Chapter 8

Covering Spaces
8.1

Introduction to covering spaces

Covering spaces have many uses both in topology and elsewhere. Our immediate goal is to use
them to help compute 1 (X).
Definition 8.1.1 A map p : E X is called a covering projection if every point x X has an
open neighbourhood Ux s.t. p1 (Ux ) is a (nonempty) disjoint union of open sets each of which
is homeomorphic by p to Ux . E is called the covering space, X the base space of the covering
projection.
Remark: It is clear from the definition that a covering projection must be onto.
exp

1
Example: R S`
by t 7 e2it
exp1 (Ux ) =
n= Vn .

Vn = Ux n.

More generally: A (left) action of a topological group G on a topological space X consists

of a (continuous) map : G X X s.t.
1. ex = x x
2. g1 (g2 x) = (g1 g2 )x g1 , g2 G, x X.
Given action : G X X, for each g G we get a continuous map g : X X sending
x to gx. Each g is a homeomorphism since g1 = (g )1 .
Note: Any group becomes a topological group if given the discrete topology. In the case
where G has the discrete topology, is continuous g is continuous g G. (In general, g
continuous for all g is not sufficient to conclude that is continuous.)
78

Suppose G acts on X.
Define an equivalence relation on X by x gx x X, g G. Write X/G for X/ (with
the quotient topology).
Remark: The notation is in conflict with the previously given notation that X/A means identify
the points of A to a single point. Rely on context to decide which is meant.
Preceding example: X = R, G = Z. (n, x) = x + n. Then R/Z
= S 1 . In this example
X happens to also be a topological group and G a normal subgroup so X/G also has a group
structure. The homeomorphism R/Z
= S 1 is an isomorphism of topological groups.
Theorem 8.1.2 Suppose a group G acts on a space X s.t. x X, an open neighbourhood
Vx s.t. Vx gVx = for all g 6= e in G. Then the quotient map p : X X/G is a covering
projection.
S
Proof: Given [x] X/G, find Vx as in the hypothesis. Set U[x] = p(Vx ). p1 (U[x] ) = gG gVx .
Vx open gVx open g p1 (U[x] ) open U[x] open.
g1 Vx g2 Vx = so the union is a disjoint union.
p : Vx U[x] is a bijection and check that by definition of the quotient topology it is a
homeomorphism.

gVx
@
@ p
@
@
@
R

Vx

U[x]
Both gVx and Vx map to U[x] under p, and the map p composed with g : Vx gVx equals
the map p : Vx U[x] , which shows that p|gVx is a homeomorphism g.
Hence p : X X/G is a covering projection.
Corollary 8.1.3 Suppose H is a topological group and G a closed subgroup of H s.t. as a
subspace of H, G has the discrete topology Then p : H H/G is a covering projection.
Example 2: S n RP n is a covering projection.
Proof: RP n = S n /Z2 where Z2 = {1, 1} acts by 1x = x, 1x = x. Furthermore, the
hypothesis of the previous theorem is satisfied.
Similarly CP n = S 2n+1 /S 1 and HP n = S 4n+3 /SU (2), but these quotient maps are not
covering projections (since the group is not discrete).
79

What have covering spaces got to do with 1 (X)?

exp
Return to the example R S 1 .
Let w be a path in R which begins at 0 and ends at the integer n. w is not a closed curve
in R (unless n = 0, where in this context closed means a curve which ends at the point at
which it starts) but exp(w) is a closed curve in S 1 joining to .
So exp(w) represents an element of 1 (S 1 ).
We will show that the resulting element of 1 (S 1 ) depends only on n (not on w) and that
this correspondence sets up an isomorphism 1 (S 1 )
= Z.
Terminology: Let p : E X be a covering projection. Let U X be open. If p1 (U ) is
a disjoint union of open sets each homeomorphic
we say that U is evenly covered.
` to U , then
1

