BONGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE
REVIEW ON EFFECT OF INTER AND INTRA-ROW SPACING ON PRODUCTION OF
MAIZE IN ETHIOPIA
By:

NIGUSIE BITEWLIGN

Senior Seminar paper;-

Submitted to Department of plant science, in the Partial fulfillments of the course

senior seminar

Advisor; Zinaw A. (MSc.)

FEBRUARY, 2023
BONGA ETHIOPIA!!
 TOGETHER WE CAN!!

Acknowledgment

Frist of all we would like to thank our god for giving skill and knowledge for all aspect of our
educational carrier. Secondly we would like to express our heart full thanks to our advisor Zinaw
A. (MSc.) his advice in every steps of our review.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgment..........................................................................................................................................I
Lists of acronyms and abbreviations............................................................................................................II
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................III
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Back Ground......................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of Problem........................................................................................................................2
1.3 objective............................................................................................................................................3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................................5
2.1 Ecology of Maize...............................................................................................................................5
2.2 Importance of maize in Ethiopia........................................................................................................6
2.3 Agronomic practice of maize production...........................................................................................6
2.3.1 Land preparation.........................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Time of sowing...........................................................................................................................7
2.3.3 Method of sowing.......................................................................................................................7
2.3.4 Seed Rate....................................................................................................................................7
2.4 Effect Of Inter- Row Spacing On Production Of Maize....................................................................7
2.5 Effect Of Intra Row Spacing On Maize Production...........................................................................8
2.6 Other Constraints of Maize Production..............................................................................................9
2.7 Effect Of Plant Population On Maize Production..............................................................................9
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.....................................................................................11
3.1. CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................11
3.2. RECOMMENDATION..................................................................................................................11
REFERENCE............................................................................................................................................12

II
 Lists of acronyms and abbreviations

ATA agricultural transformation agency

CA Carbon four
CM Centimetres
CSA Centimetres
FAO Food agriculture organization
FAOSTAT Food and agricultural organization of united nations
Ha Hectares
HCN Hydrogen cyanide
MOA Ministry of agriculture
MT Metric tone
No Northern degree
SNNP South nation national people
So South degree
US United states
EARO Ethiopian agricultural research organization

III
 Abstract

Effect of intra- and inter row spacing on growth, yield components and grain Yield of maize was
investigated by different research. The objective of the experiment to investigate the effect of
inter-and intra- row spacing, on production of maize in Ethiopia. The result of different
experiment showed that there was highly significant (0.01) effect on inter-row spacing on leave
area, leaf area index, numbers of ears per plant, above ground dry biomass yield per hectors,
number of kernels per ear, 1000 kernels weight and harvest index. Though decreasing inter-row
spacing the above good dry biomass yield decreased with, decreased inter-row spacing. Highly
significance difference is showed by the effect of intra- row spacing on all above ground
parameters except harvest index. There was highly significant interaction effect of inter and
intra-row spacing on yield and yield components as well as growth parameters of maize. In
general significantly higher grain yield and above ground biomass yield were obtained due to
intermediate and closer spacing.

Keywords: Population, Maize, Intra-Row, Inter-row Yield, Yield Component. Growth

Parameters.

IV
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Back Ground

Maize (Zea Mays) is an important grain crop of the world and it ranks second, after wheat in
hectares (177,379,567 ha) and first in total production (872066770) MT and productivity (4.9 ton
per hectares) (Lakew et al., 2016). Maize is recognized worldwide as a strategic food and feed
crops that provide an enormous amount of protein and energy for human and livestocks. It is one
of the major cereals and chief source of energy for human deit. Maze is the most widely
distributed cereal crops. It is originated in Central America greatest gift to mankind. The
importance of Maize lies in its wide industrial applications besides serving as human food and
animal feed. It is the most versatile crop with wider adaptability in varied agro-ecologies and has
highest genetic yield potential among the food grain crops. Maize growers have worked for
continuous improvement and greater efficiency (singh et al., 2002).

