in the

included
constant
C is
The
QUANTUM MECHANICS constant of y(r).
normalisation

constant,
UNIT III
Significance
of the separation
differentiating
TIME-INDEPENDENT SCHRÖDINGER be
understood by and
time
E, can
pr,t)in (2) with respect
to
EQUATIOON
ih. Then
cquation, multiplying by
The time-dependent Schrödinger (7)
(0 ih = Ey(r, t) -
ih t =- 2m
+V,)]Vr.1) both sides of Eq.
(7) by ip*
from
systems Multiplying coordinates

describes the evolution of quantum o v e r the space

function y(r, t). If lcft and integrating
wave
using time-dependent from-0o to + o, weget
time,
the potential V is
independent of - - - - - - - - -
(8)
= E
(Hamiltonian operator
does not depend
on time)
l hvr.)dt of Eq. (8) is
the
can be solved by the the side
left
the Schrodinger cquation wave
As
operator,
the
method of separation
of variables. The expectation
value of the energy
system. The
s a me
two
function y(r,t)can
be separated into constant is the energy ofthe
understood from Eq. (5)
as,
functions p(r)and d(t). can be
h2
wr,t)=(r)this ******( 2 )
®(t).value ofip(r, t)in time +Vr.o
2m
Substituting equation (1) and Hamiltonian
dependent Schrödinger associated with the
d(t)we get is the operator
dividing throughout by p(r) of the system.
h
h rD-
ot
+V(r.t)Vr.) STATIONARY STATES
function of the form b(r, t) =

2 +V(r.)|Ur)... 3) A
ih
ih 0=V2m -iEt
wave

time t, but the probability

on
is a function of p(r)e n depends
The left side of this equation density -iEt
function of space +LEt
time and right side ly(r)12
a
y ' eve
=

coordinates. Since 1
and r are independent Ir,t)12 =
y'y =

time.
must be equal to a constant, is independent of
variables, each side
rise to the equation of the wave
say E. This gives Here the time dependence
same thing happens
in
function cancels out. The
1 b)-E the value of any
expectation
Ot calculating
dynamical variable.
1() E (4) iEn -iEnt
(A) =
r.0)e TAyn(r.0)e dr
And

1 2
V(r,)|p) =E
4 (A)= n (r, 0)Ay,(,0)dr
b(r)2m - co

+Vr.0|v) = r) --------(5)
2m
aconstant in time

Solution of the equation (4) is given by is

-tBt
That is every expectation value
P(t) = CeT constant in time. This is applicable
when the
where C is a constant. wave function always carries an exponential
time dependent factor. Such a state is called
The equation (5) is the time independent stationary state.
Schrödinger equation simply Schrödinger
or

The solution of the time independent

equation. Since V(r) determines the amplitude
of the wave function. Equation (2) takes the equation yields an infinite
Schrödinger
collection of solutions yi(r), v2(r), v3(r), each
form ...

-Bt with its associated value of separation constant

y(r,t) = Yp(r)e » **** (6)
Ei, E2, Es,...and thus there is a different wave

Page 1
ij MIC 2019
 is completely

in this potential
a), =

A particle
=
0 and x
two
(x
ends prevents it from
Generally a at the
function for cach allowed energy. free, except i n f i n i t e force a cart
on
values an would be
well-defined energy where model
system has a set of wave
classical
with perfectly
with corresponding escaping.(A
air track,
En for n= 1, 2, 3, horizontal back and
. .

functions yn(r). Including

the time dependent frictionless bouncing
is
a
bumpers--it just keeps
function of the system elastic
part, the w a v e -1Ent forth forever)
Vnr, t) = h(r)e n V(X)
then given by
The probability density P(r. t) is constant
lr,0)12 a
=

P(r,t) =
ln(r, t)12 =

in time. the
where n= 1,2,3, . .
The states for which
in time are called
probability density is constant
factor
The time-dependent of
0 (the probability
states.
stationary
Outside the well, v Inside the(x) =

-iEnt statcs are governed by the energy there is zero).

e h of such finding the particle The time-independent
En of the particle. where V 0. =

well,
bound one if the Schrödinger equation is
A stationary state is
a

function yír) or probability

corresponding wave

vanishes at infinity. That is, for d Ev.

density lv(r)| 2m dx2
2m E
bound states
lim (r) = 0 d kv, where k= h
ro dx? classical simple harmonic
This equation is
a

