Language

Babel Teaching
47:4 343–354 © in Translator
Fédération Training
Internationale des Traducteurs (FIT) Revue Babel 343

Language Teaching in Translator Training

Defeng Li

Introduction

In the 1980s and 1990s, emphasis in translation training and translation

studies tended towards the cultural, functional and practical issues involved
in the process of translation, in reaction to the linguistic approaches popular
during the 1960s and 1970s. According to Malmkjær (1998:2),
This trend has brought a great many new and valuable insights, but, in the
(c) John Benjamins
process, advances in linguistics and applied linguistics, together with the
Delivered by Ingenta
question of how translators might most effectively be provided with the
kinds of linguistic skills which will help them produce socio-functionally
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
adequate texts in the most economic, quality-oriented manner possible, have
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
been left out of consideration by many translator trainers.

This observation seemsIP: 130.126.32.13

to apply to translation teaching in Hong Kong as
well. In Hong Kong today, it is often assumed that students have an adequate
command of English and Chinese when they are admitted to undergraduate
translation programs. Courses teaching translation and interpretation prin-
ciples, translation history and the like, are offered to students as soon as they
enter the program. Language training, on the other hand, is kept to the
minimum and often left to other ancillary language teaching units. However,
I believe that such an assumption of the students’ adequacy in L1 and L2
competence upon entering translation programs is invalid and thus respon-
sible for the slow progress of the students over the period of their courses. In
order to remedy this situation, translation programs must provide effective,
tailor-made language courses for translation students.

Necessity of Language Training for Translation Students

It goes without saying that bilingual competence is essential to translators.

According to Neubert (1995: 412), translational competence consists of
344 Defeng Li

language competence, subject competence and transfer competence. It can be

said that the importance of bilingual competence to translation students and
professional translators alike is indisputable. However, in recent years, in
attempts to promote professionalism in translator training, the importance of
transfer competence (translation skills, strategies and translation problem-
solving and decision-making abilities) has been rightly emphasized. It is
almost a cliché to say that a competent bilingual does not necessarily make a
good translator. Anecdotal instances are oftentimes cited to show how a
bilingual person failed in their attempts at translation. While it is indisputable
that the importance of transfer competence cannot be overemphasized, I
would like to point out that in such an effort to promote the professionalism of
translation and demonstrate to the public that translation is a complex and
dynamic profession which has its own hardcore subject matter knowledge
(Newmark 1997), the role of language competence as a component in transla-
tion competence is played down unjustifiably. We translation teachers and
researchers all know perfectly well how essential bilingual competence is to
(c) John
translators, but unfortunately Benjamins
we have assumed too much about Hong Kong
translation students’ language competence.Ingenta
Delivered by Meanwhile, we somehow forget
that languageon: Sat, 18
competence is theNov 2006 01:02:57
most fundamental and the most important
among the three components of translational competence. It is the prerequi-
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
site for anyone who wants to be a translator or interpreter. “There would be
IP: 130.126.32.13
no grounds for transfer competence without the translator’s thorough ground-
ing in language competence and subject competence” (Neubert 1995: 412).
In fact, translation students themselves feel the need for language boost-
ing. In the time that I have been teaching translation in Hong Kong, my
students, who were top achievers in the Hong Kong Advanced Level Exami-
nations (especially in English and Chinese), have repeatedly told me that they
hoped to have more language training because they were aware of their
deficiency in both English and Chinese. Almberg (1997: 36) also observes
that translation students “have self knowledge enough to realize that their
language proficiency calls for much boosting”. Besides, there is another
reason why students demand more language enhancement. Many of the
students are cognizant of the fact that they cannot all find employment as
translators/interpreters or Chinese language officers1 after graduation. Many
of them will simply land jobs that are language-related or only remotely
related to language or translation per se. Furthermore, there has also been a
decrease in the number of translation posts in the past few years. Since the
Language Teaching in Translator Training 345

