Exercise 7.1.

1
Exercise 4.5.8
1. Not Hausdorff. A subbasis contains 2 if and only if it contains 4. This implies that a
basis contains 2 if and only if it contains 4.
2. Not Hausdorff. Any nN containing 2 must also contain 4.
3. Not Hausdorff. Any 2nN containing 2 must also contain 4.
Exercise 4.5.9
1. Not Hausdorff. A basis contains 0.1 if and only if it contains 0.2.
2. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing 0.2 must also contain 0.1.
3. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing 0.1 must also contain 0.2.
4. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing 1 must also contain 2.
5. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing 2 must also contain 1.
6. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing an must also contain an+1.
Exercise 4.6.3
1. Not Hausdorff. All basis contain 0.
2. Not Hausdorff. Any basis containing 2 must also contain 3.
3. Not Hausdorff. Any nZ containing 2 must also contain 4.
4. Not Hausdorff. Any 2nZ containing 2 must also contain 4.
Exercise 7.1.2
Suppose A ⊂ R contains two distinct a, b. We may assume a < b. Then open subsets of
A that contains a are of the form (c, ∞) ∩ A, with c < a. Such open subsets must also contain
b. Therefore the Hausdorff condition is not satisfied.
Exercise 7.1.3
If the subset A does not contain either 0+ or 0− , then the subset is a subset of R with usual
topology. Therefore the subspace is Hausdorff.
If the subset A contains both 0+ and 0− , then the topological basis containing 0+ is [(−ϵ, 0)∪
{0+ } ∪ (0, ϵ)] ∩ A, and the topological basis containing 0− is [(−ϵ, 0) ∪ {0− } ∪ (0, ϵ)] ∩ A. The
intersection of the two topological bases is [(−ϵ, 0) ∩ (0, ϵ)] ∩ A. Therefore for A to be Hausdorff,
A and (−ϵ, 0) ∩ (0, ϵ) to be disjoint, for some ϵ > 0.
Exercise 7.1.4
The product R × R is Hausdorff (see Exercise 7.1.10). Then any subspace is also Haus-
dorff (see Exercise 7.1.9).
For R × R and R × R , all three subspaces are not Hausdorff.
Exercise 7.1.5
Suppose x ∈ U and y ∈ V for open U, V . Then U = X − F1 and V = X − F2 , with both F1
and F2 finite. If X is infinite, then U ∩ V = X − F1 ∪ F2 ̸= ∅, and the topology is not Hausdorff.
If X is finite, then the finite complement topology is the discrete topology, which is Haus-
dorff.
Exercise 7.1.6
Let X be Hausdorff and x ∈ X. We need to show X − x is open.
 Let y ∈ X − x. Then x ̸= y. By the Hausdorff property, we have x ∈ U and y ∈ V for some
disjoint open subsets U and V . In particular, we have x ̸∈ V , and y ∈ V ⊂ X − x for an open
V . This implies X − x is open.
By Exercise 7.1.5, the finite complement topology on an infinite set is not Hausdorff. How-
ever, any single point is a finite subset, and is therefore closed.
Exercise 7.1.7
By Exercise 7.1.6, any single point in a Hausdorff space must be closed. Therefore, by
taking the union of single point subsets, we know any finite subset is closed. In case the space
is finite, this means any subset is closed, which means the topology is discrete.
Exercise 7.1.8
In the definition of Hausdorff property, we need to find two open subsets with the desired
(set-theoretical) properties. Since the subsets are still open in a finer topology, we conclude
that, if a topology is Hausdorff, the finer one must also be Hausdorff. The converse is not true.
Exercise 7.1.9
Suppose X is Hausdorff, and Y ⊂ X is a subset. For y ̸= y ′ in Y , by considering y and y ′
as distinct points in X, we have y ∈ U and y ′ ∈ V for disjoint open subsets U and V of X.
Then y ∈ U ∩ Y and y ′ ∈ V ∩ Y for disjoint open subsets U ∩ Y and V ∩ Y of Y . This proves
that the subspace Y is Hausdorff.
In the line with two origins, the subspace topologies on the two lines R+ and R− are
Hausdorff, because they are the same as the usual topology on R. However, the union R+ ∪ R−
and the closure of R+ are the whole space, which is not Hausdorff.
Exercise 7.1.10
Suppose X × Y is Hausdorff. If x1 ̸= x2 in X, then (x1 , y) ̸= (x2 , y) in X × Y . By X × Y
Hausdorff, there are disjoint topological bases U1 × V1 and U2 × V2 , such that (x1 , y) ∈ U1 × V1
and (x2 , y) ∈ U2 × V2 . By (U1 ∩ U2 ) × y ⊂ (U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ) = ∅, we get U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Then
x1 ∈ U1 and x2 ∈ U2 for disjoint open subsets U1 and U2 . This proves X is Hausdorff.
Suppose X and Y are Hausdorff. If (x1 , y1 ) ̸= (x2 , y2 ), then either x1 ̸= x2 , or y1 ̸= y2 . If
x1 ̸= x2 , then by X Hausdorff, we have x1 ∈ U1 and x2 ∈ U2 for some disjoint open subsets U1
and U2 . Then (x1 , y1 ) ∈ U1 × Y and (x2 , y2 ) ∈ U2 × Y for disjoint open subsets U1 × Y and
U2 × Y . The argument in case y1 ̸= y2 is similar. This proves X × Y is Hausdorff.
Exercise 7.1.11
For n = 2, the property in the exercise is the Hausdorff property. Suppose the property holds
for n, and x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1 are distinct. By the inductive assumption, we have xi ∈ Ui for disjoint
open subsets U1 , . . . , Un . Moreover, by applying the Hausdorff property to xi ̸= xn+1 , we have
xi ∈ Vi and xn+1 ∈ Wi for some disjoint open subsets Vi and Wi . Then U1 ∩V1 , . . . , Un ∩Vn , W1 ∩
· · · ∩ Wn are disjoint open subsets, and x1 ∈ U1 ∩ V1 , . . . , xn ∈ Un ∩ Vn , xn+1 ∈ W1 ∩ · · · ∩ Wn .
Exercise 7.1.12
Let x, y be distinct points in X. Then there are disjoint open subsets U and V , such that
x ∈ U and y ∈ V . By Exercise 7.1.9, the subspace topology on U is also Hausdorff. If U is
finite, then by Exercise 7.1.7, the subspace topology is discrete. Then the single point {x} is an
open subset of U . Since U is open in X, we know {x} is an open subset of X. In the Hausdorff
space, by Exercise 7.1.6, we also know the single point subset {x} is closed. Therefore X − x
is open. Now we have x ∈ {x} and y ∈ X − x for disjoint open subsets {x} and X − x. Since
X is infinite, the open subset x − x is finite.
We just proved that for distinct x, y, there are disjoint open U, V , such that x ∈ U and
y ∈ V , and one of U, V is infinite. Suppose V is infinite. Then we take distinct x1 , y1 in V .
Apply what we just proved, there are disjoint open subsets U1 , V1 of V , such that x1 ∈ U1
and y1 ∈ V1 , and one of U1 , V1 is infinite. We may assume V1 is infinite and continue. We
get a sequence of points x, x1 , x2 , . . . , and a sequence of disjoint open subsets Ui , such that
x ∈ U, x1 ∈ U1 , x2 ∈ U2 , . . . . This means that, in the infinite subspace A = {x, x1 , x2 , . . . },
each single point xn = Un ∩ A is open. Therefore the subspace topology on A is discrete.
Exercise 7.1.13
The map h(x) = (f (x), g(x)) : X → Y × Y is continuous. By Y Hausdorff and Example
7.1.5, the diagonal ∆(Y ) ⊂ Y × Y is a closed subset. Therefore {x : f (x) = g(x)} = h−1 (∆(Y ))
is a closed subset.
Direct Proof: A = {x : f (x) = g(x)} is closed if and only if X − A = {x : f (x) ̸= g(x)}
is open. For any x ∈ X − A, we have f (x) ̸= g(x). By Y Hausdorff, we have f (x) ∈ U and
g(x) ∈ V for some disjoint open U, V ⊂ Y . Since f and g are continuous, we know f −1 (U )
and g −1 (V ) are open in X. Then x ∈ W = f −1 (U ) ∩ g −1 (V ), and W is an open subset of X.
Moreover, if z ∈ W , then by f (z) ∈ U and g(z) ∈ V , and U, V disjoint, we get f (z) ̸= g(z).
This verifies W ⊂ X − A, and proves X − A is open.
Exercise 7.1.14
The map h(x, y) = (f (x), y) : X × Y → Y × Y is continuous. By Y Hausdorff and Example
7.1.5, the diagonal ∆(Y ) ⊂ Y × Y is a closed subset. Therefore Γf = h−1 (∆(Y )) is a closed
subset.
Exercise 7.1.15
1. By f (σ(y)) = y, we know σ is one-to-one. Therefore the map Y → σ(Y ) is a one-to-one
correspondence. We already know the map is essentially σ and is continuous. By f (σ(y)) = y,
the converse of the map is actually the restriction f |σ(Y ) : σ(Y ) → Y , and is also continuous.
Therefore σ is an embedding.
2. If x ∈ σ(Y ), then x = σ(y) and σ(f (x)) = σ(f (σ(y))) = σ(y) = x. If x ̸= σ(Y ), then by
σ(f (x)) ∈ σ(Y ), we know σ(f (x)) ̸= x. Therefore σ(Y ) = {x : σ(f (x)) = x}. By X Hausdorff
and Exercise 7.1.13 (σ ◦ f and id are f and g in the earlier exercise), we know σ(Y ) is closed.
3. We have A = σ(Y ). For any closed subset C of X, we wish to show σ −1 (C) is closed in
A. We have

σ(σ −1 (C)) = {σ(y) : y ∈ σ −1 (C)} = {σ(y) : σ(y) ∈ C} = σ(Y ) ∩ C = A ∩ C.