N. Bohr w a s the
first to postulate the solution is
the oscillator equation; the general
states. These are
existence of stationary A sin kx + B cos kx, ( 2 )
measurements are x) =

states on which physical constants.

transitions are induced
where A and B are arbitrary
performed. Spectral are fixed by the
constants
Owing to these reasons, Typically, these
between such states. conditions
Schrodinger boundary conditions. The boundary
solution of the time-independent
is of fundamental continuous. But
equation for different systems demands that both y andare
dx
mechanics.
importance in quantum demands that
continuity of v(x)
ON THE v0) = ¥(a) = 0,
cONDITIONS
ADMISSIBILITY
condition in solution (2)
WAVE FUNCTION Applying boundary
the
physical system is described by
A gives
the normalization B 0 B,
y (0)= A sin 0 + cos =

probability density Jy(r)| and

to be unique so B 0 , and hence
integral. For the probability density
and the total probability to be unity, the wave ( x ) = A sin kx. .
(3)
be finite and single valued at
function must At x a,
every point in space. y(a) = A sin ka
so either A =
0 or else sin ka =
0, which means
Hence has to be continuous and Vy
must be finite. The Schrodinger equation has the that
ka = 0, ta, +27, t37,....
term y and for V2y to exist Vy must be
But k cannot be zero since it leads to y = 0 and
continuous. For a wave function y(r, 1) to be
acceptable, ylr, t) and Vy must be finite, single sin(-0) =
-Sin(0) and it can be taken with the
valued and continuous at all points in space. normalization constant. Therefore the general
expression for k is
THE INFINITE SQUARE WELL
with n= l. 2. 3....
Suppose
Substituting in the energy equation gives
0. if0 x sa,
V(x) =
E, n'nn?
o, otherwise
2m 2ma?

jj MIC 2019 Page 2

In sharp contrast to the classical casc, a quantum . They arc alternatively even and odd with
particle in the infinite square well cannot havve respect to the centre of the wall.
just any value of energy, but only these special 2. As to up in energ each successive
states has one more mode (mode is a
allowed values.
To normalize y, taking the normalization point of zero crossing and end point do
not count). yi has no nodes, y2 has I, 3
cquation has two and so on.
3. The wave functions are mutually
1A Sin?(kx)dx = 1
orthogonal. i.e.
ca SVm (x)/,(x)dx == 0whenever m # n.

LHS =A12| Sin?(kx)dx

m Cx)(x)dx
1 -Cos2kx
=
A )dx
2
sn)snd
1Adxcos2kxdx
2
Cos(m Cos(m
*adx = 0

On applying the boundary conditions, the

nTT
n C)n(x)dx
second term vanishes sincek= = Omn (Kronecker delta)
a

4. They are complete, in the sense that any

Therefore
other function f(x) can be expressed as a
JA Sin (kx)dx = - a =1 linear combination of them.

SoA =
n=i
Hence the wave function takes the form

vnx)=sin aSin

A
THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
In classical Harmonic oscillator theory,
the motion of mass m attached to a spring of
force constant K is governed by Hooke's law.
d2x
F -kx =
m dt2
The solution of the above equation is
x(t) = A sin(wt) + B Cos (wt)

Where, = which is the angularfrequency

The time-independent Schrödinger equation has
delivered an infinite set of solutions, one for of the oscillator.
each integer n. They look like standing waves The potential energy V(x) = kx2
on string of length a.
The graph of potential energy is parabolic. But
which carries the lowest energy is if we stretch the spring beyond elastic limit
i
called the ground state and others whose Hooke's law fails and the potential energy curve
energies increase in proportional to n are called is
excited states.

