Table of Contents / Outline

I: What is a Landslide?
II: What causes a Landslide?
III: What are the effects of Landslides?
IV: What are the types of Landslides?
V: Deadliest cases of Landslides
VI: What to do when a Landslide occurs
LANDSLIDES
I. WHAT IS A LANDSLIDE?

 Landslide, also called landslip, is the downslope movement of a mass of rock, debris,
earth, or soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris). Landslides occur when
gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength
(resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope.
 Shear stresses can be built up within a slope by a number of processes. These include
oversteepening of the base of the slope, such as by natural erosion or excavation, and
loading of the slope, such as by an inflow of water, a rise in the groundwater table, or
the accumulation of debris on the slope’s surface. Short-term stresses, such as those
imposed by earthquakes and rainstorms, can likewise contribute to the activation of
landslides. Landslides can also be activated by processes that weaken the shear strength
of a slope’s material. Shear strength is dependent mainly on two factors: frictional
strength, which is the resistance to movement between the slope material’s interacting
constituent particles, and cohesive strength, which is the bonding between the particles.
Coarse particles such as sand grains have high frictional strength but low cohesive
strength, whereas the opposite is true for clays, which are composed of fine particles.
Another factor that affects the shear strength of a slope-forming material is the spatial
disposition of its constituent particles, referred to as the sediment fabric. Some
materials with a loose, open sediment fabric will weaken if they are mechanically
disturbed or flooded with water. An increase in water content, resulting from either
natural causes or human activity, typically weakens sandy materials through the
reduction of interparticle friction and weakens clays through the dissolution of
interparticle cements, the hydration of clay minerals, and the elimination of interparticle
(capillary) tension.
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica (https://www.britannica.com/science/landslide)

 A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of
soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity. The term "landslide" encompasses
five modes of slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are
further subdivided by the type of geologic material (bedrock, debris, or earth). Debris
flows (commonly referred to as mudflows or mudslides) and rock falls are examples of
common landslide types.
 Almost every landslide has multiple causes. Slope movement occurs when forces acting
down-slope (mainly due to gravity) exceed the strength of the earth materials that
compose the slope. Causes include factors that increase the effects of down-slope
forces and factors that contribute to low or reduced strength. Landslides can be initiated
in slopes already on the verge of movement by rainfall, snowmelt, changes in water
 level, stream erosion, changes in ground water, earthquakes, volcanic activity,
disturbance by human activities, or any combination of these factors. Earthquake
shaking and other factors can also induce landslides underwater. These landslides are
called submarine landslides. Submarine landslides sometimes cause tsunamis that
damage coastal areas.
Source: USGS (https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-landslide-and-what-causes-one?qt-
news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products)
II. WHAT CAUSES A LANDSLIDE?

 One major force all landslides have in common is that they are propelled by gravity. We
normally think of gravity pulling an object vertically down, such as when you drop a ball
straight down. But on a slope gravity gets slightly more complicated. Any force (such as
gravity) has magnitude and direction. On a slope gravitational effects can be separated
into a component that's parallel to the slope (which pulls the object down the slope)
and a component perpendicular to it (which pulls the object against the slope's surface).
As the angle of the slope increases (making it steeper), gravity's parallel component
increases and the perpendicular component decreases, thereby overcoming resistance
for downward movement. This resistance is called friction and depends on the
perpendicular component of gravity, along with the slope's and object's surfaces. When
the parallel component becomes greater than the perpendicular component, the object
slides down the slope. In other words, the critical maximum slope from horizontal—
called the angle of repose, which is the greatest angle that an object will remain at rest
—has been surpassed.
Source: Scientific American (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sliding-science-how-
are-landslides-caused/)

 Natural Causes of Landslides

1. Climate
Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction in
precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil
mass, reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant
upsurge in precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of
ground water. When sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can
occur. If there is absence of mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.
2. Earthquakes
Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe. Any
moment tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When
earthquakes strike areas with steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading
 to landslides. In addition, ashen debris flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause
mass soil movement.
3. Weathering
Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak, landslide-
susceptive materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of water, air,
plants and bacteria. When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing landslides.
4. Erosion
Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice
and waves wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
5. Volcanoes
Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet condition, the
soil will start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Stratovolcano is a typical example
of volcano responsible for most landslides across the globe.
6. Forest fires
Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to landslides
7. Gravity
Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide.