Since A is closed, we know A ∩ C is closed. Since f takes closed subsets to closed subsets,
we know f (A ∩ C) is closed. Then by f (σ(y)) = y, we get f (A ∩ C) = f (σ(σ −1 (C))) =
σ −1 (C). Therefore σ −1 (C). This proves σ −1 takes closed subset to closed subset. Therefore σ
is continuous.
Exercise 7.1.16
 1. The continuity of all fi means that the subsets in the collection (we can choose any i)

S = {fi−1 (U ) : U ⊂ Yi is open}.

are open. By taking S to be a topological subbasis, the induced topology T is the coarsest
topology such that all fi are continuous.
2. Suppose fi (x) = fi (x′ ) for all i. Then for any S ∈ S, we have x ∈ S if and only if x′ ∈ S.
By taking intersections, we find that for any topological basis subset B induced from S (i.e.,
B = S1 ∩ · · · ∩ Sn , with Si ∈ S), we have x ∈ B if and only if x′ ∈ B. Therefore x and x′ cannot
belong to disjoint topological basis subsets. Since the Hausdorff property can be detected by
using topological basis only, we see that for T to be Hausdorff, we must have fi (x) = fi (x′ ) for
all i implying x = x′ .
3. Suppose Yi are Hausdorff, and x ̸= x′ implies fi (x) ̸= fi (x′ ) for some i. Then by
Yi Hausdorff, we have fi (x) ∈ U and fi (x′ ) ∈ V for some disjoint open U, V ⊂ Yi . Then
x ∈ fi−1 (U ) and x′ ∈ fi−1 (V ) for disjoint open fi−1 (U ), fi−1 (V ) in S ⊂ T . This proves T is
Hausdorff.
Exercise 7.1.17
1. Regular means that, for any x and closed A, there are open and disjoint V and W , such
that x ∈ V and A ∈ W . Let U = X − A. Then the assumption becomes x ∈ U and U is
open. The conclusion becomes x ∈ V ⊂ X − W ⊂ X − A = U . Here X − W is a closed subset
between V and U . The existence of such a subset is the same as V̄ ⊂ U .
2. In the first statement, let A = X − U . Then x ∈ U becomes x ̸∈ A, U open becomes A
closed, and V̄ ⊂ U becomes V̄ ∩ A = ∅.
Exercise 7.1.18
Let x ̸= y in a Kolmogorov space, there is an open subset U , such that either x ∈ U and
y∈/ U , or x ∈
/ U and y ∈ U .
Suppose x ∈ U and y ∈ / U . Then A = X − U is closed, and x ∈ / A, and y ∈ A. Then in a
regular space, there are disjoint open V, W , such that x ∈ V and y ∈ A ⊂ W . Therefore x, y
are in disjoint open subsets.
For the case x ∈
/ U and y ∈ U , the similar argument shows x, y are in disjoint open subsets.
Exercise 7.1.19
By the definition, both the discrete topology and the trivial topology are regular. Any
topology is coarser than the discrete topology and finer than the trivial topology, and may not
be regular.
Exercise 7.1.20
Suppose X is regular, and Y ⊂ X is a subset. Suppose y ∈/ A in Y , and A is closed in Y .
Then A = Y ∩ B for a closed subset B in X. Then y ∈
/ B. Since X is regular, there are disjoint
open subsets U and V of X, such that y ∈ U and A ⊂ V . Then U ∩ Y and V ∩ Y are disjoint
open subsets of Y , such that y ∈ U ∩ Y and A ⊂ V ∩ Y .
Exercise 7.1.21
 Suppose X × Y is regular. If x ∈
/ A for a closed subset A ⊂ X, then (x, y) ∈
/ A × Y , where
A × Y is a closed subset in X × Y . By X × Y regular, there are disjoint open subsets W and
W ′ in X × Y , such that (x, y) ∈ W and A × Y ⊂ W ′ . Then

U = {u ∈ X : (u, y) ∈ (X × y) ∩ W }, V = {v ∈ X : (v, y) ∈ (X × y) ∩ W ′ }

are disjoint open subsets of X, such that x ∈ U and A ⊂ V .

Suppose X and Y are regular. We use the first statement in Exercise 7.1.17 to verify the
regular property for X × Y . Consider (x, y) ∈ W , for an open subset W ⊂ X × Y . Then
(x, y) ∈ U × V , for open subsets U, V of X, Y . By x ∈ U and X regular, we have open U ′ ⊂ X
satisfying x ∈ U ′ and Ū ′ ⊂ U . By y ∈ V and Y regular, we have open V ′ ⊂ Y satisfying
y ∈ V ′ and V̄ ′ ⊂ V . Then (x, y) ∈ U ′ × V ′ , where U ′ × V ′ is open in X × Y , and satisfies
U ′ × V ′ = Ū ′ × V̄ ′ ⊂ U × V ⊂ W . This shows X × Y is regular.
Exercise 7.2.1
The trivial topology is always connected. The discrete topology is connected if and only if
the set is either empty or has only one element.
Exercise 7.2.2
Exercise 4.5.8
1. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect because any two topological bases
intersect.
2. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect.
3. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect.
Exercise 4.5.9
1. Connected: Coarser than the usual topology, which is connected.
2. Not connected: R = (−∞, 0) ∪ [0, ∞) is a separation.
3. Not connected: R = (−∞, 0) ∪ [0, ∞) is a separation.
4. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect.
5. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect.
6. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect.
Exercise 4.6.3
1. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect because any two topological bases
intersect.
2. Not connected: Z = (−∞, 3] ∪ [4, ∞) is a separation.
3. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect because any two topological bases
intersect.
4. Connected: Any two non-empty open subsets intersect because any two topological bases
intersect.
Exercise 7.2.3
The following topologies on three points are connected:

• ∅, {1, 2, 3}.

• ∅, {1}, {1, 2, 3}.

• ∅, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}.

• ∅, {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}.

• ∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2, 3}.

The permutations among 1, 2, 3 also give connected topologies.