If U X is evenly covered, with p (U ) = i Ti with Ti = U , then each Ti is called a sheet

over U .
Theorem 8.1.4 (Unique Lifting Theorem) Let p : (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a map of pointed
spaces in which p : E X is a covering projection.
Let f : (Y, y0 ) (X, x0 ). If Y is connected, then there is at most one map f 0 : (Y, y0 )
(E, e0 ) s.t.
E
.
.
..
0 ...
f.
p
..
.
.
..
f - ?
X
Y
Remark 8.1.5 : For this theorem it suffices to know that Y is connected under the standard
definition, although in most applications we will actually know that Y is path connected, which
is even stronger.
Proof:
Suppose f 0 , f 00 (Y, y0 ) (E, e0 ) s.t. pf 0 = f and pf 00 = f . Let A = {y Y | f 0 (y) = f 00 (y)},
B = {y Y | f 0 (y) 6= f 00 (y)}. Then A B = , A B = Y .
It suffices to show that both A and B are open because then one of them is empty. But
A 6= since y0 A, so this would imply that B = and A = X, in other words f 0 = f 00 .
To show A is open: Let y A. Let U be an evenly covered set in X containing f (y). Let
S be a sheet in p1 (U ) containing f 0 (y) = f 00 (y). Let V = (f 0 )1 (S) (f 00 )1 (S), which is
open in Y and contains y. v V , pf 0 (v) = f (v) = pf 00 (v) f 0 (v) = f 00 (v) (since p|S is a
homeomorphism). Hence V A, so y is interior. So A is open.
80

To show B is open: Let y B. Let U be an evenly covered set containing f (y). f 0 (y) 6= f 00 (y)
but pf 0 (y) = f (y) = f 00 (y) so f 0 (y) and f 00 (y) lie in different sheets (say S 0 , S 00 ) over p1 (U ).
Let V = (f 0 )1 (S 0 ) (f 00 )1 (S 00 ), which is open in Y . Since S 0 S = , f 0 (V ) 6= f 00 (V )
v V . Hence V B. So y is interior. Therefore B is open.
2
p

Theorem 8.1.6 (Path Lifting Theorem) Let (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection.
Let w : I X s.t. w(0) = x0 . Then w lifts uniquely to a path w 0 : I E s.t. w 0 (0) = e0 .
E
.
.
..
0 ...
.
..
..
.
.
- ?
I
X
Proof: Uniqueness follows from the previous theorem (since I is connected).
Existence: Cover X by evenly covered sets. Using a Lebesgue number for the inverse images
under w in the compact set I, we can partition I into a finite number of subintervals [ti , ti+1 ]
(0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1) s.t. i, w([ti , ti+1 ]) Ui . Note that Ui is evenly covered.
Let S0 = sheet in p1 (U0 ) containing e0 . p|S0 is a homeomorphism unique path in S0
covering w([t0 , t1 ]). Let e1 denote the end of this path. (p(e1 ) = w(t1 ))
Let S1 = sheet in p1 (U1 ) containing e1 .
As above, unique path in S1 covering w([t1 , t2 ]).
Continuing: Build a path w 0 in E beginning at e0 and covering w.
Remark 8.1.7 The procedure is reminiscent of analytic continuation. Notice that even through
is closed ((0) = (1)), this need not be true for 0 . e.g. Consider p = exp : R S 1 and let
(t) = e2tt : I S 1 . Then 0 is the line segment joining 0 to 1.
We will show that under the right conditions (e.g. R S 1 ) elements of 1 (X, x0 ) can be
identified by the endpoint in E of the lifted representing path.
Need:
Theorem 8.1.8 (Covering Homotopy Theorem) Let p : (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection. Let (Y, y0 ) be a pointed space. Let f : (Y, y0 ) (X, x0 ) and let f 0 : (Y, y0 ) (E, e0 )
be a lift of f . Let H : Y I X be a homotopy with H 0 = f . Then H lifts to a homotopy
H 0 : Y I E s.t. H00 = f 0 .
Before the proof, we examine the consequences.
81

Corollary 8.1.9 Let (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection. Let , : I X be paths

