Module No.

2: GEOLOGIC HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

Module Overview: This module deals with the benefit and hazards that fire provides to mankind.
This will also tackle fire classification and safety handling of such events. In general, the
students in the long run will be able to put in action and apply the skills they have learned about
disaster risks, hazards and elements at risk and vulnerability.

LESSON 1: EARTHQUAKE

TRANSFER GOAL/LEARNING OUTCOME:

The students in the long run will be able to use qualitative and quantitative data on natural
hazards in making logical inferences about disasters. They will also be able to locate and adapt
to the natural processes that may impact their school, local community and country. Moreover,
the values of resilience and strong faith in God may be further developed within them.

OBJECTIVES:
In these lessons, you will:
1. Explain the nature and process of an earthquake;
2. Discuss how to reduce risks and prepare for an earthquake; and
3. Identify hazards at home that could harm them during an earthquake.
CONTENT F OCUS:
An earthquake is a natural phenomenon that occurs in different parts of the world. It can
be very devastating, as it can kill thousands of people within seconds. From 1910 to 2010,
almost 1.5 million people were killed in the most significant earthquakes that shook the world.
Among them are the 7.8 magnitude earthquake in Tangshan, China in 1978 that killed 241, 000
people; the 7.0 magnitude earthquake in Port-au-Prince in 2010 that killed 230, 000; the 8.0
magnitude earthquake in Tokyo, Japan in 1923 that killed 130, 000; and the 7.3 magnitude
earthquake in Ashkhabad, Turkmenistan in 1948 that killed 110, 000 (Lomnitz and Wisner,
2012).
On December 26, 2004, the Great Sumatran Earthquake of magnitude 9.0 caused the
Indian Ocean tsunami, killing 280, 000 people. Several countries were affected such as
Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and Maldives. In 2011, the world witnessed the impact of
the Great East Japan earthquake that also triggered a powerful tsunami. It resulted in almost
16, 000 deaths with almost 3, 000 people missing. In the Philippines, the most devastating
earthquake was in 1976 when a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in Mindanao resulted in a tsunami
that killed 3, 564 people. In 1990, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake in Central Luzon killed 1, 660
people.
A recent study on the West Valley Fault in Metro Manila predicts a 7.2 magnitude
earthquake that can result in 34, 800 casualties and 118, 200 injured persons (JICA, MMDA,
PHIVOLCS, 2004). What can we do to survive this possible disaster?
UNDERSTANDING EARTHQUAKES
According to one of the theories regarding the formation of the Philippines, our islands
and mountains were the result of the collision of the Pacific Plate in the east and the Eurasian
Plate in the west. As the Pacific Plate was forced against the Eurasian Plate, the crust crumbled
and the archipelago was formed. Within the Philippines, there are also smaller plates that slowly
drift against each other along the fault lines. Fault lines are cracks on the earth’s surface along
which smaller plates move or slip against each other. Sometimes the slow and smooth
movement stops abruptly, possibly because of a natural obstacle. These plates will then have to
accumulate enough strength before they can crush this obstacle and continue their movement.
When sufficient energy has been built up in the rocks, the obstacle suddenly breaks and the two
plates slip or leap forward to make up for all the movement they have “lost.” This shock is called
an earthquake, the weak or violent shaking of the earth’s surface caused by the sudden
movement of rock materials beneath it. The place where the energy is releases like an
explosion is called the focus, while the epicentre is the point that is immediately above the focus
(Cramer, 1991).
Figure 1. Anatomy of an Earthquake

Active Fault Line

As previously discussed, there are many active fault lines in the country. PHIVOLCS
defines an active fault as a fault which has moved within the last 10, 000 years. This means that
there is historical seismicity. The movement can be shown by fault slips based on displaced
rocks or soil of known age, or through displaced landforms. One of the most active faults that
can trigger a strong earthquake is the West Valley Fault.
Magnitude
An earthquake is measured by its magnitude and intensity. The magnitude is a measure
of the total energy released at the earthquake’s point of origin which is below the earth’s
surface. This is based on information derived from a seismograph, the instrument that measures
magnitude. The Richter Magnitude Scale is used to measure the strength of an earthquake.
Table 1. Richter Magnitude Scale
1 Not felt. Detected only by sensitive seismographs under favorable conditions.