government has always been the biggest employer of translation graduates,

the merging of some administrative bodies as a result of the economic
downturn, for example, the amalgamation of the regional and district councils
in 2000, will definitely affect the number of students who will actually be able
to find employment as translators and interpreters. More students will eventu-
ally find jobs where they will simply have to use Chinese and/or English to
perform their duties. Therefore to be responsive to changing social and
market needs, a certain amount of language training for translation students
will definitely enable them to be better prepared for employment.
Literature on translation teaching also supports the teaching of language
for translation students. In her study on professional translators’ perceptions
of translation proficiency through data gathered from interviews with profes-
sional translators, Cao (1996: 234) found that the requirement of a translator
as a language expert in both the SL and the TL has been particularly
emphasized by many of the informants during interviews. In Li’s study on the
needs of professional translators in Hong Kong, the respondents, who were
(c) John
also professional translators, Benjamins
considered language training most important to
Delivered
them and expressed the need for more. by Ingenta
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
The respondents found their training in language in translation programs
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
was most useful to them at work; however, they also found their preparation
in language at the university was not sufficient for them to do a good
IP: 130.126.32.13
translation job; therefore, they hoped to improve their language if they had a
chance to study again… the respondents seemed to have prized language
skills and therefore language skills training over translation skills training.
Whether or not such a perception is warranted, a clear message we receive
from this study is that bilingual competence is most important to a translator
and language training for translation students needs to be strengthened” (Li,
1999: 34).

My experience of teaching translation in Hong Kong also tells me that

students need more language training in order to be competent translators. I
believe that what has stopped many translation students from fast improving
their translation competence after three years of study is not their lack of
training in translation methods and skills; rather, it is their inadequate bilin-
gual competence. An analysis of some students’ errors in translating can very
well illustrate this point.
Recently, I gave the students in my commercial translation class an
assignment of translating some sentences from English into Chinese and vice
versa as a way to help them brush up their translation skills and strategies, as
346 Defeng Li

they might have become rusty after their long summer break. The following
was one item of the translation assignment, in which they were asked to
translate from Chinese into English.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
These sentences should be very simple for second-year translation major
students. All four sentences contain the phrase . The purpose of this item
is to remind students of the importance of context in determining the meaning
of a word, phrase or even a text. The students generally considered it simple
as well. However, an analysis of their translations revealed that among the 26
students who translated this item, only three of them got it all correct. The
first sentence was the one that the students did the best. However, some of
(c) One
them still made mistakes. John
error Benjamins
that most students made was that they
used households instead of families to translate “
Delivered by Ingenta”. Besides, some even
used “have” instead of “there be” to translate “ ” in this sentence.
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
(1)How many families are there in your village? (R)
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
How many households does your village have? (W)
IP: 130.126.32.13
In translating the second sentence, some of them misunderstood “ ” to
mean “be married”. But what really surprised me was that at least half of my
students did not know how to use the word “to marry”. Therefore, they
translated this sentence into “His sister has already married” instead of “His
sister is already married” or “his sister has already got married”.
(2) His sister is engaged. (R)
His sister has already married. (W)
In translating the third sentence, some students used “from the others” instead
of “from others”. Others translated it into “from the mouth of others” or
“through other people’s mouth”, which were not English!
(3) I heard it from others. (R)
I heard it from the others. (W)
I heard it from the mouth of others. (W)
I heard it through other people’s mouth. (W)
Language Teaching in Translator Training 347

