Geology

MARCH 18

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Authored by: Your Name

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Ore Element Formation Minerals
Bauxite Aluminum Weathering of Gibbsite,
aluminum-rich boehmite,
rocks diaspore
Hematite Iron Precipitation from Hematite
aqueous solutions
Chalcopyrite Copper Hydrothermal Chalcopyrite
alteration of
igneous rocks
Galena Lead Hydrothermal Galena
replacement of
sedimentary rocks

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Sphalerite Zinc Hydrothermal Sphalerite
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Cassiterite Tin Hydrothermal Cassiterite
alteration of
granitic rocks
Magnetite Iron Precipitation from Magnetite
aqueous solutions
Pyrolusite Manganese Precipitation from Pyrolusite
aqueous solutions
Cinnabar Mercury Hydrothermal Cinnabar
alteration of
sedimentary rocks
Uraninite Uranium Hydrothermal Uraninite
alteration of
igneous rocks
Ore Element Formation Minerals
Process
Bauxite Aluminum Weathering of Gibbsite,
aluminum-rich boehmite,
rocks diaspore
Chromite Chromium Igneous processes Chromite
such as fractional
crystallization

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Cinnabar Mercury Hydrothermal Cinnabar
alteration of
sedimentary rocks
Cobaltite Cobalt Hydrothermal Cobaltite
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Columbite- Niobium, Pegmatites and Columbite,
Tantalite Tantalum hydrothermal tantalite
(Coltan) veins
Copper Copper Porphyry copper Chalcopyrite,
deposits, bornite,
hydrothermal chalcocite,
alteration of rocks covellite
Galena Lead Hydrothermal Galena
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Gold Gold Hydrothermal Gold
veins, placer
deposits, and
magmatic
processes
Hematite Iron Precipitation from Hematite
aqueous solutions

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Ilmenite Titanium Igneous processes Ilmenite, rutile,
such as fractional leucoxene
crystallization
Iron Iron Banded iron Hematite,
formations, magnetite,
hydrothermal goethite
processes
Lead Lead Hydrothermal Galena
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Lithium Lithium Pegmatites, Spodumene,
brines, lepidolite,
hydrothermal petalite,
fluids amblygonite
Magnetite Iron Precipitation from Magnetite
aqueous solutions
Manganese Manganese Hydrothermal Pyrolusite
veins and
sedimentary
deposits

Method Definition/Methodology
Open Pit A mining technique that involves the excavation
Mining of an open pit or surface mine to extract valuable

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 minerals or ores. This method is typically used for
shallow deposits and involves the use of heavy
equipment such as bulldozers, excavators, and
haul trucks.
Underground A mining technique that involves the excavation
Mining of tunnels or shafts to extract minerals or ores
that are located deep underground. This method
is typically used for deposits that are too deep or
too difficult to mine using surface mining
techniques.
Placer Mining A mining technique that involves the extraction
of minerals or ores that are found in alluvial
deposits, such as rivers or streams. This method
involves the use of water to separate the
valuable minerals or ores from the surrounding
sediment or rock.
In Situ Mining A mining technique that involves the extraction
of minerals or ores without the need for physical
excavation. This method typically involves the
use of chemicals or solvents to dissolve the
valuable minerals or ores in place and then pump
them to the surface for processing.
Heap A process that involves the extraction of minerals
Leaching or metals from low-grade ores or waste rock by
piling the material into heaps and then irrigating

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 it with a chemical solution to dissolve the
valuable minerals or metals. The solution is then
collected and processed.
Smelting A process that involves the extraction of metals
from ores by heating them to high temperatures
and then melting and separating the metals from
the surrounding rock or waste material. This
method is typically used for metals such as
copper, lead, and iron.
Froth A process that involves the separation of
Flotation minerals or ores from gangue (unwanted
material) by creating a froth on the surface of a
water-based slurry. The froth contains the
valuable minerals or ores, which are then
separated from the gangue and collected for
processing.
Solvent A process that involves the extraction of metals
Extraction from ores or solutions using a solvent. This
method is typically used for metals such as
copper, nickel, and uranium. The solvent extracts
the metal ions from the ore or solution and is
then collected for further processing.
Carbon-in- A process that involves the extraction of gold
Leach (CIL) from ores by leaching the ore with a cyanide
solution, which dissolves the gold and forms a

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 gold-cyanide complex. The solution is then
passed through activated carbon, which absorbs
the gold complex and is then processed to
recover the gold.
Carbon-in- A process similar to CIL that involves the
Pulp (CIP) extraction of gold from ores by leaching the ore
with a cyanide solution and then passing the
solution through activated carbon. However, in
CIP, the activated carbon is mixed with the
leaching slurry, which improves the gold
recovery.

