The Marijuana Factor in A University in Ghana: A Survey: Samuel Adu-Gyamfi and Edward Brenya

Journal of Siberian Federal University.
Humanities & Social Sciences 11 (2015 8) 2162-2182

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УДК 351.761.3:378.17(667)
The Marijuana Factor in a University

in Ghana: a Survey
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi and Edward Brenya*

Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology (KNUST)
Ghana
Received 25.08.2015, received in revised form 11.09.2015, accepted 24.10.2015
This paper examines the marijuana usage among university students in Ghana. A focused interview
was done to solicit information from users of the drug. It paid attention to thematic areas that are
replete in the existing literature concerning the use of marijuana and its ramifications on student users
of the drug. Attention is paid to the factors that drive the students to use the drug and its ramifications
on their performance as students. Results and discussions that emanated from this severally qualitative
study with some quantitatives should serve as bases for university administrators and lecturers to see
the need to enhance their efforts in training peer educators and counseling units in universities in
Africa and Ghana in particular.
Keywords: Marijuana, drug abuse, students, university in Ghana.
DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-2015-8-11-2162-2182.
Research area: politology, history.
Introduction hand-rolled cigarettes called joints. Marijuana

Drug as an illegal substance is defined as has many names, some of which are ganja, wee,
any natural or artificially made chemical which ntampi, bongs, bonsam tawa, Indian hemp and
is taken for pleasure, to improve someone's so on.3 People smoke this substance for various
performance or an activity. Tobacco, coffee, reasons.
marijuana, cocaine and heroin are all examples There are about one hundred and ninety
of drugs.1 There are three main types of drugs. million illicit drug users around the world.4
They include depressants such as heroin, Most drug abusers are under the age of thirty.
barbiturates, Stimulants such as cocaine, crack Marijuana is the most widely abused drug in
and amphetamines and hallucinogens such as the world.5 The illicit drug industry is now
marijuana (wee) and ecstasy.2 These drugs are estimated to be over four hundred billion
ingested, inhaled, smoked, injected or snorted. dollars per year.6 Drug use has been increasing
Marijuana is the main focus and the substance among the young people worldwide especially
is usually smoked. Users smoke marijuana in marijuana. Most marijuana abusers are under
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved

* Corresponding author E-mail address: mcgyamfi@yahoo.com, ebrenya@gmail.com
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Samuel Adu-Gyamfi and Edward Brenya. The Marijuana Factor in a University in Ghana: a Survey
the age of thirty.7 Young people in America tend This work focuses on the abuse of marijuana
to experiment with alcohol, marijuana (wee), among university students in Ghana. Attention is
and other drugs during the middle school years paid to some student users at the Kwame Nkrumah
and universities with a smaller number starting University of Science and Technology. Marijuana
during elementary school. Estimates show that is an illegal drug made from the dried leaves
marijuana (wee) is the most widely abused drug and flowers of the hemp plant, which produces a
in all parts of the world, with an estimated one feeling of pleasant relaxation if smoked: It is also
hundred and forty one million people (or 2.4 the most commonly used illicit drug; considered a
per cent of the world's population) consuming soft drug which consist of dried leaves of the hemp
it.8 In particular, large numbers of young plant; smoked or chewed for euphoric effects.13
people experiment with marijuana: as high as Marijuana abuse is a social canker that
37 per cent (one time use over the past year) cuts across the social strata of Ghana. Policies
of school children and young adults in some have been implemented to eradicate the illicit
countries and 10-25 per cent for past month abuse of hard drugs by respective governments,
use. Overall, marijuana abuse is increasing in non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
many countries while stabilizing in countries stakeholders. In various universities in Ghana,
where it has reached high levels.9 authorities have laid strict rules to combat this
Ghana, like other developing countries, has issue but marijuana abuse is gaining grounds
not been spared the problems of drug abuse, which among university students. These strict rules
is also one of the many outcomes of rapid social seem not strict enough because marijuana use is
change. However, due to lack of accurate data, it gaining strong grounds in Ghanaian educational
is not possible to state exactly when drug abuse institutions especially tertiary institutions.
spread in our territory. It has been suggested that However, these problems coupled with scant or
other than legal use of alcohol and tobacco in limited literature that focuse on Kwame Nkrumah
Ghana, the most common illegal drug of abuse University of Science and Technology; a platform
is marijuana.10 Today, Ghana is recognized as a is created for us to do an additional work with
producer of marijuana for international drug trade emphasis on the causes and effects of marijuana
with high consumption among the population among students.
(World Drug Report, 2000) and Ghana has been Students in their academic environment need
ranked as the number one user of marijuana in a good surrounding and a sound mind in pursuit
Africa and the third in the world.11 of their academic work, it therefore becomes
It was introduced into Ghana by colonial debatable when issues of marijuana come into
soldiers in Burma during the Second World War. play with academics and raises questions, such
Recent researches by sociologist have revealed as, to what extent does marijuana affect the
other growing trends and illegal drugs which are academic life of students? The general objective
abused in Ghana. A nationwide survey of high of this study is to investigate the increasing trend
school students reported that 65 % used drugs to of marijuana abuse amongst university students
have good time with their friends 54 % wanted and also to gather information from student users
to experiment to see what it is like, 20 % to 40 % pertaining to what cause them to use marijuana
used it to alter their moods, to feel good, to relax, and its effect it has on them. The following
to relive tension and to overcome boredom and research questions have served as a guide in the
problems.12 discussion:
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Why do students smoke marijuana and what The authors identify the various names given
are the major factors that influence marijuana use to marijuana both locally and internationally.
among university (KNUST) students? What are These names make identification by name easy for
the major effects of marijuana abuse on university a layman who reads the article. Marijuana is used
students? Is it addictive and what are the options to brew tea and sometimes it is mixed with foods.
available to student users who wish to quit? What Cannabis was very legal – largest agricultural
are the effects of marijuana abuse on academic crop in the world including USA. Cannabis hemp
performance of the user? And where do students was the largest product used in making soft fibre
get the substance from, how do they access it and for paper, medicines to mention a few. Cannabis
the consequence of the use of the drug on KNUST was used as medicines, fluid extract- cannabis
campus and society at large? Indica was the name.15 There are more than
200 slang terms for marijuana according to the
Matters arising National Institute on Drug Abuse.16
from the literature Marijuana is a substance which can be
During the past decade, a growing literature described as an illegal drug made from the
has emerged investigating the use of marijuana dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant,
among the youth in Ghana and the world as a which produces a feeling of pleasant relaxation
whole. There have been various articles written if smoked or eaten.17 A drug produced in various
by many authors addressing this issue. Generally, forms from the dried leaves and flowers of the
cohorts have found evidence of the youth hemp plant, smoked or chewed, its recreational
indulging in the abuse of marijuana, although the use is illegal in many countries.18
finding is often limited to specific populations. Increases in the use of most illicit drugs in
Marijuana, often called pot, grass, reefer, weed, adolescence has been a worldwide phenomenon
and herb, Mary Jane or MJ- is a greenish-gray since 1990 in many countries, (Centers for
mixture of the dried, shredded leaves, stems, Disease Control and Prevention, 1991) with the
seeds, and flowers of Cannabis sativa-the hemp most prevalent illicit drug used worldwide being
plant. Most users smoke marijuana in hand-rolled marijuana (Reuter, 2006). 19This study shows
cigarettes called joints. Among other names, how marijuana is abused worldwide. Through
some use pipes or water pipes called bongs.14 this information, marijuana abuse worldwide
According to Henry Bernstein in his journal gave is exposed and necessary remedies are applied
out the different names of marijuana in some .Cannabis use is among the most common primary
parts of the world. The South Asian provenance of reasons for entering drug-related treatment
narcotic use commonly term marijuana as Indian worldwide. Furthermore, cannabis use often
hemp (also in Nigeria). The term “bhanga” was precedes the use of other drugs, which suggests
very popular among marijuana smokers in the that cannabis may cause further problems as a
1950s and 1960s, the report from the Paris-based gateway drug in adolescent involvement in drug
OGD (Observatoire Geopolitique des Drogues) usage.20Other illicit drugs used by adolescents
published in 1995:18 confirms that “bhanga” is are cocaine, heroin and crack-cocaine.
still a common term in Cameroon and in East
Africa. Marijuana is also widely known in Ghana Concept of marijuana abuse
as wee and “wee wee” in Nigeria and bonsam In Ghana, responses from users of cannabis
tawa (' devil's tobacco in Twi). as well as primary reports from the newspapers
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and published articles from journals suggest that great danger of marijuana abuse in the near future
the use of cannabis is prevalent in Ghana. The and if strategic measures are not put in place the
abuse of it is alarming. Helena Selby has reported worst will happen. By identifying these problem
that the abuse of drugs is one of the most popular in the tertiary institutions and Ghana as a whole,
social vices among the youth in Ghana. The fight this work seeks to fill the gaps in the existing
against the use of drugs and especially drug literature.
addiction has become the priority of many world Adebayo points out that the introduction
leaders. It has been argued that even though drug of marijuana in West Africa dates back to the
abuse and addiction is a challenging issue, the twentieth century.25 The use of cannabis also
number of young people engaged in it increases known as wee and obonsam tawa ('the devil's
every day.21 This makes us aware of how rampant tobacco') was associated with ex-servicemen as
the abuse of marijuana is gaining roots in Ghana stated by Henry Bernstein in his work Ghana’s
but the author did not spell out how marijuana is drug economy and was also stated by Emmanuel
acquired and distributed in Ghana that is making Akyeampong in his work “Addiction to alcohol
it most popular social vice. and drugs in urban environment” that West
Helena Selby agree with Samuel Adu-Gyamfi African soldiers who fought in Asia in World
and Edward Brenya in the article re-hashing War II were the ones who introduced cannabis
commentaries on the effects and potential benefit smoking on their return.26 Both Adebayo and
of cannabis that the substance mostly abused is Emmanuel try to trace the source of marijuana,
marijuana (Indian hemp or wee). It is the cheapest its introduction into West Africa, Ghana and
drug and packaged at Gp50 per piece, which is how its use and abuse became popular among the
very affordable. 22The use of heroin and cocaine people in the country. Both of them failed to point
is not very popular among substance abusers in out how the youth especially of school going age
Ghana due to their high cost. According to the 2007 have strongly upheld the abuse of the illicit drug
World Drug Report by the UN Office on Drugs named marijuana.
and Crime, 21.5 % of Ghanaians aged from 15 to He shares similar view with Elizabeth
64 smoked marijuana or used another cannabis I. Omage in her article Illicit drug use and
product in 2006.23 Most abusers in this category dependency among teenagers and young adult in
are of school going age therefore exposing senior Oredo local government area, Benin city, Nigeria
high school students and tertiary students as that certain occupations noted for difficult
foremost abusers. The report continues by stating and dangerous work such as night-soil men,
that Ghanaians use marijuana more than five prostitutes, criminals, fishermen, and farmers.
times the world average which, as a result, has Both authors state that in order to get extra
made Ghana the leader of African countries and strength and confidence these workers resort to
third in the world in cannabis or marijuana.24 The the use of marijuana. They both reveal the effect
report further indicates that Ghana ranks third in marijuana has on their activity and without the
the world on marijuana use, behind Papua New substance they cannot work effectively and get
Guinea and Micronesia with twenty-nine per cent maximum end results.
each. This report creates awareness of the rate at Cannabis use had much in common with
which Ghanaians abuse marijuana in Africa and akpeteshie (locally-distilled gin), feeding into a
the world as whole. These information provided class and counter culture that rationalized what
shows that Ghana, especially the youth faces a were criminal activities.27 Continuities studies
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are suggested in the ties between cocoa farmers urban centers when cocoa prices fell. A 2001
and akpeteshie distillation in the colonial period police report indicates that many farmers in the
and cocoa farmers and cannabis cultivation in region now find the cultivation of cannabis more
the independent era. The intercropping of cocoa lucrative than maize.29 Today, marijuana abuse
and oil palm made the distillation of akpeteshie has taken a major toll on the youth especially
from oil palm an important provider of cash senior high school and university students.30
in the period before the cocoa trees began to The world drug report from the united nation in
bear fruit. Since cocoa grows in forest areas, it 2000 stated that in today’s world, children and
was easy to conceal illicit distillation from the young people are increasingly misusing alcohol
authorities. Likewise, high-quality cannabis and marijuana at an alarming rate (World Drug
(with high delta-nine-tetrahy-drocannabinol Report 2000). The average age of first use is
or THC levels) grows in deep forests, again between 11 and 12 years (Kandel and Logan,
providing cash for cocoa farmers in the period 1984). Among school children, this usually
between harvests. With the decline in the world starts in school or within the communities
market price for cocoa from 1958, cocoa farmers where they live (National Institute on Drug
may have been encouraged to diversify into Abuse, 2003). Freeman Koryekpor Awlesu
cannabis cultivation, especially as the market released in his article “Todays Ghana” that the
expanded to include students.28 total number of 50,000 drug users in Ghana.
Rev. Vasco Abudu, president of the blue 35,000 were students from senior high schools
cross of Nigeria presented in the 8th biennial and tertiary institution aged between 12 and 35
international conference on alcohol, drugs and years while the remaining 15, 000 were adults
society in Africa, Abuja, Nigeria stated that there with 9, 000 being males and 6,000 females.31
was an ongoing revelation which indicated that Again, students in the senior high schools and
African farmers are shifting from traditional at the tertiary levels have also been identified as
food crop production to cannabis at the detriment users of marijuana in Ghana.32
of the consumers mostly youths. Freeman’s whole reason behind this data
This revelation by Rev. Vasco Abudu falls in was to showcase the level of marijuana abuse
line with T.A Lambo when they greed on the fact in the secondary and tertiary institutions and
that farmers are shifting from their cultivation of what authorities in the institutions are doing to
crops to marijuana. Lambo limited this practice to control this plight and Samuel Adu-Gyamfi also
Ghana only but Rev.Vasco created the awareness bears witness to freeman with the rate at which
that the syndrome is not only with Ghanaian secondary and tertiary students abuse marijuana.
farmers but it is an ongoing trend across Africa. Freeman however, was not specific with the
This practice should not be entertained by any actual figures that are connected to the tertiary
developing country. The problem with both level especially the Kwame Nkrumah University
authors is that, they did not rightly spell out the of Science and Technology (KNUST). This work
measures the various governments have taken to seeks to identify the number of marijuana abusers
curb this abysmal canker that is fast growing in in the school, causes and effect of marijuana.
most African countries. Future abusers are almost always introduced to
Again in the Brong Ahafo region, the both legal and illegal substances in adolescence
heartland of cocoa cultivation, farmers switched by friends who hold favorable attitudes toward
to maize cultivation to feed the expanding drugs and these adolescents grow up with this
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social vice, gain admission into senior high 2003 as compared to 767 cases in 2010 within
schools and universities and continue the abuse. the age group of 15- 20, an average percentage
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi and Edward Brenya increase of 61 per cent annually (Masahudu
have argued that some years ago “Rastafarians 2012). According to the 2007 World Drug Report
were known to be the popular users of marijuana; by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 21.5 %
now both Rastafarians and some members of Ghanaians, aged 15 to 64, smoked marijuana
the general populace have been noted for using or used another cannabis product in 2006. The
marijuana.33 Arguably, more people may be report continues that Ghanaians use marijuana
using and abusing drugs in Ghana than it is more than five times the world average, which,
estimated. The Ghana Demographic and Health as a result has made Ghana the leader of African
Survey’s (GDHS) Report for 2010 stated that the countries and the third in the world in cannabis
region in recent times is not only a transitory or marijuana use, behind Papua New Guinea
route but also a consumer market of hard drugs. and Micronesia (Selby, 2012).38 Currently, the
Reports of foreigners financing “wee” farms use and abuse of drugs have expanded to include
in Ghana points to Jamaicans and other West- the youth and kids (Ametepey, 2010). The 2007
African nationals.34 World Drug Report by the UN Office on Drugs
Contrary to popular beliefs, marijuana and Crime also showed that 21.5 % of Ghanaians,
usage can be very addictive.35 Scientific research aged from 15 to 64, smoked marijuana or used
has found that one in ten marijuana users will another cannabis product39
become addicted to the drug. And if one begins Fourteen percent of patients admitted
in adolescence, that number rises to one in to hospitals have marijuana and addiction
six.36 This study proves how addictive and how disorders.40 Almost 20 percent of all Medicaid
dangerous marijuana abuse is. Regardless of this hospital costs and nearly$1 of every $4 Medicare
knowledge, it is perceived that students continue spent on inpatient care is associated with
to smoke and abuse marijuana. substance abuse.41 70 percent of individuals
in state prisons and jails have used marijuana
Statistics regularly. The economic burden in the United
of marijuana abuse worldwide States for addiction of marijuana is twice that of
Estimates show that cannabis is the most any other disease affecting the brain, including
widely abused drug in all parts of the world, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’ Disease, as well as
with an estimated 141 million people (or 2.4 all the others.42
per cent of the world's population) consuming An estimated 150 million adolescent’s
it. In particular, large numbers of young people worldwide use marijuana. Adolescent
experiment with cannabis: as high as 37 per smokers are also subject to more immediate
cent (one time use over the past year) of school health consequences, such as respiratory and
children and young adults in some countries non‐respiratory effects, changes in serum
and 10-25 per cent for past month use. Overall, cholesterol and nicotine dependence and
cannabis abuse is increasing in many countries withdrawal. Moreover, once adolescents start
while stabilizing in countries where it has smoking, the impact of prevention programs,
reached high levels.37 whether on experimental or regular smokers,
According to the Narcotic Control Board is small and inconsistent across studies. It is
of Ghana, there were 145 cases of drug abuse in estimated that adolescent smokers who reach
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a consumption level of at least 100 rolls will Causes and effects