 Human causes of landslides

1. Mining
Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides.
Vibrations emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to
landslides. The weakening of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.
2. Clear cutting
Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from the
area. This technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root
structure of the area.
Source: Earth Eclipse (https://www.eartheclipse.com/natural-disaster/causes-effects-and-
types-of-landslides.html)
III. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES?
1. Loss of lives
 Landslides and mudslides kill between 25 and 50 people every year in the USA alone.
Globally, it is believed that the number of deaths is highly underestimated. In total,
2,620 fatal landslides were recorded worldwide during the 2004 and 2010 period of the
study, causing a total of 32,322 recorded fatalities.
2. Destruction of property
In 1980, Mount St Helens in Washington USA erupted and causes a rock debris landslide
believed to be the biggest in history. The landslide traveled about 14 miles, wiping away
highway bridges, buildings, and roads. It is known that the amount of debris in this
avalanche can fill 250 million dump trucks.
3. Economic costs
Landslides bring huge costs to communities and cities affected, by clean up and
rebuilding destroyed infrastructure. In 2005 it cost the USA $3.5 billion in damage
repair.
4. Destruction natural environment
Debris flows usually uproot trees and wipe out vegetation and wildlife in its path.
Source: Eschool Today (http://eschooltoday.com/natural-disasters/landslides/before-during-
after-landslides.html)
1. Lead to economic decline
Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is
significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide, the
area affected normally undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves massive
capital outlay. For example, the 1983 landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in
rehabilitation cost of about $500 million. The annual loss as a result of landslides in U.S.
stands at an estimated $1.5 billion.
2. Decimation of infrastructure
The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause serious
damage to property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations,
buildings and communication systems can be decimated by a single landslide.
3. Loss of life
Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death by
landslides. A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and heavy soil
with it. This kind of landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on impact. For
instance, Landslides in the UK that happened a few years ago caused rotation of debris
that destroyed a school and killed over 144 people including 116 school children aged
 between 7 and 10 years. In a separate event, NBC News reported a death toll of 21
people in the March 22, 2014, landslide in Oso, Washington.
4. Affects beauty of landscapes
The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes that are
unsightly. The pile of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized by the
community for agricultural or social purposes.
5. Impacts river ecosystems
The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers and block their natural
flow. Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural flow of water.
Communities depending on the river water for household activities and irrigation will
suffer if flow of water is blocked.
Source: Earth Eclipse (https://www.eartheclipse.com/natural-disaster/causes-effects-and-
types-of-landslides.html)
IV. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF LANDSLIDES?
1. DEBRIS FLOW OR MUDFLOW
Mud or debris flows commonly originate in steep terrain where vegetation and organic
litter that help to stabilize the soil and retain rainfall and runoff have been removed by
fire, grazing, logging or other processes. Intense and prolonged rainfall may then trigger
the downslope movement of soil and other surface materials. This type of landslide is
potentially more dangerous than other types because it can form very quickly and more
velocities up to 80km per hour. The greater density meant that it is more destructive
than floodwaters, the mud does not recede after the storm.
2. CREEP
Creep occurs mainly in the soil mantle, that part of the soil from the surface to a few
centimeters or metres below the surface. It involves the slow downslope movement or
the gradual plastic deformation of the soil mantle and/or the fracturing of bedrock at
imperceptible rates. There is no single surface along which slippage occurs. The rate of
downhill movement or creep can vary from a few millimeters per year for slopes less
than 10% to about 10mm per year in steeper terrains.
The downward movement involves minute displacement of individual particles that are