Maize is the staple food of 24 million households in east and south Africa and is annually
planted our an area of 15.5 million hectares (Thome et al. ,2002). In Ethiopia cereals are the
major food crops both in terms of an area planted and volume of production obtained, they
produced in a large volume as compared with other crops because they are the principle staple
food crops.

Maize is an important field crops in terms of area coverage, production and utilization for food
and feed purposes. In Ethiopia maize is produced for food specially in major maize producing
region mainly for low income groups. Maize is consumed as “Injera”, porridge, Bread and Nefro.
It is also consumed as roasted or boiled as vegetable at green stage. In addition to the above, it is
used to prepare as “Tella “ and “Arekie” and used as a row materials for oil and glucose
production industry (MOA, 2010).

As compared to the other cereals, maize can attain the highest potential per unit area. World
average yield for maize is about 4.5 ton per hectares and that of developed countries is 6.2 Ton/
ha. The average yield is about 3.10 ton/ha (CSA, 2013). Maize is a warm weather plant that
required average temperatures during the growing periods. The crop requires average
temperatures of about 24 c0 . Low temperature reduces growth and extremely high temperatures,

1
may retard germination of seed. Maize is a short day plants and flowering is accelerated by
shorter Photoperiods. The average precipitation in the corn belts of the U.S is 625-1250mm.
Maize is known to be relatively drought resistant and required low soil moisture during early
phase growth period. Rainfall during 3-5 weeks before silking and from silking to three weeks
after wards is important (palansubramaniyan and palanalappan, 2007).

Zaffarani and schneiter (1991) noted three production variables that a producer can manipulate to
influence the production of a given crops are plant population, row management and hybride
variety selection. Among agronomic practice, spacing deserves special attention. Optimum inter
and intra- row spacing varies with soil fertility status, soil moisture, nature of crops and degree of
weed infestations (singh et al., 1997).

Plant population affect most growth parameters of maize even, under optimal growth conditions
and therefore, it is considered as a major factors determining the degree of competition between
plants. General management consideration can provide the background for profitable maize
production. Since maize is planted in row, the inter- row spacing as well as intera- row plant
spacing can be variable depending on selected planting methods (ATA,2013). It would be use
full to know optimum population density to exclude population is as a limiting factors for crop
yield (palansubramaniyan and palanalappan,2007). Stand density affects plant growth and
development patterns and influence carbohydrate production. A wider spacing may enhance
weed growth were as use at high population density increase inter plant competition for light,
water and nutrients, which is disadvantage to maize production (Abuzar, 2011).

1.2 Statement of Problem

Most of farmers in Ethiopia have been use their own spacing and agronomic practice rather than
the recommended spacing. Some of the farmers are sow without knowing there commended inter
and intra-row spacing. However if there is high population density there may increase inter plant
competition for light, water and nutrient, so that it affects the growth of maize and production
Inter and intra- row spacing is the major problem production of maize. Narrow spacing may
enhance weed and decrease yield of maize. According to EARO (2004) the recommended inter
and intra- row spacing is 75cm between row and 25cm between plants. In different soil type,
nutrient status of soil and soil moisture the spacing may vary. Therefore the purpose of the sinor

2
seminar is to convey and full fill knowledge gap of farmers by using recommended inter and
intra row spacing.

1.3 objective

To review the effect of inter and intra-row spacing on production of maize.