Ore Formation Definition

Process
Hydrothermal Ores that form from the deposition of minerals
from hot, mineral-rich fluids that circulate
through rocks. These fluids are often associated
with igneous intrusions and volcanic activity. As
the fluids cool, minerals precipitate out and
form veins or other deposits. Examples of ores
formed by hydrothermal processes include gold,
silver, copper, and lead-zinc ores.
Sedimentary Ores that form from the accumulation and
cementation of mineral grains in sedimentary

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 rocks. These ores typically form in environments
such as riverbeds, lakes, or shallow seas where
sediments settle and accumulate over time. As
the sediments are buried and compacted,
minerals precipitate out of the pore fluids and
cement the grains together. Examples of ores
formed by sedimentary processes include iron,
bauxite, phosphate, and uranium ores.
Magmatic Ores that form from the crystallization of
minerals from a cooling magma. These ores are
typically associated with large igneous
intrusions such as plutons or batholiths. As the
magma cools, minerals crystallize and settle
out, forming ore deposits. Examples of ores
formed by magmatic processes include chromite
and platinum group metal ores.
Metamorphic Ores that form from the alteration of existing
minerals in rocks due to heat, pressure, or the
circulation of fluids. This process typically occurs
deep within the Earth's crust and can be
associated with tectonic activity or regional
metamorphism. As the minerals are altered,
they may become concentrated and form ores.
Examples of ores formed by metamorphic
processes include iron, copper, and gold ores.

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Placer Ores that form from the accumulation of heavy
minerals, such as gold or diamonds, in
riverbeds, stream beds, or beach sands. These
minerals are often eroded from existing ore
deposits and transported by water or wind. As
the water or wind slows down, the heavy
minerals settle and accumulate in specific areas.
Placer deposits are typically mined using open
pit or dredging techniques.
Residual Ores that form from the weathering and
decomposition of existing rocks and minerals in
place. As rocks are weathered and eroded,
certain minerals may become concentrated in
the residual soil or regolith. These ores are
typically found in tropical or subtropical regions
where intense weathering and leaching have
occurred. Examples of ores formed by residual
processes include bauxite, laterite, and iron ores

Energy Advantages Disadvantages

Production
Method

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Fossil Fuels - Relatively - Non-renewable<br>-
inexpensive<br>- Well- Carbon emissions and
established other air pollutants<br>-
infrastructure<br>- Environmental
High energy density degradation from
extraction,
transportation, and
use<br>- Potential for
accidents and spills<br>-
Vulnerable to supply
chain disruptions and
geopolitical conflicts
Nuclear - High energy - High upfront capital
Power density<br>- Relatively costs<br>- Complex and
low carbon expensive safety
emissions<br>- protocols<br>- Nuclear
Reliable and consistent waste disposal and
power output storage issues<br>-
Potential for accidents
and radiation leaks<br>-
Vulnerable to sabotage
and terrorism
Solar Power - Renewable and - Intermittent power
abundant<br>- Low output<br>- Requires
operating costs<br>- large land areas for

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 No emissions or utility-scale
pollution<br>- Modular installations<br>-
and scalable Upfront capital costs for
equipment and
installation<br>-
Potential for
environmental impacts
during manufacturing
and disposal of panels
and batteries
Wind Power - Renewable and - Intermittent power
abundant<br>- Low output<br>- Requires
operating costs<br>- large land areas for
No emissions or utility-scale
pollution<br>- Modular installations<br>-
and scalable<br>- Potential for noise and
Complements well with visual impacts<br>-
solar power Upfront capital costs for
equipment and
installation
Hydroelectric - Reliable and - Limited potential for
Power consistent power new large-scale
output<br>- Low installations<br>- Can
operating costs<br>- have significant
No emissions or environmental impacts

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 pollution<br>- Can also from damming and
serve as flood control flooding<br>- Vulnerable
and water to drought and water
management availability
Geothermal - Renewable and - Limited to certain
Power abundant<br>- geographic locations
Reliable and consistent with suitable geothermal
power output<br>- resources<br>- High
Low emissions and upfront capital costs for
pollution<br>- Can also drilling and
serve as heating and equipment<br>-
cooling Potential for
environmental impacts
during exploration and
development
Biomass - Can utilize waste and - Potential for air
Energy agricultural pollution and emissions
residues<br>- from burning<br>- Can
Renewable and compete with food
abundant<br>- Can production and land
serve as a source of use<br>- Limited
heat, electricity, and potential for large-scale
fuels power generation
Tidal Power - Predictable and - Limited to certain
consistent power coastal areas with

