Art Imagination and Expression

Art is a part of life. Every now and then, we live with it as we cook, speak, sing, dance and write are
outcomes of our productive imagination. What is the difference between imagination and expression in
art studies? Imagination is an abstraction of a certain thought or feeling that produces a good art based
on reality or experience (Hollick, 2014); while expression is an automatic response to it. For instance,
when a mother thinks on what food to prepare for her children's meal, she imagines the ingredients, the
kitchen utensils and the processes to use before. expressing them into the actual cooking. Unexpressed
imagination is not art. It is not art when an individual fails to realize the beauty and utilitarian purpose.
When the mother fails in her imagination in providing a palatable meal for her children. she also fails her
art of cooking.

However, expression of art can either be positive or negative. When both means and ends of art are
constructive, its expression enhances not only the individual's quality of life which is essential to his or
her progress and development but also the life of others and the nation as well. The expression of art in
advertisement found in billboards, magazines and social media entices public opinion in patronizing
certain brands and in the purchase of products in order to increase company's sales, improve
employees' lives and regulate government tax collections. When the means and the ends of art
expression are destructive like the art of war, art may result to misery, hinder progress and
development and promotechaos. Thus, this situation may bring imminent danger to society. The burning
of buildings, the looting of goods, the destruction of properties and the violent protests in some places
in the United States brought by racism and COVID-19 related-issues show concern on how we use art
expression more positively. Using this context in the United States, how do your means and ends of art
expression respond to this ferocity? With what is happening to our environment today, it is imperative
to nurture positive and more peaceful expressions of art rather than the negative. In order to realize this
aim, you are asked to nurture positive self-expression by performing the instructions found in Activity 1.

Etymology and Definition of Art

Do you know that art is derived from a Latin term ars, which means skill, talent or ability? In a broad
sense, art is skill in making or doing something (The World Book Encyclopedia, 1995). Art is the
expression of the creative skill and imagination in different genres for appreciation of beauty and
emotional power (Oxford Online Dictionary, 2020). One misconception of art is the belief that someone
is an artist and the rest are not. This belief is silly because every individual has a talent. We are skillful in
everything we do that ends with a good purpose. This ability allows us to claim that we are all artists in
our own right, depending on our preferences and abilities that determine our specific interest in art. The
belief that art is only good for the rich and famous is the second misconception. There is no bifurcation
of art according to status. God created human beings with equal number of neurons, capable of
rationalization compared to other creation in the animal kingdom. The human brain is capable to think
5,000 thoughts per day (Laboria, 2013), including thinking for the art. We are all gifted with art. The
problem is when we fail to recognize it and the lethargy that dictates us not to do it, because we want
everything easy and instant given to us in a silver platter. It is an urgent call to stop this complacency.
We need exposure to hone our imagination to its maximum potential. One way to realize this potential
is by performing self-introspection found in Learning Activity 2.

Creativity and Art Appreciation

Do you believe that creativity is the mother of all inventions? While it is true, imagination remains its
grandmother. This metaphor means that imagination allows us to be creative, in order to create
scientific inventions and aesthetic innovations Creativity is a metacognitive skill a form of divergent
thinking that allows us to generate relationship, integrate concepts, elaborate information, brainstorm
issues with fluency, flexibility and originality (Johnson, 2010). Thinking outside of the box, creativity is an
unstructured free flowing process to capacitate the body and create art. We appreciate art because art
gives us pleasure. Listening to music is a form of appreciation that makes us enjoy and provides a
panacea of our day's tedious work. Art allows us to imagine our past experiences and draws our feelings
to appreciate beauty. What realities or experiences are depicted in the two plates of landscape
paintings? (Please see color rendition at the inside front cover.)

What differentiates art from craft? Art and craft are forms of human creativity. The third misconception
is the belief that art and craft have interchangeable meaning. Inocian et al., (2019) emphasized that "Art
is an expression of feelings and emotions; craft is a form of work with the use of available materials."
Zulueta (1994) rejoined that art is beautiful rather useful; while craft is making something useful more
than beautiful. Art and craft can be different, but these two can be similar in some ways." In simpler
terms, art is the expression of imagination; craft is the realization of the expression. Art is tinged with a
psychological process; craft provides a utilitarian and mechanical process of creation. As a form of
emotional release, art can stand alone even without craft as a lighter side of our own humanity. Yet,
craft without art is awful with no appreciation. This is the danger when craft is subjected to a mechanical
and systemic routine in industries run by machines to yield a mass production of goods. The production
process is dull and repetitive unless the artists in industries shall continue to imagine the latest product
innovation, design, packaging and marketing. These industries will become more sustainable to keep
their patrons and make their business alive. Craft producers use colors, motifs or decoration to suit
market demands (Coppock, 2000).

How can imagination and expression take place in the world of the visual arts? Primarily, the artist is
honest about his or her feelings on the realities of nature and society, affecting his or her life and the life
of everybody, either reflecting the core or the peripheral context of society in the artwork. For instance,
how can a lonely artist paint on canvass? The artist imagines, sensitizes and clarifies the core and
peripheral issues of loneliness depicting his/her art. He/She imagines the core of loneliness, referring to
any of these psychological issues: struggling for acceptance of rejection, scuffling for despair, fighting for
pain, fearing of the unknown, lingering anxiety and facing the uncertainty. These core issues interface
with the peripheral, which include the people's response to socio-economic, political, environmental,
technological and public health issues.

This explicit expression of feelings from the imagined core and peripheral issues is a 'magic recipe of art.
The visual quality of the artwork depends on craftsmanship on how the artist selects the art media, uses
the brush, mixes colors on palette, contrasts hues between lighter and darker values of tints, tones and
shades, to enhance the artist's techniques of painting. Applying all these into the actual painting proves
the artist's art of painting and craftsmanship to produce several pieces of artwork for public use.
Osborne (2014) specified that tints are the combinations of white to a color that increases lightness;
tones are the combinations of a specific color with gray to produce its tinting and shading; shades are
the combinations of a specific color with black to increase darkness. These techniques to an artistic
craftsmanship are common in the visual arts more so in the art of painting. This context shows a classic
mix of art and craft principles and techniques in the arts. To enhance your knowledge on art imagination
and expression, kindly engage in Learning Activity 3.

The Humanities

As coined from the Latin words humanus and humanitas meaning humans, the field of humanities
provides human beings opportunity to think critically and creatively, in order to understand the values
and cultures of the world and to bring clarity to the future (Standford Humanities Center, 2015). The
study of humanities includes philosophy, history, religion, art, literature, language and music, which can
be remembered through the mnemonics: (PHARLLM philosophy, history, art, language, literature and
music) as illustrated in Figure 1. However, Zulueta (1994) included dance and theater as part of the
humanities.

