postgraduate Program in Human
Brazil Movement Sciences and
2 Rehabilitation of Federal
Federal University of São Paulo – GEPEFEX, Brazil
3 University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Department of Health Sciences, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA E-mail: paulo.azevedo@unifesp.br

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of altering the duration of the eccentric
phase in isotonic contractions on muscle hypertrophy and strength of the quadriceps femoris. Ten healthy young
adults (8 men and 2 women: Height: 173.3 ± 9.6 cm: Body mass: 69.84 ± 10.88 kg; Body fat: 19.47 ± 8.42%;
Age: 25.3 ± 4.8 years) performed unilateral isotonic knee extension exercise, whereby each leg was randomly
allocated to perform the eccentric phase of movement with a duration of either 2 seconds (G2S) or 4 seconds
(G4S). Both conditions carried out the concentric phase of each repetition at a 1 second duration with no rest
in the transition phases. Each condition performed 5 sets using 70% of 1 repetition maximum until muscle
failure with 3 minutes of rest between sets for 8 weeks. The change in muscle strength was assessed by 1RM
knee extension and muscle thickness was assessed by A-mode ultrasound. For each outcome variable, linear
mixed-effects models were fit using restricted maximum likelihood. Hedges’ g effect sizes were calculated to
provide insights into the magnitude of effects. Results showed all muscles increased in size over time; mean
effects were similar in all muscles except for the vastus medialis, which favored the G4S condition. Conversely,
only a  trivial and highly variable effect was observed between interventions for strength gain. Our results
suggest different eccentric durations produce similar increases in hypertrophy of the vastus lateralis and rectus
femoris; however, the vastus medialis showed greater growth from the slower eccentric duration. Eccentric
duration did not differentially affect strength-related adaptations.

CITATION: Azevedo PHSMD, Matheus G. D. Oliveira MGD, Schoenfeld BJ. Effect of different eccentric tempos
Key words:
on hypertrophy and strength of the lower limbs. Biol Sport. 2022;39(2):443–449. Exercise
Resistance training
Received: 2020-08-11; Reviewed: 2020-12-17; Re-submitted: 2021-03-01; Accepted: 2021-03-29; Published: 2021-06-01. Weightlifting

INTRODUCTION
The manipulation of training variables is proposed to be important Customarily, the duration of a repetition is denoted by a four-
to strength and hypertrophy gains [1, 2]. Variables that can be ma- digit number with the first numeral representing the eccentric
nipulated include volume, load, rest interval duration, level of effort phase, the second numeral representing the isometric transition
(proximity to achieving muscle failure), exercise selection, training at the top of the movement, the third numeral representing the
frequency, and movement tempo, and different alterations in these concentric phase, and the fourth numeral representing the transi-
variables promotes a distinct acute response [1, 2]. Of these variables, tion at the bottom of the movement [5]. For example, a sequence
movement tempo has not been as well-researched as some of the of 1-0-2-0 would mean that the eccentric phase took 1 second
others as to its effect on muscular adaptations. The American College and the concentric phase took 2 seconds with no static transition
of Sports Medicine position stand on resistance exercise proposes period between actions.
that untrained individuals should use slow and moderate movement Bodybuilders and other resistance-training enthusiasts often be-
tempos; intermediate trained subjects should use moderate tempos; lieve that there is a benefit to performing eccentric actions slowly.
and for advanced athletes, a variety of tempos from slow to fast This is based on the hypothesis that slower eccentric tempos induce
velocities is recommended [3]. However, this proposition is based a greater magnitude of muscle-damage and endocrine responses,
on anecdotal data provided from a limited number of studies [4], and thus a higher consequent hypertrophic response [6]. Indeed,
thus necessitating additional research to strengthen conclusions on the literature suggests that the greater time under tension (TUT)
the topic. Indeed, some evidence suggests that a moderate duration promoted by slow eccentric phase increases the degree of micro-
of the eccentric phase is superior to faster movements for promoting damage following resistance training (RT) [7, 8]. Provided that
quadriceps hypertrophy [4]. muscle damage does in fact enhance hypertrophy – a topic that

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 Paulo H.S.M.D. Azevedo et al.