Since {1, 2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {4} is a separation, the topology is not connected. By inter-
secting with subsets, we get the separations for the subspaces {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, and {2, 3, 4}.
Therefore these subspaces are not connected. On the other hand, there is no nontrivial open
and closed subsets in the subspace {1, 2, 3}. Therefore {1, 2, 3} is connected.
Exercise 7.2.4
 If a subset A contains two points. Choose c between the two points, then (A ∩ (−∞, c)) ∪
(A ∩ [c, ∞)) is a separation of A in R . By choosing c to be rational, this is also a separation
of A in the Michael line. Therefore connected subsets are single points in both cases.
For any two points a, b in a subset A, assume a < b. Any open subset of A containing a
must contain A ∩ (c, ∞) for some a > c. Therefore the open subset must also contain b. This
shows that there are no disjoint open subsets in A, so that A is connected.
Exercise 7.2.5
If X has a separation X = A ∪ B, then f (x) = 1 for x ∈ A and f (x) = 2 for x ∈ B is
a continuous map onto two points with discrete topology. Conversely, if f : X → {1, 2} is a
continuous map onto discrete two point space, then X = f −1 (1) ∪ f −1 (2) is a separation of X.
Exercise 7.2.6
A separation in a coarser topology is still a separation in a finer topology. Therefore a
coarser topology is not connected implies a finer topology is not connected. Equivalently, a
finer topology is connected implies a coarser topology is also connected.
Exercise 7.2.7
1. If A ⊂ U and B ⊂ V for some disjoint open U, V ⊂ X, then A = U ∩ (A ∪ B) and
B = V ∩ (A ∪ B). Therefore both A and B are open subsets of A ⊔ B.
2. Since A and B are disjoint open subsets of the subspace A ∪ B, by Exercise 5.3.17, there
are disjoint open U, V ⊂ X, such that A = U ∩ (A ∪ B) and B = V ∩ (A ∪ B). The two
equalities are the same as A ⊂ U and B ⊂ V .
3. The counterexample in the second part of Exercise 5.3.17 also provides a counterexample
for non-metric spaces. Let {1, 2, 3} have the topology {∅, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {3}, {1, 2, 3}}. Then the
open subsets A = {1} and B = {2} form a separation of {1, 2}. However, any two open subsets
of {1, 2, 3} respectively containing A and B must intersect.
Exercise 7.2.8
Let U ̸= ∅ be an open and closed subset of ∪Ai . Then U ∩ Ai is an open and closed subset
of Ai (in the subspace topology), for each i. Since Ai is connected, we have either U ∩ Ai = ∅
or Ai ⊂ U .
Let a be the common point of Ai . By U ̸= ∅, we have Ai0 ⊂ U for some i0 . This implies
a ∈ U . Then U ∩ Ai ̸= ∅ for all i. Then we conclude Ai ⊂ U for all i. This implies ∪Ai ⊂ U ,
and U = ∪Ai .
We just proved that any nonempty open and closed subset of ∪Ai must be the whole union.
This means ∪Ai is connected.
Exercise 7.2.9
1. If X, Y are not empty, then the projections πX : X × Y → X and πY : X × Y → Y are
onto. They are also continuous. Then by the third property of Theorem 7.2.3, if X × Y is
connected, then X = πX (X × Y ) is connected, and Y = πY (X × Y ) is also connected.
2. Suppose X, Y are connected. We know x × Y is homeomorphic to Y , and X × y is
homeomorphic to X. Therefore x × Y and X × y are connected. Since they share a common
point (x, y), by the second property of Theorem 7.2.3, we know Ax,y = x × Y ∪ X × y is
connected.
 We know Ax,y = x × Y ∪ X × y is connected, and ∩Ax,y = X × y ̸= ∅. By the second
property of Theorem 7.2.3, we know X × Y = ∪y∈Y Ax,y is connected.
Exercise 7.2.10
Suppose A is not an interval, we claim that there is x ̸∈ A, such that (−∞, x) ∩ A ̸= ∅ and
(x, ∞) ∩ A ̸= ∅. Once the claim is true, we have a separation A = [(−∞, x) ∩ A] ∪ [(x, ∞) ∩ A].
This means A is not connected.
Assume our claim is not true. Then any x ̸∈ A satisfies (−∞, x)∩A = ∅ and (x, ∞)∩A = ∅.
Let X and Y be the sets of x respectively satisfying the first and the second properties. Then
R − A = X ∪ Y , where any x ∈ X. X clearly has the property that x′ < x ∈ X implies x′ ∈ X.
This implies that if a = sup X (the supremum of all numbers in X), then X = (−∞, a⟩, where
⟩ could be either an open bracket ) or a closed bracket ]. By the similar reason, we have
Y = ⟨b, ∞). Thus A = R − X ∪ Y = ⟨a, b⟩ is an interval.
Exercise 7.2.11
Since f is continuous and X is connected, we know f (X) is connected. Since f (X) is a subset
of R with the usual topology, by Exercise 7.2.10, f (X) is an interval. Then f (x0 ) ≤ c ≤ f (x1 )
and f (x0 ), f (x1 ) ∈ f (X) imply c ∈ f (X). This means f (x) = c for some x ∈ X.
Suppose f : (a, b) → (c, d) is continuous and invertible. To show f is a homeomorphism,
we need to show that, if U ⊂ (a, b) is open, then f (U ) is also open. This means that, for any
x ∈ U , there is (λ, µ) satisfying f (x) ∈ (λ, µ) ⊂ f (U ).
By U open, there are x0 < x < x1 , such that [x0 , x1 ] ⊂ U . By f invertible, we have
f (x0 ) ̸= f (x) ̸= f (x1 ). If f (x) > f (x0 ), f (x1 ), then there is c satisfying f (x) > c > f (x0 ), f (x1 ).
Then there are x′0 ∈ [x0 , x] and x′1 ∈ [x, x1 ] satisfying f (x′0 ) = c = f (x′1 ). On the other hand,
by x′0 ≤ x ≤ x′1 and f (x′0 ) ̸= f (x) ̸= f (x′1 ), we get x′0 ̸= x′1 . We get a contradiction to f
invertible. By the same reason, we cannot have f (x) < f (x0 ), f (x1 ). Therefore f (x0 ) < f (x) <
f (x1 ) or f (x0 ) > f (x) > f (x1 ). In case f (x0 ) < f (x) < f (x1 ), we know f ([x0 , x1 ]) contains
[f (x0 ), f (x1 )]. Therefore f (x) ∈ (f (x0 ), f (x1 )) ⊂ f ([x0 , x1 ]) ⊂ f (U ). In case f (x0 ) > f (x) >
f (x1 ), we similarly get f (x) ∈ (f (x1 ), f (x0 )) ⊂ f (U ).
Exercise 7.2.12
Consider the continuous function g(x) = f (x) − x defined on the interval [0, 1]. By 0 ≤
f (x) ≤ 1 for any 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, we get g(0) = f (0) − 0 ≥ 0 and g(1) = f (1) − 1 ≤ 0. Since
[0, 1] is connected, the continuous image g[0, 1] is also connected and must be an interval. In
particular, any value between g(0) and g(1) can be reached. By g(1) ≤ 0 ≤ g(0), we conclude
that g(x) = 0 for some x. Then x is a fixed point of f .
Exercise 7.2.13
The function g(x) = f (x) − f (−x) : S 1 → R satisfies g(−x) = −g(x). Therefore g(x) takes
positive as well as negative values. Since S 1 is connected, the image g(S 1 ) is a connected subset
of R that contains positive and negative numbers. Therefore the image must contain 0. In other
words, we have g(x) = 0 for some x ∈ S 1 . This means f (x) = f (−x).
Exercise 7.2.14
The map from the line with two origins to the usual R is continuous. If a subset A in the
line with two origins is connected, then its image in the usual R is connected, and is therefore
an interval I. If 0 ̸∈ A, then A does not have 0+ , 0− , and is basically the same as I. Therefore
A is connected.
If 0 ∈ I, then A has 0+ or 0− . Let I+ be the subset of the line with two origins, obtained
by changing 0 ∈ I to 0+ . Let I− be the similar subset. Then both I+ , I− are homeomorphic to
I, and are connected. We have the following cases:
1. 0+ ∈ A and 0− ̸∈ A: In this case, A = I+ is connected.
2. 0+ ̸∈ A and 0− ∈ A: In this case, A = I− is connected.
3. 0+ ∈ A and 0− ∈ A: In this case, A = I+ ∪ I− , and I+ ∩ I− = I − 0.
• If I ̸= {0}, then I+ ∩ I− ̸= ∅, and A is connected.
• If I = {0}, then A = {0+ , 0− }, which is not connected.
We conclude A is connected if and only if it is an interval, and allows both 0+ , 0− , with the
only exception of A = {0+ , 0− }.
Exercise 7.2.15
If f : R → R is continuous, then by R connected, the image of f is a connected subset
of R . By Exercise 7.2.4, the image has to be a single point. In other words, f is constant.
Exercise 7.2.17
The determinant map det : O(n, R) → {1, −1} is continuous and onto. The image {1, −1}
has discrete topology and is not connected. Therefore O(n, R) is not connected.
Exercise 7.2.18
Let A ⊂ X × Y be connected. Then its image πX (A) in X is connected. Since the only
connected subsets in X are single points, we get πX (A) = x. This means A ⊂ x × Y . In other
words, A = x × B for some B ⊂ Y . The topology of x × Y is the same as the topology on Y .
Therefore A is connected as subset of x × Y means B is connected as subset of Y .
Exercise 7.2.19
Fix a ∈ X. Then for any x ∈ X, the subset Ax = {a, x} is connected. By the second
property in Theorem 7.2.3, X = ∪x∈X Ax is connected.
The same argument can be applied to four points, as long as X contains at least four points.
Exercise 7.2.20
Suppose we already know A1 ∪· · ·∪Ak is connected. By (A1 ∪· · ·∪Ak )∩Ak+1 ⊃ Ak ∩Ak+1 ̸= ∅,
by the second property of Theorem 7.2.3, we see that Bk+1 = A1 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak ∪ Ak+1 is also
connected.
Therefore by induction, we proved all Bk = A1 ∪· · ·∪Ak are connected. Since the intersection
of all Bk is B1 = A1 , which is not empty, by the second property of Theorem 7.2.3 again, the
union ∪Bk = ∪Ak is connected.
Exercise 7.2.21
For each fixed i, by A ∩ Ai ̸= ∅, and the second property of Theorem 7.2.3, we know A ∪ Ai
is connected. Then by ∩i (A ∪ Ai ) ⊃ A ̸= ∅ and the second property of Theorem 7.2.3 again,
we know that ∪i (A ∪ Ai ) = A ∪ (∪Ai ) is connected.
Exercise 7.2.22
Let U ⊂ Y ∪ A be an open and closed subset in Y ∪ A. Then U ∩ Y is an open and closed
subset of Y . By Y connected, we get either U ∩ Y = ∅ or U ∩ Y = Y .
If U ∩ Y = ∅, then U ⊂ A. Since A ∪ B is a separation of X − Y , A is an open and closed
subset of X − Y . By applying Exercise 5.3.12 to X, Y, A (in place of X, Y, Z), for both the
closed and open cases, we conclude that the subset U ⊂ A that is assumed to be open and
closed in Y ∪ A is also open and closed in X. Since X is connected and U is not the whole
space, we conclude that U = ∅.
If U ∩ Y = Y , then the argument can be repeated again with Y ∪ A − U in place of U . The
conclusion is that Y ∪ A − U = ∅, which is the same as U = Y ∪ A.
We conclude that the only open and closed subset of Y ∪ A are ∅ and Y ∪ A itself.
Exercise 7.3.1
The trivial topology is path connected because any map γ : [0, 1] → Xtrival is continuous.
Moreover, for any two points x and y, it is easy to construct a map satisfying γ(0) = x and
γ(1) = y.
If the set contains at least two points, then the discrete topology is not path connected
because it is not even connected: Any expression X = A ∪ B with A and B nonempty and
disjoint is a separation for the discrete topology.
Exercise 7.3.2
If a topology is path connected, then a coarser topology is also path connected, and a finer
topology may not be path connected.
Exercise 7.3.3
The first statement is no longer true. In Example 7.3.6, we have a path connected subset
A and a subset B, such that A ⊂ B ⊂ Ā, but B is not path connected.
The second statement is still true. Let a be a common point of all Ai . Let x ∈ ∪Ai . Then
x ∈ Ai0 for some index i0 . Since a, x ∈ Ai0 , and Ai0 is path connected, there is a path in Ai0
connecting a to x. The path is also a path in ∪Ai . Therefore any point in ∪Ai can be connected
to a by a path in ∪Ai . Then by Exercise 7.3.4, ∪Ai is path connected.
The third and the fourth statements are still true. The reason is trivial.
Exercise 7.3.4
For any two points y, z ∈ X, we have a path α joining x0 to y and another path β joining
x0 to z. By connecting the pathes α and β together, we get a path connecting y to z.
Exercise 7.3.5
1
1. Path connected: For (x, y) ∈ {(x, y) : x4 + y 4 = 1}, let γ(t) = (±(1 − t4 ) 4 , t), where
the sign is the same as the sign of x, and t between 1 and y. The γ(t) is a path in the subset
connecting (x, y) to (0, 1). By Exercise 7.3.4, the subset is path connected.
2. Not connected: Since x can be positive and negative but not 0, we have separation
{(x, y) : x4 − y 4 = 1} = {(x, y) : x4 − y 4 = 1, x > 0} ∪ {(x, y) : x4 − y 4 = 1, x < 0}.
3. Path connected: For (x, y, z) ∈ {(x, y, z) : x3 + y 3 = z 2 }, γ(t) = (t2 x, t2 y, t3 z) is a path
in the subset connecting (x, y, z) to (0, 0, 0). By Exercise 7.3.4, the subset is path connected.
4. Path connected: Use the path constructed in (1).
5. Path connected: Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ {(x, y, z) : x3 + y 3 = z 2 , x + y > 0}. Then
γ1 (t) = (x(t), y(t)) = (1 − t)(x1 , y1 ) + t(x2 , y2 ) = ((1 − t)x1 + tx2 , (1 − t)y1 + ty2 ) is a path
connecting (x1 , y1 ) to (x2 , y2 ) and still satisfies x(t) + y(t) = (1 − t)(x1 + x2 ) + t(y1 + y2 ) > 0.
The path can be easily extended to a path p in the subset connecting (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 )
by introducing the third coordinate z(t) = x3 (t) + y 3 (t).
6. Not connected: By xyz = 1, the coordinates cannot be zero. Then we get a separation
{(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4, xyz = 1} = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4, xyz = 1, x > 0} ∪
{(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4, xyz = 1, x < 0}.
7. Path connected: For v = (x, y, z, w) ∈ {(x, y, z, w) : x2 +y 2 +z 2 −w2 = 1}, let x2 +y 2 +z 2 =
2
r , with r > 0. In the 2-sphere of radius r, there is a path α connecting (x, y, z) to (0, 0, r).
Then (α, w) is a path in the subset connecting v to (0, 0, r, w). Then the hyperbola r2 − w2 = 1
gives a path β connecting (r, w) to (1, 0). Then (0, 0, β) is a path in the subset connecting
(0, 0, r, w) to (0, 0, 1, 0). Combining (α, w) and (0, 0, β) together, we get a path connecting v to
(0, 0, 1, 0).
8. Path connected: For v = (x, y, z, w) ∈ {(x, y, z, w) : x2 +y 2 −z 2 −w2 = 1}, let x2 +y 2 = r2 ,
z 2 + w2 = s2 , where r > 0 and s ≥ 0. In the circles of radii r and s, there are paths α and β
connecting (x, y) and (z, w) to (0, r) and (s, 0) respectively. Then (α, β) is a path in the subset
connecting v to (0, r, s, 0). Then the hyperbola r2 − s2 = 1 gives a path γ connecting (r, s)
to (1, 0). Then (0, γ, 0) is a path in the subset connecting (0, r, s, 0) to (0, 1, 0, 0). Combining
(α, β) and (0, γ, 0) together, we get a path connecting v to (0, 1, 0, 0).
9. Not connected: Since x can be positive and negative, but cannot be 0, we get a sep-
aration {(x, y, z, w) : x2 − y 2 − z 2 − w2 = 1} = {(x, y, z, w) : x2 − y 2 − z 2 − w2 = 1, x >
0} ∪ {(x, y, z, w) : x2 − y 2 − z 2 − w2 = 1, x < 0}.
10. Path connected: For x20 ≤ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n and 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, we have (tx0 )2 ≤
t + (tx1 )2 + · · · + (txn )2 ≤ 1 + (tx1 )2 + · · · + (txn )2 . Therefore for any v ∈ {(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≤
2