Art is at the center of the seven fields because this provides the enhancement of the individual human
potential. Linking art and the other fields of humanities is relevant to our religious customs and lifestyles
(Coppock, 2000). Philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos or philein, which means love and
sophia, which means wisdom. Hence, philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom. History is derived
from the Latin word historia, which means to scribble and record the events in the past. History
intertwines with the development of civics for a democratic citizenship. These two fields enhance either
logical or sequential thinking, which is essential to the artist's imagination and expression in the arts.
Religion is derived from the Latin word religare or religio, which means to bind. It is a form of obligation
that binds the faithful with one Divine power. Religion enhances the art of meditation and reflection for
discernment, good judgment, self- control, fortitude and sound decision-making process of the artist.
Literature is a derivative of the Latin word littera or litteratura, which means letter or knowledge of
books. It concentrates on the study of fiction like myths, epics, folktales, short stories, poems and
drama. Non-fiction deals with prose and narratives in essays, news, research, technical reports and
other printed media that depict cultural implications of people's life in the society. Literature enhances
the art of writing and reading of an individual. Not only are these arts essential indicators to basic
literacy of the world's human population, these also promote appreciation of beauty of the intangible
cultures and urban legends. From the Latin word lingua, which means tongue, language provides
avenues for better communication using the art of speaking and listening. Oration, declamation, story-
telling, news reporting and public speaking are the techniques for auditory art.

This auditory art is essential to promote understanding, peace and harmony in the society by listening to
individual voices either in print or audio media. The power of words in effective communication can
never be underestimated it heals or it kills. Poor language communication breaks communities and
sound language builds these communities to promote alliances. From the Greek word mousa, which
means muse and the Latin word Musa which denotes the goddess of music, to represent a song or
poetry for appreciation of beauty brings the etymology of music (Mansfield, 1923). Music is the pleasing
combination and succession of sounds (Harper, 2020), with or without the use of musical instruments.
This auditory art relaxes the soul and stirs pleasant and happy emotions by singing, humming, chanting,
rapping and engaging in jingles and tonal rhymes (Inocian, 2018).

To Dante Alighieri,

LINE

A line is an identitiable path created bys point moving in space. It is one dimensional and can vary in
width, direction and length

SHAPE

Shape and firm define objects in space Shape have two dimensions, height and width and are inually
defined by Tines
VALUE

Value describes the brightness or darkness of color, a gradient is a series of values from darkest to
lightness

FORM

Shape and form define objects in space Forms exist in three dimensions with height, width and depth.

SPACE

Space in a work of art refers to a feeling of depth or three dimensions It can also refer to the artist's use
of the area within the picture.

TEXTURE

The surface quality of an object that we sense through touch hard, soft, rough, smooth, hairy, leathery,
sharp, etc.

COLOR

Reflected light, organized on a color wheel with 3 primary colors, 3 secondary colors and 6 intermediate
colors

Figure 2. Elements of Arts (Ray & Daniel, 2016)

nature is the art of God. As an artistic creation of God, nature comprises plants, animals, lands and other
features and produce of the earth. It has been used by many artists as one of their sources of inspiration
and subject in art. The seven essential elements of art: line, color, space, form, shape, texture and value
(Ray & Daniel, 2016) are essential to enhance the sense of aesthetics (Silva, 2010). These afore
mentioned elements found in Figure 2 are all seen in nature. Growing trees show vertical lines;
mountains, cliffs and hills reflect curve, triangular and zigzag lines; valleys and plains are carved with
horizontal lines. Lush vegetation shows the different tints and shades of green, blooming flowers with
bright colors. vast space of deserts, oceans and skies appear with yellowish brown and blue colors:
Bumpy, rocky, protruding, rolling, sparse and dense places speak for the environment's natural texture.
Daytime and nighttime provide the values of sharpness between lightness and darkness of colors, the
shininess or dullness of the surface and the clarity or dimness (Beardsley, 1981) of the surroundings. The
massive land and water distributions reflect their varied forms and shapes, with remarkable beauty.
Nature is not art but its source. Art is made by man no matter how close it is to nature (Zulueta, 1994).
Before the mass production of colors by industries, artists and weavers in the past extracted juices from
plants as colors used primarily to dye threads in weaving for cloth. For instance, the Sumbanese women
extracted brown colors from tobacco juices, blue colors from indigo and other plants to produce
different colors for the weaving of spinning of cloth (Forshee, 2001).

Oriental artists use nature with beautiful landscape, seascape and select Bora and fauna as a subject of
art. This is typically depicted in Chinese, Japanese and Korean paintings The Sumbanese weavers in
Indonesia also featured images of emcodiles, horses, deer, lions and sea creatures in the weaving of
cloth (Forshee 2001). The Yakan weavers in Basilan, Philippines portray peneh kenna kenna (fish-like
design), pench sawe-sawe (snake-like design) peneh dawen-dawen (folia! design) and penneh kule-kule
(turtle- like design) (Pasilan, 2017). This depiction of nature is associated with animism and other
cultural beliefs and traditions shown in the staging of rituals and festivities. Like the inner mystical or
psycho- spiritual dimensions of Islam, Sufism emphasizes introspection and spiritual closeness with Allah
(Asreemoro, 2008). As renunciation of worldly things (Issitt & Main, 2014), Moslem artists do not
emphasize animals and plants in art. Sufism belief is based on esoteric principle that reflects simplicity in
the use of geometric shapes and forms in Islamic art, because beauty is objective and self-expressive of
the truth (Dabbour, 2012). To Critchlow (1984), "Islamic art emphasized geometric figures emanating
from the Ultimate reality Allah to human realities, as one of the most powerful forms of sacred art."

Hence, in Islamic architecture, the dome represents a cosmic symbol of the arch of heaven and
embellished structure with arabesques combined with repeated patterns of tessellations in exact
measurement and proportions. In the Philippines, the art of weaving observes its utilitarian purpose by
using natural materials in the environment like leaves, vines and bamboo strips, which are durable
enough to contain the yields of the farm. The Cebuanos weave hakat
a large basket-like container (Figure 3) of braid bamboo strips with a hexagram tessellation a motif
found in the eyes of the basket in hexagonal patterns that form like a honeycomb (Inocian et al. 2019).
The design of the bakat reflects the animistic belief of Handurawism, a ritual supplication of intimacy to
Laon, a "Supreme Visayan Deity-The Ruler of Time," in harmony with the kalikupan or nature.