In translating the fourth sentence, some students translated the first part of the
sentence into “tell them fast/quickly”, which seems to mean to say it fast
instead of clearly, which obviously is not what the original sentence means.
(4) Tell them right away (that) the lost money has been found. (R)
Hurry! Tell them (that) the lost money has been found. (R)
Tell them fast that the money lost has been found. (W)
This brief analysis shows clearly that the reason for these errors was not
because of lack of training in translation methods, since they all understood
that the context determined the meaning(s) of the phrase “ ”. Rather, it
was because the students did not have the bilingual competence required to
complete translation of these sentences in correct and idiomatic English.
Given the fact that the sentences were so simple and my students were top
achievers in the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations (HKALE), the
entrance examinations for higher education in Hong Kong, we as teachers
should seriously worry about their language proficiency. Undoubtedly, in
(c) John
order to help them improve Benjamins
their translation performance, language training
Delivered by Ingenta
should be the first and foremost training that students receive in an under-
on: Sat,
graduate translator training18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
program.
There is still another
to: University at Illinois reason whyatweUrbana-Champaign
should not assume Hong Kong
translation students possess adequate bilingual competence upon entering
university. For many, the IP: 130.126.32.13
basis of such an assumption is the years of learning
English and Chinese that Hong Kong students undergo in elementary and
secondary schools. The yardstick of their proficiency in the two languages is
the powerful Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations (HKALE). How-
ever, the grades of students who are admitted into the seven translation
programs in Hong Kong each year vary considerably. As mentioned earlier,
being a teacher in a department of translation which has admitted the best
secondary school graduates since its inception in 1995, I have found my
students have a great deal to do to improve their bilingual competence.
Besides, after repeated outcry concerning the declining of local students’
English and Chinese competence, I believe it is simply wrong for anyone to
continue to hold this entirely unfounded assumption. Further maintenance of
it will only prevent translation programs from producing quality translators.
Therefore, while fully aware of the advisability and necessity to promote
translation professionalism by stressing the existence of a hardcore subject-
matter knowledge of translation and its importance in the training of transla-
348 Defeng Li

tors, I object to doing so at the sacrifice of the quality of our graduates.

Language teaching has to be part of undergraduate translator training pro-
grams and should be strengthened.

Some Methodological Considerations of Language Teaching for

Translation Students

Focus on Language Use

While learning about language is useful to the development of translation

competence by raising translators’ sensitivity to language, and to a lesser extent
their decision-making and problem-solving abilities, emphasis should be
placed on the use of L1 and L2 in language training for translation students. “As
translation is an action-directed activity, for a translator, to be competent in two
languages entails both the knowledge including language knowledge, and the
ability to apply the knowledge to actual translation contexts for communication
purposes” (Cao 1996:(c) 233).John Benjamins
The difference between language teaching for
Delivered
translators and for linguists, accordingby Ingenta
to Mackenzie (1998), is that language
on:
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translator 18 than
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study. “The translator must
be
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Urbana-Champaign which implies that
teaching should concentrate on the use of the language in communication
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rather than on the language 130.126.32.13
(Mackenzie 1998:15).

Inclusion of Explicit Grammar Instruction

While stress should be laid on language use, some explicit instruction of

grammar should be included in language training for translation students
(Poon 1997). This is especially important for translation students in Hong
Kong, most of whom have learned English using the communicative ap-
proach, in which fluency is prized over accuracy. Therefore, on the whole,
Hong Kong students do fairly well in oral English communication. They are
much better than their mainland counterparts in terms of fluency and ease
with which they express themselves in English. However, during the four
years I have taught in Hong Kong, I have been constantly surprised by the
disconcerting quality of their written English, and the discrepancy between
their oral and written English. I suspect one reason accountable for this might
be a misconception that English teachers in Hong Kong secondary schools
Language Teaching in Translator Training 349

hold about the communicative approach (Tompson, 1996). Many of them

believe that direct instruction of grammar interferes with the development of
the students’ communicative competence in English and therefore should be
avoided. Consequently, Hong Kong students can communicate effectively
and fairly fluently in oral English but commit many errors in written English.
On the other hand, in translation, especially written translation, both fluency
and grammatical correctness form the essential tenets. According to Krashen
(1982, 1985), knowledge of grammar can be exercised to monitor the output
of the second language. Therefore, teaching translation students some gram-
mar can be of great help with the reproduction, revision and editing of
translated texts, thus effectively reducing the errors in their translations.
In fact, literature abounds with argument for inclusion of grammar
instruction in second language teaching (Lightbrown & Spada 1990;
Widdowson 1990; Lightbrown 1991; Savignon 1991; Schachter 1991; Li
1998). Celce-Murcia et al. believe that the communicative approach “has
arrived at a turning point: Explicit, direct elements are gaining significance
(c) John
in teaching communicative abilities Benjamins
and skills” (Celce-Murcia, Dornyei &
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Thurrell 1997: 148). However, it is equally important for teachers to bear in
mind that the on: Sat,of 18
purpose Novgrammar
teaching 2006is 01:02:57
to help students learn the
language and to be wary of making grammar the main focus of their teaching.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Also, alternatives should be considered for traditional grammar instruction,
IP: 130.126.32.13
such as the grammar consciousness-raising tasks that Ellis and Fotos have been
undertaking in Japan (Fotos & Ellis 1991; Fotos 1994).