from x0 to x1 s.t. ' rel{0, 1}. Let 0 , 0 be lifts of , respectively, beginning at e0 . Then
0 (1) = 0 (1) and 0 = 0 rel{0, 1}.
Note in particular that this implies that the endpoint of a lift of a homotopy class is independent
of the choice of representative for that class.
Proof of Corollary (assuming Theorem): Let H : ' rel{0, 1}. Apply the theorem to
get H 0 : I I E which lifts H and s.t. H00 = 0
The left vertical line of H 0 can be thought of as a path in E begining at 0 (0) = e0 and
lifting cx0 . By uniqueness it must be ce0 . Similarly the right must be ce1 , where e1 = 0 (1).
Also, the top is a lift of beginning at e0 so it must be 0 . Thus H 0 : 0 ' 0 rel{0, 1} and
0 (1) = upper right corner = e1 = 0 (1).
Proof of Theorem:
Technical remark:  It is easy to define the required lift, but not so easy to show continuity.
i.e. Given y I, H yI is a path in X beginning at f (y) so H 0 f 0 (y)I is the unique lift beginning
at f 0 (y).
Step 1: y Y , open neighbourhood Vy and a partition 0 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn = 1 of I
(depending on y) s.t. i, H(Vy [ti , ti+1 ]) is contained in an evenly covered set.
Proof: Given y:
t I find evenly covered neighbourhood Ut of H(y, t) in X.
Find basic open At Bt H 1 (Ut ) Y I containing (y, t). Then tI Bt covers I so
choose a finite subcover Bt1 , . . . Btn1 . Set Vy := At1 Atn1 A0 A1 . Use Vy together

with the partition 0 < t1 < . . . < tn1 < 1.




Step 2: y, continuous Hy0 : Vy I E lifting H Vy I and extending Hy0 Vy 0 = f 0 Vy .

Proof: Use the same inductive argument as in the proof of the Path Lifting Theorem.
Step 3: The various lifings Hy0 from Step 2 combine to produce a well defined map of sets
H 0 : Y I E.


Proof: Suppose (y, t) (Vt1 I)(Vy2 I). The restrictions Hy0 1 yI and Hy0 2 yI each produce

paths in E beginning at f 0 (y) and lifting H yI . So by unique path lifting, Hy0 1 (y, t) = Hy0 2 (y, t).
Hence the value of H 0 (y, t) is independent of the set Vyi used to compute it. i.e. H 0 is well

defined.
Step 4: The map H 0 defined in Step 3 is continuous.
Proof: Suppose
is open.
S U E
01
0 1
H (U ) = yU (Hy ) (U ).
82

y U , Hy0 : Vy I E is continuous which implies that (Hy0 )1 (U ) is open in Vy I.

Since Vy I is open in Y I, this implies that (Hy0 )1 (U ) is open in H 0 1 (U ). Hence H 0 1 (U )
is open and thus H 0 is continuous.
Corollary 8.1.10 Let p : (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection. Then p# : 1 (E, e0 )
1 (X, x0 ) is a monomorphism.
Proof: Let [] 1 (E, e0 ). is a path in E beginning and ending at e0 . Suppose p# ([]) = 1.
Then p ' cx0 rel{0, 1}. By the Corollary 8.1.9, (p )0 ' c0x0 rel{0, 1} where (p )0 , c0x0
are, respectively, the lifts of p , cx0 beginning from e0 . Clearly these lifts are and ce0
respectively. Hence ' ce0 rel{0, 1}, so [] = 1 1 (E, e0 ).
Theorem 8.1.11 1 (S 1 )
=Z
Proof: Let : (S 1 , ) (S 1 , ) represent an element of 1 (S 1 , ). Regard as a path which
1
0
begins and ends at . By unique path lifting

in exp : (R, 0) 0 (S , ) we get a path in R
0
lifting beginning at 0. Hence exp (1) = (1) = so (1) = n Z. By Corollary 8.1.9
n is independent of the choice of representative for the class []. Thus we get a well defined
: 1 (S 1 ) Z given by [] 7 0 (1).

Claim: is a group homomorphism.

Let , : (S 1 , ) (S 1 , ) represent elements of 1 (S 1 ). Let 0 , 0 : I R be lifts of ,
respectively beginning at 0. Let n = 0 (1) = ([]) and m = 0 (1) = ([ ]). Define 00 by
00 (t) = 0 (t) + n. Then 00 = lift of beginning at n, ending at n + m. The path 0 00
in R makes sense (since 0 (1) = n = 00 (0)). 0 00 begins at 0 and ends at n + m. But
exp( 0 00 ) = so it lifts . Hence ([][ ]) = ([ ]) = n + m = ([]) + ([ ]). Thus

is a homomorphism.

Claim: is injective
Suppose ([]) = 0. Let 0 : I R be the lift of beginning at 0. Then the definition of
implies that 0 ends at 0 so 0 represents an element of 1 (R) and exp# ([ 0 ]) = []. But R is

simply connected (1 (R) = 1) and so [ 0 ] = 1 which implies [] = 1.