This belief of the bakat art and craft of weaving is similar to the animistic weaving pattems of puso,
(hanging rice pouches) into six geometrical designs using tender leaves of palm leaves braided into
kinasing (heart-like shape), binaki (froglike shape), manan-aw (cascading-like phalaenopsis shape),
binosa (fist-like shape), badharanay (wad-like shape) and tinigib (chisel-like shape), using tender and
supple palm leaves. These designs in Figure 4 represent a very profound appreciation for self-
glorification, beauty of nature and utilitarianism for practical and religious purpose.

Nocheseda (2009-2011) and Alix (2013) urged for the preservation of this indigenous art and craft of
puso weaving, as a cultural treasure of the country. What in your respective province or region is similar
to the bakat and puso in Cebu? Can you make a little description of these arts, too?

Art Genres

As part of the study of the humanities, artists introduce several genres, "kind" or "type," of art
(DiMaggio, 1987). The last misconception of art is its plurality. Art observes no plural form, insisting to
have one creates different meanings. Art refers to the fine arts of painting, drawing and carving, which is
basically a skill. While, the arts represent a subject like fashion and cuisine, sports, commerce,
economics and the humanities are by nature disciplinal. Figure 5 illustrates the art genres with their
descriptions.

The verbal arts include literature and oratory, which use words and language such as poetry, fiction and
essay. The non-verbal arts use no words but motor skills. Motor skills can be classified into two-fine and
gross. Arts utilize the use of the dexterity of the hands and fingers or fine motor skills demonstrated in
musical compositions, drawing, architecture, graphic arts, fashion design, lithography, painting,
engraving, weaving and other handicrafts while interior design, ceramics or pottery, film-making,
photography arts use gross motor of body skills. The mixed art utilizes the combined elements of verbal
and non-verbal arts such as the advertisement for commercial purpose, theater and drama, opera, song
and dance or the performing arts and cinema. This combination enhances the auditory art of music and
sounds in the performance of these arts. Mixed art can also be determined in terms of the medium used
in the artwork like the use of disparate elements in a canvas to produce an assemblage.
Based on learning activities that you perform what classification of art are you good at? How will you
nurture it?

Art History

Art history begins with the emergence of human beings whose imagination propels an expression of
great legacies that human civilizations have witnessed. Art is as old as history, even before the discovery
of the cuneiform writing in Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphics in Egypt. For thousands of years,
incessant interaction of early humans to the environment paved the enhancement of imagination that
led to the discovery and gradual evolution of the finer aspects of life. Although culture was
unsophisticated, art became a witness in the early humans quest for people's struggle for power,
security and survival. Table 1 highlights the historical development of art from its simplest evolution
until its finest sophistication. Though art history has been characterized with a Eurocentric bias because
of power influence and historical control of the West (Chase, 2014), art historians and researchers start
the inclusion of Oriental perspectives. The obvious bias in the development of art history between the
West and the East is reflected in the art history timeline created by Warhol (2012). This Chapter shows
only a brief description of art history based on what is reflected in Table 1 and Figure 10. Its intensive
discussions will be taken up in subsequent Chapters of this book, interfacing the art history of Asia,
Africa and other parts of the world.

Pre-historic Period

Regarded as nomads, our early ancestors engaged in primitive art using stone flakes to produce fire to
protect themselves. They joined hunting wild animals for food and used animal skins to cover their
bodies. Like them, the Cro-Magnons made carvings on wood and rocks and painted the caves to scare
wild beasts to protect their families and bands, who lived in deep and shallow caves and rock shelters
(Rafferty, 2020). Art is integral to the lifestyles and beliefs of many cultures as proven by early cave
paintings of our ancestors (Coppock, 2000). Being part of Europe's modern men and women, Cro-
Magnons were known in cave paintings that reflected their daily hunting routines. Their paintings in
Figure 6, were associated with magic and fertility rituals, depicting pregnant women with large breasts
and wide hips. In Southeast Asia, art began since the early appearance of humans, on records in 43,900-
year-old cave paintings discovered in Maros-Pangkep, Sulawesi, Indonesia (Aubert et al., 2014).

During the Mesolithic age, the art of tool-making was improved like the use of axes by sharpening the
tools using stone flaking and grinding. They learned to use nets and hooks for fishing They also learned
the art of dog domestication for food. During the Neolithic Age, nomadism ended. They settled
permanently and engaged in the art of farming. They raised barley, wheat, millet, fruits and vegetables.
The art of animal domestication was increased. Aside from dogs, they raised goat, horse and sheep as a
potential source for milk, cheese and meat. They learned the art of pottery-making for water and food
containers. Another new development during this age was the polishing and the putting of handles on
stone tools for a comfortable hunting expedition.

Ancient Period

While the pre-historic art is associated with struggle for security and human survival, art in the ancient
period represented the architectural construction of stones and bricks for temples, fortresses, tombs
and palaces that symbolize power and authority. In 2700 BCE, ancient Sumerians constructed the
Ziggurat of Ur as a votive offering to Enlil, their deity. The Gate of Ishtar constructed in 575 BCE in
Babylon (now Iraq) is one of the famous citadels in the ancient world (Agustyn, et al., 2016). The
pyramids built at Giza, Egypt served as tombs of the pharaohs in 2000 BCE. The mortuary temples of
Queen Hatshepsut and her family were constructed during the New Kingdom in 1500 BCE. The carving
of the Bust of Nefertiti in Figure 7 was a famous contribution of art of sculpting during the Amarna
period in 1300 BCE. Her bust reminds women's political power and leadership in the ancient world
(2005).

The legacies of the Age of Metals coincided with a significant part of the ancient world. At the height of
the Bronze Age, art of pottery making was more elaborate during the Minoan (1500 BCE) and the
Mycenean (1200 BCE) kingdoms in Ancient Greece. The Minoan Palace of Knossos and the Lions Grate
(Lethaby, 1918) in Mycenae were few of its greatest contributions in architectural art. According to
Coppock (2000), the Minoan palaces of Crete abounded with brilliantly colored paintings with
representation of birds and animals. As shown in Figure 8, Minoan artists depicted sea creatures
because of their island location in the Mediterranean Sea. Greece was able to produce the Parthenon in
Acropolis as a symbol of power and elevated the culture of democracy (Ellis & Esler, 2003). The Greeks
spent their leisure by watching a stage presentation or play at the Theater of Delphi with more than
5,000 expectant visitors (Cartwright, 2012). The Athenians were also known in slip or layered clay pots
depicting a typical farm life (Family Encyclopedia of World History, 1996).