remains controversial [9, 10] – it would stand to reason that a longer rest duration variables constant. We hypothesized that a longer ec-
eccentric phase may optimize the hypertrophic response [10]. centric duration would improve strength and muscle cross-sectional
A recent meta-analysis sought to evaluate the influence of move- area to a greater extent than shorter duration.
ment velocity on strength gains (10). The pooled results of the data
indicated that RT performed at fast movement tempos favored su- MATERIALS AND METHODS
perior gains in muscular strength compared to moderate-slow tempos, Subjects
but the difference was not statistically significant. It is proposed that A convenience sample of 8 men and 2 women (Height: 173.3 ± 9.6 cm:
a strength gains result from a combination of neurological [11] and Body mass: 69.84 ± 10.88 kg; Body fat: 19.47 ± 8.42%; Age:
morphological adaptations [12]. A subsequent systematic review by 25.3 ± 4.8 years) were recruited from a university population. We
the same laboratory concluded that moderate-slow movement dura- recruited a mixed sample to improve the statistical power, as evidence
tion (≥ 2 sec) are superior for promoting quadriceps hypertrophy shows no differences in the hypertrophic response to RT between men
while a fast movement duration (≤ 1 sec) is better for elbow flexor and women [17, 18]. Participants were considered for inclusion if
hypertrophy [4]. The mechanisms responsible for this difference have they met the following criteria: not engaged in RT for at least 3 months
yet to be elucidated. However, it has been proposed that increased prior to the study; absent of any diseases that may compromise the
metabolic stress and muscle TUT are potential mechanisms for the health of the subjects; not currently using any sports supplement or
hypertrophic response to RT [13]. It should be noted that both anabolic agents; not performing regimented aerobic training. Once
aforementioned papers did not distinguish between specific muscle admitted into the study, participants were instructed to maintain their
actions, and a majority of included studies manipulated only the normal dietary habits and not to use any dietary supplements or
concentric portion of the repetition. stimulants during the study period. A within-subject research design
To our knowledge, only two previous studies have endeavored to was employed whereby participants trained one leg with a 2/0/1/0
determine the effect of different eccentric durations on muscular ad- tempo (G2S) and trained the contralateral leg with a 4/0/1/0 tempo
aptations using isotonic training. Assis-Pereira et al. [14] randomly (G4S). All subjects were right leg dominant and thus, to avoid con-
assigned 12 resistance-trained men to perform 3 sets of arm curl founding, we randomized 50% of the subjects to perform the slower
exercise at 8RM. One group performed the movement tempo at 4/0/1/0 eccentric movement (moderate tempo) [5] with the right leg and the
while the other employed a 1/0/1/0 scheme. Results showed greater other 50% with the left leg. Prior to training, muscle thickness (MT)
increases in muscle cross-sectional area with the 4-second versus of the rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), and vastus lateralis
1-second eccentric duration, indicating a slower eccentric phase is (VL) was assessed by A-mode ultrasound and muscle strength was
superior from a hypertrophy standpoint. The authors speculated that assessed via 1RM testing. The subjects were provided with a 2 week
findings may be explained by a greater TUT for the 4 second condition. acclimation period to become familiarized with the movement dura-
Indeed, Burd et al. [13] provided evidence that a higher TUT, achieved tion, and then carried out 8-weeks of regimented training. Participants
by performing slower repetition cadences (6/0/6/0 vs 1/0/1/0), in- were reevaluated for MT and muscle strength following the 8-week
duces a greater post-exercise muscle protein synthesis response [13] training period. The study was carried out in accordance with the
when the number of repetitions are equated. Recently, Shibata standards of the Helsinki Declaration and approved by the ethics
et al. [15] randomized untrained young male athletes to perform the committee of Federal University of São Paulo (2.577.069).
parallel back squat with either a 2/0/2/0 or 4/0/2/0 movement tempo.
Training was carried out twice a week for 6 weeks using 75% of 1RM Body Composition
to muscular failure in each set for 3 sets per session. Results showed Participants reported to the laboratory for body composition testing
no differences in muscle hypertrophy between conditions, however after an overnight fast. They were instructed to be well-hydrated,
the faster eccentric phase showed greater increases in 1RM squat abstain from alcohol and any nutritional supplementation, and restrict
performance. The differences observed between the studies of Assis- caffeine consumption in the 4 hours before the body composition
Pereira and Shibata could be due to the level of training experience analysis according to bioimpedance manufacturer instructions. More-
(trained vs untrained subjects) or the limbs trained (upper vs lower over, they were told to maintain a normal sleep pattern and not to
limbs); additional research is needed to better understand what vari- perform any strenuous physical activity. Height was measured via
ables may influence the strength and hypertrophic responses. In respect a stadiometer (Sanny, Brazil) attached to the wall. Body mass and
to the possible difference between trained vs untrained subjects, the body fat percentage were measured via bioelectrical impedance anal-
TUT and total number of repetitions have been shown to be differen- ysis (Tanita®, brand Tetrapolar bioimpedance BC601, Japan) with the
tially influenced by regular (2/0/2/0) and slow (6/0/4/0) tempos, but subjects in their underwear.
not for moderate tempos (5/0/3/0) [16]. Given the paucity of research
on the topic, the purpose of this study was to compare muscular Maximum strength
adaptations when performing an eccentric duration of 2 versus 4 sec- Maximal strength was assessed unilaterally on a seated leg extension
onds, while keeping concentric phase, %1RM, number of sets and machine (REFORCE® model Elite) via 1RM testing [3]. The 1RM

