QM Lecture #4

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 Lecture # 4

Module Part II – Quantum Mechanics No. of

no. lectures
7 Birth of Quantum Mechanics: particle aspect of radiation (blackbody radiation, photoelectric 3 + 0.5
effect, Compton effect), wave aspect of particle (de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer
experiment), wave-particle duality, double-slit experiment
8 Quantum Mechanical Wave Function: wave function, representation of wave function, 3
Schrödinger equation, probability density, statistical interpretation, superposition principle,
continuity equation.
9 Quantum Mechanical Operators: observables and operators, linear operators, eigenvalues and 1.5
eigen vectors of operators, Hermitian operators, product of operators, expectation values and
uncertainty relations.
10 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation: stationary states, free particle solution, bound states 2.5
11 One Dimensional Problems: 1-D infinite potential well, 1-D finite potential well, and quantum 2
mechanical tunneling.
12 Particle in 1-D lattice, Kronig-Penney Model and the E/k Diagram. 1

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Summary

▪ Compton scattering: Solution of the scattering problem → Interaction between x-ray and free electrons

▪ de Broglie’s hypothesis: Like electromagnetic radiation, all material particles also display a dual wave-
particle behavior.
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

▪ Davisson-Germer experiment is the convincing proof of de Broglie’s hypothesis.

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Classical particles and classical waves

Intensity adds up in the case of

particles.
Bullet

𝐼 = 𝐼1 +
𝐼2

Amplitude adds up in the case of waves.

𝜓1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡

𝜓 2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡+𝛿

𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2
𝐼 = 𝜓∗𝜓
Wave

= 𝜓1 2
+ 𝜓2 2
+ 𝜓1∗ 𝜓2 + 𝜓2∗ 𝜓1

= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

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Double-slit experiments: The case for electrons

▪ Electrons show interference → Wave property

▪ If electrons are sent one at a time → Electron shows particle nature initially. If you wait long enough,
interference pattern forms again.

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Double-slit experiments: The case for electrons (continuing)

▪ Which electron passes through what slit?

→ We will keep a light source after the slits and see flashes when electrons interact with light

▪ If the intensity of the light source is high, we see flashes often. → Electrons show particle characteristic

▪ If the intensity is very weak, interference pattern appears again. → Electrons show wave characteristic

▪ When interference pattern forms, we cannot determine which electron passes through what slit. →
Indeterministic nature!
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Wave-Particle duality: Complementarity

▪ A quantum system is neither a pure particle nor a pure wave. It is both. The particle and wave aspects
of a quantum system manifest themselves only when subjected to an observation.

▪ For example, both particle and wave features are embedded into the electron, and depending on the
measurement/probe we only see one feature but not the other.
Compton scattering → particle aspect of electron
Davisson-Germer experiment → wave aspect of electron

▪ Any measurement gives either one property or the other, but never both at once. We can get either the
wave property or the particle property, not both together.

▪ The particle and wave manifestations are just complementary.

▪ So, we have to build quantum mechanics in a way that it can simultaneously make statements on
particle behavior and wave behavior in microscopic world.

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Birth of uncertainty principle
▪ Case I

→ Where is the precise location of the wave?

→ What is the wavelength?
ℎ
→ If you know the wavelength, you can obtain the momentum 𝑝 =
𝜆

▪ Case II

→ Where is the precise location of the wave?

→ What is the wavelength?

▪ Conclusion: The more precise a wave’s position is, the less precise is its wavelength and vice versa.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle reads 𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝒑 ≥ ℏ
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐
▪ It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same time
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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
▪ If 𝑥-component of momentum is measured with the accuracy of ∆𝑝𝑥 , then the 𝑥-component of the position cannot
ℏ
be measured with accuracy more than ∆𝑥 = 2∆𝑝 .
𝑥
1
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
2
1
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑝𝑦 ≥ ℏ
2
1
Δ𝑧 Δ𝑝𝑧 ≥ ℏ
2
▪ Note that, we can measure 𝑥 and 𝑝𝑥 separately with arbitrary accuracy. But we cannot measure them
simultaneously with arbitrary accuracy. This is where uncertainty principle comes in.

▪ Uncertainty principle holds for any complementary variables, e.g., Energy (𝐸) and time (𝑡).

𝐸? 𝑡→𝐸 Think about it!