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Ecology of Maize

Maiz`e is grown globally from 50oN to 40o S and from sea level up to 4000m altitude. It is a short
day plant. Photoperiod greater than 12 hours may increase the total number of leaves produced
prior to initiation of tasseling, and may increase the time taken from emergency to tassel
initiation (Stephanie and Brown,2008). It is a warm weather plant that requires high temperature
during the growing period. The crop requires an average temperature of about 24oc. Low
temperature reduce growth and extremely high temperature may retard germination of seed
particularly, when it combined with deficient moisture (palansubramaniyan, and palanalappan,
2007). The optimum temperature of maize growth and development is 18-32oc. The optimum
soil temperature for germination and early seedling growth are 12o c or greater, and at tasseling
21 to 30o c is ideal (Stephanie and Brown, 2008). It is a cereal crops adapted to a wide range of
environmental condition and is cultivated in agro-ecologies of west and central Africa. The crop
is grown throughout region, even under sub optimal conditions. According to the Stephanie and
brown (2008) maize can grow and yield with a little as 300mm rainfall, but prefers 500 to
1200mm precipitation at the optimal range.

Depending on soil type and stored soil moisture, crop failure would be expected if less than
300mm precipitation of rain were received in crop. The crop grown well under any soil type with
PH range from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline (PH range 5.8 to 7.5). Adequate drainage is
needed to allow for the maintenance of sufficient oxygen. In soil far good root growth and
microbial activity, as well as water holding capacity to provide adequate moisture throughout the
growing season (ATA, 2013).

A deep loam soil high in organic matter and plant nutrients is the best soil for maize production.
However, with proper management and fertilizers, a variety can be grown successfully on any
soil from loamy sandy to clay. The soil should be free from salinity and water logging
(Chowdhury and Hassian, 2013). The most suitable soil for maize is one with a good effective
depth, internal drainage, optimal moisture regime, sufficient and balanced quantities plant
nutrient and chemical properties that are favorable specifically for maize production (plessis,
2003).

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2.2 Importance of maize in Ethiopia

Maize is one of the most important cereals crop in Ethiopia and the leading crops in Ethiopia
after rice and wheat. It has a high productivity due to its large leave area and being a C4 plants
has one of the highest photosynthetic rate of all food crops. It is the highest potential for
carbohydrate production per unit area per day. The maize seed contains 11% protein and its
nutrient contents is higher in comparison to rice and what (Chowdhury and Hassan, 2013). It is
widely used in preparation of cattle feed and poultry feed. It can be used as a green fodder and
has hydro-ionic acid (HCN) content. It is also preserved as silage (Chandrase and Annadurai,
2010)

The consumption pattern of maize is 52% poultry, pig and fish, 24% for direct human
consumption and 11% cattle feed and starch, 1% brewery industry (singh et al, 2002). The
importance of maize is lies in wider industrial application besides serving as human food and
animal feed. Grain is the most important part and used for food (Babaji et al., 2012). Maize grain
contain protein (10%), carbohydrate (70%), oil (4%), albuminoids (10.4% ) crude fiber (2.3%)
and ash (1.4%) futuless et. al., 2010). Over half of Ethiopia farmer grows maize, mostly for
subsistence, with 75% of all maize output consumed by farming households. It is also significant
that Ethiopia produces non-genetically modified white maize, the preferred types of maize in
neighboring market (ATA, 2014). Maize is primarily grown in the Amahara, Oromo and SNNP
of Ethiopia. Estimates indicate that the current maize yield could be developed if farmers adapt
higher quality input and proven agronomy best practices (Berhanu et al., 2007).

2.3 Agronomic practice of maize production

2.3.1 Land preparation

The minimum tillage for field preparation has been more expensively test and adapted for maize
than other crops. In particular distribution between the seedbed to be firm and the root bed which
should remain loose for as long as possible has become any accepted farming practice in the
maize growing regions. Minimum tillage for maize has generally given that were equal or greater
than those obtained from conventional tillage (Williams, 1975).

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2.3.2 Time of sowing

Time of sowing is the most crucial factors affecting maize growth and production. It should be
sowing at the beginning of the rain as mush as possible. If sowing time is delayed there is a
decline in yield of maize. In let sowing season the early growth of maize is slow because the soil
air moisture condition is not ideal (most of pores are filled with water) and latter in the life cycle,
late sown maize may mature or even flower after the end of the rain. This is a serious risk in the
short rain season areas, although, it is less of a risk where the rain season is long (Karlen, 1987).