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 output<br>- No suitable tidal
emissions or pollution ranges<br>- High
upfront capital costs for
equipment and
installation<br>-
Potential for
environmental impacts
during installation and
operation
Wave Power - Renewable and - Intermittent power
abundant<br>- No output<br>- Requires
emissions or large and expensive
pollution<br>- Can also equipment and
serve as wave breakers infrastructure<br>-
and coastal protection Potential for
environmental impacts
during installation and
operation

A solid lubricant is a type of lubricant that exists in a solid form and can
and wear between two surfaces that are in contact with each other. So
used in situations where traditional liquid lubricants, such as oils or gre
suitable or effective.

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Solid lubricants can be classified into two main categories: dry and wet
include materials such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide, and tungste
are typically applied as a powder or a thin film. Wet lubricants, on the
typically used in combination with a carrier fluid or binder, and include
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) and various types of waxes.
Solid lubricants have several advantages over traditional liquid lubrican
ability to withstand high temperatures, their resistance to oxidation an
their ability to operate in vacuum or other environments where liquids
They are commonly used in applications such as high-temperature bea
chains in industrial machinery, as well as in aerospace and automotive

B - Beaufort number is the scale that is commonly used to describe win

Beaufort scale ranges from 0 to 12 and is based on visual observations
wind on the sea surface, land objects, and vegetation. The higher the B
the stronger the wind.
A - Mach number is used to describe the speed of an object in relation
sound.
C - Froude number is used to describe the resistance of an object movin
D - Reynolds number is used to describe the fluid dynamics of a fluid flo
water, over an object.

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 Quarries are commonly used to extract various types of construction m
including:
1. Aggregate: Crushed stone, gravel, and sand are commonly extracted fr
used in the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, and other infrastr
2. Dimension stone: High-quality and decorative stones such as granite, m
limestone are extracted from quarries for use in building construction a
3. Industrial minerals: Quarries may also extract minerals such as clay, gy
kaolin, which are used in the production of ceramics, glass, and other i
products.
4. Precious and semi-precious stones: Some quarries also extract gemston
rubies, and emeralds.
5. Metals and metal ores: Some quarries may extract metals and metal o
copper, and gold, although this is less common.
The specific types of materials extracted from a quarry depend on the g
area and the demand for those materials in the local or regional constr
Example
Reason Description Minerals
This occurs when magma cools
and solidifies, allowing
Crystallization minerals to form as the Quartz, feldspar,
from magma magma crystallizes. mica
Precipitation This occurs when dissolved Halite (salt),
from solution minerals in water or other gypsum, calcite

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 solutions become
concentrated enough to form
solid minerals.
This occurs when minerals are
subjected to high pressure,
temperature, or chemical
activity and are transformed Marble,
Metamorphism into new minerals. quartzite, schist
This occurs when hot fluids
circulate through the Earth's Gold, silver,
Hydrothermal crust, interacting with rocks copper, lead,
activity and depositing minerals. zinc
This occurs when minerals are
broken down by chemical or
physical processes and the Sand (composed
resulting particles are of minerals such
Weathering and transported by wind, water, or as quartz), clay,
erosion other agents. iron oxide

Process Description Example

Minerals

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A- Minerals This occurs when salty water Halite
precipitate from from the ocean evaporates and (salt),
evaporating leaves behind mineral deposits, gypsum,
ocean water often in coastal or desert areas. borates
B- Minerals This occurs when hot water is Gold, silver,
precipitate from released from magma copper,
magmatically chambers and reacts with the lead, zinc
heated water surrounding rocks to form
mineral deposits, often in
hydrothermal veins or other
structures.
C- Minerals are This occurs when mineral-rich Gold,
deposited during fluids are released during platinum,
metamorphic metamorphism and deposit diamonds
reactions minerals in fractures or other
openings in the surrounding
rocks.
D- Minerals are This occurs when water Gold,
deposited when carrying sediment or mineral platinum,
flowing water particles slows down and tin,
slows down deposits the particles in layers, diamonds
often in river beds or other
sedimentary environments.

