Chapter I

General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society

LESSON 1:
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Scientific revolution

- It is the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.

- The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine
their beliefs and their way of life;

- It led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a
strong foundation for modern science.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

• Nicolaus Copernicus

- His idea and model of the universe placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.

- He outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the
orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay
outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the
length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun.

• Charles Darwin

- Famous for his theory of evolution

- He published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. His book presented evidence on how
species evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.

- In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human
beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking.

- His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.

• Sigmund Freud

- Famous figure in the field of psychology

- Made a significant contribution through the development of an important observational method

- His method was unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.

- According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in

Development of Science in Mesoamerica:

• The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000
years.

- They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and
other religious structures.

- They are known for their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in
planting and harvesting.

- They are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems.

- They developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries and tools.

- They built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a
mineral called mica.

- They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

- They are one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the
Mayan hieroglyphics;

- They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the
numeral 20.

- They independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before
the Romans did.

• The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The following were scientific ideas and tools
that they developed to help them in everyday life:

- roads paved with stones;

- stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

- irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;

- calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;

- the first suspension bridge; quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only
experts can interpret; and

- Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

• The Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to
the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

- Mandatory education. Their children are mandated to get education regardless of their
social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.

- Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. The Aztec
valued the cacao beans highly and made them as part of their tribute to their gods.
Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

- Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

- Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.

- Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

India. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives.

- Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of
Roman Empire.

- Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500
BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.

- They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop
medicines to cure various illnesses.

- The Susruta Samhita describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous
in Ancient India.

- They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-
supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.

- The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize

- Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya,

- Another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and
lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit.

- Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of

China. It is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.

- Known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of

- Discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure
human illness; an example is the practice of acupuncture

- Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass,
papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools.

- They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among
others.
 - They developed a design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983),
invented the first seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et
al., 1971).

- Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which
were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and
their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939)

- They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that
may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars.

The Middle East Countries. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim
scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.

- Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought
experiments.

- A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

- Mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the
algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr.

- Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as
the introduction of decimal point notation.

- Some scholars considered Jābir ibn Hayyān to be the “Father of Chemistry”

- Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to
conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008).

- Ibn Sina two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of
Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in
Europe during the 17th century.

Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the
planet long before the Europeans colonized it.

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. Documents show that Africans used three
types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.

North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that
enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age.

Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African
continent.

The Lebombo Bone, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.

The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical
learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields
of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example:

- They are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other
mathematical skills. They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and
geometry.

- The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post
of lintel architecture of Egypt.

- The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water
from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization.

- Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner
of chemistry.

- They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important
components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment
of diseases.