The Egyptians were the first group of people to use copper for ornaments during the Copper Age The art
of mixing of copper and tin resulted in the production of bronze that transitioned this Age to the Bronze
Age The smelting of iron by the Hittites of Asia Minor (now Turkey) ushered the introduction of the Iron
Age with the creation of chariots as shown in Figure 9 (Kerrigan, 2017) This casting of iron was
introduced when Egypt signed up a treaty between the Hittites to end their animosities and fighting to
maintain peace and brotherhood in the region (Ellis & Esler, 2003). This discovery facilitated
transportation and iron wheels that contributed to the enhancement of civilization during the ancient
times.
Greek art greatly influenced the Etruscan art (600 BCE) by mixing Greek and Roman styles to create
composite columns in sophisticated homes and tombs The structure of the Sarcophagus from Cerveteri.
Apulu (Apollo) and the Interior of the Tombs of the Reliefs of Cerveteri reflect their combined
sophistication. After the Etruscans were wiped out in the peninsula, the Romans established a republic
in 200 BCE and built an empire that lasted until 250 CE. Structures of temples, tombs, palaces,
colosseums and aqueducts were inspired by verism or Roman realism in art, which expresses practical
and down-to-earth style and motif. The Romans were also known for their frescoes, mosaic and murals.
Frescoes are mural paintings using watercolor in freshly laid plaster on walls and ceilings. The Last
Supper of Leonardo da Vinci exemplifies one of the frescoes (Zelazko, 2018) Mosaic is a picture made
from colored chips of stone or glass (Ellis & Esler, 2003). Murals are paintings executed directly on walls.
One of the known muralists during the Renaissance was Michelangelo (Cohen, 2018). Early Christian art
started in 400 CE, which featured churches and Christian images like the old St. Peter's Basilica
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Good Shepherd, Santa Constanza and St. Apolinare Nouvo

The Medieval Period

The Medieval period is divided into two: the early medieval and the late medieval. The Early Medieval
which started from 410 CE to 1024 CE featured the arts of the warlords (600 CE), Hiberno-Saxon and
Carolingian (800 CE). and the Ottonian (900 CE) with portable works, interlacing patterns, illuminated
manuscripts, Cloissonne, burial relics and animal style jewelries. Its finest works of art include the
Palatine Chapel and the Durham Cathedral the manuscripts of Landisfarne, Ebbo, and Lindau Gospels.
This period features the Byzantine art from 324 CE to 1453 CE, the Islamic Art from 622 CE to 1924 CE,
the Romanesque (1100 CE) and the Gothic (1200).

The features of Byzantine art included the architectural design of the Hagia Sophia and the heavenly
Byzantine Mosaic. Aside from the Koran, the arabesques, calligraphy, and horse-shoe arch, Islamic art
also featured the architectural design of the Dome of the Rock, Mosque of Cordoba, Palace of the Lions
and the Mosque of Selim II. Romanesque architecture is characterized by heavy walls and smaller
windows as shown in Pisa and Durham Cathedrals. Aside from performing pilgrimages, the Romanesque
period excelled to keep relics as exemplified in Reliquary of Sainte-Foy. The architecture of the Gothic
period is characterized bya Rayonnant style with flying buttresses and the use of stained glasses. This is
depicted in the architectural design of the cathedrals of Salibury and Notre Dame Despite the Black
Death (1347-1351) and Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), the Romanesque art survived and ushered to a
new development in the late medieval period

The Late Medieval lasted from 1300 CE to 1500 CE. This period coincided with the massive development
of art during the Renaissance, as a redemption of freedom curtailed during the early medieval times.
During the first part of the early medieval period (1300 CE), art was also dubbed as late Gothic or Proto
Renaissance that served the transition between these two periods of art history. Within this period,
figures started to have form with shadows and edifices stressed with width and height as depicted in the
Baptistry of San Giovanni Doors at Pisano. Art in the early Renaissance was characterized by the use of
oil painting, extreme detail and symbolism as depicted in the frescoes of church ceilings. This period was
also regarded as the rebirth of classical culture that used linear perspectives, frescoes and tempera in
art. The Medici family who introduced the Medici neo- platonic academy became the patron of the arts
during this period. The artworks of Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Bramante, Bellini, Giorgione and
Titian contributed to the glory of the Renaissance. The Renaissance art spread to France, Poland,
Germany and England like the works of Dürer, Bruegel, Bosch, Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden.

Modern Period

Art in the modern era was enlightened by the following ages: Mannerism (1550), Baroque (1650),
Rococo (1700s). Neoclassical (1800), Romanticism (1800), realism (1860), photography (1850), England's
arts and crafts and Paris Art Nouveau (1900), Impressionism (1865-1885), Post Impressionism (1900),
Fauvism and Expressionism (1910), Cubism, Futurism, Supremativism, Constructivism, and De Stijl (1905-
1920), Dada (1920) and Surrealism (1930). As a transition from the Renaissance to the Modern period,
mannerism art broke the rules and emphasized twisted and elongated bodies, as shown in the Last
Supper (Tintoretto), Entombment of Christ (Pontormo), Madonna with the Long Neck (Parmigianino)
and the works of El Greco, Bronzino and Cellini.

During the Baroque period, art was used as a weapon for religious wars. Baroque art is emphasized in
the works of Rubens, Caravaggio, Bernini and Gentileschi Paintings, landscapes. Portraits emphasized
still-life like in the works of Claesz, Vermeer, Hals and Rembrandt. This period was inspired by the
religious and political issues of the Thirty Years War between the Catholic and the Protestant Church
from 1618 to 1648, and the Counter Reformation in Italy by Pope Paul III, together with the active
support of Saint Ignatius de Loyola. The Baroq period was succeeded by the Rococo period, where the
theme of art was highly decorative, more especially during the time of King Louis XIV of France. During
the periods of Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution (1760-1850), neo-classical art recaptured
Gracco-Roman grace and grandeur.