moving at different rates. It is commonly caused by the expansion of the surface layer
due to heating followed by contraction due to cooling. Creep may also be caused be the
swelling of certain clays after seasonal rainfalls when their moisture content increases,
followed by contraction when their moisture content drops during the dry period.
3. FALLS AND TOPPLING
 A rock-fall is the abrupt free fall or downslope movement, (rolling or sliding) of loosened
blocks or boulders of solid rock. It differs from a slide in that free fall is the main type of
movement and no marked slide surface develops. This type of slope failure occur in
caverns and along steep gorges, sea cliffs and steep road cuts through unstable bedrock.
The bedding, jointing and fracturing of the bedrock are the important factors affecting
slope stability. The effects of weathering, such as the freezing of water in joints (in cold
countries), the pressure of water in fissures, and root pressures may initiate failure in
the weak rocks.
4. SLIDES
A slide, in the strictest sense, is characterized by failure of material at depth and then
movement by sliding along a rupture or slip surface. If sliding is on a predominantly
planar slip surface then the slide is called a block slide. If movement is on a curved slip
surface then the slide is called a rotational slide. A lot of rotational slide end up as a
mudflow leaving a gaping hole in the ground where the slide began. Debris from the
slide is strewn down a torrent track along which the mudflow travelled to the base of
the slope or where the flow path widens and dissipates. A rotational slide with one or
more curved slip surfaces where the movement of material is incomplete, leaving
individual slumped blocks, is referred to as a slump.
Slides are probably the most common and overall possibly the most destructive type of
landslide to hillside developments. Wherever steep mountains or hillside slopes occur or
are altered, the possibility of large landslides and consequent disasters exist.
The rupture or slip surface can occur within the bedrock, at the contact between the
bedrock and the overburden or soil (in which case all the surface materials move) or
within the overburden which in some cases may be of artificial fill.
5. FLOWS
Flows involve the deformation of an entire soil mass that then flows downslope as a
viscous or sticky fluid. Deformation may be due to a high soil water content or seismic
shaking that leads to liquefaction and thus generates such a fluid flow. The slopes need
not be very steep. Two types of flow can be recognized; if the downslope movement is
very slow then is an earthflow, if it is very rapid it is a debris flow or as it is sometimes
known, a mudflow.
6. EARTHFLOW
Earthflows occur in moderate to steep slopes where the topsoil or overburden
seasonally becomes saturated by heavy rains. The material slumps away from the upper
part of the slope leaving a scarp, and flows down to form a bulge at the toe.
Source: Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources
(http://www.mrd.gov.fj/images/Brochures/Types_of_Landslide.pdf)
1. Falls
Falls are sudden movements of loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from
slopes and cliffs. Falls landslides occur as a result of mechanical weathering,
earthquakes, and force of gravity.
2. Slides
This is a kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from
underlying stable material. The kinds of slides experienced during this type of landslide
include rotational and transitional. Rotational slides are sometimes known as slumps
since they move with rotation.
Transitional slides consist of a planer or 2 dimensional surface of rupture. They involve
landslide mass movement following a roughly planar surface with reduced rotation or
backward slanting. Slides occur when the toe of the slope is undercut. They move
moderately, and the consistency of material is maintained.
3. Topples
Topple landslides occur when the topple fails. Topple failure encompasses the forward
spinning and movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope. This
type of slope failure takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of
rock. A topple landslide mostly lead to formation of a debris cone below the slope. This
pile of debris is known as a Talus cone.
4. Spreads
They are commonly known as lateral spreads and takes place on gentle terrains via
lateral extension followed by tensile fractures.
5. Flows
This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris flow,
mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive.
Flows are further subcategorized depending upon the geological material, for example,
earth, debris, and bedrock.
Source: Earth Eclipse (https://www.eartheclipse.com/natural-disaster/causes-effects-and-
types-of-landslides.html)
V. DEADLIEST CASES OF LANDSLIDES