Enhancement of Mother Tongue Training

The importance of the mother tongue is often overlooked and thus kept to a
minimum in translator training while more emphasis is laid upon the second
language (cf. Bowen 1989; Rose 1989; Seleskovitch 1989). In fact, it cannot
be assumed that translation students always function competently in their first
language. Enhancement of the mother tongue is just as important as, if not
more than, that of the foreign language. This is especially important for
translation programs in Hong Kong, where professional translators need to
use more Chinese at work since the handover of Hong Kong to Chinese
sovereignty in 1997 (Li 1999). Therefore, in our attempt and effort to enhance
the overall bilingual competence for translation students, emphasis should
also be placed on the improvement of their mother tongue (Mackenzie 1998).
350 Defeng Li

As Lang suggests, “it seems to be highly desirable, if not essential, that any
course in translating should be preceded by a monolingual text processing
course, designed specifically to improve the trainee translator’s mastery of
his/her mother tongue” (1992: 399).
Special attention should also be given to teaching students the dif-
ference(s) between Putonghua and Cantonese.2 Many teachers have observed
that translation students in Hong Kong often have difficulty in writing good
Chinese. As Cantonese is the language they use in daily communication, their
way of thinking and way of expression are heavily influenced by that lan-
guage. Therefore, when they translate from English into Chinese, one of the
mistakes they make most often is that they translate into a mixture of
Putonghua and Cantonese. Sadly, they often commit the mistake without
even realizing it. I have had students confiding to me in frustration that they
had always written Chinese this way ever since they started school and very
few teachers had pointed out this kind of mistake to them. So what should be
done then? A course of Putonghua and Cantonese Comparison and Transla-
(c) John
tion as suggested by Cheng Benjamins
(1999) might be in order. Such a course will not
Delivered by Ingenta
only enhance students’ awareness of the differences between Putonghua and
Cantonese, buton:alsoSat,
provide18themNov 2006in01:02:57
with training translation and interpreta-
tion between these two dialects, a skill which is becoming more useful for
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
professional translators in Hong Kong as a result of its more socio-political
and economic exchanges IP:with130.126.32.13
the mainland China.
Some translation programs do require students to take English and
Chinese courses from other teaching units and departments, typically lan-
guage learning centers, in their three-year study at university. However,
entrusting language training to other teaching units, for instance, Chinese to
the Independent Learning Center and English to the English Language
Teaching Unit in the case of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, has at
least two disadvantages. Firstly, the language courses offered at such centers
are designed for all the students of the university. It is well known that the
students in other faculties are in general far below translation students in their
English proficiency (This observation is supported repeatedly by teachers at
these centers.). Therefore such courses seldom meet the needs of translation
students. Secondly, entrusting the training of language to other teaching units
makes it difficult to monitor students’ progress in that language. Teachers of
subject-area courses are seriously disadvantaged in teaching without a clear
idea of students’ bilingual competence. Therefore, it seems much better for
Language Teaching in Translator Training 351

translation programs to design and offer their own language courses to

translation students.