At the height of the American Revolution (1775-1783) and French Revolution (1789-1799), romanticism
celebrated the triumph of imagination and individuality in art. Sixty years later, realism art focused its
theme to working class and peasants in a rustic mode of painting, more evident in the works of Courbet,
Daumier, and Millet, inspired by the democratic revolutions of 1848. The art of photography was
recognized in 1850 in daguerreotype and calotype classification. Arts and crafts received their
recognition using natural forms, repeated designs of floral and geometric patterns. Capturing the
fleeting effects of natural light was the subject of impressionism within 20 years in Europe. This theme
was elaborate in the works of Monet, Manet, Renoir, Pissarro, Cassatt, Morisot and Degas. Fifteen years
later, there was a soft revolt against impressionism known as Post- Impressionism in 1900. Some of the
known artists in this period were Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne and Seurat. Ten years later after the Post
Impressionism. Fauvism and Expressionism in art became popular. Art in this period was characterized
with the use of harsh colors and flat surfaces, and emotion distorting form. There were experiments of
new forms to express modern life during the Pre- and Post-World War 1. This period featured Cubism,
Futurism, Supremativism, Constructivism, De Stijl from 1905 to 1920. Emphasis on ridiculous art,
painting dreams and exploring the unconscious were the features of the Dada and surrealism periods.

Contemporary Period

The contemporary period of history marked the beginning of Abstract Expressionism in 1945 and Pop
Art in 1960s. After World War II, art observed pure abstraction and expression without forms. To Zulueta
(1994), "Some contemporary painters have shifted their interest to the work of art as an object in itself,
an exciting combination of shapes and colors that fulfills an aesthetic need without having to represent
images or tell a story." The use of popular art absorbs a wide demand for consumerism in
advertisements, commercial and entertainment companies. This contemporary period also paved the
way to postmodernism and deconstructivism, since 1970 to the present. The postmodern and
deconstructive period reworked and mixed past styles of art. Art without a center is the popular mantra
among the postmodern and deconstructive artists.

CHAPTER 2: FUNCTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF ART

I. Lesson Overview

A professor once asked, "Why do writers write?" As neophyte students in the craft of writing
back then, we could just murmur in silence, albeit in jest, "to fulfill an assignment and pass this
subject!" But of course, all of us were dumbfounded and could not, admittedly, give a
categorical answer to the question. The professor himself could not give a straight reply and
simply let the question float in the air, intentionally perhaps, in order for us to discover its real
meaning.

Looking back, we could not but appreciate the soundness of such simple question. For, indeed,
there is always a reason for being. Any action, no matter how crazy it may seem at first glance,
carries with it a noble purpose. In other words, there is nothing in this world that happens by
chance. Aristotle calls this the "final cause" of a being. A bee definitely has a reason for existing
and whatever it is, cannot simply be confined to stinging. Cockroaches and flies, for that matter,
also have their own why's which, from the side of humans, may be considered loathsome or
downright appalling.Be that as it may, but we might as well paraphrase the question above to
the intended outcome of this Chapter. For our purpose, we can give a more general nuance to
such query by asking, "Why are there artists?" Or, better yet, we can propose, "Why bother
doing something that one calls an art?" Be it painting, sculpting, drawing, singing, dancing,
writing and so on, the over-all thread that binds these acts together is the same: artists do
something that they love doing This particular "itch" is the driving force for creating a magnum
opus, a bestseller, or a work of genius. There are, of course, many reasons as to why people
engage in art. The most common of these is the utilitarian intention. Somepeople are motivated
to do a work of art because they find it useful, say, in earning a living, in expressing one's
emotions, in letting one's voice be heard on certain issues especially on morality, in
campaigning for a particular candidate or political platform, etc. The list is endless.

Aside from the utilitarian school of thought, there are many other schools of thought dealing
with the notion of art. For Plato, an artist's work is nothing but a copy (a mimesis) of the
original object that is to be found in the world of ideas. His student, Aristotle, however
disagrees and considers art as a representation of the object. By representation here is meant
an artist's unique way of capturing an image of reality. Thus for Aristotle, the artist does not
simply copy but reproduces reality in a manner uniquely his own. The German philosopher
Immanuel Kant has his own take of the matter by saying that art is something that is second
nature to man. According to him, there is no valid reason why people engage in art but the act
itself. The expression "art for art's sake" thus becomes his famous battle-cry. For Kant, art's
purpose is to be "purposeless."

III. Learning Contents and Activities

A. Functions of Art

The basic question concerning art is: "Why are there artists?" Or, better yet, we can propose,
"Why bother doing something that one calls an art?"
Basically, there are three functions of art: 1) personal (utilitarian, public display, expression) 2)
social (used for public display and celebration, used to affect the collective behavior) and 3)
physical (utilitarian). The term "utilitarian" was first coined by Jeremy Bentham (1) who labored
on the notion of happiness. Its simplest formulation is the popular phrase "the greatest
happiness for the greatest number." It was his student, J.S. Mill, who refined it by abandoning
the strict "calculus of pleasures and pains as too narrow." (2) Most people are motivated to do
an artwork for personal reasons-e.g. source of income, self-expression, escape boredom, etc.
Others would do it because of long-held traditions and beliefs fiestas, birthdays, anniversaries,
etc. Still, there are those who are engaged in art to maintain balance of mind and body: "Mens
sana in corpore sano" (A healthy mind in a healthy body).

B. Philosophy of Art

A usual tendency when somebody asks, "What is philosophy?," is to answer: "Well, based on its
etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom." (3) This immediate reply, of course, is based on
two Greek words, philo (love) and sophia (wisdom), which had come down to us by way of
Pythagoras, who is credited to be the first person to have used the term and by extension, the
first one to have defined it.

Traditionally, art theories date back to the time of the ancient Greeks. For Plato, an artist's work
is nothing but a copy (a mimesis) of the original object that is to be found in the world of ideas
or forms. As every student of philosophy knows, he was a true-blue idealist who considered the
physical world as just a shadow of the ideal world. For him, whatever is copied cannot match
the prototype. In Book VII of The Republic, Plato intimates the world of art in the following
quote:

"And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and
figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall?
Some of them are talking, others silent."(4)

The images mentioned above are mere reflections on the wall. Already, Plato suggests that, just
like the prisoners in the cave, most of us do not even see the actual statues and figures except
only their shadows. Furthermore, he seems to suggest that the prisoners' conception of the
products of art (ie. those figures made of wood and stone and other materials) are twice
removed from reality. In this respect, Plato considers the arts as inferior to science and
philosophy. (5) Over-all, however, Plato's treatment of painting and poetry in The Republic aims
at developing a philosophy of art. Such tendency to believe in the "mysterious". nevertheless,
finds its nemesis in modern technology as Michael Harris, quoting Harold Innis, suggests: "We
know that the 'immortal inconclusiveness of Plato was no longer possible' once the technology
of writing wiped away a certain mystery."

Harris, of course, is referring to the advent of computers and the internet which, in a way, has
made everything quite open through constant connectivity. Thus, the loss of mystery and
perhaps, even an interest in reading books or printed material occurs.