 Worldwide
1. Haiyuan Flows, Ningxia, China, December 1920 (100,000+ deaths)
The 8.5-magnitude Haiyuan Earthquake was the world’s second deadliest earthquake of
the 20th Century. It generated a series of 675 major loess landslides causing massive
destruction to lives and property. The natural calamity which struck the rural district of
Haiyuan on the evening of December 16, 1920 claimed over 100,000 lives, and severely
damaged an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometers. The worst affected areas
included the the epicenter of the earthquake in the Haiyuan County in what is now the
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, as well as the neighboring provinces of Gansu and
Shaanxi. Haiyuan County alone lost more than 50% of its population in the disaster. One
of the landslides buried an entire village in Xiji County as well.
2. Vargas Tragedy, Vargas, Venezuela, December 1999 (30,000 deaths)
The Winter of 1999 witnessed unusually heavy rainfall in the Vargas State of Venezuela.
The rainfall triggered a series of large and small flash floods and debris flows that
claimed around 30,000 lives in the region. As per estimates, approximately 10% of the
population of Vargas perished in the disaster. The entire towns of Carmen de Uria and
Cerro Grande completely vanished under the mud bed, and a large number of homes
were simply swept away into the nearby ocean.
3. Armero Tragedy, Tolima, Colombia, November 1985 (23,000 deaths)
A dormant volcano, the Nevado del Ruiz in Tolima, Colombia, suddenly came to life on
November 13, 1985, wreaking havoc on the nearby villages and towns, and killing as
many as 23,000 people. A pyroclastic flow from the crater of the volcano had melted the
glaciers in the mountain and sent deadly lahars, saturated with mud, ice, snow, and
volcanic debris, rushing down the mountain at killer speeds towards the residential
areas directly below it. The lahars soon engulfed the town of Armero, killing thousands
there, while casualties were also reported in such other towns as Chinchiná.
4. 70 Nevado Huascaran Debris Fall, Yungay, Peru, May 1970 (22,000 deaths)
In May of 1970, an earthquake triggered a massive series of landslides and avalanches
of rock and snow that buried the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca. Nearly 22,000 people
perished in this natural disaster. The avalanche travelled a distance of 16.5 kilometers. It
ended up carrying 50-100 million cubic meters of water, mud, and rocks, which reached
the village of Yungay and smothered all life forms therein under its deadly cover.
5. North India Flood mudslides, Kedarnath, India, June 2013 (5,700 deaths)
One of the worst natural disasters in the history of India occurred in June of 2013, when
powerful flash floods killed around 5,700 people in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand.
Consistent cloudbursts and incessant monsoon rainfall were primarily held responsible
for the disaster, which has been officially termed as a natural calamity. However, a
 section of environmentalists, scientists, and the educated public think otherwise.
According to them, thoughtless human intervention in the Himalayan mountain
ecosystem had rendered the ecosystem extremely fragile and prone to disaster. The
unchecked tourism in the region had promoted the rapid growth of hotels, roads, and
shops throughout the region without paying heed to the environmental laws and
demands of the ecosystem. The mushrooming of hydroelectric dams in Uttarakhand
was also another important factor held responsible for the environmental damage.
Heavy rainfall had been previously recorded in the region which had also led to flash
floods, but the devastation produced in 2013 was comparable to no earlier data. It is
believed that floodwaters had no outlets this time, as most of the routes taken by the
water previously were now blocked by sand and rocks. Hence, the lethal waters, laden
with debris from dam construction and large volumes of mud and rocks, inundated
towns and villages and buried all forms of life that came in its way.
6. Kelud Lahars, East Java, Indonesia, May 1919 (5,000+ deaths)
Mount Kelud, in Eastern Java, Indonesia, is quite infamous as an extremely active,
hazardous volcano, and one which has erupted about 30 times in the past killing
thousands of people in its volcanic disasters. One of the deadliest eruptions of this
volcano occurred on May 19, 1919, when over 38 million cubic meters of water were
expelled from the crater lake of the volcano, which had accumulated large amounts of
sediment and volcanic material to form lethal lahars. The lahars moved down the
mountains with high velocity and swept away and drowned all that were unfortunate
enough to be in its path.
7. Huaraz Debris Flows, Ancash, Peru, December 1941 (5,000 deaths)
In December of 1941, the residents of Huaraz, a Peruvian city in the Ancash region, were
completely unaware that a retreating glacier tongue above their city would soon be
responsible for wreaking havoc its people and claim thousands of the lives living within.
Just before dawn on December 13, 1941, disaster struck the Peruvian city when a
landslide resulted in glacial ice crashing down into Lake Palcacocha, generating huge
waves that completely destroyed the dam on the lake. This released large volumes of
water, itself laden with mud, rock, and ice, into the valley below with an unimaginably
high force. Another dam in the nearby Lake Jircacocha was also broken by the flowing
glacial water, resulting in the furious waters of both of the two lakes emptying
themselves onto the city of Huaraz, claiming more than 5,000 lives in the process.
8. 62 Nevado Huascaran Debris Fall, Ranrahirca, Peru, January 1962 (4,500 deaths)
Mount Huascarán is a famous Peruvian mountain with a snowcapped peak that rises to
a height of 22,205 feet. In January of 1962, a thaw triggered the breaking off of a
portion of the north summit of the mountain, leading to a landslide/avalanche that led
to the tragic death of nearly 4,500 people. The avalanche, locally referred to as
 ‘Huayco’, involved a massive ice sheet that was estimated to be about 1 kilometer wide
and 40 feet high. As the ice sheet moved rapidly down the slopes, it gathered rock and
debris from the mountain and strengthened in force, completely burying several villages
in Ranrahica underneath it.
9. Khait Landslide, Tajikstan, July 1949 (4,000 deaths))
For centuries, the mountainous belt running through Central Asia has witnessed a large
number of disasters involving earthquake-triggered landslides. One such natural
catastrophe occurred in July of 1949, when the 7.4 magnitude Khait Earthquake
triggered hundreds of landslides near the southern limits of the Tien Shan ranges in
central Tajikistan. The adjacent valleys of Yasman and Khait were the most affected by
these earthquake-induced landslides. The Khait Landslide involved rockslides with
saturated loess travelling at an estimated average velocity of around 30 meters per
second. Approximately 4,000 people were killed in this tragic natural disaster.
10. Diexi Slides, Sichuan, China, August 1933 (3,000+ deaths)
On August 5, 1933, a strong earthquake triggered a massive landslide in Diexi, Mao
County, Szechwan, China. The event, known as the Diexi Slides, claimed more than
3,000 lives, and destroyed many villages within the affected region. The old town of
Diexi suffered the worst fate of all as it sank into the landslide-created dam below.
Source: World Atlas (https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/deadliest-landslides-in-recorded-
history.html)