Claim: is onto
Given n Z, let 0 be any path in R joining 0 to n. Let = exp 0 : I S 1 . Then is
a closed path in S 1 and ([]) = n.
Corollary 8.1.12 1 (C {0})
=Z
Proof: S 1 C {0} is a homotopy equivalence.
83

We wish to apply the method used above to calculate 1 (S 1 ) to calculate 1 (X) for other
spaces X. For this, we need a covering projection E X, called the universal covering
projection of X with properties described in the next section. For reference, we note here the
properties of R S 1 which were needed in the calculation of 1 (S 1 ).
1. Z acts on R, Z R R, by (n, x) 7 n + x s.t.
Tn

R
@
@ exp
@
@
@
R

D2

exp

where Tn is the translation Tn (X) = n + x.

2. 1 (R) = 1
We will return to this later. First some applications.
Theorem 8.1.13 6 f : D 2 S 1 s.t.
S1
@
@
@
1S 1 @
R
@

S1
commutes.
Proof: If f exists then, since D 2 is contractible, applying 1 yields
-

Z = 1 (S 1 )
@
@
@
1 @
@
R

Z = 1 (S 1 )
This is a contradiction so f does not exist.

84

1 (D 2 ) = 0

f#

Corollary 8.1.14 (Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem): Let g : D 2 D 2 . Then x D 2 such

that g(x) = x.
Proof: Suppose g has no fixed point. Define f : D 2 S 1 as follows:
g(x) 6= x implies that a well defined line segment joining g(x) to x. Follow this line until it
reaches S 1 and call this point f (x).
f is a continuous function of x (since g is) and if x S 1 then f (x) = x. This contradicts
the previous theorem. Hence g has no fixed point.

85

8.2

Universal Covering Spaces

Definition 8.2.1 Let p : E X and p0 : E 0 : X be covering projections. A morphism of

covering spaces over X consists of a map : E E 0 s.t.

E
@
@ p
@
@
@
R

E0

p0

X
commutes.
A morphism of covering spaces which is also a homeomorphism is called an equivalence of
covering spaces.
Remark: Covering spaces over a fixed X together with this notion of morphism form a category.
An equivalence is an isomorphism in this category.
X is called the universal covering projection
Definition 8.2.2 A covering projection p : X
is called the universal covering space of X) if for any covering projection p : E X
of X (and X
E of covering projections.
! morphism f : X
i.e.
f

X
@
@ p
@
@
R
@

X
commutes.
X is an initial object in the category of covering spaces over X.
Remark: This says p : X
Proposition 8.2.3 If X has a universal covering space then it is unique up to equivalence of
covering spaces.
Proof: Standard categorical argument.

86

Theorem 8.2.4 (Lifting Theorem) Let p : (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection and
let f : (Y, y0 ) (X, x0 ) where Y is connected and locally path connected. Then f 0 : (Y, y0 )
(E, e0 ) lifting f f# 1 (Y, y0 ) p# 1 (E, e0 ).
(E, e0 )
..
..
.
f 0...
p
.
..
.
..
?
f(Y, y0 )
(X, x0 )
Remark: X connected at most one such lift exists, by the Unique Lifting Theorem.
Proof: () Suppose f 0 exists. Then f# = (pf 0 )# = p# f#0 . Hence Im f# Im p# .
() Suppose Im f# Im p# . For y Y choose a path joining y0 to y. Then f : I X
joins x0 to f (y). Lift to a path (f )0 in E beginning at e0 and define f 0 (y) = (f )0 (1).
Claim this gives a well-defined function of y:
Suppose : I Y also joins y0 to y. Then 1 represents an element of 1 (Y, y0 ) so
by hypothesis [w] 1 (E, e0 ) s.t. [p ] = p# ([w]) = f# ([ 1 ]) = [f ( 1 )]. Since
p w ' f ( 1 ), lifting these paths to E beginning at e0 results in paths with the same
endpoint.
But w lifts p w and it ends at e0 (it is a closed loop since it represents an element of
1 (E, e0 )). Hence the lift : I E of f ( 1 ) beginning at e0 also ends at e0 . Let
e1 = (1/2).
The restriction of to [0, 1/2] lifts (beginning at e0 , ending at e1 ).
The restriction of to [1/2, 1] lifts 1 (beginning at e1 , ending at e0 ).
So the curve lifting beginning at e0 ends at e1 . So using either or in the definition of