1 + x21 + · · · + x2n }, γ(t) = tv is a path in the subset connecting v to (0, 0, . . . , 0).

11. Not connected: Since x20 ≥ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n implies x20 ≥ 1, we have a separation
{(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≥ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n } = {(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≥ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n , x0 >
0} ∪ {(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≥ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n√
, x0 < 0}. √
12. Not connected: Q × R = (Q ∩ (−∞, 2)) × R ∪ (Q ∩ ( 2, ∞)) × R is a separation.
13. Connected: First, since R is connected and x × R, R × y share common point (x, y),
we know x × R ∪ R × y is connected for any x and y. Then for each fixed x, x × R ∪ R × Q =
∪y∈Q (x × R ∪ R × y) is connected because the connected subsets share common point (x, 0).
Finally, Q × R ∪ R × Q = ∪x∈Q (x × R ∪ R × Q) is connected because the connected subsets
share common point (0, 0).
14. Connected: We have R2 − Q2 = (R − Q) × R ∪ R × (R − Q). By taking R − Q as Q in
(13), the same argument shows that R2 − Q2 is connected. The general n dimensional case is
similar.
15. Path connected.
16. Connected but not path connected: By (15) and the first property in Proposition 7.2.3.
And there is no path between the point (0, 0) in the closure and points on the curve.
17. Path connected.
18. Connected but not path connected: By the same reason as (16).
19. Path connected: Same argument as in Example 7.3.8.
20. Not connected: O(n, R) = {orthogonal M : det M = 1} ∪ {orthogonal M : det M =
−1} is a separation.
21. Path connected: Just take the part of the argument in Example 7.3.8 for the orthogonal
matrix.
Exercise 7.3.6
Let x and y be two points in R2 − A. Consider all straight lines passing through x. There
are uncountably many of them. Therefore there is at least one such line L1 that avoids all
points in A, i.e., L1 ⊂ R2 − A.
Once L1 is found, consider all straight lines passing through y. By similar consideration,
there is a straight line L2 among these, such that L2 avoids all points in A, and L2 is not parallel
to L1 . Then L1 and L2 are two straight lines in R2 − A that intersect somewhere. From this
we find a path (consisting of two line segments) in R2 − A joining x to y. This implies that
R2 − A is path connected, and is therefore connected.
Exercise 7.3.7
The connectivities of X − {1 point} and X − {2 points} are topological properties.
For any n ≥ 2, Rn − {1 point} and Rn − {2 points} are always path connected, and are
therefore connected.
R − {1 point} is not connected.
S 1 has the property that S 1 − {1 point} is connected and S 1 − {2 points} is not connected.
Exercise 7.3.8 Which topologies in Exercises 4.5.8, 4.5.9, 4.6.3 are path connected?
Exercise 4.5.8
1. Path connected: For any n ∈ N, n ̸= 1, let γ(0) = 1 and γ(0, 1] = n. Then we get
(
(0, 1], if n ∈ pN
γ −1 (pN) = .
∅, if n ∈
/ pN

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 1 to n.

2. Path connected: For any n ∈ N, n ̸= 1, let γ(0) = 1 and γ(0, 1] = n. Then we get

[0, 1], if m = 1

−1
γ (mN) = (0, 1], if n ∈ mN, m ̸= 1 .

∅, if n ∈
/ mN


This shows γ is continuous path connecting 1 to n.

3. Path connected: For any n ∈ N, n ̸= 1, let γ(0) = 1 and γ(0, 1] = n. Then we get
(
(0, 1], if n ∈ 2m N
γ −1 (2m N) = .
∅, / 2m N
if n ∈

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 1 to n.

Exercise 4.5.9
1. Connected: Coarser than the usual topology, which is path connected.
2. Not connected: Not path connected by Exercise 7.2.2.
3. Not connected: Not path connected by Exercise 7.2.2.
4. Path connected: For any x ̸= 0, let γ(0) = 0 and γ(0, 1] = x. Then we get
(
(0, 1], if |x| > a
γ −1 ((−∞, −a) ∪ (a, ∞)) = .
∅, if |x| ≤ a

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 0 to x.

5. Path connected: For any x ̸= 0, let γ[0, 1) = 0 and γ(1) = x. Then we get
(
[0, 1], if − a < x < 2a
γ −1 (−a, 2a) = .
[0, 1), if x ≤ −a or x ≥ 2a
This shows γ is continuous path connecting 0 to x.
6. Path connected: For any x > y, let γ[0, 1) = x and γ(1) = y. Then we get

[0, 1], if y > a

−1
γ (an , ∞) = [0, 1), if x > a ≥ y .

∅, if x ≤ a


This shows γ is continuous path connecting x to y.

Exercise 4.6.3
1. Path connected: For any n ̸= 0, let γ[0, 1) = 0 and γ(1) = n. Then we get
(
[0, 1], if |n| ≤ m
γ −1 [−m, m] = .
[0, 1), if |n| > m

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 0 to n.