𝑡 + ∆𝑡 → 𝐸 ± ∆𝐸
- Short ∆𝑡 leads to smaller or larger
1 ∆𝐸 ?
∆𝐸∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ - Justify your answer. What is the
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physical significance ?
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Uncertainty principle in micro and macro worlds
Problem: Estimate the uncertainty in the position of (a) a neutron moving at 5 × 106 m/sec and (b) a 50 kg person
moving at 2 m/sec.
(a) For neutron
ℏ
∆𝑥 ≥
2∆𝑝
ℏ
=
2𝑚𝑛 𝑣
1.05 × 10−34 J sec −15 m
= = 6.4 × 10
2 × 1.65 × 10−27 kg × 5 × 106 m. sec −1
→ Size of the nucleus

(b) For person

ℏ
∆𝑥 ≥
2∆𝑝
ℏ
=
2𝑚𝑣
1.05 × 10−34 J sec
= −1
= 0.5 × 10−36 m
2 × 50 kg × 2 m. sec
→ Negligible compared to the size of the person
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 Lecture # 4 (continuing)

Module Part II – Quantum Mechanics No. of

no. lectures
7 Birth of Quantum Mechanics: particle aspect of radiation (blackbody radiation, photoelectric 3 + 0.5
effect, Compton effect), wave aspect of particle (de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer
experiment), wave-particle duality, double-slit experiment
8 Quantum Mechanical Wave Function: wave function, representation of wave function, 3
Schrödinger equation, probability density, statistical interpretation, superposition principle,
continuity equation.
9 Quantum Mechanical Operators: observables and operators, linear operators, eigenvalues and 1.5
eigen vectors of operators, Hermitian operators, product of operators, expectation values and
uncertainty relations.
10 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation: stationary states, free particle solution, bound states 2.5
11 One Dimensional Problems: 1-D infinite potential well, 1-D finite potential well, and quantum 2
mechanical tunneling.
12 Particle in 1-D lattice, Kronig-Penney Model and the E/k Diagram. 1

11
References

➢ Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, David J. Griffiths and Darrell F. Schroeter

➢ Chapter-1, 1.1: The Schrödinger Equation
➢ Chapter-1, 1.2: The Statistical Interpretation
➢ Chapter-1, 1.3.2: Continuous Variables
➢ Chapter-1, 1.4: Normalization

➢ Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, Nouredine Zettili

➢ Chapter-2, 2.2: The Hilbert Space and Wave Functions
➢ Chapter-2, 2.3: Dirac Notation

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Schrödinger equation

▪ A problem in classical mechanics:

→ Given: mass and force acting on the
mass

→ We want to know: position at a

particular time

→ We can also know: velocity,

momentum and kinetic energy

▪ Classical Mechanics:
We can determine all the above properties by solving the Newton’s equation with
appropriate initial conditions, i.e. velocity and position at t=0.

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 = 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

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Schrödinger equation (continuing)
▪ Quantum Mechanics:
→ In principle, we can determine all the aforementioned properties if we know the wave function
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 of the particle.

→ The wave function Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 can be obtained by solving the following differential equation

𝜕Ψ 𝑥,𝑡 ℏ2 𝜕2 Ψ 𝑥,𝑡
𝑖ℏ = − + 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

→ time dependent Schrodinger equation!

→ What about Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 at a time 𝑡 ?

Answer: We need to know the initial condition, i.e. Ψ 𝑥, 0 at a time 𝑡 = 0

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Comment on Ψ: Statistical interpretation
▪ Ψ is a continuous function.

▪ It represents the amplitude of the matter wave associates with particle.

▪ Contains the information about the probability with which one would measure a certain dynamical
quantity, but cannot give pre-determined results.

▪ Statistical Interpretation (Born, 1926):

𝑏
න Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = Probability of finding the particle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 at time 𝑡
𝑎

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Here, Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡

→ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 represents the probability amplitude

𝑎 b
→ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 is the probability density at 𝑥 and 𝑡.
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Comment on Ψ: Statistical interpretation (continuing)
𝑏
න Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = Probability of finding the particle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 at time 𝑡
𝑎

2
Here, Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡

▪ Analogy between Electromagnetism and

Quantum Mechanics ?
𝑎 b

▪ Quantum mechanics only tells you statistical information about the possible measurements, whereas
classical mechanics is completely deterministic.

▪ Particle likely to be found near position A

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