Properties of y»(x)

jj MIC 2019 Page 3

 V(x)
=
dx2
(y2+ 1)e*7 =y*p
y
Out of the two asymptotic solutions, ez is
acceptable as it diverges when Iy|
.
not
written
Therefore the exact solution may be
as
o
But practically any potential is approximatcly p= eTH(y)
parabolic in the neighbourhood of local Where H(y) is a function of y.
minimum.
Any particle which has a total energy valuc less Solution by Operator method
than the potential value will be bound inside the
Takingas common factor
potential well and if it is given an energy, which 2m
is less than the bounding potentials, it is forced
to oscillate between the two walls of the - + ma'x*v= Ep
potential well which is a harmonic oscillation.
d2
quantum mechanics, the solution of
+m ° o x = Eip
dx2
the
In
Schrodinger equation is found for the
1
potential V(x) = mo2x2
2md++(max)p =
Etp . ( 2 )
The Schrodinger equation is To solve it, let us factorize the LHS like
h d+ Vop =
EV
u + u = (u - iv)(u +iv).
2m dx2 Let us assume

- a, mGtimox|and
+mwx2 Ep..1) =

a C ) -imwx (3)
Solution by Schrödinger method
Let us consider aa,operating on a function
The equation (1) can be written as
d2 2m1 2m
f(x).
2 m o x * ) = - 2 Ey
dx2 h2
- m-mux m
dx2 Emo?r2) y =
0

Takingy= X +imwx|f(x)
And = 2E 2m )-imwx||d2 +imarf
Therefore the equation reduces to
d +(2-ynb = 0 2m[li dx imax +imaxf()
dx2
We shall investigate the solution with the dx xhdr
Imwxdr
condition y> o, When y is very large, A - - imwr(imawxf(x))|

y2 -y2
d2 2-y'y = 0 dx

Its asymptotic solutions are +m*wtr'f(x)

Vx) = e

jj MIC 2019 Page 4

 = a,[Etp + hwb]

a,[E + haoly. (8)

a,a +
hola, =

That is the energy is increased by a factor of hw.

+hmof alr'[0o That is, if y satisfies the Schrödinger
4.0,/0 -thmi+maz) cquation with energy E, then a,y satisfies the
Discarding the fmetion and taking the operator Schrödinger equation with energy (E + ho).

a+ 2m dy2thmo+mw'x* Similarly, applying a on } reduces

d2 cnergy by hw.
a.a, m maz In conclusion, operating a^ on the

1 Schrödinger equation raises the energy by hw

and a operating on the equation lowers the
2m and a_are called
energy byhw. There fore a,
ladder operators. a^is the raising operator and
1, 2m|Tdz) +(max)+ho ais the lowering operator.
2
d Minimum energy
aa4 -hw If the lowering operator is applied repeatedly,
2m| the wave function reaches a lower limit level
0.
(say o) such that a_yo
=

Equating the RHS of equations (2) with (4),

To determine the energy of the state, putting Vo
in the Schrödinger equation (6)
Similarly if we do the operation a^a_ on f{x)
a,a+5hoo = Eotbo
and taking the operator part
aabo +hwpo = EgVo

aa2m
Then Schrödinger equation can also be written
But a-o = 0, therefore

as
hopo=
2 Eoo
a,a +hw =Et *** . . (6)
i.e.
With the above two equations (5) and (6), let us

evaluate the effect of the operator a^on p. Eoha

For that, taking LHS of equation (6) and a, is This is the lowest possible energy for a

harmonic oscillator. The excited states are

operated on obtained by applying the raising operator.
a.a+h a.= a,a.a, +5 hwa. function for the
The corresponding wave
minimum energy state can be obtained as
Taking aas common factor
follows.
a.1a.a,v+~hop|-(7)
value of Fromequation (3) a =amGimax
From equation (5) substituting the
a a+

a a,p-hu=By
a-po -maox| vo=0
- imwxyo = 0
aa, = Ey +hw
dxdyo mw
Substituting the above result in (7) hVo
1 dx
a,Ep +;hup +5hu
Page 5
jj MIC 2019
 i n all odd states the probability of
dVo mw
Xdr
finding the particle
at the centre of the
h
is zero
Integrating to get o potential well 'n', the
Only at relatively large values of
(dVo - xdx oscillator show Some
J quantum
classical case
resemblance to the
mwx
npo 2h + constant
states of harmonic
2 The first four stationary
o Ape 2h
oscillator are shown in the following
figure.
******k******k******k******************

The general solution of the Schrödinger

equation (2) is

nC)=An(max -h
with the energy E, = (n+ho.

Where n takes values 0,1,2,...