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Property Description Examples
The ratio of the weight of a Gold, silver,
Specific substance to the weight of an platinum, galena,
gravity equal volume of water. pyrite
Copper, aluminum,
The ability of a substance to silver, gold,
Conductivity conduct electricity. graphite
Silver, aluminum,
The ability of a substance to gold, copper, iron
Reflectivity reflect light. pyrite
Gold, silver, copper,
The ability of a substance to be aluminum,
Ductility stretched into a wire. platinum

Type Description Examples

Industrial Materials that are used in Cement, steel,
materials various industrial applications, aluminum, copper,

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 such as construction, coal, oil, natural
manufacturing, and energy gas
production.
Mineral Natural concentrations of Gold, silver,
deposits minerals that are economically copper, iron,
valuable and can be extracted nickel, diamonds,
and processed for various uses. rare earth
elements

A- More carbon and more thickness is the correct answer. As coal is forme
compression and heating of organic matter, such as dead plant materi
carbon increases as more and more of the volatile components are driv
the heating process. At the same time, the thickness of the coal seam c
more and more layers of organic matter are added to the deposit over
more carbon that is present in a coal deposit, the more likely it is to be

Stage Description Examples

Stage 1: Organic material, such as plants Dead plants
Deposition and plankton, accumulate in a and algae
low-oxygen environment, such
as a swamp or ocean floor, and
are buried by sediment.
Stage 2: Over time, the weight of the Peat
Compaction overlying sediment causes the

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 organic material to become
compacted and compressed,
squeezing out water and gases.
Stage 3: Heat As burial continues, the Lignite,
and Pressure temperature and pressure in the bituminous
subsurface increase, causing the coal, oil
organic material to undergo shale
chemical changes and break
down into simpler compounds.
Stage 4: At higher temperatures and Crude oil,
Catagenesis pressures, the organic material natural gas
is converted into hydrocarbons,
such as oil and gas.
Stage 5: In some cases, coal and other Anthracite
Metamorphism organic-rich rocks may be coal
subjected to additional heat and
pressure from tectonic activity,
causing further chemical
changes and the development
of different types of coal.

Subduction zones are areas where two tectonic plates

converge, and one plate is forced underneath the other plate
into the Earth's mantle. This process is known as subduction,

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and it occurs at convergent plate boundaries where one plate
is usually oceanic crust and the other is either oceanic or
continental crust.
As the denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, it causes
melting of the mantle rock and the production of magma. This
magma can rise to the surface and create volcanoes, such as
the Cascades in the western United States and the Andes in
South America. The subduction process can also cause
earthquakes, as the two plates grind against each other or as
the subducting plate fractures under the pressure of the
overlying plate.
Subduction zones are important in the Earth's geologic cycle
as they play a role in the formation of new crust, the recycling
of old crust, and the exchange of material between the Earth's
surface and interior. They are also associated with the
formation of mineral deposits, particularly those that contain
valuable metals such as gold, copper, and silver.
Overall, subduction zones are dynamic and complex geologic
systems that shape the Earth's surface and have significant
impacts on human societies living near them.

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 Why It's
Ore Element Formation Mining Mined That
Mineral Method Why It Forms Method Way
Formed by
the cooling
and
crystallization
of magma, Open-pit
precipitation mining is
from used for
hydrothermal large, near-
fluids, or surface
precipitation deposits,
from while
seawater or undergroun
Fe-ores groundwater Open-pit mining is
(magnetite, Magmatic, in mining, used for
hematite, hydrothermal, sedimentary underground deeper
pyrite) sedimentary environments mining deposits
Formed by Open-pit
Cu-ores the cooling Open-pit mining is
(chalcopyrite, and mining, used for
malachite, Magmatic, crystallization underground large, near-
native Cu) hydrothermal of magma or mining surface

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 precipitation deposits,
from while
hydrothermal undergroun
fluids mining is
used for
deeper
deposits
Formed by
the
precipitation
of
hydrothermal
fluids or
precipitation
from
seawater or Undergroun
groundwater mining is
Pb-ores in used for
(sphalerite, Hydrothermal, sedimentary Underground deeper
galena) sedimentary environments mining deposits
Precious Open-pit
metals Formed by Open-pit mining is
(native Au the mining, used for
and native precipitation underground large, near-
Ag) Hydrothermal of mining surface