444
 Muscular tempo and muscular adaptations

assessment was specific to the concentric action; no eccentric was the final training session, and the participants were instructed to
performed during testing. Prior to testing, all subjects performed hydrate normally 24hrs before testing. The intraclass correlation
a specific warm-up comprised of 20 repetitions with a load of 40% coefficients for the VL, VM, and RF from our laboratory are 0.71,
to 50% of their subjective perception of effort. The initial load for 0.92, and 0.96, respectively.
testing was then estimated through the subjects’ perceived exertion
and the experience of the researcher. 1RM testing began at 90o of Training Protocol
knee flexion and continued through a full range of motion to 0o (full Unilateral knee extension exercise was performed twice per week for
extension). Participants were allowed to grip the seat with their hands 8 weeks, with no less than 72-hours between sessions. Subjects
for stability. The axis of rotation of the lever arm was aligned with performed 5 sets at 70% of 1RM until muscle failure with 3 minutes
the lateral epicondyle of the femur of the right leg. The hip joint rest afforded between sets. The G2S leg performed repetitions using
angle was 120° between the trunk and the thigh for all subjects. The 1s in the concentric phase, 0s in the transitional phase from the
resistance pad at the end of the lever arm was aligned with the concentric to the eccentric phase, 2s in the eccentric phase and 0s
anterior tibia approximately 2.5 cm superior to the medial malleolus. in the transitional phase from the eccentric to the concentric phase
A maximum of five attempts were afforded to determine 1RM, with (1-0-2-0). Alternatively, the G4S group performed repetitions using
five-minute rest intervals allowed to facilitate recovery between at- 1s in the concentric phase, 0s in the transitional phase from the
tempts. concentric to the eccentric phase, 4s in the eccentric phase and 0s
in the transitional phase from the eccentric to the concentric phase
Time Under Tension (1-0-4-0). Both legs were trained in the same session for the 8-week
The TUT was calculated as the product of the total number of rep- duration, alternating the leg that was exercised first. The duration of
etitions performed over the 8 weeks of training and the eccentric each phase of movement was controlled via a metronome (Met-
action duration (two or four seconds). We did not consider the con- ronomo Batidas, free software – Stonekick) that pulsed intermit-
centric duration (1 second for both groups) in the determination of tently each 1 and 2 or 4 seconds, according to the condition. There-
the TUT as it was the same for both conditions. fore, the participants followed the metronome beat for the concentric
and eccentric phase. When the concentric or eccentric phase was
Muscle thickness not carried out within the proposed time for 2 consecutive actions,
MT was evaluated via A-mode ultrasound (Intelametrix, CA, EUA) we considered it as muscle failure, and therefore the set was termi-
using a linear 2.5 MHz frequency linear array probe [19]. MT was nated.
assessed at three sites on the quadriceps femoris muscle: rectus
femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), and vastus lateralis (VL) before Statistical analysis
and after 8 weeks of training. Measurements were taken between To assess the differential effects of G2S and G4S on strength and
the external muscle boundary and the band of connective tissue that hypertrophy, all data were imported to R (version 3.5.0) for analy-
runs longitudinally down the middle of the muscle as per Abe [20]. ses [21]. For each outcome variable, linear mixed-effects models
The measurement sites were precisely located and marked with were fit using restricted maximum likelihood [22, 23]. In each mod-
a semi-permanent pen as follows: For the RF, measurements were el, the post-intervention score was the outcome measure (yij); condi-
taken at 50% on the line from the anterior spina iliaca superior to tion (dummy coded such that G2S = 0 and G4S = 1) and pre-in-
the superior part of the patella; for the VL, measurements were tervention scores were predictors ( and , respectively);
taken at 2/3 along the line from the anterior spina iliaca superior to and subjects received varied intercepts to control for interindividual
the lateral side of the patella; and for the VM, measurements were differences, giving rise to the final linear mixed-effects model:
taken at 80% along the line between the anterior spina iliaca supe-
,
rior and the joint space in front of the anterior border of the medial
ligament.
Subjects remained supine throughout testing, with legs relaxed where β2, the effect of condition, is the effect of interest. The inclu-
and extended. The same researcher with experience in musculosk- sion of pre-intervention scores controlled for regression to the mean
eletal ultrasound testing applied a healthy amount of water-soluble and the varied, subject-specific intercepts (r0j) ensured that all com-
gel to the ultrasound probe, and transverse images were obtained at parisons were within-subject. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals
the respective sites. Images were recorded and saved onto hard drive. (CI) for condition effects were calculated using the bootstrap method
Each site was scanned twice, and the average of both values was (1,000 simulations).
calculated to enhance accuracy. If the difference between measure- Because the residuals were not normally distributed for all mod-
ments was greater than 2 mm, a third measurement was obtained, els, p-values were calculated using exact permutation testing. To this
and the two closest values were averaged to obtain a final value. All end, each pair of group assignments (i.e., within a single participant)
evaluations were conducted at the same time of day, 96 hours after were switched, for a total of 210 = 1024 permutations. Following