continue to smoke for another 16–20 years.43 of marijuana abuse amongst students
Among adolescents in the early stages of World health organization’s annual report on
smoking onset, alternating periods of smoking drugs in 2007 states causes of marijuana abuse
and abstinence are common. Yet longitudinal amongst students can be linked to many reasons,
studies show that only 3–12 % of adolescent daily young adults looking for peer acceptance or
or regular smokers and 10–46 % of adolescent wanting to appear mature or “cool” might
non‐daily or occasional smokers no longer smoke decide to use substances.53 Thus associating and
1–3 years later. This suggests that the likelihood socializing with peers who are into substance
of achieving abstinence, although generally low, use provides an opportunity for access to these
is greater if a cessation attempt occurs at lower substances that can encourage experimentation
levels of consumption.44 and continued use.54 Social pressures, from
The World Health Organization (WHO) ranks peers, family, and societal role models are at the
the United States first among seventeen European top of the list of reasons why adolescents initiate
and North American countries for prevalence of substance use and their continued use may be
marijuana use. And more users start every day.45 socially and environmentally driven.55 Peer
More than 94 million Americans have tried influences form the major factor for marijuana
marijuana and it remains the most widely used abuse, Henry Bernstien in his journal wrote
illicit drug in the nation.46 In 2008, an estimated that friends influence peers with an explicit
2.2 million Americans used marijuana for the first ideological line on marijuana consumption,
time; greater than half were under 18.47 The Drug inflected by their passion for reggae and present
Abuse Warning Network (DAWN), a system for it as life-enhancing: good for ailments (asthma,
monitoring the health impact of drugs estimated appetite loss), reading, contemplation and sense
that in 2008, marijuana was a contributing factor of self – and sexual potency. This is combined
in over 374,000 emergency department (ED) with a similarly 'ideologised' rejection of other
visits in the United States with about two-thirds drugs including alcohol.56
of patients being male and 13 per cent between Among university students the major cause
the ages of 12 and 17.48Data from the National of marijuana abuse is peer pressure. This is when
Institute on Drug Abuse in America found out friends have strong influence on the individual.
that in 1993 marijuana comprised approximately This is very evident in hostels on and off the main
8 % of all treatment admissions but by 2009, campus of the university. Some also may feel
that number had increased to 18 %.49 For those they need marijuana and other drugs to help them
under 18, marijuana related treatment admissions escape from problems at home, at school, or with
increased by 188 percent from 1992 to 2006 while friends (Pope and Yurgelun-Todd, 1996).
other drugs remained steady.50 Data from the Y. H. Affinih in his article states that one
United States is corroborated with data from other cause of marijuana abuse is that, youth are
countries. In the European Union, the percentage attracted to cannabis use not just because of the
of marijuana as the primary reason for entering participation in Rasta culture. Many seemed to
treatment increased by 200 percent from 1999 to believe, erroneously, that cannabis enhanced
2006, and currently stands at around 30 percent of their learning capacity. This belief then draws
all admissions.51 The Netherlands has the highest on the tradition that associated cannabis use with
rate of marijuana addiction in Europe.52 hard work.57
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The abuse of marijuana has a dire effect on the brain really affects student’s especially
both students and their environment. Medical tertiary students because the primary reason
research on effects of marijuana abuse is plentiful for coming to school is academics and anything
(Margolis and Popkin 1980).58 Generally, results short of that is a secondary matter
of studies show that marijuana causes changes in However, the effects of marijuana abuse
organs and systems of the body. These changes, also drag the progress of the nation especially
some of which do not augur well for individuals in instances where users lose their minds and
who use marijuana heavily.59 Marijuana use are sent to mental institutions. With the state of
affects the male reproductive system.60 Kolodny, conditions of Ghana’s mental hospitals and the
Masters, Kolodner, and Tbro's (1974) sample number of users increasing by the day. Pressure
of 18 to 28-year old male marijuana smokers will be on the health resources of the country.
had sharply reduced testosterone levels when Significantly, the government would be compelled
compared to a nonsmoking control group.61 The to pump some of its scarce resources into taking
subjects of these authors' sample used marijuana care of these patients. The use of marijuana in
at least four times per week for six months or Ghana has become one of the main causes of
more. mental illness among the youth and adult today
The use of marijuana is to some a lifestyle as some end up in psychiatric hospitals as stated
and to others a lifeline. It is a delicate balance earlier while others find themselves on the streets
which can make simple tasks become very and in prayer camps.67
frustrating. For instance, Dr. Jule Holand- Today’s research from fifteen (15) psychiatric
gets paranoid, panic attacks, anxiety attacks, hospitals in Ghana has shown that about 70 % of
disorganized thinking and disoriented when inmates in those hospitals were youth between
uses marijuana.62 Again, Carl Hart of Columbia the ages of 18 to 35 years.68 This clearly spells
University argued that it causes disruption in out the rate at which youth especially university
memory, disruption in inhibitory control, makes students are abusing marijuana.
one slow at cognitive functioning but they are In 2005, the three psychiatric hospitals
temporary but pronounced. The area of the (Ankaful, Accra and Pantang) recorded a total
brain that is basically affected is the pre frontal of 86,003 outpatient attendances (Ofori-Atta et
cortex (planning, thinking, coordination). It al 2010) with mental and behavioral disorders
causes impairment in driving and makes people due to psychoactive substance use representing
turn without looking carefully.63 For young 22.8 % of the in-patient diagnosis.62 The Out-
people marijuana, the use of marijuana can patient Monthly Morbidity Returns records from
produce adverse physical, mental, emotional the Psychiatric Unit of the Regional Hospital,
and behavioral effects. It can impair short-term Sunyani, for 2012 for instance, indicates that
memory and judgment and distort perception.64 of the 2,284 clients who reported with various
Because marijuana affects brain systems that psychiatric illnesses for the year, 594 (26 %)
are still maturing through young adulthood, its were substance abuse related cases, mostly
use by teens may have a negative effect on their marijuana.69
development.65 Marijuana use directly affects Since smoking of marijuana is highly
the brain specifically the parts of the brain addictive students will find every means to
responsible for memory, learning, attention and smoke if the substance is not readily available.
reaction time.66 This effect of marijuana towards This is where stealing money from others sets in
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because he is not financially stable to buy a roll of Christians may have used the drug, basing their
marijuana to smoke. Stealing will lead to lies and theories on the similarities between the terms
all sort of social vices, which eventually defame “Qannabbos” (cannabis) and the phrase “qené
the good name of the school. bósem” (aromatic cane) in old Hebrew.77 The
early Sufi Muslims also used the drug78.
History of marijuana use In slightly more recent times, a study
The use of marijuana has become a social published in the South African Journal of Science
practice especially among youth of school going referred to pipes «dug up from the garden of
age. The abuse of marijuana has earned Ghana Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon”
a third place in the world ranking of abusers. In had traces of cannabis.79 This was confirmed via
order to understand the growing interest of the chemical analysis after research scholars theorized
substance abuse, there is the need to identify that the «journey in my head» Shakespeare wrote
the history of marijuana abuse in Ghana and the about in Sonnet 27 and the «noted weed» he
world at large. This chapter seeks to look at the mentions in his Sonnet 76 were references to the
general history of marijuana, medicinal history drug and its use.
of marijuana usage and its origin in Africa.
The cannabis plant originates from central Medicinal history
and southern Asia.70 Charred cannabis seeds of marijuana
found at an ancient burial site now Romania Marijuana has been used for healing and
showed that people have been smoking it since medicinal purposes since ancient times. The
the 3rd millennium BC, for instance, in 2003 plant has been grown for fiber and as a source
a leather basket full of cannabis seeds and leaf of medicine for several thousands of years.80Up
fragments was found next to the 2,500-2,800 until 500 A.D, the first evidence of medicinal use
year-old mummy of a shaman in China.71Other of cannabis was in a journal published during
cultures known to have used cannabis include the the reign of the Chinese Emperor Chen Nung
Hindus and Nihang Sikhs from ancient India and 5000 years ago.81 Cannabis sativa has been used
Nepal, these cultures used the “Sanskrit” term for therapeutically to the present day and its products
the herb.72 An equally ancient drug called «soma» have been widely noted for their effects, both
was also sometimes associated with cannabis.73 physiological and psychological throughout the
Nonetheless, cannabis didn't end with the world. Although the Chinese and Indian cultures
Asians, it was also known by the ancient Assyrians knew about the properties of this drug from early
who knew about its psychoactive properties and times, this information did not become general
used it in some of their religious ceremonies, in the Middle East and Europe until after the
referring to it as “Qunubu” – way to produce fifth century A.D., when travelers, traders and
smoke – and a possible precursor of the modern adventurers began to carry knowledge of the
form of the word «cannabis.»74 From there, the drug westward to Persia and Arabia.82
drug moved into the cult of Dionysus, and the The drug and its uses then moved across
regions of Greece and Turkey.75The Scythians North Africa, then moved to Latin America, the
may have been one of the most prominent cultures Caribbean and finally entered the United States
to use cannabis for religious or spiritual reasons, in the early decades of this century.83The first
but they're certainly not alone.76 Some writers Western physician to take an interest in marijuana
have even claimed that ancient Jews and early as a medicine was WB O’Shaughnessy, a young
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professor at the Medical College of Calcutta, originate in Africa, the ancient tribes who used it
who had observed its usage in India.84 He gave had to acquire it through trading with the Asians.91
cannabis to animals in an experiment, satisfied Archaeologists now believe that marijuana was
with the results, he began to try it on patients introduced to African societies by trading goods
suffering from rabies, rheumatism, epilepsy, and with their Arab neighbors.92 Soon, through
tetanus.85 In the United States, medical interest seed sharing and careful cultivation practices,
in marijuana use was evidenced in 1860 by the cannabis culture had spread to other tribes
assembling of a Committee on Cannabis Indica of throughout Africa, giving birth to a commodity
the Ohio State Medical Society, which reported on that would become more valuable than gold.
its therapeutic applications.86 Between 1840 and Originally, African tribesmen chewed cannabis
1890, Walton states that more than 100 articles leaves, but they soon learned the art of smoking
were published recommending cannabis for one the plant, which changed African culture in many
disorder or another.87 Concern about cannabis ways.93 New skills, like pipe-making, had to be
as an intoxicant led the government of India to learned and smoking marijuana became a large
establish the India Hemp Commission of 1893-94 part of ritual and recreation which was performed
to examine the entire questions about the usage of in groups.94
cannabis in India. In West Africa, Sierra Leone apparently
Paralleling the question over cannabis use in cultivated cannabis (locally called diamba) long
the latter half of the 19th century was the growing before other West African countries, and by the
medical use of other medications superior to colonial period, at least, indigenous midwives
cannabis in their effects. Consequently, medical were using cannabis as anesthesia during difficult
use of cannabis declined and cannabis began to childbirth.95 Fishermen used it as an aid for hard
lose support in the medical profession. During work and by the 1920s, when cannabis possession
the years between 1856 and 1937, cannabis became illegal, most fishermen were arrested.96
lost its image as a medicine and was left with From the 1930s, Sierra Leoneans began to
a disreputable image as an intoxicant. Strong explore a market in cannabis in other British West
public reaction coupled with a campaign in the African colonies.97 Capitalizing on Freetown’s
public press led to a federal anti-marijuana law in importance as a major port and a larger Krio
1937 in the United States of America. diaspora in the service of British colonialism in
In African culture, cannabis was used in West Africa, cannabis from Sierra Leone began
ancient times in a medicinal capacity to treat to make its way to other West African colonies.
common conditions such as dysentery and The colonial governments in the Gambia and the
malaria.88 Black Jamaicans used marijuana Gold Coast would flag these developments and
as a panacea for illnesses such as dysentery, insist that the government in Sierra Leone help
sunstroke, phlegmatic tempers, indigestion, and curtail these activities.
loss of appetite, lisping, and muddled intellect, In Ghana and Nigeria, soldiers who fought
among others.89 in Asia during World War II were mainly the
ones who introduced cannabis smoking on their
Origin of marijuana in Africa return.98 The common name for cannabis in
The use of marijuana by the indigenous Nigeria and Ghana is Indian hemp, which suggests
people of Africa can be traced back to the 14th its Asian provenance. The substance, cannabis
century Ethiopia.90 Since marijuana did not was illicit from its very introduction into Nigeria
– 2171 –
and Ghana, its introduction by colonial soldiers been alien with the association of cannabis and
and the association of the military with a life of hard work, and the pressure to do well in school
violence gave cannabis a social reputation that turned them in this direction. But the emphasis
connected it immediately with disorder.99 It is here is on physical and not intellectual work. The
striking how cannabis quickly joined ranks with Ghanaian Daily Graphic in April 1994 reported
illicitly distilled gin (akpeteshie in Ghana) in the a survey conducted among girls and boys
colonial period, both illegal and underpinned secondary schools, which sought to understand
by a shared popular culture. Initially used by the significant differences in academic
servicemen, and certain occupational groups performance.104 A survey, reportedly undertaken
associated with dangerous work, cannabis use by the Ghana Education Service established that
had much in common with akpeteshie, feeding girls schools are performing academically better
into a class- and counter-culture that rationalized than the boys schools and the phenomena might
what were criminal activities.100 not be unrelated to drug abuse.105 By 1999 the
What popularized the use of cannabis in West National Union of Ghana Students (NUGS), the
Africa among the youth was the global spread of University Students’ Association (USAG), had
reggae music and the Rastafarian movement in added its voice to the campaign against marijuana
the 1970s.101 In Senegal, the Baye Faal branch of use among secondary and tertiary students.106
the Mouride Islamic brotherhood is characterized Data were analyzed and compared on measures
by dreadlocks, colorful patchwork clothes, and relating to substance use, reason for use, how did
the sacred and secular use of cannabis and the the user start using the substance, perceptions
perception of the lion as a sacred symbol. Neil of friends about the user, the health effect of the
Savishinsky, who has worked on the Baye Faal substance use on the individual and effect of the
movement and the global spread of Jamaican substance on their academics. Results were then
popular culture notes that the smoking of cannabis compared to related literatures.
among the Baye Faal is a recent movement,
strongly related to the increasing popularity of Observation of marijuana joints
reggae and Rastafarianism in Senegal.102 When This was carried out in the traditional halls
Nigeria and Ghana were presented with the and hostels on campus and off campus. Sales
phenomenon of secondary and university students points for marijuana on campus were mainly in
using cannabis, this then was the layered social Brunei, abusers off campus made purchases at
context of the drug. hostels in Kentinkrono specifically Georgia and
Youth were attracted to cannabis use not just Crystal Rose, splendor hostel, at Ayigya (Tech
because of their participation in Rasta culture. Junction).107 Students were not the only ones seen
Many seemed to believe, mistakenly, that drugs visiting these marijuana joints, other town people
such as marijuana enhanced their learning who abuse marijuana were present specifically in
capacity.103 This belief then throws light on the the joints located off campus and sometimes on
tradition that associates cannabis use with hard campus.108
work. Considering that many of secondary and Places where students meet to smoke
university students in the 1960s and 1970s were marijuana were mostly bushes located around
first generation metropolitan and often the first the Unity Hall canteen, specifically behind where
in their families to enter secondary and tertiary the food is prepared before taken to the canteen
institutions of education, they may not have and there was one located University hall,
– 2172 –
specifically the bush between University hall and Table 4.1 shows the educational levels
Shaba. 109This places where students go to use the of peer influence. As shown in the table most
substance is referred to by the users as “Bingy”.110 student abusers of marijuana came into contact
Abusers could enter the bingy anytime to smoke with the substance in the SHS through peers
their rolls of wee. During noon and late night was representing sixty four (64 %), followed by the
when they mostly meet in the bingy.111 Students university representing sixteen (16 %), followed
located off campus, smoked the marijuana in by JHS representing fourteen (14 %) and peer
their rooms. That privacy permitted them to influence in the neighborhood representing six
smoke as much as they wanted without restraints. (6 %). It becomes vivid that majority of students
The substance are kept in rooms. Often ‘Nights of who abuse marijuana came into contact with the
smoking’ which is the assembling of friend users substance through peers in senior high school.
over and smoking in the night were observed.112 Table 4.2 shows the reasons student abusers
The substance abuse was observed to be high smoke marijuana. As shown in the table, the major
among students in hostels off campus than in the reason for the abuse of marijuana is to feel high,
traditional halls. It was observed that the halls that is, to get to a certain level of ecstasy; they term
have strict rules concerning illegal use of drugs, this feeling as “feeling iray.”113 The respondents
also due to the number of persons in each room stated that the feeling is inexplicable and that the
accommodated, thus four, there is difficulty in user feels as if he is on top the world, no feeling
smoking the substance in the hall and therefore can be compared to ‘this state’. Following this, the
they resort to these hideouts on campus other reasons given by the respondents were that,
smoking marijuana is done for fun. The smoking
Results of survey of marijuana is an activity to whirl away time
It was analyzed from the data that, the major and there is no ulterior motive for participating
factor that influences the abuse of marijuana in this activity. To a more personal extent some
among students in this university is peer student users stated that, they use the substance
influence. From the 50 sampled students who use to increase their self-esteem, to boost their
marijuana, majority responded that their contact confidence levels so as to be able to undertake
with marijuana came through friends or peer activities such as approaching a lady, addressing
groups and others stated factors such as adventure, a large crowd and engaging in a fight.
curiosity and personal choice. The tables below The use of the substance gives them the extra
provide the demographic characteristics of the panache to do things they rarely do. Aside these
total number of students interviewed in KNUST. major reasons, others also stated that they use
Table 4. 1: Educational levels of peer influence (N=50)
Stage of peer influence. Number of student users Number in percentage.