 Philippines
1. 1999 Cherry Hills landslide
On August 3, 1999, heavy rain induced by Typhoon Ising (Olga) spelled disaster for
residents of Cherry Hills Subdivision in Antipolo City, when the ground beneath them
broke apart and slid down the mountain. (READ: The ghost of Cherry Hills)
Houses went down along with the landslide, while those living down the slope were
buried in mud and concrete. A total of 60 people died.
University of the Philippines geologists who looked into the disaster argued that while
heavy rains may have set off the landslide, certain geological traits of the area where
the subdivision stood made it vulnerable. Structural interventions could have averted
the disaster, but that would have made the cost of the project prohibitive for the low-
income sector.
2. 2003 Panaon Island (Southern Leyte) debris flow
A low pressure area brought nonstop rain to Panaon Island at the tip of Southern Leyte
on December 19, 2003.
 That evening, loose soil, boulders, and debris rolled down towards houses in Barangay
Pinut-an in San Ricardo town, and in Sitio Lutao (Barangay Poblacion) and Barangay
Punta in Liloan town. Authorities reported 154 people dead in Panaon Island due to the
landslides.
3. 2006 Guinsaugon landslide
Over 1,200 people died on February 11, 2006, when an earthquake triggered an
avalanche of mud and boulders down a mountain slope towards Guinsaugon village in
Saint Bernard, Southern Leyte.
The landslide caught residents by surprise that day, but it had been building up for quite
some time, following intense rainfall in the days leading up to the disaster. In addition,
geologists said that warning signs about the risk of landslides in the area went
unheeded.
4. 2006 Mayon Volcano lahar
Typhoon Reming (Durian) drenched the Bicol Region on November 30, 2006, after the
storm made landfall there. The rains triggered the movement of volcanic ash on the
slopes of the Mayon Volcano.
The resulting mudslide or lahar rushed down the villages located on the foot of the
Mayon, killing over 1,200 residents, many of whom were missing or presumed dead.
5. 2009 Cordillera landslides
Days after Tropical Storm Ondoy (Ketsana) left the country, Typhoon Pepeng (Parma)
battered the mountainous Cordillera region with intense rain, causing multiple
landslides in the region in early October 2009.
At least 120 people died in Benguet province, 25 in Baguio City, and 23 in Mountain
Province, according to authorities.
6. 2012 Pantukan landslide
Five days into the new year of 2012, tragedy struck a small-scale mining site in
Pantukan, Compostela Valley, where some miners have settled to pan for gold.
A landslide in the wee hours of the morning, caused by heavy rain and a mild
earthquake near the province, buried the houses near the mining site. At least 42
people were killed.
7. 2012 New Bataan (Compostela Valley) debris flow
Rains brought by Typhoon Pablo (Bopha) caused a massive debris flow in Barangay
Andap in New Bataan, Compostela Valley on December 4, 2012.
 The flow of mud, boulders, and gravel rushed towards Barangay Andap, which was on
the mouth of a steep mountain drainage network. At least 128 died and 450 went
missing as the village was buried under the debris in the wake of the disaster.
8. 2014 Catbalogan landslide
Around 19 people died on December 30, 2014, in Catbalogan City, Samar, after Tropical
Storm Seniang (Jangmi) caused landslides in some areas, most notably in Barangay
Mercedes.
Seniang also caused landslides in two towns in neighboring Leyte province, killing at
least 9.
9. 2017 Biliran landslides
On December 16, 2017, 4 towns in Biliran province were affected not only by rains
brought by Tropical Storm Urduja (Kai-tak) but also by landslides. At least 42 people died
in Naval, Caibiran, Biliran, and Almeria, while 14 others were missing.
The Mines and Geosciences Bureau said many factors – like the very high slope gradient
in the affected areas and unstable grounds due to road development, farming, and poor
drainage systems – mainly contributed to the landslides, not the supposed "open-pit
mining" operations in the province.
10. 2018 Itogon, Benguet landslides
Typhoon Ompong (Mangkhut), so far the strongest tropical cyclone in 2018, brought
heavy rains and strong winds in northern Luzon. Most of the fatalities were recorded in
landslides that occurred at a mining town in Itogon, Benguet on September 15, 2018.
As of September 21, at least 58 people have been reported dead, 31 of whom lived in
Barangay Ucab where the biggest landslide happened.
Despite the risks in the landslide-prone area, however, residents said they would rather
stay put than lose their only source of livelihood.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) said the Itogon landslide
was not caused by mining activities but mainly due to the texture of the soil and the
mountain's steep slope. The DENR later clarified that the deaths "were still a matter of
mining" as it is the livelihood of many residents there.
After Ompong, Environment Secretary Roy Cimatu ordered a stop to small-scale mining
operations in the Cordillera region.
11. 2018 Naga, Cebu landslide
Days of heavy monsoon rains caused a landslide in Naga City, Cebu on September 20,
2018, affecting at least two barangays. Limestone and soil on the mountainside softened
 due to the rain, and it collapsed on a number of homes that early morning, when many
people would still have been in bed.
The death toll rose to 29 as of September 21.
Source: Rappler (https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/212440-list-deadly-landslides-
philippines)
VI. WHAT TO DO WHEN A LANDSLIDE OCCURS