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 Paulo H.S.M.D. Azevedo et al.

each permutation, the permuted effect of condition was obtained to To avoid the dichotomous interpretation of study results, we did
build the permutation (or null) distribution. In other words, this pro- not set ana priori alpha, and did not employ the null hypothesis
cedure allowed for the creation of a null distribution, to which our significance testing paradigm. Rather, evidence for or against an effect
data could be compared, and from which a z-score and p-value could was judged on a continuum, taking into account not only the data,
be computed. but also prior evidence, plausibility, theory, and other factors [26].
Hedges’ g effect sizes were calculated by dividing the condition
effect by the pre-pooled SD ( ), which was calculated using RESULTS
the sample variances ( ) from the pre-intervention scores Raw pre- and post-intervention scores can be found in Table 1. On
for each condition: average, small effects were observed between G2S and G4S for all
hypertrophy outcomes (Table 2). These effects were highly variable
,
in all muscles and similar between conditions, except for the vastus
medialis which favored the G4S condition (Table 2). Conversely, only
a trivial and highly variable effect was observed between interventions
and multiplying the outcome by: for strength gain (Table 2). TUT across the study period was greater
for G4S compared to G2S (2535.6  ±  654 seconds versus
1300.6 ± 357 seconds, respectively). However, the total number
[24],
of repetitions (633.9 ± 163.4 versus 650.3 ± 178.4) was rela-
tively similar between groups (Table 3).

where df is the Satterthwaite-estimated degrees of freedom [23] and DISCUSSION

(x) is the gamma function. Hedges’ g was interpreted in accordance The present study showed that the slower phase of movement dur-
with Batterham and Hopkins [25]: trivial, 0 ≤ g < 0.2; small, ing the eccentric portion of training promoted greater increases in
0.2 ≤ g < 0.6; moderate, 0.6 ≤ g < 1.2; and high, > 1.2. MT of the vastus medialis, indicating that altering eccentric tempo

TABLE 1. Within-group pre- and post-intervention measures.