2. Not connected: Not path connected by Exercise 7.2.2.
3. Path connected: For any n ̸= 0, let γ[0, 1) = 0 and γ(1) = n. Then we get
(
[0, 1], if n ∈ mZ
γ −1 (mZ) = .
[0, 1), if n ∈
/ mZ

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 0 to n.

4. Path connected: For any n ̸= 0, let γ[0, 1) = 0 and γ(1) = n. Then we get
(
[0, 1], if n ∈ 2m Z
γ −1 (2m Z) = .
/ 2m Z
[0, 1), if n ∈

This shows γ is continuous path connecting 0 to n.

Exercise 7.3.9
If the subsets are connected or path connected, then their projections to the two components
are connected or path connected. By Exercise 7.2.4, the only connected subsets in R are single
points. The images contain more than one point. Therefore all three are not connected, and
not path connected.
Exercise 7.3.10
For any two points a, b in the subset, let a < b. Then γ(t) = b for t ∈ [0, 1) and γ(1) = a
gives a continuous path connecting the two points.
Exercise 7.3.11
The straight line in Example 7.3.5 is

γ(s) = (1 − s)f + sg : [0, 1] → C[0, 1].

The inequality
Z 1
d1 (γ(s1 ), γ(s2 )) = |[(1 − s1 )f (t) + s1 g(t)] − [(1 − s2 )f (t) + s2 g(t)]|dt
0
Z 1
= |(s1 − s2 )(f (t) − g(t))|dt
0
= |s1 − s2 |d1 (f, g)

implies that, for any fixed f and g, γ is a continuous map into the L1 -topology. This shows
that C[0, 1]L1 is path connected.
For pointwise convergence topology, we have

γ −1 (B(a, t, ϵ)) = {s : |(1 − s)f (t) + sg(t) − a| = |A + Bs| < ϵ}.

Here a, t, ϵ are fixed, and A = f (t) − a, B = g(t) − f (t) are fixed. Then it is easy to see that
γ −1 (B(a, t, ϵ)) is an open interval. This shows that γ is a continuous map into the pointwise
convergence topology, and C[0, 1] is path connected in the pointwise convergence topology.
By the third property in Theorem 7.2.3, we know C[0, 1]pt conv × C[0, 1]pt conv is connected.
By Exercise 5.4.4, we know {(f, g) : f (0) ≥ g(0)} is a non-empty closed subset of C[0, 1]pt conv ×
C[0, 1]pt conv . If it is also an open subset, then by C[0, 1]pt conv × C[0, 1]pt conv connected,
we get {(f, g) : f (0) ≥ g(0)} = C[0, 1] × C[0, 1]. Since this is clearly wrong, we conclude
{(f, g) : f (0) ≥ g(0)} cannot be open.
Exercise 7.3.12
1. Path connected: The straight line construction works here. If f and g satisfy f (0) > f (1)
and g(0) > g(1), then for any 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, we get (1 − s)f (0) + sg(0) > (1 − s)f (1) + sg(1).
2. Not connected: The subsets {f : f (0) > f (1)} and {f : f (0) < f (1)} are non-empty and
open subsets that form a separation of {f : f (0) ̸= f (1)}.
3. Not connected: The subsets {f : f (0) > |f (1)|} and {f : f (0) < −|f (1)|} are non-empty
and open subsets that form a separation of {f : |f (0)| > |f (1)|}.
4. Path connected: The straight line construction connects any f satisfying |f (0)| ≥ |f (1)|
to the constant 0 function.
Exercise 7.3.14
1. Let U be an open subset of Rn . Then any x ∈ U has a ball B(x, ϵ) ⊂ X. The ball B(x, ϵ)
is path connected because it is convex.
2. Let V be the set of y ∈ X, such that there is a continuous path γ joining x to y. Then for
any y ∈ V , by X locally path connected, there is a path connected open subset U containing
y. Then for any z ∈ U , there is a path γ ′ in U joining y to z. Combining γ and γ ′ together, we
get a path joining x to z. This proves U ⊂ V . Therefore V is open.
For any z ∈ V̄ , by X is locally path connected, there is a path connected open subset U
containing z. By Lemma 4.6.2, there is a point y ∈ V ∩ U . By the definition of V , there is a
path γ joining x to y. By U path connected, there is a path γ ′ joining z to y. Combining γ
and γ ′ together, we get a path joining x to z. Therefore z ∈ V . This proves V is closed.
 3. The subset V in (2) is open and closed. If X is connected, then we get V = X. This
means that X is path connected.
Exercise 7.3.15
1. For any y ∈ U , y ̸= x, define γ(t) = y for 0 ≤ t < 1, and γ(1) = x. Then for any open
subset V of X, we have

x ∈ V =⇒ U ⊂ V =⇒ γ −1 (V ) = [0, 1],
/ V, y ∈ V =⇒ γ −1 (V ) = [0, 1),
x∈
/ V =⇒ γ −1 (V ) = ∅,
x, y ∈

In all cases, we get γ −1 (V ) open in [0, 1]. Therefore γ is a continuous path in U connecting x
and y.
2. The number of open subsets in a finite topological space X is finite. For any x ∈ X,
by taking the intersection of all open subsets containing x, we get the smallest open subset U
containing x. By (1), this U is path connected.
Exercise 7.4.1
R is connected and path connected with respect to the usual topological basis B1 . The whole
space has one connected and path connected component. The claim holds for any topology
coarser than the usual topology. Therefore the whole space is one connected and path connected
component with respect to B5 , B6 , B7 , B9 .
Suppose A ⊂ R contains at least two points a and b. We may assume a < b. Then
A = (A ∩ (−∞, b)) ∪ (A ∩ [b, ∞)) is a separation of A with respect to B2 , with a ∈ A ∩ (−∞, b)
and b ∈ A ∩ [b, ∞). Therefore A is not connected. In other words, connected components with
respect to B2 are single points. The claim also holds for any topology coarser or homeomorphic
to B2 . Then the connected (and path connected) components with respect to B3 , B4 , B10 are
also single points .
By the similar argument (separating A by using a rational number between a and b), the
connected (and path connected) components with respect to B8 and the Michael line are single
points.
The image of any continuous map from a connected space to R is connected, and is there-
fore contained in a connected component. Since the connected components in the lower limit
topology and the Michael line are single points, such continuous maps must be constants.
Exercise 7.4.2 Find connected components of the spaces in Exercises 4.5.8, 4.5.9, 4.6.3, 7.3.5,
7.3.12.
By Exercise 7.2.2, we know the space is connected in many cases. then the whole space is
the only connected component.
The following are the remaining non-connected cases:
Exercise 4.5.9
2. The connected components are [n, n + 1).
3. The connected components are [n, n + 1).
Exercise 4.6.3
2. We find pairs satisyfing 2m − 3n = 1. The solutions are

m = 3k + 2, n = 2k + 1, 2m = 6k + 4, 3n = 6k + 3.

Then we form the smallest interval [6k1 + 4, 6k2 + 3] = [6k − 2, 6k + 3]. These are connected
components.
Exercise 7.3.5
2. {(x, y) : x4 − y 4 = 1, x > 0} and {(x, y) : x4 − y 4 = 1, x < 0} are connected components.
6. There are four connected components {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4, xyz = 1, ±x > 0, ±y >
0}, by four possible combinations of signs for x, y.
9. {(x, y, z, w) : x2 −y 2 −z 2 −w2 = 1, x > 0} and {(x, y, z, w) : x2 −y 2 −z 2 −w2 = 1, x < 0}
are connected components.
11. {(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≥ 1 + x21 + · · · + x2n , x0 > 0} and {(x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) : x20 ≥ 1 + x21 +
· · · + x2n , x0 < 0} are connected components.
12. r × R, r ∈ Q, are connected components.
 20. {orthogonal M : det M = 1} and {orthogonal M : det M = −1} are connected compo-
nents.
Exercise 7.3.12
2. {f : f (0) > f (1)} and {f : f (0) < f (1)} are connected components.
3. {f : f (0) > |f (1)|} and {f : f (0) < −|f (1)|} are connected components.
Exercise 7.4.3

T , Oa , P , Oc are not connected. The remaining Ob , L, G, Y are connected. Therefore any

one from the first four is not homeomorphic to any one from the second four.
Among the second four, Ob and L are homeomorphic, G and Y are homeomorphic (both
are homeomorphic to [0, 1]). It remains to show Ob and G are not homeomorphic. Since Ob − x
is connected for any x ∈ Ob , while G − x is not connected for all but two x ∈ G, we conclude
that Ob and G cannot be homeomorphic.
Among the first four, P and Oc are homeomorphic. It remains to show T , Oa , Oc are not
homeomorphic to each other. Let #n (X) be the number of points x ∈ X such that X − x has
n components. Then

#2 (T ) = 4, #2 (Oa ) = ∞, #2 (Oc ) = ∞, #3 (T ) = ∞, #3 (Oa ) = 0, #3 (Oc ) = ∞,

implies that T , Oa , Oc are not homeomorphic to each other.

We conclude the following classification

T // Oa // P, Oc // Ob , L // G, Y.