His student. Aristotle, however disagrees and considers art as a representation of reality. By
representation here is meant an artist's unique way of capturing an image of reality in his own
terms. In his Poetics, he goes to the extent, particularly in literature, to consider its effect in the
reader or spectator what he calls catharsis literally, a purgation of one's emotions. Thus, for
Aristotle, - the artist does not simply copy but recreates reality in a manner that alleviates the
audience. In the opening lines of his famous book, The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle says:
"Every art, art and every inquiry and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at
some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things
aim." (8) Aristotle's notion of mimesis puts premium on poetry which can be summarized in the
following:

Imitation in poetry is achieved by means of rhythm, language and harmony (Poet.1447a13-16,

21-22). While other arts share some or all these elements-painting imitates visually by the same
means, while dance imitates only through rhythm poetry is a kind of vocalized music, in which
voice and discursive meaning are combined. Aristotle is interested primarily in the kinds of
poetry that imitate human actions. which fall into the broad categories of comedy and tragedy.

In saying this, Aristotle is at the same time suggesting that all art in general is an imitation of
human life. Thus, whether he is talking about comedy or tragedy, the purpose is the same: to
mimic how humans live their usual lives:

Comedy is an imitation of worse types of people and actions,which reflect our lower natures.
These imitations are not despicable or painful, but simply ridiculous or distorted, and observing
them gives us pleasure (Poet, 1449a31-38). (10)
The conflict of ideas between the two pillars of Greek philosophy, Plato and Aristotle, finds
perfect interpretation in the famous painting by Raphael. The School of Athens. In this
particular work, Raphael demonstrates how the thoughts of these two philosophers clash. As
can be seen in the picture below, Plato (the one in the left) points his finger to the top while his
famous student Aristotle (the one in the right) points his hand to the ground. Simply put, Plato,
the idealist, says that reality is up there in the world of ideas while Aristotle disagrees by saying
that reality is down here in the world.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant has his own take of the matter by saying that art is
something that is second nature to man. According to him, there is no valid reason why people
engage in art but the act itself. The expression "an for art's sake" thus becomes his famous
battle-cry. For Kant, art's purpose is to be "purposeless". The artist in his view should not have
any justification for his work In this sense. Kant proposes for freedom in one's art. In his work,
Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, he says: "All industries, crafts and arts, have gained
by the division of labor, viz., one man does not do everything, but each confines himself to a
certain kind of work that is distinguished from all other kinds by the treatment it requires, so
that the work may be done with the highest perfection and with greater ease." (11) Clearly,
Kant suggests that for one to be successful in any career, he or she must have some focus.
Multi-tasking or doing several things in one instance is out of his vocabulary. Similarly in art,
one finds fulfillment in his craft when he accomplishes it the way he wanted it to be in the first
place. Fame and recognition would only be secondary to it.

There are basically three philosophical themes in art, namely: 1) Integrity, 2)

Proportion/Consonance and 3) Radiance/Clarity. Integrity refers to faithfulness to one's
principles, proportion or consonance implies balance or consistency of the elements and
radiance or clarity has something to do with the meaning or impact upon the observer. When a
person acts with integrity, his actions adhere to his values or principles. An artist's work has
integrity if it follows its own truth or values and is not swayed by other people's motives. To
borrow a statement from Nassim Nicholas Taleb, "Art is a one-sided conversation with the
unobserved." (12) Consequently, one may fail to appreciate beauty in artist's work. But the
artist feels secure in knowing that: "Beauty is enhanced by unashamed irregularities.
magnificence by a façade of blunder."(13) Artists use proportion for effect - that is, to
emphasize a certain element in the work. For instance, an artist could enlarge a person's head
and minimize his body in a piece of drawing to drive home a particular message. It is up to the
observer, of course, to interpret it. The third element, radiance or clarity, is what the term says
it is. When a viewer looks at an artwork, for instance, his attention is caught by the object
immediately as he lays his eyes on it. The attraction is instant due to the fact that the artwork
exudes radiance. As the line from a song suggests, "Can't take my eyes off you!"

CHAPTER 3

Work of Art: Its Subject, Form and Content

"Superficially insignificant or accidental looking detail (in art) may well carry the most important
unconscious symbolism..

-Anton Ehrenzweig

Art Psychologist, Author of "The Hidden Order of Art: A Study in the Psychology of Artistic
Imagination"

I. Lesson Overview

Subject, form and content are considered the essential components in the creation of art.
These are inseparable components such that it would be difficult to dispense the other when an
artist plans for his next work. In general terms, subject is the component that seeks to answer
the "what" (topic, image, focus) of the artwork. Form, on the other hand, is answering the
"how", which suggests the artists strategies in terms of development, composition, and
substantiation. Finally, content is the component that expounds on the "why's" of an artist. This
seeks to describe the artist's ability to communicate his conscious and unconscious intentions,
meanings/rootedness and context (Ocvirck, Stinson, Wigg, Bone, & Cayton (2013). In this
Chapter, you will explore the world of art in its process of creation through subject, form and
content.
III. Learning Contents and Activities

1. SUBJECT

The choices for subjects in the visual arts are endless. An artist can choose from the list of
persons, objects, themes and even ideas, etc. (Ocvirk et al, 2013). When you are confronted
with an art piece, the image that you can easily identify is the subject of the art (Ragans, 2005).
There are two types of subjects of art, namely, representational and non-representational.
Representational subjects are those that appear to be very much like how people see them in
the reality. In effect, they are easily and clearly identified by the viewers and audience of the art
However, artists have the freedom to portray these subjects in their own terms. Most of the
time, they employ abstraction, the process of simplification or alteration or rearrangement.
Abstracted subjects tend to look less like the object on which they are based, but still
discernible. However, some artists may implement extreme forms of abstraction i.e. the subject
is not anymore, a representation of a physically identifiable subject. In this regard, the artists
rely on the different applications of the elements and principles of art rather than relying on
representing the actual physical image of the subject. In some references, they are called
objective and non-objective images.

In some forms of art, like music, subjects can be representational and non-representational.
There are musicians who choose to produce music without lyrics. In the absence of lyrics,
identifying the subject will be more difficult than those with lyrics. Sometimes, there may be
musical material that still is identifiable when the sounds produced mimic sounds such as those
used in meditation. Some meditation music use the sounds of nature like flowing river, birds
chirping or leaves dancing in the air. In the course of listening to these types of music, the
subject tends to be more abstract and that feelings or ideas are more emphasized (Ocvirk et al.,
2013).