 BEFORE
1. To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family
communications plan.
2. Connect with your local emergency services, heed evacuation warnings.
3. Leave if you have been told to evacuate or you feel it is unsafe to remain in your home.
Text SHELTER + your ZIP code to 43362 (4FEMA) to find the nearest shelter in your area
(example: shelter 12345).
4. Prepare for landslides by following proper land-use procedures - avoid building near
steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways or along natural erosion
valleys.
5. Become familiar with the land around you. Learn whether landslides have occurred in
your area by contacting local officials. However, don’t assume that what happened last
time will happen next time. Debris flows can start in places they’ve never been and
return to slopes where they’ve already been.
6. Get an assessment of your property by a qualified geotechnical professional.
7. Consult a professional for advice on appropriate preventative measures for your home
or business, such as flexible pipe fittings, which can better resist breakage.
8. Protect your property based on of recommendations from the ‘qualified geotechnical
professional’ and/or local city/county guidance on protection from debris flow and
flooding. You can't stop or change the path of a debris flow. However, you may be able
to protect your property from floodwaters or mud by use of sandbags, retaining walls or
k-rails (Jersey barriers).
9. In mud and debris flow areas, consider building channels or deflection walls to try to
direct the flow around buildings. Be aware, however, that when a flow is big enough, it
goes where it pleases. Also, if you divert a flow and it flows on a neighbor's property,
you may be liable for damages.
10. If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be
covered by flood insurance policies from the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
 Recognize warning Signs
o Watch for debris flows and other fast moving landslides that pose threats to life:
1. If you are near a wildfire burn area, sign up for emergency alerts and pay attention to
weather forecasts for the burn area. The weather in the burn area could be very
different from where you are.
2. Listen and watch for rushing water, mud, unusual sounds.
3. Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate
moving debris.
4. A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears.
5. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, k-rails, boulders, or trees move.
6. Huge boulders in the landscape can be signs of past debris flows.