0
f (y) results in f 0 (y) = e1 . Hence f 0 is well defined.
To help show f 0 continuous:
Lemma 8.2.5 Let y, z Y and let be a path in Y from y to z. If the path f is contained
in some evenly covered set U of X then f 0 (y), f 0 (z) lie in the same sheet in p1 (U ).
Proof: Let (f )0 be the lift of f beginning at f 0 (y).
Claim: (f )0 ends at f 0 (z).
Proof of Claim: Use as the path joining y0 to z in the definition of f 0 (z). Then
(f )0 (f )0 is the lift of f ( ) which begins at e0 , so f 0 (z) is the endpoint of (f )0 (f )0 ,

in other words the endpoint of (f )0 .

Let S be the sheet of p1 (U ) containing f 0 (y).
87

p|S is a homeomorphism, which implies S contains the entire path (f )0 , so in particular

it contains f 0 (z).
2
Claim: f 0 is continuous.
Given e E, let Up(e) X be an evenly covered set containing p(e) and let Se be the sheet
in p1 (Up(e) ) which contains e. S
For an open set V E, V = eV (Se V ), so to show f 0 is continuous, it suffices to show
f 01 (W ) is open whenever W E is open in some Se .
Since p|Se is a homeomorphism, p(W ) is open in X and is evenly covered (being a subset of
the evenly covered set U

p(e) ).
Set A := f 1 p(W ) Y . By continuity of f , A is open so its path components are open
by hypothesis.
(f 0 )1 (W ) A. Show (f 0 )1 (W ) is open by showing (f 0 )1 (W ) is a union of path components of A.
S
Write A = iI Ai where Ai is a path component of A.
Claim: i, either Ai (f 0 )1 (W ) = or Ai (f 0 )1 (W ).
Note: This shows (f 0 )1 (W ) is the union of those Ai which intersect it, thus completing the
proof.
Proof of Claim: Suppose y Ai (f 0 )1 (W ). Let z Ai . Show z (f 0 )1 (W ).
Let be a path joining y to

z in Ai . (Ai is a path component so is path connected.)
1
Since Ai A = f
p(W ) , f is entirely contained in the
evenly covered set p(W ), so
by the Lemma, f 0 (y) and f 0 (z) lie in the same sheet of p1 p(W ) .
y (f 0 )1 (W ) that sheet is W so z (f 0 )1 (W ).
2
Lemma 8.2.6 A covering space of a locally path connected space is locally path connected.
p

Proof: Let E X be a covering projection, with X locally path connected.

Let V be open in E, let A be a path component of V and let a A.
Let U X be an evenly covered set containing p(A) and let S be the sheet in p1 (U )
containing a.
Replacing U by the smaller evenly covered set p(S V ), we may assume S V .
Let W be the path component of U containing p(a). Hence W is open by hypothesis. p|S is
a homeomorphism, so B := p1 (W ) S is a path connected open subset in E.

B is path connected, and a B, so B A. Since B is open, a A so A is open.

Corollary 8.2.7 (of Lifting Theorem): A simply connected locally path connected covering
space is a universal covering space.
x0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection s.t. X
is simply connected and
Proof: Let p : (X,
locally path connected. Let p : (E, e0 ) (X, x0 ) be a covering projection of X.
88

 x0 ) = 1 so the hypothesis p# 1 (X,

x0 ) p# 1 (E, e0 ) of the Lifting Theorem is trivial.
1 (X,
E s.t.
Hence f : X
f

X
@
@ p
@
@
R
@

X
The Unique Lifting Theorem shows f is unique.

2
p

Corollary 8.2.8 (of Lifting Theorem:) Let W be simply connected and let (E, e0 ) (X, x0 )
be a covering projection. Then [(W, w0 ), (E, e0 )]

p#

[(W, w0 ), (X, x0 )] is a set bijection.

Proof: Essentially the same as the proof of Corollary 8.2.7.