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 hydrothermal deposits,
fluids while
undergroun
mining is
used for
deeper
deposits
The formation method of Fe-ores is largely dependent on the type of e
which they form. Magmatic ores form from the cooling and crystalliza
while hydrothermal and sedimentary ores form from precipitation fro
are often mined using open-pit mining or underground mining method
the size and depth of the deposit. Fe-ores are economically significant
crucial component of steel, which is widely used in construction and m
The formation of Cu-ores is also dependent on the type of environmen
form. Magmatic and hydrothermal ores form from precipitation from
cooling and crystallization of magma. Cu-ores are mined using open-p
underground mining methods, depending on the size and depth of the
is widely used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and construction, making
economically significant.
The formation of Pb-ores is similar to that of Fe-ores, with hydrotherm
sedimentary ores forming from precipitation from fluids. Pb-ores are t
using underground mining methods. Lead is used for lead-acid batteri
and radiation shielding, making Pb-ores economically significant.
The formation of precious metal ores is largely dependent on hydrothe
with precipitation from fluids being the primary formation method. Pr

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are mined using open-pit or underground mining methods, depending
depth of the deposit. Precious metals such as gold and silver are highl
use in jewelry, currency, and investment, making precious metal ores
significant.

here is a simple table explaining the formation methods of common or

Ore
Element Formation Method Why does it form like that?
Sedimentary, Fe-rich sediments are compressed
metamorphic, and heated, or magmatic fluids
Iron (Fe) magmatic introduce Fe.
Cu is often transported in
Copper Hydrothermal, hydrothermal fluids or deposited in
(Cu) sedimentary sedimentary rocks.
Pb is often transported in
Lead Hydrothermal, hydrothermal fluids or deposited in
(Pb) sedimentary sedimentary rocks.
Gold is often transported in
Hydrothermal, hydrothermal fluids or deposited in
Gold sedimentary, sedimentary rocks. It can also be
(Au) magmatic introduced by magmatic fluids.

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 Silver is often transported in
Hydrothermal, hydrothermal fluids or deposited in
Silver sedimentary, sedimentary rocks. It can also be
(Ag) magmatic introduced by magmatic fluids.
And here is a table explaining the mining methods for these ores:
Ore Mining Method Why is this method used?
Element
Iron (Fe) Open-pit, Depends on the location and depth of
underground the deposit. Open-pit mining is used
for shallow deposits, while
underground mining is used for
deeper ones.
Copper Open-pit, Depends on the location and depth of
(Cu) underground the deposit. Open-pit mining is used
for shallow deposits, while
underground mining is used for
deeper ones.
Lead Underground Pb deposits tend to be deeper and
(Pb) more narrow, making underground
mining the most efficient method.
Gold Placer, Depends on the location and size of
(Au) underground, the deposit. Placer mining is used for
open-pit small, shallow deposits, while
underground and open-pit mining
are used for larger, deeper deposits.

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Silver Placer, Depends on the location and size of
(Ag) underground, the deposit. Placer mining is used for
open-pit small, shallow deposits, while
underground and open-pit mining
are used for larger, deeper deposits.

Placer deposits are formed when minerals, usually heavy metals, are tr
deposited by flowing water. The minerals settle out of the flowing wat
weight and are then concentrated in certain areas. Placer mining invol
these minerals from the sediment using various methods such as pann
dredging. Placer deposits are economically significant because they ca
concentrations of valuable minerals such as gold, platinum, and tin.
Here is a table explaining the formation and mining methods of placer
Formation Method Explanation
Transport by Minerals are carried by flowing water and
flowing water settle out due to their weight
Minerals become concentrated in areas
Concentration in where the flowing water slows down or
certain areas changes direction
Mining Method Explanation
Manual separation of minerals from
Panning sediment using a pan

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 Use of a sluice box to separate minerals from
Sluicing sediment using flowing water
Use of a dredge to excavate and process
Dredging sediment containing minerals
Placer deposits can contain high
Economic concentrations of valuable minerals such as
Significance gold, platinum, and tin

1. Igneous deposits: These are formed from molten rock, and

include deposits of copper, nickel, platinum, and chromium.
2. Sedimentary deposits: These are formed from weathered and
eroded rocks, and include deposits of coal, oil, gas, and salt.
3. Metamorphic deposits: These are formed from rocks that have
been altered by heat and pressure, and include deposits of
marble, slate, and schist.
4. Hydrothermal deposits: These are formed from hot water that
circulates through rocks, and include deposits of gold, silver,
copper, and zinc.
5. Volcanic deposits: These are formed from volcanic activity,
and include deposits of sulfur and obsidian.

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6. Placer deposits: These are formed from the accumulation of
valuable minerals in river or beach sediments, and include
deposits of gold, tin, and diamonds

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