As a viewer, you should not only go as far as identifying the subject of the art but also, you need
to examine how the artist represented the subject as well as evaluating the rigor of expression
made to the subject.
Sources and Kinds of Subjects

Just like you and everybody else, artists are also humans who go through the struggle of
knowing what to create as an art. Planning what type of subject they would choose to recreate
or represent is an immensely critical process of the creative pursuit. Identifying subjects may
sound as simple as choosing from a list of possible subjects but this process entails complex and
critical value judgments for artists to transcend the expression or message they wish to share.
In some cases. they may require deep connections with these subjects to inspire and motivate
them. For starters, there may be a list of sources to choose from. You may read through the
following.

a. Nature

The nature and the environment have been one of the sources of artistic inspirations. You can
derive inspiration from the shapes and forms that the environment can offer such as the trees,
land, desert, animals, etc (Ragans, 2005).

b. People and World Events

People is one of the most common subjects of art. This can be found in individual and family
portraits. Some artists employ abstraction where human figures or faces are unclear or
distorted. Using people as subjects can also convey emotions much clearer than other subjects
(Ragans, 2005).

World events have been subjects of art as well. You see these when you read the newspapers,
and flip through the editorial page. Editorial cartooning is an art that may express satirical
versions of world events. (See Figure 2) (Ragans, 2005).

c. Myths and Legends

Myths and legends have been one of the sources of art among artists. They used myths and
legends as way of visualizing the story found within them. Most common arts related to myths
and legends are popularized during the Greek Civilization (Ragans, 2005)

d. Spiritual and Religious Beliefs

Like myths and legends, art has been an outlet for religion and faith to come to life. For some,
this is part of their culture such as in Buddhist and Islamic nations (See Figure 4 in Self-Learning
Activity 2).

e. Ideas Commissioned by Employers

There are artists hired by employers. Like graphic designers,they create corporate logos,
brochures, restaurant menu designs and other print materials. Interior designers and architects
design homes and buildings according to the demands of their clients (Ragans, 2005).

2. FORM/COMPOSITION

As a component of art, form is the overall organization of the artwork. It is an outcome of the
artists' effort to use the elements of art and arrange them according to aesthetic principles. In a
more specific sense, evaluating the form of an art is similar to analyzing the processes
employed during creation. Through this, you may tend to unravel the contexts from which the
artist is coming from such as with the choices be made in terms of the material to use or the
manner by which they will be implemented (Ocvirk et al, 2013). The first aspect of form are the
elements of art and principles of design. (Elements of Art and Principles of Design will be
discussed furtherin Chapter 5). However, the second aspect of form is its "actual and objective
form." This refers to the outcome and actual output of the creative process which are 2-
dimensional or 3-dimensional. Modem types of form are those that are now produced by
technology or technological media (Ocvirk et al., 2013).
Two-dimensional art

This type of art begins the work on a flat surface called a plane. For painters, the blank canvass
is a plane. For students who are asked to draw, the sheet of bond paper is the plane. While the
art is 2-dimensional in form, it does not mean that it could not project a 3-dimensional effect. In
this case, there is a need to distinguish form and conveyance. The art form is the actual
appearance of the art. 2-dimensional forms, mostly drawings and paintings, are on a flat
surface. The conveyance, on the other hand, is the manner the art, its elements and subjects
project an image or impression. Some arts only show a still image of one subject but some
other 2-dimensional arts like paintings may show some sense of distance such as the mountain
and land separated by a river. Artists may manipulate design principles to produce images that
convey not just height and width but also depth or at least the illusion of such. (Ocvirk et al.,
2013). (How to do this can be learned in Chapter 5).

Characteristics of two-dimensional art

A. It has mathematical dimensions of width and height (but no depth).

B. They can be decorative spaces or plastic spaces - It is not the laymen's definition of
decorative and plastic space. It refers to a spatial condition when elements of the art cling to
the picture plane. Plastic spaces, on the other hand, create impressions that the elements of art
can weave its way around you.

C. Plane/Picture Frame - this is the defined boundary of the picture plane. This can be
interpreted as a limitation of two-dimensional artists where they are only bound to work within
the frame. They come in the form of shapes like squares, rectangles, triangles, or circles (Ocvirk
et al., 2013)

Two-dimensional Media
A. Drawings Drawing is a process of moving an the smooth surface to leave a mark, molly in the
form of a line For this type of two- dinal art, line is the most important element. It also be
considered as the first step in producing other type of artworks. Before creating other forms of
at ir a three-dimensional media, sketches or drawings are one of the bases or foundations of
design. In fashion design, drawing and sketching the silhouette of the dress is part of the design
process. In architecture or interior designs, drawings are blue-print materials that are usually
shown to the clients for approval. Drawings can be done by pencils, crayons, markers, peus, or
chalks Drawings can have some dynamic depth through shading techniques such as hatching,
cross hatching, blending and stippling, etc (Ragans, 20131

B. Paintings Painting is an art process or media where the artist applies colors

to surfaces using paint brush, painting knives or rollers. Some artists even use their hands or
fingers to create shapes over the canvas. Paints can either be oil-based or water-based. Oil-
based paints use linseed oil as binder and turpentine as its solvent Some artists prefer the use
of oil-based paints because they dry slowly allowing artists to blend the colors on the canvass.
Water-based paints are water-soluble media Common examples of them are the watercolors. It
dries more quickly than -based pains. Paints have been developed recently that are now water-
soluble such as tempera or acrylic paints (Ragans, 2005)

Three-dimensional Art

The distinguishing factor of three-dimensional art is its actual and real depth. Through depth,
the art produced through three-dimensional approaches can be viewed across different angles
which make the art to have more physical impact. To appreciate this artwork fully, it is essential
that you are in the actual presence of the work Sometimes called plastic arts (not plastic
spaces), convey message not only aesthetic (Fine Arts) but also stilinarian (Applied Art)
Architects, ceramists and metalsmiths express their art not only as a functions of showing and
extracting feelings but also for actual use (Ocvirk et al, 2013)
Thirdly, this type of art can also be appreciated along the tactile sense. It can be touched in its
surfaces, their cavities and protuberances, such as in the case of sculptures. You can also weigh
them as they have mass It also has volume where you can feel them along the ubject's banders
(Ocvirk et al, 2013)

Technological Media

Technological advances have paved the way for arts and the process of making one to be more
accessible for consumers. It also allowed people to tap more into their artistic side to create
their own version of art forms. They are Photography, Film, Video and Computer Art (Ragans,
2005).