J.H.S 7 14 %
S.H.S 32 64 %
University 8 16 %
Neighborhood 3 6 %
Source: Field survey in KNUST on April 4, 2015.
– 2173 –
the substance to stay active and meditate. Some “adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis
respondents also stated that the use of marijuana use” which states marijuana is highly addictive.
helps relax their nerves and make them very It was observed that the drug poses little or
comfortable and also the smoking of marijuana virtually no effect on the academics of some
makes them forget their problems. Concerning student users stating that they can be with or
the effects of marijuana on the student user, the without marijuana.
health complications and the effects on their Table 4.2 shows the effects marijuana has
academics whether negative or positive will be on academics. As shown in the table, sixty six
analyzed. From the data collected, most students percent (66 %) of the respondent stated that the
users affirmed that the use of marijuana have abuse of marijuana have positive impacts on
negative impact on their life. Some also responded their academics, while twenty two (22 %) stated
that it gives them health complications such as it poses harmful effects on their academics and
chest pains, itchy eyes, dehydration and chronic twelve percent (12 %) stated that it has virtually
cough. no effect on their academics. The sixty six (66 %)
Aside health complications, there are other respondents who stated that it impacted their
minor negative effects such as the user becoming academics positively gave reasons such as the use
dull, sleeping a lot and becoming extremely of marijuana increase their productivity, study
dizzy. Most users responded that the smoking of for long hours, gives them retentive memory and
marijuana makes them very hungry and if after high concentration during and after lectures.
smoking there is no food available they became Also, twenty two percent (22 %) of the
furious and quiet aggressive. Another peculiar respondents stated that marijuana has negative
problem is the feeling of emptiness without the effects on their academics, giving reasons such
substance, with this statement, there is a relation as being tensed up making it difficult to study
between Hall W and Degenhard L in their book, during learning hours and also making them sleep
Table 4. 2: Reasons why student abusers smoke marijuana (N=50)
Reasons for smoking marijuana Number of student users Number in percentage.