Exercise 7.4.5
Let X1 , . . . , Xk , be connected components of X. Then by Proposition 7.4.1, all Xi are closed,
and X = X1 ⊔· · ·⊔Xk . Then the finite union X2 ⊔· · ·⊔Xk is closed, and X1 = X −X2 ⊔· · ·⊔Xk
is open.
Open and closed subsets in such space are unions of connected components.
Exercise 7.4.7
Any path connected component is connected. Because connected components are maximal
connected subsets, any connected subset is contained in a connected component.
Exercise 7.4.8
1. Let A be a connected component. For any x ∈ A, by the locally connected assumption,
there is a connected neighborhood N of x. Since A is the biggest connected subset containing
x, we conclude that N ⊂ A. This shows that A is open.
2. For any open subset U containing x, the assumption tells us that the connected compo-
nent V of U that contains x is also open. Since V is also an open subset of X, this shows the
space is locally connected.
 3. Let V be a connected component of an open subset U of Y . By the second part, it
suffices to prove that V is open. In other words, f −1 (V ) is open in X.
Let f (x) ∈ V . Then f (x) ∈ U . Since U is open in Y , f −1 (U ) is open in X. Since X is locally
connected, f −1 (U ) contains a connected neighborhood N of x. The image f (N ) is a connected
subset of U that contains f (x). Since V is a connected component of U that contains f (x), we
get f (N ) ⊂ V . Therefore the neighborhood N of x is contained in f −1 (V ). This proves that
f −1 (V ) is open in X.
Exercise 7.4.9
By Exercise 7.4.8, it suffices to prove that any connected component is also path connected.
By Exercise 7.3.14, it further suffices to prove that the connected component is locally path
connected.
Let A be a connected component. For x ∈ A, an open subset of A containing x is U ∩ A,
where U is an open subset of X. By local path connected assumption, there is a path connected
open subset V of X satisfying x ∈ V ⊂ U . Since the subset V is also connected, and A is a
connected component, we have V ⊂ A. Therefore V is also an open subset of A, and we just
verified that A is locally path connected.
Exercise 7.5.1 √ 1
n np
The condition for the Euclidean metric is ϵ > 2
. The condition for the Lp -metric is ϵ > 2
.
Exercise 7.5.2
The first, the second, and the fifth collections are open covers. The third is not a cover
because the integers are not covered. The fourth and the sixth contain subsets that are not
open in the lower limit topology.
Exercise 7.5.3
1. Open cover in L∞ - and pointwise convergence topologies. Not open in L1 -topology.
2. Open cover in L∞ - and pointwise convergence topologies. Not open in L1 -topology.
3. Not cover.
4. Open cover in L∞ - and pointwise convergence topologies. Not open in L1 -topology.
5. Open cover in L∞ - and pointwise convergence topologies. Not open in L1 -topology.
6. Open cover in L∞ -topology. Not open in L1 - and pointwise convergence topologies.
7. Open cover in L1 - and L∞ -topologies. Not open in pointwise convergence topology.
Exercise 7.5.4
The first type compactness means

A ⊂ ∪i Ui for open Ui ⊂ X =⇒ A ⊂ Ui1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uin .

The left side is the same as A ⊂ ∪i (Ui ∩ A) for open Ui ∩ A ⊂ A. The right side is the same as
A ⊂ (Ui1 ∩ A) ∪ · · · ∪ (Uin ∩ A). Denote Vi = Ui ∩ A. Then the implication is equivalent to

A ⊂ ∪i Vi for open Vi ⊂ A =⇒ A ⊂ Vi1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vin .

This is the second type compactness.

Exercise 7.5.5
Since an open cover in a coarser topology is also an open cover in the finer topology, that
compactness of finer topology implies compactness of coarser topology. The converse is not
true, because the discrete topology (the finest topology) on an infinite set is not compact.
Exercise 7.5.6
The subset { n1 : n ∈ N} is not compact with respect to the basis {(a, +∞)} because the
open cover {( n1 , +∞)} has no finite subcover. Since the usual topology, the lower limit topology,
and the upper limit topology are finer, the subset is also not compact with respect to these
topologies. Finally, the subset is compact with respect to the basis {(−∞, a)} because for any
open cover U, the open subset in U that contains 1 already covers the subset.
The subset { n1 : n ∈ N}∪{0} is compact with respect to the lower limit topology. The reason
is that, for any open cover U, we have 0 ∈ U for some U ∈ U. This implies [0, N1 ) ⊂ U for some
N . We further get open subsets U1 , U2 , . . . , UN ∈ U, such that n1 ∈ Un for any 1 ≤ n ≤ N .
Then {U, U1 , U2 , . . . , UN } is a finite subcover.
Since the usual topology, {(a, +∞)}, and {(−∞, a)} are coarser than the lower limit topol-
ogy, the subset { n1 : n ∈ N} ∪ {0} is also compact with respect to these topologies. Finally, the
subset is not compact in the upper limit topology because the open cover {(1/(n + 1), n1 ]} ∪
{(−1, 0]} has no finite subcover.
The subset Z is not compact with respect to {(a, +∞)} because the open cover {(a, +∞)}
has no finite subcover. The subset is not compact with respect to {(−∞, a)} by the similar
reason. Then the subset is not compact with respect to the finer topologies, including the usual
topology, the lower limit topology, and the upper limit toplogy.
By Example 7.5.9, all subsets are compact with respect to the finite complement topology.
Exercise 7.5.7
1. Suppose the refinement V of U has a finite subcover {V1 , V2 , . . . , Vn }. By the definition
of refinement, any Vi ⊂ Ui for some Ui ∈ U. Then {U1 , U2 , . . . , Un } is a finite collection in U
that still covers X.
2. Let B be a topological basis of X. Let U be an open cover of X. For any x ∈ X, we have
x ∈ Ux for some Ux ∈ U. Since Ux is open, we have x ∈ Bx ⊂ Ux for some Bx ∈ B. Then the
collection V = {Bx : x ∈ X} is an open cover of X, consisting of some subsets in a topological
basis B. Moreover, by the construction, V is a refinement of U.
3. The claim is a combination of the first two parts.
Exercise 7.5.8
Exercise 4.5.8
1, 2, 3. Compact: The only open subset containing 1 is N. Therefore any open cover must
contain the whole space as one open subset.
Exercise 4.5.9
1. Not Compact: The open cover {(−n, n)} has no finite subcover.
2, 3. Not Compact: The open cover {[−n, n)} has no finite subcover.
4. Compact: The only open subset containing 0 is R.
5. Not compact: The open cover {(−n, 2n)} has no finite subcover.
6. Compact: If x < an , then the only open subset containing x is R.
Exercise 4.6.3
1. Not Compact: The open cover {[−n, n]} has no finite subcover.
2. Not Compact: The open cover {[−6n, 6n]} has no finite subcover.
3, 4. Compact: The only open subset containing 1 is Z.
Exercise 7.3.5
2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. Not Compact: Not bounded.
1. Compact: Closed because the subset is f −1 (1) for the continuous map f (x, y) = x4 +
y : R2 → R. Bounded because |x| < 1, |y| < 1.
4

4. Compact: Closed because the subset is f −1 (0 × [0, 1]) for the continuous map f (x, √
y, z) =
(x + y 3 − z 2 , x4 + y 4 ) : R2 → R. Bounded because |x| < 1, |y| < 1, which implies |z| < 2.
3

6, 10. Compact: Closed and bounded.

  
a

 a−1 

19. Not Compact: For n > 1, SL(n, R) contains 
 1 . Therefore not


 ... 
1
bounded.
20, 21. Compact: Closed because M → M T M and det are continuous maps. Bounded
because the column vectors have length 1.
Exercise 7.5.9
The open cover {(−n, ∞)} of a compact subset has finite subcover. Therefore a compact
/ A, then the open cover {(inf A + n1 , ∞)}
subset A is bounded below, i.e., inf A exists. If inf A ∈
has no finite subcover. Therefore we also need inf A ∈ A for A to be compact.
Conversely, suppose A is bounded below and inf A ∈ A. For any open cover U of A, we have
inf ∈ U ∈ U. Then U = (c, ∞) for some c < inf A. Therefore the single open subset U ∈ U
already covers A.
Exercise 7.5.10
If U is an open cover of [0, 1], then 0 ∈ U for some U ∈ U. Since U is open, we get [0, ϵ] ⊂ U
for some ϵ > 0. Therefore the subset

A = {x ∈ [0, 1] : [0, x] is covered by finitely many open subsets in U}

is not empty.
By A ⊂ [0, 1], we have a = sup A ∈ [0, 1]. Therefore a ∈ U for some U ∈ U. Since U is
open, we get (a − ϵ, a + ϵ) ⊂ U for some ϵ > 0. On the other hand, by a = sup A, there is
x ∈ A satisfying x > a − ϵ. Then [0, x] is covered by finitely many from U. Combined with
(a − ϵ, a + ϵ) ⊂ U ∈ U, we see that [0, a] ⊂ [0, x] ∪ (a − ϵ, a + ϵ) is covered by finitely many from
U. This proves a ∈ A.
In the argument above, if a < 1, then we may choose ϵ > 0 to satisfy a + ϵ < 1. Then we
also see that [0, a + 2ϵ ] ⊂ [0, x] ∪ (a − ϵ, a + ϵ) is covered by finitely many from U. This proves
that a + 2ϵ ∈ A, contradicting a = sup A. Therefore we must have a = 1.
Exercise 7.5.11
1. The lower limit topology is finer than the usual topology. Therefore a compact subset in
the lower limit topology is also compact in the usual topology. Moreover, if a = lim an ∈ A for
a strictly increasing sequence an ∈ A, then {[an , an+1 ) : n ∈ N} ∪ {(−∞, a1 ), [a, ∞)} is an open
cover of A in the lower limit topology with no finite subcover. Therefore we need a = lim an ∈ /A
for A to be compact in the lower limit topology.
2. Suppose a = lim an ∈ A for a strictly increasing sequence an ∈ A. Then for any ϵ > 0,
there is N , such that n > N implies 0 < a − an < ϵ. Then an ∈ (a − ϵ, a) ∩ A. In particular,
we have (a − ϵ, a) ∩ A ̸= ∅.
Suppose there is a ∈ A, such that (a − ϵ, a) ∩ A ̸= ∅ for any ϵ > 0. Then we we inductively
construct a sequence an by

a1 ∈ (a − 1, a) ∩ A,
a2 ∈ (a − ϵ1 , a) ∩ A, ϵ1 = min{a − a1 , 21 }
a3 ∈ (a − ϵ2 , a) ∩ A, ϵ2 = min{a − a2 , 31 },
..
.
1
an+1 ∈ (a − ϵn , a) ∩ A, ϵn = min{a − an , n+1 }
..
.