o Watch for slow-moving landslides that pose threats to property:

1. Changes occur in your landscape such as patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes
(especially the places where runoff water converges) land movement, small slides,
flows, or progressively leaning trees.
2. Doors or windows stick or jam for the first time.
3. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick, or foundations.
4. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin pulling away from the building.
5. Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as
streets or driveways.
6. Underground utility lines break.
7. Bulging ground appears at the base of a slope.
8. Water breaks through the ground surface in new locations.
9. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, or trees tilt or move.
10. The ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting in that direction
under your feet.
 During
1. Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for warnings.
2. Heed all warnings and evacuation notices.
3. During a storm that could cause a landslide, stay alert and awake. Many deaths from
landslides occur while people are sleeping.
4. Be aware that by the time you are sure a debris flow is coming, that will be too late to
get away safely. Never cross a road with water or mud flowing. Never cross a bridge if
you see a flow approaching. It can grow faster and larger too quickly for you to escape.
5. If you do get stuck in the path of a landslide move uphill as quickly as possible.
6. Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas during times of danger.
7. If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in
water flow or water that changes from clear to muddy. These can be signs that a
landslide is coming.
 After
 1. Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
2. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
3. Watch for flooding. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they
may both be started by the same conditions.
4. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide
area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
5. Report broken utility lines and damaged roadways and railways to appropriate
authorities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as
possible, preventing further hazard and injury.
6. Allow trained professionals to check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding
land for damage.
7. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future.
8. Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you
of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.
Source: Department of Homeland Security (https://www.ready.gov/landslides-debris-flow)

 Before
1. Learn about local emergency response and evacuation plans.
2. Talk to everyone in your household about what to do if a landslide occurs.
3. Create and practice an evacuation plan for your family and your business.
4. Assemble and maintain an emergency preparedness kit.
5. Become familiar with the land around where you live and work so that you understand
your risk in different situations.
6. Watch the patterns of storm water drainage on slopes near your home, especially where
runoff water converges.
7. Create and practice an evacuation plan for your family and your business.
8. Assemble and maintain an emergency preparedness kit.
 During
1. If you suspect imminent danger, evacuate immediately. Inform affected neighbors if you
can, and contact your public works, fire or police department.
2. Listen for unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or
boulders knocking together.
3. If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in
water flow and notice whether the water changes from clear to muddy. Such changes
may mean there is debris flow activity upstream so be prepared to move quickly.
4. Be especially alert when driving— watch for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks and
other indications of possible debris flow.
5. If you are ordered or decide to evacuate, take your animals with you.
 6. Consider a precautionary evacuation of large or numerous animals as soon as you are
aware of impending danger.
7. Stay alert and awake. Many deaths from landslides occur while people are sleeping.
8. Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for warnings of heavy rainfall.
9. Consider leaving if it is safe to do so.
 After
1. Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
2. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide
area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
3. Help a neighbor who may require special assistance--infants, elderly people, and people
with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional
assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need additional
assistance in emergency situations.
4. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods sometimes
follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the same event.
6. Look for and report broken utility lines to appropriate authorities. Reporting potential
hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing further hazard
and injury.
7. Check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to
foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help you assess the safety of the area.
8. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding.
9. Seek the advice of a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you
of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.
Source: American Red Cross (https://www.redcross.org/get-help/how-to-prepare-for-
emergencies/types-of-emergencies/landslide.html)

 Do
1. Prepare tour to hilly region according to information given by weather department or
news channel.
2. Move away from landslide path or downstream valleys quickly without wasting time.
3. Keep drains clean,
4. Inspect drains for - litter, leaves, plastic bags, rubble etc.
5. Keep the weep holes open.
6. Grow more trees that can hold the soil through roots,
7. Identify areas of rock fall and subsidence of buildings, cracks that indicate landslides and
move to safer areas. Even muddy river waters indicate landslides upstream.
8. Notice such signals and contact the nearest Tehsil or District Head Quarters.
 9. Ensure that toe of slope is not cut, remains protected, don't uproot trees unless re-
vegetation is planned.
10. Listen for unusual sounds such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together.
11. Stay alert, awake and active (3A's) during the impact or probability of impact.
12. Locate and go to shelters,
13. Try to stay with your family and companions.
14. Check for injured and trapped persons.
15. Mark path of tracking so that you can't be lost in middle of the forest.
16. Know how to give signs or how to communicate during emergency time to flying
helicopters and rescue team.
 Don’t
1. Try to avoid construction and staying in vulnerable areas.
2. Do not panic and loose energy by crying.
3. Do not touch or walk over loose material and electrical wiring or pole.
4. Do not built houses near steep slopes and near drainage path.
5. Do not drink contaminated water directly from rivers, springs, wells but rain water if
collected directly without is fine.
6. Do not move an injured person without rendering first aid unless the casualty is in
immediate danger.
Source: NDMA-Government of India (https://ndma.gov.in/en/landslides-do-s-dont-s.html)