8.2.1

Computing Fundamental Groups from Covering Spaces

Definition 8.2.9 Let p : E X be a covering projection. A self-homeomorphism : E E

is called a covering transformation if

E
@
@ p
@
@
@
R

X
commutes.
Remark: p = p guarantees that x X, is a self-map of p1 (x). p1 (x) is often called the
fibre over x.
p

{ covering transformations of E X } forms a group under composition.

Example 1: exp : R S 1 . The group of covering transformations is Z.

Example 2: p : S n RP n . The group of covering transformations is Z2 , because it is the

collection of maps sending x x or x x (for x S n ).


Notice that in each case |G| = card p1 (x) .
89

Lemma 8.2.10 Let p : E X be a covering projection with E connected. Let , 0 : E E

s.t. p = p, p0 = p. If (e) = 0 (e) for some e E then = 0 . In particular, a covering
transformation is determined by its value at any point.
Proof:
..

.
..
, 0...
p
.
..
.
..
p - ?
E
X
Apply the Unique Lifting Theorem with y0 = e and x0 = (e) = 0 (e).
2
Theorem 8.2.11 Let p : E X be a covering projection s.t. E is simply connected and
locally path connected (thus a universal covering space). Then 1 (X) = group of covering
transformations of p.
(Since simply connected includes path connected, notice that p onto implies that X is
path connected, so 1 (X) is well defined, i.e. independent of the choice of basepoint.)
Proof: Let G be the group of covering tranformations of p. Define : G 1 (X) as follows:
Given G, select a path w joining e0 to (e0 ).
p(e0 ) = pe0 = x0 p w is a closed loop in X so it represents an element of 1 (X, x0 ).
Define () = [p w ].
Claim: is well-defined.
Proof: (of Claim:) If w0 is another path joining e0 to (e0 ) then E is simply connected
w ' w0 rel{0, 1}.
Hence p w ' p w0 rel{0, 1}. i.e. [p ] = [p 0 ] in 1 (X).
Claim: is a group homomorphism.
Proof: (of Claim:) Let 1 , 2 G. Pick paths w1 , w2 as above joining e0 to 1 (e0 ) resp. ,


1 w )
2 (e0 ). Then 1 w2 is a path joining 1 (e0 ) to 1 2 (e0 ) = 1 2 (e0 ). So we use w1 (
2
to define (1 2 ).
is a covering transformation, so p 1 w2 = p w2 .
Hence (1 2 ) = [p (w1 (1 w2 )] = [p w1 ][p 1 w2 ]
= [p w1 ][p w2 ]
= (1 )(2 ).
Claim: is injective.
Proof: (of Claim:) (1 ) = (2 ) p w1 ' p w2 . This implies the lifts of w1 and w2
beginning at e0 must end at the same point.
90

Hence 1 (e0 ) = 2 (e0 ) which implies 1 = 2 .

Claim: is surjective.
Proof: (of Claim:) Let [] 1 (X, x0 ).
Lift to a path 0 in E beginning at e0 .
Let e = 0 (1).
It suffices to show there exists a covering transformation : E E s.t. (e0 ) = e.
Then we use 0 to define () to see that () = .

..

.
(E, e0 )

....
.
.

..

p-

(E, e)
.
.
.
p
?

(X, x0 )

Since E is connected and locally path connected and 1 = p# 1 (E, e0 ) p# 1 (E, e), the
lifting theorem implies s.t. p = p and (e0 ) = e.
It remains to show is a homeomorphism.
But we may apply the lifting theorem again with the roles of e0 and e reversed to get
: (E, e) (E, e0 ).
Then p = p and (e0 ) = e0 so by the previous Lemma, = 1E . Similarly
= 1E . So is a homeomorphism.
2

Remark: We already used this to show that 1 (S 1 ) = Z. Later we will show that S n is simply
connected for n 2, so that the theorem applies to S n RP n , giving 1 (RP n )
= Z2 for n 2.

Note: The preceding proof showed a bijection between covering transformations and elements
of p1 (x0 ). Each point corresponds to a covering transformation taking e0 to that point.