2 Hardly perceptive. Detected by seismographs.

3 “Very feeble.” Felt only near the epicentre.

4 “Feeble.” Generally felt, but don’t usually cause any damage.

5 “Moderate” earthquake. May cause local damages.

6 “Strong” earthquake. Usually causes local damages.

“Major” earthquake. Causes considerable widespread damages; Maybe accompanied by
7
surface rupture and tsunami.

8 “Great” earthquake. Potentially devastating.

9 Rare earthquake. Only 5 recorded since 1900.

DOST-PHIVOLCS also released the agency’s Magnitude Scale similar to Richter’s.

 Figure 2. Earthquake Magnitude Scale

Intensity
The intensity is the perceived strength of an earthquake based on relative effect to
people and structures in the earth’s surface. Generally, the nearer the area to the epicentre, the
higher the intensity in that area.
Table 2. Mercalli Intensity Scale
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
Ground Shaking
 If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like buildings,
bridges and dams can be severely damaged, and cliffs and sloping ground destabilised.
Perched or stacked objects may fall and injure or bury anyone close by. In the largest
earthquakes whole districts can be devastated by the multiple consequences of ground
shaking. Ground shaking will vary over an area due to such factors as topography, bedrock
type, and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. These all affect the way the seismic
waves travel through the ground. 
Figure 3. Ground shaking affecting the building structure

Figure 4. Effects from the 1990 Luzon Earthquake.

Source: DOST-PHIVOLCS
Ground Rupture
Ground rupture is the displacement of the ground due to the violent shaking of the
surface. Vertical displacement occurs when one side of the ground goes up or down or both
sides moved with one side going up and the other going down. Horizontal displacement
happens when there is a lateral movement from side to side; one side goes to the left or right, or
both move sideways in different directions.
Ground rupture can cause a building to collapse if it stands right above it. Roads can be
divided if the rupture follows their path. It can also displace the pattern of rice fields, destroying
the irrigation system.

Figure 5. Pilapils in Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya displaced left-laterally by the ground rupture of the
1990 Luzon Earthquake.

Figure 6. Horizontal Displacement Figure 7. Vertical Displacement

Liquefaction

Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are agitated by seismic shaking. This
separates the grains from each other, reducing their load bearing capacity. Buildings and other
structures can sink down into the ground or tilt over, whilst underground pipes and tanks may
rise up to the surface. When the vibrations stop, the sediments settle down again, squeezing
groundwater out of fissures and holes in the ground to cause flooding. The aftermath of
liquefaction can leave large areas covered in a deep layer of mud. During the 1990 earthquake
in Central Luzon, several buildings in Dagupan City collapsed because of liquefaction. The city
is near the coast (DOST-PHIVOLCS, n,d.).

Figure 8. Liquefaction
 Figures 9-10. Effects of liquefaction in some parts of Dagupan City during the 1990 Luzon
Earthquake

Ground Subsidence
Ground subsidence or the lowering of the land surface occurs for many reasons, such as
the extraction of ground water and natural gas, mining, and earthquakes. As shown in the
liquefaction process, the loose deposits of soil can be compacted by the ground shaking,
causing the ground to subside. When this happens, the structures on the surface can tilt or
collapse due to the weakened foundation.
Figure 11. Scene of Ground Subsidence

Source: coloradogeologicalsurvey.org

Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of waves caused by earthquakes or undersea volcanic eruptions.
Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in height. But as the
waves travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean
decreases. The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from
the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters, only
slowing down when reaching shallow waters.
Figure 12. Undersea earthquake causing rise of waves

A tsunami can be near-field or far-field. Near-field or local tsunamis can reach the
shoreline within minutes. On the other hand, it can take several hours for far-field or distant
tsunamis to do the same as they may be generated from other countries.
Figure 13. Formation of a tsunami
 Signs of an approaching local tsunami include a felt earthquake, extreme lowering of sea
level, noticeable rise and fall of coastal water, and the rumbling sound of approaching waves
(DOST-PHIVOLCS, n.d.).

Figure 14. Tsunami info graphic from DOST-PHIVOLCS

EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS AND RISK REDUCTION

PHIVOLCS released an earthquake preparedness guide that tells us what to do before,
during, and after an earthquake.
How can schools prepare for earthquakes?