2.3.3 Method of sowing

there are different types of sowing method in maize like furrow, ridge (in high rain fall area), flat
(traditional method), broad casting, drainage by halls and driblling (putting seeds in row) but,
maize should be sown in row spacing (Rathore, 2011). The row spacing should be run across the
prevailing slope of the land, following center level to retard run land minimize the soil erosion
loose. Inter-row spacing generally range from 75cm and the intra row spacing is range 25cm
(EARO, 2004). The suitable sowing depth for maize is 2 up to 5cm deep. Deeper sowing may
prevent proper germination and the spacing between should regulated (martin, 1976).

2.3.4 Seed Rate

Seed arte varies according to the size of the grain and objective of raising the crops for keeping
the quality of the grain varieties. The seed rate is 25-26kg/ha for small size grain, 26-28kg/ha, for
medium size grain and 28-30kg/ha for large size grain (subnls, 1935). Seed germination standard
should be 99 to 100% and the quantity of seed required for dibbling is 15kg seed/ ha. However in
planting by other mechanical method requires 25kg/ha (Rathore, 2011).

2.4 Effect Of Inter- Row Spacing On Production Of Maize

Plant spacing is an important agronomic attribute because it is believed to have effect on light
interception during which photo synthesis taken place which is the energy manufacturing
medium using green parts of the plant. The main effect of inter row spacing is on leaf area, leaf
area index, number of ear per plant, above ground dry biomass yield per hectare, number of
kernels per ear, kernels weight and harvest index. Narrow inter-row spacing reduced biomass &
cob length. Wider spacing leads weed competition in early development of maize and remains

6
one of the most serious problem of maize productions and not accepted by farmers. (Fanadzo,
2007). Maize can be favored in competition against weed by using narrow (optimum) inter-row
spacing. Use of optimum inter-row spacing and plant population enhance canopy radiation
interception, their by increasing crop growth rates and yield (andrade et, al., 2002) and
suppressing weed growth and competitiveness (murphy et al., 1996). Therefore the use of narrow
optimum inter-row spacing and plant population densities could be used by smallholder
irrigation farmers as means of weed control through achieving full ground cover earlier in the
season there by reducing the impact of weeds on maize yield.

According to konushan (2000) suggestion optimum inter-row spacing is vary according to level
of soil fertility, moisture status, cultivar grown and planting time. Generally under irrigation the
practice planting short season cultivar at population 80,000 to 90,000 plants per ha whereas
medium to long season cultivars can be grown at populations of 45000 plants per ha
(Department of agriculture, 2003).

2.5 Effect Of Intra Row Spacing On Maize Production

The main effect of intra-row spacing on maize production is increasing of competition between
plant for light, nutrients and water. Intra-row spacing should not be to narrow as this can increase
competition between plant and results in yield detrimental effect (Mashiqua et al., 2011). The
impact of intra-row spacing on maize production varies depending soil fertility, soil moisture,
slope, time of sowing and potential of crops. It is the best way to get uniform plant stands in to
plant in regularly intra-row spaced and at regular internal with intra-row spacing (Faisul et, al.,
2013). According to Amusa and Iken (2004) farmers grow maize at very irregular and wider
intra-row spacing due to the fact that, most farmers inter-crop maize with other crops. Less
number of cobs per plant in plots were due to inter and intra- row spacing is narrow and weed
competition with maize is maximum throughout growing season which might had decreased
nutrients and moisture availability to maize plants. This result differ from those of (Rambaku
dzibga, 2002) the other reason might be the absence of intra-row weeds similar results were also
reported by (saeed, 2010).