The minimum energy possible in a quantum
mechanical oscillator is whenn=0

Eh
A
This energy is called the ground state of a

quantum oscillator. The quantum mechanical wave pattern for n

= 100 with superimposed classical position
E distribution is shown in the figure.
viulx) 0.24

E+3ho av 0.20

E+2h ay 0.16

E+ho a,y
0,12
E

E-ho ay
0.06
E-2ho a
0.04
a

The quantum oscillator is strikingly THE FREE PARTICLE

different from its classical Louis de Broglie's proposal of
counterpart associating a wave with the motion of a particle
t h e energies quantized was one of the most spectacular advances in the
the probability of finding the particle development of quantum mechanics. We now
outside the classically allowed range use de Broglie's hypothesis to derive the
(that is, with x greater than the classical mathematical deseription of the motion of a free
amplitude for the energy in question) is particle, that is, a particle not subject to any
not zero

ij MIC 2019 Page 6

 tak ing leisenherg's indetevminaey Taking the exponential time dependence into the
wlaliumn inta acvomt. Wave funetion, the conplete solution is
IRt
Avming to lleisinberg's pwinciple, it is Cx.t)= A,ek + A_e-k*e
t alvisable to sdeweriboe the motion of the Since the energy E is only kinetic energy =

Htivle by a singlo plane wave, If so, the

mmentm of the prartiele is odetined exactly and hk
the witim of the particle is theretore
But p-Substituting A =gives 2
mpletely ndetemined. As comsequenee, ThereforeF=
We wonld he umable to make any prediction Hence
abont the purticle's motiom.
vx,)-4,eetA_e-lkr
A mathematical model is developed for a

tee partiele in whieh purtiele motion deseribed

r.t)=4,el)+ A_e(* 3)
aN superposition of an intinite number of
the The first term of the cquation represents a wave
motion of a
plane waves. m this approaeh the travelling to the right, and the second the term
thee particle may be represented by a so-called a wave travelling the left
with the
represents
wave parket. This makes it possible to explain of the is spiral.
energy. The motion
wave
same
the relation between partiele and wave motion The two travelling waves can be represented in
in a logical and eonsistent manner a simple form as

For a tree particle, the potential is 0 kx

tor any value of x i.e. V(x) = 0 everywhere.
x,t) = Aze m
for a wave travelling the right
Here k is positive
That is the particle is not bounded in any and k is negative travelling let.
for wave
(k>0~ travellingtoright
potential field and it is free move. The vith traveling toleft
(5)
estimated by
energy of a free particle can be
solving the time-independent Sehrödinger The above solution describes the wave
like
cquation behavior of a particle since k is the wave
h number associated with a free particle.
The
be
probability density of the particle can
Since the potential is Zero, ealculated by,
h2mddy? b'h

which shows that the probability density does

d
not depend upon botlh position and momentum.
Where k = Vm where k is the wave number
Conceptually each energy is doubly degenerate
p = hk and V2më = p} with wave functions corresponding to the
The equation (1) is a like a classical harmonic particle travelling to the right (+) or lett (-).
Oscillator and the general solution for the
cquation is One important aspect about the wave function is
v(x) = Aek* + Ae-lkx.. (2) that it is not normalizable. The wave funetion
substitute the second derivative in the eqn (1) for a particular k value is
to prove it
Sinee there is no boundary condition to restrict
elx,t) Azet =

On applying the normalization condition,

the values of k, the tree particle can carny any

positive energy. The Wave fiunetion represented

by (2) is the solution of a time independent
Sehrödinger cquation which is called the
stationary state. And the complete solution is the
solution including the time dependent fiunetion

Page 7
MIC 2019
 using the exact
If we to extend this process
a.t)e (x,t) dx
were

k but with a greater

9-15)
k-range (i.e.
=

same
- 10.5,
(say, k 9, 9.5, 10,
. . .
=

number of k values that the width of

the
14.5, 15) one would find
0 would remain the
=

- packet centered around x

same, but the
distance between the repeated
=Ad= A;'o -co patterns would increase,
and the amplitude of
patterns
So these wave functions cannot represent real the oscillations between the repeated
particles. at least with single values of the wave would diminish. We could continue this process
of sub-dividing the k-space and adding
waves
number k. since the probability to find the
of waves in
particle cxtends to plus/minus infinity. We can and we will find that as the number
address this by remembering that the general to infinity, the number
of
this interval goes
solution is a linear combination of the separable packets that areleft goes to one.
solutions. Since there are no boundary
conditions (there is no place where velocity is
changed) energy can be any value and hence AAAAAAAAAAAAAS

momentum therefore k the wavenumber can be

any value.Therefore, we can add wave functions
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
with a distribution of wave numbers together to AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAW
form a wave packet. such that the total wave
function vanishes at infinity and is therefore
normalizable.
We make one step towards creating a AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA:
wave packet. Let's look at the sum of two 4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
wavefunctions, one with a slightly different AAAAAAAAAAAMAAAAAAAAA
wavelength and frequency:
Yla. 7) = Y,(1. 7) -Y,(a. 7)