Summary and Conclusion

The idea of language training for translation students is not original. But the
point is that in attempts to promote professionalism in translation by emphasiz-
ing the importance of translation training, we are cautioned not to downplay
the importance and necessity of language training for translation students,
especially for Hong Kong students, who themselves feel the need for more
language training and whose translation work also shows clearly such a need.
To provide more language training for translation students in Hong Kong,
we need to strike a better balance between language training and translation
training rather than devoting all three years to translation training alone when
most of the students do not have adequate bilingual competence needed to
become competent translators. Instead of asking for more resources to set up
new courses, we may (c) need John Benjamins
to restructure our existing curricula to allow for
more language training. Delivered byimportant
This is especially Ingenta today, when the economic
recession hason: Sat,
affected 18 Nov
the Hong 2006 01:02:57
Kong government’s financial ability to fund
higher education. In fact, I have always
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign suspected that providing one-year
intensive training in English and Chinese to our students before teaching them
any translation theory and IP:skills
130.126.32.13
might yield much better results.
In enhancing language training for translation students, emphasis should
be placed on language use. However, a certain amount of direct instruction of
both Chinese and English will be very helpful for students to improve their
translation performance. Besides, enhancement of students’ Chinese compe-
tence is just as important as, if not more important than, the enhancement of
their English competence. Meanwhile, some attention to teaching Hong Kong
students the differences between Cantonese and Putonghua will help them a
good deal in their English-Chinese written translation.
All in all, translation students need to lay a firm foundation of bilingual
competence before and while receiving their training in translation. Language
training instruction well planned can help translation students improve their
bilingual skills and in turn their overall translation competence and perform-
ance. Thus, it is an area that deserves more attention and research from those
who teach and research translation.
352 Defeng Li

Notes

1. Chinese Language Officer is the official title for translators and interpreters employed
by the Hong Kong SAR government.
2. Cantonese is the local dialect while Putonghua (Mandarin Chinese) is the official
language in Mainland China.

References

Almberg. N. S. P. 1997. “Where to begin: Top-Down or Bottom-Up”. Presented at the

Conference on Translation Teaching, CUHK, Hong Kong, Dec. 2-4. 10 pp.
Bowen, David 1989. Pendulum swings in language teaching and translation. In
Krawutschke, Peter (ed.), Translator and interpreter training and foreign language
pedagogy. American Translators Association scholarly monograph series III (26-38).
State University of New York at Binghampton.
Cao, D. 1996. On translational language competence. Babel, 42:4, 231-238.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z. and Thurrell, S. 1997. Direct approaches in L2 instruction:
A turning point in communicative language teaching? TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 141-
152. (c) John Benjamins
Delivered by Ingenta
Cheng, T. 1999. Syntax and interpretation training: Cantonese and Putonghua. Presented
at Symposium on Translation in Hong Kong: Past, Present and Future, CUHK, Hong
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
Kong. March 18-19, 21-32.
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Fotos, S. S. 1994. Integrating grammar instruction and communicative language use
through grammar consciousness-raising tasks. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 323-351.
IP: 130.126.32.13
Fotos, S. S. and Ellis, R. 1991. Communicating about Grammar: A task-based approach.
TESOL Quarterly, 25(4), 605-628.
Gaddis Rose, Marilyn 1989. Must translator training remain elitist? In Krawutschke, Peter
(ed.), Translator and interpreter training and foreign language pedagogy. American
Translators Association scholarly monograph series III (18-25). State University of
New York at Binghampton.
Krashen, S. D. 1982. Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford:
Pergamon. 202 pp.
Krashen, S. D. 1985. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. London: Longman.
102 pp.
Lang, M. 1992. The problem of mother tongue competence in the training of translators.
In Snell-Hornby, M. Pöchhacker, F. & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Translation Studies: An
Interdiscipline (395-400). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Li, D. 1999. Tailoring translation programs to social needs: A survey of professional
translators. Presented at Symposium on Translation in Hong Kong: Past, Present and
Future, CUHK, Hong Kong. March 18-19. pp. 81-93.
Li, D. 1998. “It’s always more difficult than you plan and imagine”: Teachers’ perceived
difficulties in introducing the Communicative Approach. TESOL Quarterly. Washing-
ton, D.C.. pp. 677-703.
Language Teaching in Translator Training 353

Lightbrown, P. 1991. Input, instruction, and feedback in second language acquisition.