According ATA (2013) plant density affects yield of maize by influencing yield components
such as number of ears, number of kernels per ears, and kernel weight. When environments or

7
irrigation areas are favorable, the maize population between 50,000 to 100,000 plant/ha give the
optimum grain production. In Ethiopia the recommended spacing of 75cm and 30cm between
row and plants used respectively in maize which is 44.444 plants/ha (EARO, 2004). Optimum
plant population of 53.33 plants/ha for maximum, yield of maize, the report indicated that this
obtainable. Using a spacing of 75cm×25cm at 1 plant per stand or 75cm×50cm at 2 plant per
stand (Amusa and 1ken, 2004).

2.6 Other Constraints of Maize Production

The main problem of maize productions are lack of site specific production technology,
inadequate nutrition, such as nitrogen, in adequate water supply (irrigations scheme), weed
infestation, disease and insect pests attach. The selection of un suitable cultivation under a given
set of environment is major factors response for low yield (EARO, 2004). It also lack of
improved variety is a major problem of maize production in addition to us if recommended
spacing. According to (Andrade et . al., 1943) dominated the linear relationship between growth
and interception of photo synthetically active radiation on maize crop. The other factors are the
spacing between plant and row, climatic condition, edaphic factors such as PH, salinity,
alkalinity that affects maize production (Andrade et al., 2002)

2.7 Effect Of Plant Population On Maize Production

The production of a crop is influenced by many factors among which plant population and
spacing play very important roles in enhancing its productivity (Babaji et al., 2012). Plant
population is defined as the number of plants per unit area (Balasubramaniya and palanlappan,
2007). Though optimal plant density for production differs among geographic regions. Research
indicates that grain yield generally increases as plant density increases. Crop potential yield may
also be affected by intra- and inter-row spacing (ATA,2013). Lower crop density encourage
weeds growth where as higher crop densities negatively affect the leaf area and other
phonological parameters. The competiveness of a weed community with a crop depends on
species compositions, time of emergency and abundance (Shewa et al., 2008). A given plant
population may be arranged in several ways, leading to a variation in intensity of interaction
between the cultivars (Chinyere, 2013). The optimum density or plant population for any given

8
situation results in mature plants that are sufficiently crowded to efficiently use resources such as
water, nutrients and sun light (Drew, 2009).

Maize plant population for optimum growth varies from 30,000 to 90,000 plants per ha
depending on planting date, water availability, soil fertility and maturity (Chinyere, 2013). Plant
density is an important agronomic attribute since it is believed to have effects on light
interception during which photosynthesis takes place which is energy manufacturing medium.
Good plant spacing gives the right plant density, which is the number of plants, allowed on a
given unit of land for optimum yield (Amin and Maysam, 2014).

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 3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

3.1. CONCLUSION

In crop production, the major production variables that a producer can manipulate to influence
the production of a given crop are plant population, row arrangement, variety selection, soil
fertility and crop management activities. Among agronomic practices, spacing deserves special
attention. Optimum inter- and intra- row spacing varies with soil fertility status, soil moisture ,
the nature of crop and degree of weed infestation. Most of the appropriate agronomic practices
and requirement of maize have been studied and determined, but there is limited information on
plant population and row arrangement according to different situation like height and maturity
period of variety, soil fertility status, etc. Inter- and intra- row spacing was highly significant
effect with their interaction on yield and yield component of maize. In general, the result of
different study had shown production of maize at relatively narrow spacing combination and
intermediate spacing combination can increase both grain yield and above ground dry biomass
yield of maize per unit area of land. Intra- row spacing is narrowing, plants are competitive for
light, water and mineral nutrient, and inter- row spacing affect the biomass production of maize
and light interception. Both the inter and intra-row spacing affects the production of maize either
positively or negatively. If the spacing is too narrow reduce the growth and yield of maize, and if
the spacing is too wider it causes weed infestation and poor stand density of maize and may
reduce yield and yield components of maize.

3.2. RECOMMENDATION

The result of different review showed that increasing intra- and inter-row spacing in some extent
above the recommended spacing resulted better yield. Therefore, using the recommended
spacing results better yield. For the future better yield of maize in Ethiopia, more detail study
should be investigated again.

10
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