8.2.2

Galois Theory of Covering Spaces

Theorem 8.2.12 Let p : E X be a covering projection s.t. E is simply connected and

locally path connected (thus a universal covering space). Then for every subgroup H 1 (X),
a covering projection pH : EH X, unique up to equivalence of covering spaces, such that
(pH )# (1 (EH )) = H.
Proof: {covering transformations of E}
= 1 (X) so H can be regarded as the set of covering
transformations of E. Hence H acts on E. Let EH = E/H.
If e0 = h e for h H, since h is a covering transformation, p(e0 ) = p(e).
Hence p induces a well defined map pH : E/H X.
91

For evenly covered Ux of p : E X, sheets p1 (Ux ) correspond bijectively to elements

of 1 (X).
0
0
p1
H (Ux ) is what we get by identifying S, S whenever S, S correspond to group elements
g, g 0 s.t. g 0 = gh for some h H (in other words g 0 and g are in the same coset of G (mod H)).
Hence pH is a covering projection (with Ux as evenly covered set).
f

Also Theorem 8.1.2 implies E E/H is a covering projection. To apply the theorem we
need to know that e E, Ve s.t. Ve hVe = unless h = 1. Set Ve := the sheet over Up(e)
which contains e for some evenly covered Up(e) X. This works since h is a covering translation
so hS is also a sheet and sheets are disjoint.
By inspection, the group of covering translations of fH
=H
= 1 (E/H). (In general, the
group of covering translations of Y Y /G is isomorphic to G.)
By Corollary 8.1.10, any covering projection induces a monomorphism on 1 .
Hence (pH )# : H = 1 (EH ) ,
1 (E).
In other words (pH )# 1 (EH ) = H.
2

8.2.3

Existence of Universal Covering Spaces

Not every space has aQuniversal covering space.

Example: Let X =
S 1.
Qn j=1 Q
Proof: Let En = j=1 R j=n+1 S 1 .

Its easy to check that pn = exp exp 1Q

j=n+1

S1

is a covering projection.

(In general a product of covering projections is a covering projection.)

X.
Suppose X had a universal covering projection p : X
Then n, we have
fn

X
@
@ p
@
@
R
@

pn

92

En

By uniqueness of fn ,

En+1


fn+1

en+1
@
@
@
@
R
@

X
where en+1 is exp on factor (n + 1) and the identity on the other factors.
Apply 1 and use that p# is a monomorphism to see that all maps on 1 are monomorphisms.
1 (En+1 ) 1 (En ) 1 (X).
1 (X)
1 (X) =

1 (S ) =

j=1

j=1

Q
T
and 1 (En ) is the subgroup
j=n+1 Z. Hence 1 (X)
n=1 1 (En ) = 0. So 1 (X) = 0.
X.
Let U X be an evenly covered set for the covering projection X
1
Replace U by the basic open subset U1 U2 Un S S 1 . . .
For j = 1, . . . , n select uj Uj .
Define : S 1 X by

j = 1, . . . , n
j = cuj
n+1 = 1S 1

j = c
j >n+1
Q
Notice that Im () U . [] = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . ) 1 (X) =
j=1 Z (where the 1 is in
position n + 1).
Let T be a sheet in p1 (U ).
Im () U , p|T is a homeomorphism, so has a lift 0 which is a closed curve in T .
and p# ([0 ]) = []. But 1 (X)
= 0. This is a contradiction
So 0 represents a class in 1 (X)
since [] = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . .) 6= 0.
Hence X has no universal covering space.
2
93

Definition 8.2.13 A space X is called semilocally simply connected if each point x X has
an open neighbourhood Ux s.t. i# : 1 (Ux , x) 1 (X, x) is the trivial map of groups. (where
i : Ux , X denotes the inclusion).
Notice that

n=1

S 1 is not semilocally simply connected.

Theorem 8.2.14 Let X be connected, locally path connected and semilocally simply connected.
Then X has a universal convering space.
Proof: Choose x0 X.
For path , in X beginning at x0 , define equiv. reln.: B if (1) = (1) and '
rel (0, 1).
= {equiv. classes} (paths beginning at x0 )
Let X
X.
Define p : X
[] (1).
as follow: Given [] X
and open V X containing (1), define subset
Topologize X
by h, V i = {[w] X|[w]

denoted h, V i of X
= [ ] for some path in V }. (strictly
speaking mean Im V .)
Note: h, V i is independent of choice of representation for [] used to define it.

Claim: {h, V i} form a base for a topology on X.