Then we get a strictly increasing sequence an ∈ A, such that lim an = a ∈ A.

3. Suppose A satisfies the two conditions. Consider a cover U = {[ai , bi )} of A by topological
bases in the lower limit topology.
For each [ai , bi ), if ai ∈
/ A, then we take (ai , bi ). If ai ∈ A, then we have (ai − ϵi , ai ) ∩ A = ∅
for some ϵi > 0. In this case, we take (ai − ϵi , bi ). Then the new collection {(ai , bi ) : ai ∈ /
A} ∪ {(aj − ϵi , bj ) : aj ∈ A} still covers A. Since A is compact in the usual topology, we get a
finite subcover

A ⊂ (ai1 , bi1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (aim , bim ) ∪ (aj1 − ϵj1 , bj1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (ajn − ϵjn , bin ).

Then by (ajk − ϵjk , ajk ) ∩ A = ∅, we may delete (ajk − ϵjk , ajk ) from (ajk − ϵjk , bjk )

(ajk − ϵjk , bjk ) − (ajk − ϵjk , ajk ) = [ajk , bjk ),

and still get

A ⊂ (ai1 , bi1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (aim , bim ) ∪ [aj1 , bj1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ [ajn , bjn )

⊂ [ai1 , bi1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ [aim , bim ) ∪ [aj1 , bj1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ [ajn , bjn ).

This proves that A is covered by finitely many from U.

Exercise 7.5.12
If f is a continuous function on a compact space X, then f (X) is a compact subset of
R. Then f (X) is bounded and closed. The boundedness implies that a = inf f (X) and
b = sup f (X) are finite numbers. The closedness implies that a, b ∈ f (X). Therefore inf f (X) =
a = f (x0 ) and sup f (X) = b = f (x1 ) for some x0 , x1 ∈ X.
If f is lower semicontinuous, then f : X → R is continuous. If X is compact, then
f (X) is compact in R . Then by Exercise 7.5.9, the subset f (X) is bounded below, and
inf f (X) ∈ f (X). This means f reaches its minimum.
Exercise 7.5.13
By Exercise 2.4.10, for fixed x, d(x, a) is a continuous function of a ∈ A. Then by Exercise
7.5.12, we get d(x, A) = inf a∈A d(x, a) = d(x, a0 ) for some a0 ∈ A.
If A and B are compact subsets, then by Exercise 2.4.15, the similar argument shows
d(A, B) = d(a0 , b0 ) for some a0 ∈ A and b0 ∈ B.
Exercise 7.5.14
The product topology on X × Y is induced from the metric

dX×X ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = dX (x1 , x2 ) + dY (y1 , y2 ).

By
|d(x1 , y1 ) − d(x2 , y2 )| ≤ d(x1 , x2 ) + d(y1 , y2 ) = dX×X ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )),
we know d(x, y) is a continuous function on X × X. By Theorem 7.5.2, X × X is compact.
Then by Exercise 7.5.12, we get supx,y∈X d(x, y) = d(x0 , y0 ) for some (x0 , y0 ) ∈ X × Y .
Exercise 7.5.15
For each r > 0, the collection of balls of radius r is an open cover. Then the space is covered
by finitely many balls Br,1 , Br,2 , . . . , Br,nr of radius r. By taking r = k1 for natural numbers k,
we get a countable collection B = {B 1 ,i : k ∈ N, 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 } of balls.
k k
For any x and r > 0, take k > 2r , so that k1 < 2r . Then x ∈ B 1 ,i ∈ B. Since the radius of
k
the call B 1 ,i is k1 < 2r , we know that, for any y ∈ B 1 ,i , we have d(x, y) < 2 k1 < r. Therefore
k k
x ∈ B 1 ,i ⊂ B(x, r). This verifies that B is a topological basis in the metric topology.
k

Exercise 7.5.16
The only open subset in Y − a (in the subspace topology) is Y − a. Therefore Y − a is
compact. By the same reason Y − b is compact.
The intersection (Y − a) ∩ (Y − b) = X is homeomorphic to X, which may not be compact.
Exercise 7.5.17
There is some problem about the topology. Now I add the first part: Show that T consists
of (V × 1) ∪ (U × 2) for open subsets U ⊂ V in X, and (X × 1) ∪ (U × 2) ∪ {a} for open subsets
U in X.
1. An open subset in X × {1, 2} is the union of topological basis, i.e., (∪Ui × {1, 2}) ∪ (∪Vj ×
{1}) = [((∪Ui ) ∪ (∪Vj )) × 1] ∪ [(∪Ui ) × 2] = (V × 1) ∪ (U × 2). Here Ui , Vj are open in X, and
U = ∪Ui and V = (∪Ui ) ∪ (∪Vj ) are open in X, and U ⊂ V .
Therefore T is the coarsest topology, such that (V × 1) ∪ (U × 2) (with open U ⊂ V ), and
(X × 1) ∪ {a} are open. The intersection of these subsets are still these subsets. Therefore
these subsets form a basis. The topology T is then the unions of these subsets, which are
(V × 1) ∪ (U × 2) and (X × 1) ∪ (U × 2) ∪ {a}.
2. The open subsets containing a are (X × 1) ∪ (U × 2) ∪ {a}. All contain (X × {1}) ∪ {a}.
Therefore (X × 1) ∪ {a} is compact.
3. For any x ∈ X, an open subset containing (x, 2) is (V ×1)∪(U ×2) or (X×1)∪(U ×2)∪{a}.
Moreover, we have x ∈ U ⊂ V in the first case. Therefore the open subset contains (x, 1) ∈
(X ×1)∪{a}. By Lemma 4.6.2, we get X ×2 ⊂ (X × 1) ∪ {a}. This implies (X × 1) ∪ {a} = Y
is the whole space.
4. Let U be an open cover of X with no finite subcover. Then {U × {1, 2} : U ∈ U} ∪ {(X ×
1) ∪ {a}} is an open cover of Y with no finite subcover.
Exercise 7.5.18
 Let X be a Hausdorff space. Let A, B be compact subsets. By the second property of
Theorem 7.5.2, we know A, B are closed. Therefore A ∩ B is a closed subset of a compact space
A. Then by the first property of Theorem 7.5.2, A ∩ B is also compact.
Let X be a Hausdorff space. Let A be a compact subset. By the second property of Theorem
7.5.2, we know A is closed. Therefore Ā = A is compact.
Exercise 7.5.19
1. Any a ∈ A is not in the closed subset B. By the regular property, there are disjoint
open subsets Ub and Vb , such that a ⊂ Ub and B ⊂ Vb . The collection {Ua : a ∈ A} is an
open cover of A. Since A is compact, we get A ⊂ U = Ua1 ∪ Ua2 ∪ · · · ∪ Uan . We also have
B ⊂ V = Vb1 ∩ Vb2 ∩ · · · ∩ Vbn , and U and V are open and disjoint.
2. Let B = X − U . Then A is compact, B is closed, and A, B are disjoint. By the first part,
there are disjoint open V, W , such that A ⊂ V and B ⊂ W . Then V ⊂ X − W ⊂ X − B = U .
Since W is open, we know X − W is closed. Therefore V̄ ⊂ X − W ⊂ U .
Exercise 7.5.20
For any k ∈ K, we have k in the open subset U . Then there is ϵk > 0, such that B(k, 2ϵk ) ⊂
U . Then {B(k, ϵk ) : k ∈ K} is an open cover of K. By K compact, we get
K ⊂ B(k1 , ϵk1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ B(kn , ϵkn ).
Let ϵ = min{ϵk1 , . . . , ϵkn } > 0. Then for any x ∈ K ϵ , we have d(x, k) < ϵ for some k ∈ K. Then
k ∈ B(ki , ϵki ), and we get
d(x, ki ) ≤ d(x, k) + d(k, ki ) < ϵ + ϵki ≤ 2ϵki .
Therefore x ∈ B(ki , 2ϵki ) ⊂ U . This proves K ϵ ⊂ U .
Exercise 7.5.21
The argument is the same as Exercise 7.5.19.
The proof of the second property in Theorem 7.5.2 already shows that, for any a ∈ A, there
are there are disjoint open subsets Ub and Vb , such that a ⊂ Ub and B ⊂ Vb . The collection
{Ua : a ∈ A} is an open cover of A. Since A is compact, we get A ⊂ U = Ua1 ∪ Ua2 ∪ · · · ∪ Uan .
We also have B ⊂ V = Vb1 ∩ Vb2 ∩ · · · ∩ Vbn , and U and V are open and disjoint.
Exercise 7.5.22
Let A ⊂ X × Y be a closed subset. To show πX (A) is closed, we consider x ∈ X − πX (A).
Then x × Y is disjoint from A. For any y ∈ Y , we have (x, y) ̸∈ A. Then by A closed, there
are open subsets Uy ⊂ X and Vy ⊂ Y , such that (x, y) ∈ Uy × Vy , and Uy × Vy is disjoint from
A. The collection {Vy : y ∈ Y } is an open cover of Y . By Y compact, we get
Y = Vy1 ∪ Vy2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vyn .
Then
x ∈ U = Uy1 ∩ Uy2 ∩ · · · ∩ Uyn .
and U ⊂ X is open, and
U × Y ⊂ Uy1 × Vy1 ∪ Uy2 × Vy2 ∪ · · · ∪ Uyn × Vyn
is disjoint from A. This implies U and πX (A) are disjoint. Then we find open U satisfying
x ∈ U ⊂ X − πX (A). This proves X − πX (A) is open, which means πX (A) is closed.
Exercise 7.5.23
By Exercise 7.1.14, the continuity of f implies the graph is closed. Conversely, suppose the
graph is closed. Let A ⊂ Y be a closed subset. Then X × A is a closed subset of X × Y . The
intersection