Feeling high 18 36 %
For fun 14 28 %
To relax 8 16 %
To be active 3 6 %
Source: Field survey in KNUST on April 4, 2015
Table 4. 2: Effects marijuana on academics (N=50)
Effects on academics Number of student users Number in percentage.

Positive 33 66 %
Negative 11 22 %
No effect 6 12 %
– 2174 –
a lot, this will go a long way to affect their grades There was also an informant who hinted that
eventually lead to rustication or withdrawal. the substance was accessed at a place arranged
A respondent gave an instance when he used for wee smokers in the bush on campus called
the substance during exams week and stated “I “bingy”.116 He stated categorically that there
smoked the substance a night before his paper are two main “bingys” on campus, one located
in the morning, I woke up to realize the next behind Katanga and the other located behind
morning that my mates have already written that the bushes of unity hall canteen. In relation to
paper.”114 He explained that the marijuana made the price of marijuana, a respondent disclosed
him dizzy and made him forget himself till the that, prices varied from location to location.
next day. He stated, “Marijuana is cheaper when it is
Accessing how marijuana finds its ways coming from town in whole sale as compared
in the jurisdiction of university, considerable to when it is distributed, retailers add certain
measure will be given to how students gain access amounts to it as profit”117. On campus, one roll
to marijuana. of marijuana ranged between one cedi and one
Table 4.3 shows the source of marijuana in cedi fifty pesewas. Off campus, the price of a
the university. Students access the drug both on roll of marijuana ranged between two cedis and
and off campus with the statistics off campus three cedis. He stated that the patronage for the
higher than on campus. From the table, Sixty four substance is very high and that, it does not last
percent (64 %) of the respondents affirmed that more than three days on delivery. In other parts
they buy the substance from various locations off campus, that is Kentinkrono where hostels
outside the university campus, some location as like Georgia, Crystal Rose, Gaza, Sun City and
stated by the respondents are Krofrom, Ayigya Anglican hostel are located, prices of marijuana
(Tech junction), Atonsu, Aboabo, Adum and are very expensive, the respondent also stated that
Ayeduase.115 one roll of marijuana ranged from ten to twenty
Twenty eight (28 %) responded that they cedis.118 The reason for these exorbitant prices is
buy the substance from friends in their hostels due to the fact that, students in these areas are
and halls of residence. Some hostels stated were considered rich. He went on to state that the users
Crystal rose, Sun city, Georgia, Evandi, Master really patronized the substance regardless of the
brains, Dellisa Annex and splendor. Also, eight high prices.
percent (8 %) of the respondents access the Concerning the consequences of the use of
substance from their homes, which is growing marijuana on campus, some respondents affirmed
the substance in their backyards and also from that the abuse of the substance make them
friends in their neighborhood. aggressive and prone to violence, hence the need
Table 4. 3: Sources of marijuana in the university (N=50)
Sources of marijuana. Number of student users Number in percentage.