Proof: Show intersection of 2 such sets is or a union of sets of this form.
Suppose [w] h, V i h0 , V 0 i 6=
Suff. to show:
Claim: hw, V V 0 i h, V i h0 , V 0 i
Proof: Suppose hw, V V 0 i
[] = [w ] some in V V 0 .
[w] h, V i 1 in V s.t. [w] = [ 1 ]
[w] h0 , V 0 i 2 in V 0 s.t. [w] = [0 , 2 ]

/
w/

w
|

2 1

where w 0 0 2 ' w.

1 in V , [] = [ 1 2 ] [] h, V i.
Similarly [] h0 , V 0 i. hw, V V 0 i h, V i h0 , V 0 i
the topology defined by this base.
Give X
Let V X be open.
94


Then p1 (V ) = {[w] X|w(1)
V}=

{|(1)V }

h, V i

p cont.
For x X find Vx s.t. i# : 1 (Vx , x) 1 (X, x) is trivial. i : Vx 7 X
Let Ux = path component of Vx containing x. open since X locally path connected.
`
(A): Show p1 (Ux ) =
h, Ux i.
{[]|(1)=x}

1. (1) = x. p([w]) = w(1) Ux .

s.t. p[w] Ux . i.e. [w] p1 (Ux )
2. Suppose [w] X
Then path in Ux joining x to w(1).
Let = w 1 . [ ] = [w 1 ] = [w].
S
[w] h, Ux i
h, Ux i ( ends where begins at x)
(1)=x

3. union is disjoint Suppose [w] h, Ux i h0 , Ux i

[0 0 ] = [w] = [ ] , 0 paths in Ux
x

x
/

w (1)

Ux

Ux Vx path 01 reps. elt. of 1 (Vx , x) so choice of Vx [ 01 ] = [cx ] in

1 (X, x).
[] = [ 01 ] = [w 01 ] = [0 0 01 ] = [0 ].
(B) Show [] s.t. (1) = x that p|h,Ux i : h, Ux i Ux is a homeomorphism.
Any pt. in Ux can be joined to x by a path in Ux , hence q is onto.
Claim: q is 1 1.

Suppose [w], [w 0 ] h, Ux i s.t. q([w]) = q([w 0 ]).

Find paths , 0 in Ux s.t. [w] = [ ], [w 0 ] = [ 0 ].

, 0 each join x to w(1) = w 0 (1) in Ux so as above [ 1 0 ] = [cx ] in 1 (X, x).

[w] = [ ] = [ 1 0 ] = [ 0 ] = [w 0 ].

Claim: q 1 is continuous.

95

Let h, V i be basic open set with h, V i h, Ux i.

q(h, V i) = path component of x within V Ux open since X locally path connected.

Note: qh, V i = h, path component of (1) within V i. This implies we may assume V
is path connected.
q(w) = (1) where in V , (1) Ux , and (0) = (1) = x since h, V i h, Ux i.
q(h, V i) V Ux .

Conversely V Ux q(h, V i) since endpt. of can be joined to (1) by path in V .

q 1 cont.
X covering proj.
p : X
Suff. to show:

is simply connected:
(C) X
as basept. of X.

Pick x0 := [cx0 ] X
is path connected:
1. X
w
define I
by w (s) = [ws ] where ws (t) = w(st).
Given [w] X,
X
w0 = cx0 , w1 = w.
w (0) = [w0 ] = [cx0 ] = x0 .
Hence
w joins x0 to [w].
w (1) = [w1 ] = [w].
path connected.
X
x
Before showing 1 (X,
0 ) = 1 need properties of w .
beginning at x0 .
(a) p w (s) = p([ws ]) = ws [1] = w(s) w is the lift of w to X
(b) Claim: [w] = [] w ' rel (0, 1).
Proof: Follows from Covering Homotopy Thm.
x0 ) = 1. Let rep. an elt. of 1 (X,
x0 ). Then p is a path in X
2. Show 1 (X,
beginning at x0 . Unique
joining x0 to itself. , p are both lifts of p to X
lifting = p (1) = p (1) and x0 = (1) because represents an element
of 1 (X, x0 ). 1 (X, x0 ).)
96

 [
Therefore in X,
p ] = [(
p )1 ] = p (1) = x0 = [cx0 ].
part (b) above
x0 ).
'
cx0 = cx0 so [] = 1 in 1 (X,
Therefore = p

is simply connected.
Therefore X
(So by Corollary 8.2.7, being a simple connected cover of a connected, path connected and
is a universal covering space.)
locally path connected space, X
2

97