G2S G4S
Outcome
Pre Post Change Pre Post Change
Summed muscles (mm) 50.96 ± 5.36 59.63 ± 6.27 8.66 ± 3.81 49.16 ± 6.34 59.81 ± 8.68 10.65 ± 5.44
Rectus femoris (mm) 19.55 ± 1.93 21.57 ± 3.12 2.02 ± 2.10 19.06 ± 3.50 21.90 ± 3.98 2.84 ± 2.37
Vastus lateralis (mm) 15.67 ± 4.43 19.95 ± 3.29 4.28 ± 2.81 14.82 ± 4.25 18.35 ± 4.20 3.53 ± 2.86
Vastus medialis (mm) 15.74 ± 3.49 18.11 ± 4.2 2.37 ± 1.42 15.28 ± 4.00 19.56 ± 4.11 4.29 ± 1.97
Strength (kg) 56.40 ± 14.66 65.8 ± 14.12 9.40 ± 5.40 56.00 ± 16.80 65.40 ± 16.06 9.40 ± 9.79

All measures are mean ± SD.

TABLE 2. Between-group strength and hypertrophy analyses.

Outcome Effect (95% CI) z-score p-value Hedges’ g Interpretation
Summed muscles (mm) 1.87 (-2.07 – 6.11) 0.83 0.513 0.28 Small
Rectus femoris (mm) 0.81 (-0.41 – 2.03) 1.17 0.267 0.26 Small
Vastus lateralis (mm) -1.05 (-3.02 – 1.01) -0.98 0.355 -0.22 Small
Vastus medialis (mm) 1.93 (0.53 – 3.37) 2.00 0.018 0.47 Small
Strength (kg) -0.26 (-2.22 – 1.76) -0.24 0.790 -0.01 Trivial

Effects are the pre-intervention adjusted effect of condition, wherein positive suggests an effect in favor of the G4S condition, and
negative suggests an effect in favor of the G2S condition.

446
 Muscular tempo and muscular adaptations

TABLE 3. Between-group time under tension and number of repetitions analyses.

Outcome p-value Hedges’ g Interpretation
Time under tension 0.001 2.23 (1.08–3.53) High
Number of repetitions 0.75 0.10 (-0.52–0.72) Trivial

The positive effect size suggests an effect in favor of the G4S condition, and negative suggests an effect in favor of the G2S condition.

may influence regional muscular hypertrophy of the quadriceps promoted by a 4-second eccentric tempo (P < 0.001) promotes
femoris. However, eccentric durations of 2 and 4 seconds have greater mechanical stress than 2 seconds. We speculated that the
similar overall effects on improvements in lower limb muscle mass greater mechanical stress could lead to improved strength since neu-
and strength in untrained young men. ral adaptations are dependent on this stimulus [30]. This hypothesis
Consistent with the findings of a recent meta-analysis by Davies was refuted as both eccentric tempos induced equivalent strength
et al. [27] that was not specific to type of muscle action, we found gains in a relatively short-term RT program (8-weeks).
similar strength gains irrespective of eccentric tempo. A possible With respect to hypertrophy, we found no differences in the pooled
explanation for this finding is that the total number of repetitions response of MT for the quadriceps femoris. These findings contrast
(volume) was similar between groups, which may have greater rel- with those of Assis-Pereira et al. [14], who showed greater increas-
evance for enhancing strength than TUT. Alternatively, our findings es in biceps brachii cross sectional area when employing a 4 versus
are in contrast to previous work by Assis-Pereira et al [14] who 1 second eccentric tempo. Given previous work showing a longer
showed a 4-second eccentric tempo produced superior increases for TUT positively influences the muscle protein synthetic response to
strength in trained men compared with 1 a second eccentric tempo. RT [13], we had hypothesized that the greater TUT in the slower
Moreover, our findings conflict with those of Shibata et al [15], who tempo condition would favor muscle growth; this hypothesis was
reported greater strength gains in the back squat with a 2 versus refuted. Our results are consistent with those of Shibata et al [15],
4 second eccentric tempo. Although the reasons for inconsistencies who found similar changes in muscle cross sectional area of the thigh
between studies are not readily apparent, we speculate that several musculature when training with 2 versus 4 second eccentric tempos
factors may have contributed to discrepancies in results. Specifi- in the back squat performed twice a week for 6 weeks using 3 sets
cally, the study by Assis-Pereira et al [14] was carried out using at 75% 1RM weight to momentary failure. Although we did not at-
upper limb exercise (biceps brachii) in individuals with previous RT tempt to investigate mechanisms of action, it can be speculated that
experience, whereas the present study employed lower limb exercise the greater hypertrophy for the slower tempo condition in the study
in untrained subjects. Moreover, the greater hypertrophy achieved in by Assis-Pereira et al. [14] may have been due to the fact that the
the slower eccentric condition in Assis-Pereira et al [14] may have 1-second tempo employed in that study may not have allowed the
helped to promote greater strength adaptations, given the well-es- muscles enough time to actively resist gravity on the eccentric actions,
tablished association between the two variables [28]. With respect conceivably causing an impaired adaptive response compared to the
to Shibata et al, testing was carried out using a multi-joint lower body 4-second eccentric tempo via a reduction in mechanical tension [31].
exercise (squat) whereas our protocol employed single-joint 1RM In contrast, the 2-second tempo used in the present study seem-
testing (leg extension). Both the Assis-Pereira et al [14] and Shibata ingly was sufficient for the target muscles to resist gravity and cause
et al. [15] studies employed a parallel group design, whereas our an equally robust hypertrophic stimulus to the 4-second eccentric
study used a within-subject protocol, which has the advantage of tempo. Thus, it is possible that eccentric duration of 2 seconds is
decreasing the extent of between-participant variability and thereby adequate to ensure that the muscles work sufficiently against grav-
increasing statistical power [29]. How these variances between stud- ity to promote a maximal hypertrophic response and obviate the need
ies, or perhaps other unknown factors, differentially affected strength for a slower eccentric duration in the quadriceps femoris [27].
outcomes remains unclear. Intriguingly, while the hypertrophic response was similar between
Both conditions significantly increased 1RM strength, which, groups for vastus lateralis and rectus femoris, the vastus medialis
given the untrained status of participants, was likely resultant to an displayed somewhat greater gains in muscle mass for G4S compared
improved neural drive and heightened intramuscular coordina- to G2S. Nonuniform hypertrophy is a phenomenon whereby different
tion [30]. Although hypertrophy occurs during the early stages of regions of a particular muscle respond distinctly to different exer-
a RT program, it does not appear to have a great contribution to cises [32]. Differential nonuniform hypertrophic responses have been
strength improvement during this time period [8]. The higher TUT shown intramuscularly in the vastus lateralis when using eccentric