(X × A) ∩ Γf = {(x, a) : f (x) = a ∈ A} = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ f −1 (A)}

is also a closed subset. By Exercise 7.5.22, the projection

πX ((X × A) ∩ Γf ) = f −1 (A)

is also closed. Therefore A closed implies f −1 (A) closed. In other words, f is continuous.
For the counterexample in case Y is not compact, consider
(
1
, if x ̸= 0
f (x) = x : R → R.
0, if x = 0

Here both R have the usual topology. The graph Γf ⊂ R2 is closed. But the function is not
continuous.
Exercise 7.5.24
Let U be an open cover of X. For any y ∈ Y , the preimage f −1 (y) is also covered by U.
Since f −1 (y) is compact, we have f −1 (y) ⊂ Wy = U1 ∪ U2 ∪ · · · ∪ Uk for finitely many Ui ∈ U.
Since f maps closed subsets to closed subsets, Vy = Y − f (X − Wy ) is an open subset of Y .
By f −1 (y) ⊂ Wy , we get f −1 (y) ∩ (X − Wy ) = ∅. Therefore y ∈ / f (X − Wy ), or y ∈ Vy .
Therefore {Vy : y ∈ Y } is an open cover of Y . By Y compact, we get

Y ⊂ Vy1 ∪ Vy2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vyn .

This implies
X ⊂ f −1 (Y ) ⊂ f −1 (Vy1 ) ∪ f −1 (Vy2 ) ∪ · · · ∪ f −1 (Vyn ).
On the other hand, by Y − Vy = f (X − Wy ), we get X − f −1 (Vy ) = f −1 (Y − Vy ) ⊃ X − Wy .
Therefore f −1 (Vy ) ⊂ Wy . Then we get

X ⊂ Wy1 ∪ Wy2 ∪ · · · ∪ Wyn .

Since each Wyi is the union of finitely many from U, we conclude that X is covered by finitely
many from U.
Exercise 7.5.25
The reason for T to be a topology is the same as the finite complement topology, applied
to each “slice” X × y.
 1. For U ⊂ Y , we have πY−1 (U ) = X × U = X × Y − F for F = X × (Y − U ). Since X is
infinite, the subset F has the property that F ∩ X × y is finite for all y if and only if Y = U .
This proves that the quotient topology is trivial.
2. The open subsets in the subspace πY−1 (y) = X × y are (X × Y − F ) ∩ X × y = X ×
y − F ∩ X × y. Therefore the subspace topoloogy is the finite complement topology, which we
know is compact.
Exercise 7.5.26
1. A collection C of a closed subsets corresponds to a collection U = {X − C : C ∈ C} of
open subsets. The compactness means the following:
X ⊂ ∪U ∈U U = X − ∩C∈C C
=⇒ X ⊂ U1 ∪ · · · ∪ Un = X − C1 ∩ · · · ∩ Cn for some finitely many Ci ∈ C.
This is equivalent to the following
∩C∈C C = ∅ =⇒ C1 ∩ · · · ∩ Cn = ∅ for some finitely many Ci ∈ C.
This is the same as
C1 ∩ · · · ∩ Cn ̸= ∅ for any finitely many Ci ∈ C =⇒ ∩C∈C C ̸= ∅.
2. Fix one K0 ∈ K. Then by considering K′ = {K ∩ K0 : K ∈ K}, everything happens
inside K0 , a compact Hausdorff space. Therefore K′ is a collection of closed subsets in K. The
finite intersection property of K is the same as the finite intersection property of K′ . Then by
the first part, we know
∩K∈K K = ∩K∈K (K ∩ K0 ) = ∩K ′ ∈K′ K ′ ̸= ∅.
3. Since closed subsets of compact spaces are compact, the collection K′ = {K −U : K ∈ K}
consists of compact subsets. Moreover, the assumption ∩K∈K K ⊂ U implies ∩K ′ ∈K′ K ′ = ∅.
Therefore by the second part, we get K1′ ∩ K2′ ∩ · · · ∩ Kn′ = ∅ for finitely many subsets in K′ .
If Ki′ = Ki − U , then this means K1 ∩ K2 ∩ · · · ∩ Kn ⊂ U .
Exercise 7.5.27
1. We have ∅ ∈ T ⊂ T + . By taking K = ∅, which is compact, we get X + = (X − ∅)+ ∈ T + .
For the union of subsets in T + , we need to consider
U ∪ (∪i (X − Ki )+ ) = (X − (X − U )) ∪ (X − ∩i Ki )+ = (X − (X − U ) ∩ (∩i Ki ))+ .
Here U ∈ T and Ki are compact. We only need to show that (X − U ) ∩ (∩i Ki ) is compact.
We know X − U is closed. By X Hausdorff, we also know the compact subsets Ki are closed.
Therefore (X − U ) ∩ (∩i Ki ) is a closed subset of the compact subset Ki , which we know is
compact.
For finite intersection on T + , we need to consider
U ∩ (X − K)+ = U ∩ (X − K) = U − K,
(X − K1 )+ ∩ (X − K2 )+ = (X − K1 ∪ K2 )+ .
In the first case, by X Hausdorff, the compact subset K is closed. Therefore U − K is an open
subset of X. In the second case, the union K1 ∪ K2 of two compact subsets is still compact.
2. Let U = {Ui } ∪ {(X − Kj )+ } of X + be an open cover of X + . Since + is not in any Ui ,
we get + ∈ (X − Kj0 )+ for some j0 . Then U ′ = {Ui } ∪ {X − Kj } covers Kj0 . By X Hausdorff,
the compact subsets Kj are closed. Therefore U ′ is an open cover of Kj0 . By K compact, we
get
Kj0 ⊂ Ui1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uim ∪ (X − Kj1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (X − Kjn ).
This implies

X + = Kj0 ∪ (X − Kj0 )+ ⊂ Ui1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uim ∪ (X − Kj1 )+ ∪ · · · ∪ (X − Kjn )+ ∪ (X − Kj0 )+ .

Exercise 7.5.29
Given X is already Hausdorff, the key for X + to be Hausdorff is the separation of x ∈ X
and the point +. This means that for any x ∈ X, we have disjoint U and (X − K)+ containing
x and + respectively. This the same as that there are open U and compact K, such that
x ∈ U ⊂ K. This also means exactly that the compact subset K is a neighborhood of x. We
get (1) ⇐⇒ (4).
Both (2) and (3) are stronger than (4). So we need to show (1) =⇒ (2) and (4) =⇒ (3).
Assuming (1). Let x ∈ V for open V . Then x is not in the closed subset X + −V = (X −V )+ .
Then by X + compact, we know X + − V is compact. By X + Hausdorff and the proof of the
second property in Theorem 7.5.2, we know there are disjoint U (open in X) and (X − K)+
(K ⊂ X compact), such that x ∈ U and (X − V )+ ⊂ (X − K)+ . The disjoint property means
U ⊂ K. The inclusion (X − V )+ ⊂ (X − K)+ means K ⊂ V . Therefore x ∈ U ⊂ K ⊂ V . This
shows that V contains a compact neighborhood K of x.
Assuming (4). By X Hausdorff, we know the compact neighborhood K of x is closed.
Therefore there is an open U satisfying x ∈ U ⊂ Ū ⊂ K. The closure Ū is a closed subset of
the compact subset K. Therefore the Ū is also compact. This proves (3).
Exercise 7.5.30
By Y Hausdorff, the single point + is closed. Therefore X is an open subset of Y , and the
open subsets of Y not containing + are exactly the open subsets of X. It remains to show that
the open subsets of Y containing + are of the form (X − K)+ for some compact subset K of
X.
The condition Y = X̄ is the same as + is a limit point of X. In other words, if an open
subset V of Y contains +, then V ∩ X ̸= ∅. Then K = Y − V is a closed subset of Y satisfying
K ⊂ X and K ̸= X. By Y compact, the closed subset K is also compact. Then V = (X −K)+ .
Conversely, for any compact subset K of X, by Y Hausdorff, we know K is closed. Then
(X − K)+ = Y − K is an open subset of Y .
Note: The assumption Y = X̄ actually implies that X cannot be compact.