Y(1.7)= n ( k r -

Y(1. F) = in(tk + dk x
r)

- (o dor)
4AAHAAAAAAAA|
figure below we see now larger "packets of
The free particle wave function may be
waves" with wavelengths 1/dk moving with
velocity g= do/dk.
represented by a superposition
of momentum eigenfunctions, with coefficients
Yz,
given by the Fourier transform of the initial
(0
wavefunctionThen the general solution is
etc.

E lx.)= otk¥,(x.rhdk.
next step we make is to sum more waves
Where d(k) represents the constants appearing
together. in the general solution for each k value, but it is
The figure below shows seven different waves
with different k values K (k/27) = 9, 10 . . 15.
a continuous set rather than discreet numbers
and it can be found out by inverse Fourier
The amplitude and phase of each wave has been
transform of the initial condition of the
chosen such that all the waves are in phase at x
= 0 and that the sum of all the waves Y=2Yk wavefunction (h(x, 0)).
(shown at the bottom) gives a packet of
The speed of the packet is the group
wave
particular width and shape. Notice that there is
still a repeated pattern at the right side of the velocity given by the expression dw where w =
dk

plot of the sum.

ij MIC 2019 Page 8
 The energy of bound states and
which gives thewhich
21m matcheswith the Scattering states can be represented by
2m
classical particle velocity
E<V(-o)and V(+o0) bound state
E> V(-n)or V(+0) scattering state
DELTA FUNCTION POTENTIAL In nature, most potential go to zero al
The solutions of time independent infinity and therefore the above potentials
can be simplilicdas
Schrödinger equations are of two types; non

normalizable as in a free particle and they E<0 bound state

E>0 scattering state
are labelled by a continuous variable k and
normalizable as in harmonic oscillator etc. Infinite square well and
harmonic
where discreet number n is used. and free
oscillator allows only bound states
states. Both
In classical mechanics a on particle alows only scattering
these states can be thcoretically explained as
dimensional time-independent potential can
of an infinitesimally narrow
an extension
give rise to two different kinds of motion. If spike represented by
function named Dirac
Vx) rises higher than the particle's total Delta Function.
energy (E) on either side,
then the particle is function 8(x),is
The Dirac delta
struck in the potential well- it moves back defined as
and forth between the turning points, but (0 if x
cannot escape. Such state is called
BOUNDD
o)00if x =0 with
state. Eg. A harmonic oscillator. This function represents an

infinitesimally narrow spike at the origin

If E exceeds of V(x) on one side or
whose area is I.
comes in from
both sides, then the particle
&(x)dx = 1
infinity slows down or speeds up under the
infuence of potential and returns to infinity.
J-0o
state. Eg. The spiking can be at any point like x
This is called a SCATTERING = a and the delta function is like
Potential Hill. ( x - a ) f x #a
V(x) S(x-a) if x=a
8x-a)dx = 1
-00

The Dirac-delta function has an

important property that

Classical turning points c+0
V)
fx)6x- a) dr =fla)
Or
+C0
f 8 ) d x = 0)
J-0o
is like a
If the potential of a system
we can use a
V) barrier of a finite height
constant
Diracdelta function multiplied by a
to represent it.
Let us consider a potential of the
Classicel lurnng points form
V(x) = « 8(x)
X

Page 9
jj MIC 2019
 Where is some constant. If x is The Schrödinger equation is first
positive, it represents a potential barrier and integrated within the limit te to -E and then take
if xis negative, it is a potential well. the limit as e> 0.
Consider a potential well ctE ctE
V(x) = -x S (x) h2dp
drz dx +Vy dx Exydx
=

The Schrödinger equation is 2m. +E

h2 d2p h2dy
2m drid+], -* 6(x)pdr = E p d

2m dx?% d(x)
E =

This potential yiclds both bound states

h2Ed2p tE T

2md dx-*(xNp dr E pdx

=

(E< 0) and the scattering states (E >0).