Second Language Research, 7, ii-iv.
Lightbrown, P. and Spada, N. 1990. Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in communi-
cative language teaching: Effects in second language learning. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 12, 429-448.
Mackenzie, R. 1998. The place of language teaching in a quality oriented translators’
training programme. In Malmkjær, K. (Ed.), Translation and language teaching, pp.
15-20. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.
Malmkjær, K. 1998. Translation and language teaching. Manchester: St. Jerome Publish-
ing. 144 pp.
Neubert, A. 1995. Competence in translation: a complex skill. how to study and how to
teach it. In Snell-Hornby, M. Pöchhacker, F. & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Translation Studies:
An Interdiscipline (411-420). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Newmark, P. 1997. Why translation theory? What translation theory? Journal of Transla-
tion Studies, No. 1, pp. 94-101.
Poon, H. 1997. Grammar learning and translation. Presented at the Conference on
Translation Teaching, CUHK, Hong Kong, Dec 2-4. 8 p.
Savignon, S. 1991. Communicative language teaching: State of the art. TESOL Quarterly,
25(2), 261-277.
(c) John Benjamins
Schachter, J. 1991. Corrective feedback in historical perspective. Second Language
Research, 7, 89-102.
Delivered by Ingenta
Seleskovitch, Danica. 1989. Teaching conference interpreting. In Krawutschke, Peter
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
(ed.), Translator and interpreter training and foreign language pedagogy. American
Translators Association scholarly monograph series III (65-88). State University of
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Tompson, G. 1996. Some misconceptions about communicative language teaching. ELT
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213 pp.

About the Author

LI, DEFENG, B.A., M.Phil. Ph.D., Assistant Professor in the Department of Translation,
Chinese University of Hong Kong, has taught English and translation in Hong Kong,
Mainland China and Canada. His academic interests include translation studies, transla-
tion teaching research and second language education. His present study in translation
focuses on translation pedagogy and curriculum and material development in translation.
Among others, Translation Theory and Practice and An English Speaking Course for
College Students are two major publications he has put out in the last few years. He has
also written for leading international journals such as Target, Babel, TESOL Quarterly
and Teaching and Teacher Education.
Address: Department of Translation, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.
T., Hong Kong. E-mail: defeng@cuhk.edu.hk
354 Defeng Li

Abstract

In recent years there has been an increasing interest among translation scholars and
practitioners alike in promoting translation professionalism and hence winning recogni-
tion for translation studies as an independent discipline. Many have convincingly and
justly argued for the existence of a hardcore subject-matter knowledge for translation
studies and have stressed the importance of this knowledge in the development of the
students’ translational competence. Unfortunately, in this attempt, the importance of
language competence and thus language training is unduly played down.
This article examines this issue by looking at translator training in Hong Kong. It
argues that the assumption of students L1 and L2 competence being adequate to study
translation immediately upon entering translation programs is unfounded and might be at
least partially responsible for students’ slow improvement in their translational compe-
tence throughout the program. Key issues for strengthening language training for transla-
tion students are also highlighted in this paper.

Résumé

(c) John Benjamins

Au cours des dernières années, il y a eu un intérêt accru parmi les professeurs de
traduction et les traducteurs tendant à promouvoir le professionnalisme de la traduction, et
Delivered by Ingenta
donc obtenir la reconnaissance des études de traduction comme discipline indépendante.
on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 01:02:57
Avec conviction et raisonnablement, beaucoup ont présenté l’argument d’une connais-
sance approfondie d’un domaine de base pour les études de traduction et ont souligné
to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
l’importance de cette connaissance dans le développement de la compétence traduction-
IP: 130.126.32.13
nelle des étudiants.
Malheureusement, lors de cette tentative, l’importance de la compétence linguisti-
que, et donc de la formation linguistique est minimisée à mauvais escient.
Cet article examine cette question en étudiant la formation des traducteurs à Hong
Kong. Son argument est que supposer une compétence suffisante des étudiants L1 et L2
pour étudier la traduction, dès leur entrée dans des programmes de traduction, n’est pas
fondé et serait, au moins, partiellement responsable de la lenteur de leur progrès dans leur
compétence translationnelle pendant leur programme d’études.
Les questions essentielles destinées à renforcer la formation linguistique pour les
étudiants en traduction sont aussi soulignées dans cet article.