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 Paulo H.S.M.D. Azevedo et al.

versus concentric actions [33], and intermuscularly across the dif- of the repetition. Thus, we cannot necessarily infer how results would
ferent heads of the quadriceps femoris when employing variations transfer to maximal eccentric force capacity [35,36]. Third, although
in exercise selection [1]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no subjects were instructed to adhere to their usual and customary
study has shown such regional hypertrophic differences from varia- diets, we did not monitor nutritional status across the study period.
tions in RT tempo. The reasons for this phenomenon are unclear, It is therefore possible that nutritional alterations may have con-
and require further study to elucidate the underlying explanatory founded results, although this would seem unlikely given the within-
mechanisms. From a practical standpoint, our findings indicate that subject design. Finally, our findings are specific to young, untrained
practitioners and coaches should consider employing different ec- individuals and thus cannot necessarily be extrapolated to adolescents,
centric tempos to optimize muscle-specific hypertrophy. It should be the elderly, and those who regularly engage in RT.
emphasized that these results are specific to novice exercisers and
may not be applicable to those experienced in RT. That said, the CONCLUSIONS
overall magnitude of effect was relatively modest (Hedges’ g = 0.47), We conclude that both a 2 second and 4 second eccentric duration
calling into question the practical meaningfulness of the finding. promote similar improvements in whole muscle hypertrophy and
Our study had some limitations that must be acknowledged. First, strength of the lower limbs. The greater TUT in G4 was not a key
the within-subject design can be considered a strength since it sub- modulator in altering general muscular adaptations. The slower ec-
stantially reduces biological variability and thus provides greater centric duration showed a beneficial effect on hypertrophy of the
statistical power to detect differences and draw practical inferences. vastus medialis muscle, indicating that varying eccentric duration
However, a cross education effect has been noted in the literature may help to promote favorable muscle growth in this aspect of the
whereby training one limb results in an increased ability to produce quadriceps femoris.
force in the contralateral limb [34]. Thus, we cannot rule out that
such an effect did not confound the strength results in our study. Declaration of Interests
Second, we assessed 1RM strength only on the concentric portion The authors declare no conflicts of interest with this manuscript.

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