Bound states
In the region x < 0, V(x) = 0, so
h2sdp
2mdx db
d opde
d 2mE =k
dx2 = Epdx
v-2mE Using the property of the delta function
Where k =
potential the second integral becomes
Since E is negative, k is real and positive. h2 (dp|
The general solution to the equation is
2mdx da Þ(0) =E| pdx
x ) = Ae-k* + Bekx
Thelast integral is zero when e 0 , integrating
from zero to zero is meaningless.
The first term exponentially increases as x Therefore the above integral can be written as
tends to -oo, therefore choosing A = 0.
b(x) = BekXin the region x < 0. V0) =0
In the region x > 0, the solution is to be of the
2mldxl dx -g

formFek + GeRx and as the second termn

increases exponentially to infinity as x tends to
infinity, therefore G =0
Taking the derivatives of the wave
( x ) = Fe-kx, x>0.
functions
The important boundary condition is that the
function y should be continuous across the
= Bkek* for x <0 so = Bk
dx
boundary and this demands that B =F =-Bke-kxfor x >0 so = -Bk
dx
Bes (x s0).
r)=Be, (x 20). That is fa 28k
y(x) and b(0) = B
Vx Substituting in the integral result gives
Zm
KX -2Bk = - XB
Vke
m c
k =

h2
And the allowed energy is
mx
E =
2h2
The second boundary condition is
Y2mE mo
should be continuous. But the join of the two from the equation k= h =

sides is the delta function. h2

On normalizing the wave function gives
Since the delta function the
discontinuity at the join (x = 0), using B Vk= Vm *
Schrödinger equation the second boundary
This shows that the delta function
condition can be applied.
potential has only one bound state

jj MIC 2019 Page 10

 Vm x
h(x) = . e h*
8r'kx
Ar ' W *

with energyE =
Beikx
A kr

Scattering state
For the scattering state, E > 0.
The Schrödinger equation
2m
hE Ey = k2
dx2
Where k = which is real and E
R and T are functions of ß and hence energy
positive. The general solution for x < 0 is 1
(x) = A,elk* + A,e-ikx R
2h2E
Neither term becomes increase exponentially as 1+12
1
x tends to infinity. For x > 0, the solution is
T =
x ) = B.eikx + B,e-ikx 1 +
The continuity of yb(x) at x =0 demands that 2h2F
the probability
The higher the energy,the greater
A +A B, + B of transmission. Even if the
xvalue ispositive or
Applying the continuity o f a t x = 0 yiclds
transmission coefficient or the
dx the
negative,
reflection coefficient is
unaltered since they
B-B= A,(1+2iß) -A(1 -2i8) contain ox
Where = h2k In the classical theory, if E >Vmax,
then T
climb the hill
In a typical scattering experiment, if particles
=
1 and R =0 i.e. the particle will
Bur if E <Vmax,
the amplitude of the and c o m e over to the other side.
are fired from left (Ar),
wave coming out from the right (Br) will be T 0 and R 1, i.e the particle will climb up
then return
zero. the hill until its energy dies out and
the same way it came.
By solving the equations that
The quantum scattering analysis shows
of
A A,andB,
iß =-p Ar incident particle
the particle has s o m e n o n z e r o probability
the potential even if E <Vmax
The relative probability that an
passing through
will be reflected back is This phenomenon is called TUNNELLING.
R=A2=P
14,12 1+82
Radioactive decay is a tunneling process
R is called the reflection coefficient.
The probability of transmission is given by The operation of Scanning Tunneling
B, 1
Microscope (STM) relies on this
TA,?1+ should be 1, ie. R tunneling effect.
The sum of these probabilities
T= A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type

of semiconductor diode based on the

quantum mechanical tunneling effect

which is capable of very fast operation

in the microwave frequency region.

jj MIC 2019 Page 11

 solutions are of the
since (-x) =
FU(x). The
THE FINITE SQUARE WELL
torm
Consider a finite square well for(r> a).
Fe, a),
-Vo. for -a <*<a.
Dcos(lx), for (0<x <

vm-o. forx>a.
Vx)
(x) =

-x). for(r< 0).

at x =a says
(6)
The continuity ofy(x)