Outside the boarders of the school 32 64 %
Friends in hostels 14 28 %
Home 4 8 %
– 2175 –
to find out if there is a link between the substance These reasons given above falls in line with the
abuse and social vices in and around the university reasons given by the Ministry of Health/World
campus. Over a period of the time, social vices Health Organization (2003), “national survey on
such as petty theft, robbery, snatching of items prevalence and social consequences by substance
have been alarming on KNUST campus. From the (drug) use among second cycle and out of school
research conducted, it was observed that people youth in Ghana Research Report” stated that the
have certain perceptions about users of marijuana. use of marijuana among the youth was centered
Some people think they are considered as bad on the perceived benefits such as enabling them
persons, rude, irresponsible, violent, stubborn, to study, to do hard work, to get rid of shyness,
quick tempered and aggressive. Although stated and to forget about their problems, for fun, and
by the users that the drug made them aggressive due to peer pressure from fiends.
there has not been an instance where a certain In relation to the effect of marijuana use
behavior demonstrated by a student have been on the academics of the students, the reasons
attributed to the use of marijuana. stated were both positive and negative. Sixty
The use of illicit drugs in the school six percent (66 %) of the respondents stated
is highly prohibited, especially the use of that the use of the substance had positive on
marijuana. According to the student guide, given them, twenty two (22 %) of respondents stated
to every student on admission to the school, it that the substance had negative impact on them.
clearly states that it is an offence and a breach of The reasons for the positive impact stated by
university regulation to indulge in the sale and use the respondents were that marijuana gave
of narcotic and illicit drug119. Failure of a student them more capability to learn for more hours,
to observe the rules and regulation will be liable retentive memory and high concentration level.
to one of the following penalties.120 Either the Scholars like Finnell and J.D Jones in their
student is warned, reprimanded, rusticated for a article “Marijuana, Alcohol, and Academic
stated period, suspended from the university for a Performance,» state that the negative use of
stated period, or outright dismissal of the student marijuana on students result in poor academic
from the university.121 performance, decreases students chances
of learning essential skills and successfully
Discussion completing school. The article further states
Accessing the information above, it is that students will not remember lectures or
evident that the use of marijuana is prevalent in will not be able to recall materials previously
the university. The reason for the use of wee is stored. Studies also show that heavy marijuana
contradicted with the reason stated by Emmanuel smokers perceive the use of marijuana as poor
Acheampong in his article “Diaspora and Drug academic adjustment. The negative effect on
Trafficking in West Africa: A Case Study of their academics as stated by the respondents
Ghana”, he stated that marijuana was used for include: heavy sleeping, loss of memory,
occupations noted for arduous and dangerous coughing which makes them unable to sit and
work like stevedores, night-soil men, prostitutes, learn for longer periods. In the research, it was
criminals, fishermen, and farmers but from revealed that the use of marijuana was highly
the research users stated that they smoked addictive. Eighty four percent (84 %) of the
marijuana to feel good, to increase self-esteem, respondent stated that the use of marijuana was
to have fun, to boost their confidence and so on. addictive and without the drug use makes them
– 2176 –
uncomfortable. This claim by the respondents The study generally revealed that peer
clearly agreed with many scholars, researches influence was the main cause of the substance
and medical personnel’s. A report from the abuse in the university. It also revealed that peer
ministry of health/ World Health organization influence did not mostly start in the university,
and the journal by L.L Simmon “ the everything they started from various places before they
health guide addiction and recovery” states that got enrolled in the school. Those who were
the use of marijuana is highly addictive and if influenced in the university were few. Those who
care is not taken the user will smoke until their started from junior high school were nineteen
brain damages or have lung cancer. percent (19 %). Those influenced in the senior
The other twelve percent (12 %) stated that high school were sixty four percent (64 %) eleven
they do not think marijuana is addictive and they percent (11 %) of the respondents stated that they
smoke marijuana occasionally when they meet were influenced by peers in the university. The
as friends at clubs, house parties, drinking spots remaining six (6 %) were influenced by peers in
among others. They state the claim that they just neighborhoods they stayed or once stayed.
smoke marijuana at these times and that they can The study revealed relatively high
stay away from marijuana for a long time if there percentage of students who used the substance
is no social gathering where friends meet and were enormously residing off campus. The study
smoke the substance. Over the past few years, also revealed that twenty-two percent (22 %) of
there has been an increasing trend of marijuana the students who use marijuana had negative
abuse amongst university students in Ghana. effect on their academic performances and sixty
The situation raises questions about the depth of six percent (66 %) respondents stated that it
understanding of factors influencing the abuse of impacted their academics positively. The other
marijuana amongst university students. The study twelve percent (12 %) stated that marijuana use
therefore sought to examine the increasing trend has virtually no effect on their academics and
of marijuana abuse amongst university students they see nothing wrong with the use of marijuana
in Ghana, the causes and effect of the substance, in school. It revealed that most of the marijuana
using KNUST as a case study. The research was abusers had complications with the use of the
also to suggest strategies that may help to curb substance. Complications stated were chest
this alarming social canker. More specifically, pains, itching eyes, dehydration and chronic
the research has identified causes of the drug use cough and so on. Aside these major effects there
greatly associated with peer influence. The other were minor effects such as extreme hunger after
causes of the drug use were family practice, for the drug use, becoming dull, sleeping a lot and
curiosity sake, adventure that is trying something extreme daze and so on.
new, personal choices and also as a remedy for It was also noticed that the prices for
stress, burdens, inability to study and build marijuana also differed from location to
confidence. location. . On campus the price for one roll of
Fifty (50) students were selected, both males marijuana was cheaper than off campus. One
and females, undergraduates and postgraduates, roll of marijuana ranged between one cedi
students residing on campus and off campus. and one cedi fifty pesewas. Off campus prices
Amongst fifty respondents used in the survey, also varied at Ayeduase, Bomso and new site.
seventy six (76 %) were males whiles twenty four Their prices were a little bit higher to campus,
percent (24 %) of the respondents were females a respondent stated that one roll of marijuana
– 2177 –
there was between two cedis to three cedis. This made a total of hundred percent (100 %) of
In Kentinkrono, where student resided it was abusers who were interviewed in the university
known that their prices were much higher as concluding that they were not ignorant of the
compared to campus, Ayeduase, Bomso and law both in the university premises and the
New Site. In Kentinkrono, there was a business nation as a whole. They were also aware of the
boom to the extent that the substance was sold- penalties involved in the abuse of drugs. The
out within three days. survey generally revealed that student users of
Interestingly, all of the abusers in this marijuana did not mind the consequences. They
research agreed that they are aware that the perceive that they would never be caught during
abuse of marijuana is illegal in the university. their stay in the University.
1
Samuel Adu-Mireku, “Prevalence of Alcohol, Cigarette, and Marijuana use among Ghanaian Senior Secondary Students
in an Urban Setting”, Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, vol. 2 no.30, (2003): 10-20..
2
United Nations “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),2008 World Drug Report 2008, available at http://
www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/WDR_2008_eng_web.pdf, accessed January 2010.
3
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Brenya, Edward. 17
4
Ibid
5
Ibid
6
Ghana education service,” A teacher’s guide on the prevention of drug abuse in schools,” Overview of the Drug Situation
in Ghana”, (Paris, Versailles publication April 1995)20.
7
A Borrofica, “Mental illness and Indian hemp in Lagos, Nigeria”, East African Medical Journal, vol.43. (3) (1996):80-
84.
8
United Nations “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). 2008 World Drug Report 2008, available at http://
www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/WDR_2008_eng_web.pdf, accessed January 2010.
9
Ibid
10
Adeyemi, Adebayo, «Ntampi smoking – Ghana is Third!” Ghana web, July 9, 2007. Accessed March 2, 2015, http://www.
ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=126884.
11
Ibid
12
E. C, Dogbe “Drug Abuse among Students of Second Cycle Institutions: A case study of The Tema Secondary School”
(Masters thesis, university of Ghana, Dept. of Sociology UG, 2003)
13
Houghton Mifflin Company, The American Heritage, ‘Definition of marijuana’, Dictionary of the English Language, 4th
edition, updated in 2009, (published by Houghton Mifflin Company) www.thefreedictionary.com/reforms.
14
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Brenya, Edward. “Re-hushing commentaries on the effect and potential benefit of cannabis: les-
sons Ghana can learn from USA and Canada,” Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Science, Vol.3 (3), (2014): 10-20.
Accessed October 9, 2014. Url: file http://www.gifre.org/admin/papers/gjiss/10-20-RE-HUSHING %20-vol-3-3-gjiss.pdf
15
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Edward Brenya, 10.
16
National Survey Results on Drug Use from The Monitoring The Future Study, 1975-1997
17
A. S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 6th Edition, ed. Sally Wehmeier, Phonetics Editor, Michael Ashby
(Oxford University Press), 9.
18
Webster’s 1913 dictionary, ‘Definition of marijuana,” www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/policy, November 4, 2014.
Accessed from www.knust.edu.gh.oer/pages/index.
19
United Nation office on Drugs and Crime, 2008. Accessed November 18, 2014. Available http://www.undcp.org/
report_1999-06-01_1.htm.
20
Odejide Adebayo Olabisi “Psycho-Social Features of In-Patients in Long Stay Psychiatric Hospitals: A Cross Cultural
Study” (M.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1985), 52.
21
Helena Selby, “Marijuana (Ntampi) usage in Ghana”, The Chronicle, May 4,2011, accessed February 5, 2015 http://th-
echronicle.com.gh/marijuana-ntampi-usage-in-ghana.
22
ibid
23
ibid
24
25
Adebayo Olabisi Odejide, “Mental illness and Indian hemp in Lagos, Nigeria”, East African Medical Journal 43, no.8
(1966), 377-84.
26
Emmanuel Akyeampong: Addiction to Alcohol and Drugs in Urban Environments February 10, 2010. Accessed October
15, 2014. Available from http://www.ifra-nigeria.org/IMG/pdf/Akyeampong_2010.pdf
27
Emmanuel Akyeampong, “‘What is in a drink?: Class struggle, popular culture and the politics of akpeteshie (local gin)
in Ghana, 1930-1967,” Journal of African History 37, no.2 (1996):215-36.
28
T. A. Lambo, “Medical and Social Problems of Drug Addiction in West Africa,” The West African Medical Journal 11, no.
3(1965), 236-54
29
Salifu Abdul-Rahaman, “Akpeteshie laced with wee, police swoop on producer,” Daily Graphic, November 20, 2001.
– 2178 –
30
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Edward Brenya, 14
31
Freeman koryekpor Awulesu, “5000 people abuse drug in Ghana resulting in 70 mad cases,” June 19, 2014, accessed No-
vember 18, 2014. http://www.todaygh.com/2014/11/18/50000-people-abuse-drugs-ghana-resulting-70-mad-cases,
32
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Edward Brenya, “Re-hushing commentaries on the effect and potential benefit of cannabis: lessons
Ghana can learn from USA AND CANADA”, Vol.3 (3):15, ISSN: 2319-8834, (2014):16.Accessed October 9, 2014. Url: file
http://www.gifre.org/admin/papers/gjiss/10-20-RE-HUSHING %20-vol-3-3-gjiss.pdf.
33
Helena Selby, “Marijuana (ntampi) usage in Ghana,” The Chronicle, May 4, 2011, accessed November 18, 2014, http://
thechronicle.com.gh/?p=23371.
34
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi & Edward Brenya, 17
35
Ibid
36
Ibid
37
Drug Abuse worldwide, 2009 (accessed October 14, 2015) Available from http://www.undcp.org/pdf/report.
38
Daniel Ganul, “Religious Factors and the Use of Drugs among seventh day Adventists in Ghana,” vol. 3(5):101, ISSN:
2225-093X, (2013):101. Accessed November 21, 2014. URL: www.iiste.org.
39
Adeyemi. Adebayo, «Ntampi smoking – Ghana is Third!” Ghana web, July 9, 2007. Accessed March 2, 2015. http://www.
todaygh.com/,50000-people-abuse-drugs-ghana-resulting-70-mad-cases.
40
William Dewey, “Drug abuse and addiction, Research Report Series: Cannabis Abuse”, Friends of NIDA, January 3, 2010,
http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDAHome.html .
41
Ibid
42
Ibid
43
44
Ibid
45
Ibid
46
Duncan J. Watt “Premature mortality among males with substance use disorders. Addictive Behavior.” American Journal
of Sociology 115 (2009): 405–50. Accessed February 28, 2015. Doi: 10.1086/599247.
47
Ibid
48
Ibid
49
Ibid
50
Henry, K. L., Smith, E. A., & Caldwell, L. L, Deterioration of academic achievement and marijuana use onset among
rural adolescents, Health Education Research, (Evanston, IL :Northwestern University,2007), 372–384.
51
Room, R., Fischer, B., Hall, W. Lenton, S. and Reuter, P, Cannabis Policy: Moving Beyond Stalemate, (Oxford, UK: Ox-
ford University Press, 2010), 28.
52
Dewey William, “Drug abuse and addiction, Research Report Series: Cannabis Abuse”, Friends of NIDA, January 3, 2010.
Accessed October 30, 2014. Available from http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDAHome.html.
53
“Global facts about substance abuse, “World Health Organization, Last modified November 18, 2014. http://www.who.int/
substance_abuse/facts/global_burden/en/index.htm.
54
Ibid
55
Fergusson, D. M and Horwood, L. J, “Does cannabis use encourage other forms of illicit drug use? Addiction (Armonk,
NY: M.E.Sharpe, 2000) 95.
56
Henry Bernstien, “Ghana’s Drug Economy: Some Preliminary Data on drug abuse”, (San Francisco, ROAPE Publications
Ltd., 1999)18.
57
Y.H Affinih, “A Preliminary Study of Drug Abuse and its Mental Health and Health Consequences among Addicts in
Greater Accra,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 31, no. 4 (1999) 395-403.
58
Edward Smith Thomas, “Reviewing Adolescent Marijuana Abuse” Rev. of Cloudsplitter, by Russel Banks. New York
Times Book Review 13 October, 2005: pg. 17.
59
Ibid
60
Ibid
61
S.L. Brown. & L.N Rineli “Family structure, family processes, and adolescent smoking and drinking”, Journal of Re-
search on Adolescent 20, no.3(2010) : 259–273
62
Sanjung Goupta, “Medical Facts of Marijuana: a Weed Documentary,” A journal on medical fact on marijuana, 73.no 2.
(2008)53-55.
63
Ibid
64
65
Ibid
66
Ibid
67
Adeyemi, Adebayo, «Ntampi smoking – Ghana is Third!” Ghana web, July 9, 2007. Accessed March 2, 2015, http://www.
ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=126884.
68
ibid
69
Richard Appiah, “End of debate: Let marijuana remain illegal.” Today Ghana, March, 24 2014. Accessed February 6, 2015.
http://www.todaygh.com.
70
“Cannabis search”, Cannabis History, Last modified December 5, 2011. Available from http://www.cannabissearch.com/
history.
71
Ibid
72
Ibid
73
Ibid
– 2179 –
74
“A Brief History of Marijuana Use in Ancient Times,” History of marijuana, Last modified March 11, 2009. Available from
http://www.examiner.com/article/a-brief-history-of-marijuana-use-ancient-africa.
75
Ibid
76
Ibid
77
Ibid
78
Ibid
79
K. Zetterstrom, “Bena Riamba, Brothers of the Hemp,” Studia Ethnographica Upsaliensia, 26 (1966): 151-65
80
Ibid
81
Lester Grinspoon, “History of Cannabis as a Medicine,” August 16, 2005.
82
Ibid
83
A Signal of Misunderstanding, the Report of the US National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, 1972. Accessed
April 15, 2015. Available from http://www.erowid.com
84
Ibid
85
Ibid
86
A Signal of Misunderstanding, the Report of the US National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, 1972(accessed
April 15, 2015): available from http://www.erowid.com
87
Ibid
88
“A Brief History of Marijuana Use in Ancient Times,” History of marijuana, Last modified March 11, 2009, http://www.
examiner.com/article/a-brief-history-of-marijuana-use-ancient-africa.
89
Bernard A. Akeia, “The Material Roots of Rastafarian Marijuana Symbolism”, History and Anthropology, (Routledge,
Informa Press Ltd, England 2007)89-99.
90
H. von Wissman, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa (London: Chatto & Windus publication, 1891)312.
91
Ibid
92
Ibid
93
Ibid
94
Ibid
95
Emmanuel Akyeampong: Addiction to Alcohol and Drugs in Urban Environments February 10, 2010. Accessed October
15, 2014. Available from http://www.ifra-nigeria.org/IMG/pdf/Akyeampong_2010.pdf
96
Ibid
97
Ibid
98
Ibid
99
Stephen Addae, “A Short History of the Ghana Armed Forces” (Accra: Graphic Packaging Limited, 2005), 34.
100
Emmanuel Akyeampong, “Addiction to Alcohol and Drugs in Urban Environments”, http://www.ifra-nigeria.org/IMG/
pdf/Akyeampong_2010.pdf.10/02/2010
101
Neil Savishinsky, “Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread of a Jamaican Socio-Religious Movement among the
Youth of West Africa,” African Studies Review, 37: 3 (1994), 19-50
102
Ibid
103
Emmanuel Akyeampong, “Addiction to Alcohol and Drugs in Urban Environments”, http://www.ifra-nigeria.org/IMG/
pdf/Akyeampong_2010.pdf.10/02/2010
104
Daily Graphic, April 19, 1994.
105
Ibid
106
Ghanaian Times, January 16, 1999
107
Information from an informant in Baby Brunei, Block J, April 7, 2015
108
Ibid
109
Ibid
110
Ibid
111
Ibid
112
Ibid
113
Information from an informant in the bush where marijuana is smoked in a bush located behind unity hall canteen, April
7, 2015.
114
Information from an informant in Evandi Hostel, Old block April 7, 2015
115
Information from an informant in the bush where marijuana is smoked in a bush located behind unity hall canteen, April
8, 2015
116
Ibid
117
Ibid
118
Information from an informant in Georgia hostel, fourth floor April 10, 2015
119
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Students’ Guide, Ed. Dean of Students, KNUST, (University
Printing Press, KNUST, Revised and Reprinted June 2013), 45.
120
Ibid.
121
Ibid
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Употребление марихуаны в университете Ганы:

исследование
Самуэль Аду-Гуамфи, Эдвард Бренья

Университет науки и технологии
им. Кваме Нкрума (KNUST)
Гана
В настоящей статье исследуется вопрос употребления марихуаны студентами

университетов Ганы. Для сбора информации среди употребляющих наркотик студентов
были разработаны специальные вопросы для интервью. Особое внимание уделялось
тематическим областям, которыми изобилует существующая литература, касающаяся
употребления марихуаны и последствий ее применения для студентов. Рассматриваются
факторы, которые приводят к использованию наркотика студентами, и то, как
употребление марихуаны влияет на их студенческую деятельность. Выводы, проистекающие
из данного исследования, а также данные исследования должны послужить базой для
администрации университетов и преподавателей, чтобы объединить усилия в области
организации тренингов для коллег и консультационных подразделений в университетах
Африки и Ганы в частности.
Ключевые слова: марихуана, употребление наркотиков, студенты, Университет Ганы.
Научная специальность: 23.00.00 – политология, 07.00.00 – исторические науки.

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Journal of Siberian Federal University.

Humanities & Social Sciences 11 (2015 8) 2162-2182

The Marijuana Factor in a University

Samuel Adu-Gyamfi and Edward Brenya*

Received 25.08.2015, received in revised form 11.09.2015, accepted 24.10.2015

Introduction hand-rolled cigarettes called joints. Marijuana

© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved

a consumption level of at least 100 rolls will Causes and effects

Table 4. 1: Educational levels of peer influence (N=50)

Stage of peer influence. Number of student users Number in percentage.

Table 4. 2: Reasons why student abusers smoke marijuana (N=50)

Reasons for smoking marijuana Number of student users Number in percentage.

Table 4. 2: Effects marijuana on academics (N=50)

Effects on academics Number of student users Number in percentage.

Table 4. 3: Sources of marijuana in the university (N=50)

Sources of marijuana. Number of student users Number in percentage.

Употребление марихуаны в университете Ганы:

Самуэль Аду-Гуамфи, Эдвард Бренья

В настоящей статье исследуется вопрос употребления марихуаны студентами

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