Photography

This is a technique of "capturing optical images on light- sensitive camera." Done through the
camera, photographic media have improved not only as a method to capture moment but now
done as a method to convey art. The first camera ever recorded in history was called the
daguerreotype in the 19 century. It uses a copper plate to create mirror like images. In the
1850's, a wet plate replaced the old copper place to create photographs. It used a glass coat
with the aid of chemicals to record the image. This was then transferred to a paper or
cardboard. In contemporary photography, wet plates were replaced with films or negatives
where a camera captures reverse image of the object when hit by the flash of light. Today,
there are digital methods to capture photographs such as Digital single lens reflex (DSLR)
camera and even smartphones that capture comparably good images (Ragans, 2005)

Films and Videos

Films are a series of negatives that intend to show motions of pictures. Film making was a by-
product of people's interests towards still pictures by transforming them into continuously
seamless movements. With each frame of a film is a still image that rapidly moves along the
camera to create successions of images. hence, movements. While still pictures can be
captured now using DSLR's and smartphones, these recent gadgets can now also perform the
functions to produce films or videos (Ragans, 2005),But films may be considered obsolete as
digital video recordings are now wvailable. Equipped with audio and visual coding systems,
video recording and editing are now more possible. In the past, videos did not have sounds and
some had to be dubbed separately. With the appropriate computer software and systems, me
and more videos are being made today. Special video types can even be uploaded on the world
wide web (www). On the internet, the YouTube has become an online social platform that
share videos and can be accessed by its web i visites Originally, YouTube was a video streaming
and sharing platform for on- line gamers. Today, YouTube is now uploaded with billions of
videos ranging from themes of music, content creation, lifestyle, education and business, etc.
(Zannata, 2017)

Computer Arts

Graphic designers rely on computers and its applications to create art. Hardwares of computers
are the physical tools that assist in the creation art such as keyboard, monitor, CPU, printer and
mouse. Other tools include stylus and graphics tablets, scanners and web cameras. Computers
now also have a plethora of software applications to create art such as Adobe Photoshop,
Affinity Designer, Clip Studio Paint Pro, Art Weaver and Art Rage, etc.(Ragans, 2005).

3. CONTENT

and culture to have fuller viewpoints and interpretation of the work. For some, the use of a
technique, color mixture and line movement can indicate an artist' culture and background. For
example, the Starry Starry Night of Vincent Van Gogh can be best understood through his letter
to his brother Theo. That is why artist provide what they call a "credit line" in their piece of
work to assist viewers in understanding the relevant details of the artist and the work at hand.
A credit line consists of (1) Name of the Artist, (2) Title of the Work, (3) Year's the work was
made, (4) Medium, (5) Size Dimensions and (6) Location of work. In some cases, instead of
labeling year, artist provide the "o" to abbreviate the word "circa" which means about or
around (Ragans, 2005).

An alternative technique is studying iconography. It is the process of understanding the

meanings of the elements of the art and the symbolisms the objects convey. Symbolic
representation usually occurs when a representation takes on a meaning that is not necessarily
or naturally related to what it literally depicts. In Psychology, art and its content have been
instrumental to the assessment and therapeutic process. Psychologists use artistic materials in
assessment procedures called projective technique. Examples of projective techniques in
assessment are the House-Tree-Person (HTP) Test, Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic
Apperception Test. In HTP, the client will be asked to draw a house, a tree and a person and all
of which will be used to analyze personality traits and mental status. In Rorschach and Thematic
Apperception Test, the client will be asked to share what they perceive from the set of cards
with inkblots or images, respectively. The same verbal responses will be analyzed as personality
and mental health assessments (Cohen & Swerdlik 2018).

Artworks also contain emotional or intellectual messages. They are called contents. These are
statements, moods, or interpretations developed by an artist through the artwork. Among the
three components, this must be the most difficult to recognize Without the ability of the viewer
to communicate with the artist, it would be difficult for the former to decipher the thought and
emotional processes of the artist. The rhetoric and narratives of an artist are not always literal
in application. They must breed reinforcement of the deeper collective uncomicious for the art
to be more relatable Occasionally, artists may not always be aware of the choices they make in
the use of elements and principles of design (Ocvirk et al. 2013).

However, a system can be devised to discover at least some of the relevant contents of art. You
may research about the artist's life, time period

and culture to have fuller viewpoints and interpretation of the work. For some, the use of a
technique, color mixture and line movement can indicate an artist' culture and background. For
example, the Starry Starry Night of Vincent Van Gogh can be best understood through his letter
to his brother Theo. That is why artist provide what they call a "credit line" in their piece of
work to assist viewers in understanding the relevant details of the artist and the work at hand.
A credit line consists of (1) Name of the Artist, (2) Title of the Work, (3) Year's the work was
made, (4) Medium, (5) Size Dimensions and (6) Location of work. In some cases, instead of
labeling year, artist provide the "o" to abbreviate the word "circa" which means about or
around (Ragans, 2005).

An alternative technique is studying iconography. It is the process of understanding the

meanings of the elements of the art and the symbolisms the objects convey. Symbolic
representation usually occurs when a representation takes on a meaning that is not necessarily
or naturally related to what it literally depicts. In Psychology, art and its content have been
instrumental to the assessment and therapeutic process. Psychologists use artistic materials in
assessment procedures called projective technique. Examples of projective techniques in
assessment are the House-Tree-Person (HTP) Test, Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic
Apperception Test. In HTP, the client will be asked to draw a house, a tree and a person and all
of which will be used to analyze personality traits and mental status. In Rorschach and Thematic
Apperception Test, the client will be asked to share what they perceive from the set of cards
with inkblots or images, respectively. The same verbal responses will be analyzed as personality
and mental health assessments (Cohen & Swerdlik 2018).

The Criticism of Art and Judgment of Aesthetics

Finally, this Module shall end with a more systematic approach in evaluating, appreciating, and
criticizing art. Being a critic, or the very least an audience, of art, means that you need criteria
or a set of standards to assess the artwork more effectively and comprehensively.
Consequently, the process of knowing these criteria will enhance the vicarious aesthetic
experience with art. This will make the experience more like a personal immersion with the
artist and narratives underlying the work (Ragans, 2005).

Aesthetics is form of philosophy that intends to study the value and nature of art while art
criticism is the systematic approach of evaluating and assessing artworks. It is generally
composed of some steps that will be implemented as a viewer or critic of art. Rosalind Ragans
recommended the following steps to be performed when doing criticism and judgment. The
following table describes these steps.