Fea=D cos(la),
And the continuity of.dy says
- KFea = -ID sin(la).
above two continuity equations
Dividing the
gives
where Vo is a (positive) constant. If the K = l tan(la).
since
particle has energy less than 0, (E 0) energies,
< allowed
This is a formula for the
then it is in a bound state and if E >0, it k and / are both functions of E.
is a scattering state.
is zero, so the
In the region x < -a the potential To solve for E, let
Schrödinger cquation z E la, and zoV2mVo.
(7)
d -
Ev. or = K*v,
2m dr2 dx tanz
Where From equation (2) and (3),
-2mE (2+1)=2mVo/h,
K
(2) So k is k2 = a - 12, k2a2 = a2 2m-a212
h2
h2
admissible
is real and positive. The physically Therefore, k^a2 =
z3 -z2
solution in this region (x < -a)is
x ) = Be*, for (x < -a) Ka=-
In the second region -a <x < a, V(x) =
-Vo, and
the Schrödinger equation reads
d - Vov = Ey, or d ="y -P ka=222
2m dr2
Where tanz-
2m (E + Vo)
h (3) This is a transcendental equation for z (and
the hence for E) as a function of zo (which
is a
Since the particle is bound in the region,
can be
general solution is measure of the "size" of the well).It
a), tanz and
x ) C sin(lx) +
=
D cos(lx), for (-a <I < solved graphically, by plotting
(4) 1on the same grid, and looking for points
where C and D are arbitrary constants.
the
In the third region x>a the potential is zero; of intersection.
general solution is
al

x)= F exp(-Kx) +Gexp(xx)

but the second term blows up (as x tends to oo),
so we are left with
a ) = Fex, for (x > a). . . (5)

conditions demand that y and 3n/2 5n/2

The boundary dx
since thee
should be continuous at a and -a. But
potential is an even function, we need only
impose the boundary conditions on one side For the scattering states (E> 0),
other side is then automatic, since there can be waves in both
(say, at ta); the

j MIC 2019
Page 12
 directions, assuming the
of propagating wave general solution
u} =
A +
Be. for ( < -a).
Where Ae Fe
k2mE Be-

Inside the well.() -Vo and the general

=

Regon 111
solution for Regon Region 11

x)
a
stationary wave is suitable. To the right (Region ) . V(x) is again
=
C sin(lx) + D cos(ix). for (-a <I < a).
Where zero, so
x ) = F e i + Ge-itz

In between (Region I). the wave

To the right, function is determined by the potential. but
assuming there is no incoming because the Schrõdinger equation is a linear,
wave in this region. we have second-order differential equation, the general
i r = Fe solution has got to be of the form
A is the incident amplitude. B is the yx) = Cfx) + Dgl().
reflected amplitude. and F is the where fx) and g(x) are any two
transmitted amplitude. linearly independent solutions. There will be
There are four boundary conditions: Continuity four boundary conditions (two joining Regions I
of y(x) at -a says and II and two joining Regions II and III). Two
Ae B = -C sin(la) + D cosla). of these can be used to eliminate C and D. and
the other two can be "solved" for B and F in
continuity ofat a gives
terms of A and G.
ik[Ae- Bé] = [Ccostla) +- D sin(la)i.
B Si14 +S1G. F= S214 Sz2G.
continuity of y(x) at +a yields The four coefficients S+. which depend on k
C sintla) + D costla) = F e .
(and hence on E), constitute a 2 x 2 matrix
continuity ofata yields
IC cosla) - D sintia)] = ikFi=. s-(S
called the scattering matrix (or S-
Eliminating C and D, and solving for Band F matrix, for short). The S-matrix tells you the
gves outgoing amplitudes (B and F) in terms of the
incoming amplitudes (A and G:
B= F-HF.
F
(F)-s()
cos 2a) -i +P In the typical case of scattering from
the left G = 0, so the reflection and
The transmission coefficient T =1 means transmission coefficients are
A
the well is transparent to the particle.
T is a function of energy and the plot of T as a
R E =S . T= IS:
function of E is shown For scattering from the right, A = 0.

and

F
G4= =iS. TG
THE SCATTERING MATRIX R, = S2

The theory of scattering can be The S-matrix tells everything there is to

generalised in arbitrary localized potentials. know about scattering from a localized
To the left (Region I), V(x) =0, so potential.
fr) = Ae + Be-á: *****

Where

ij MIC 2019 Page 13