Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Sayed Hemead

Cairo University, Egypt
Prof. Sayed Hemead

Chongqing University,China
Associate Editor
Prof. Amin Beiranvand Pour
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
Editorial Board Members
Salvatore Grasso, Italy Sumit Kumar Ghosh, India

Shenghua Cui, China Bojan Matoš, Croatia
Golnaz Jozanikohan, Iran Massimo Ranaldi, Italy
Mehmet Irfan Yesilnacar, Turkey Zaman Malekzade, Iran
Ziliang Liu, China Gehan Mohammed, Egypt
Sunday Ojochogwu Idakwo, Nigeria Márton Veress, Hungary
Jianwen Pan, China Vincenzo Amato, Italy
Wen-Chieh Cheng, China Siva Prasad BNV, India
Wei Duan, China Ahm Radwan, Egypt
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Dongdong Wang, China Zhouhua Wang, China
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Swostik Kumar Adhikari, Nepal Olukayode Dewumi Akinyemi, Nigeria
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Shaoshuai Shi, China
Volume 5 Issue 12 · April 2023
·January ··ISSN
2023 ISSN2810-9384
2810-9384(Online)
(Online)
Advances in Geological
and Geotechnical
Engineering Research
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Sayed Hemead
Prof. Wengang Zhang
Volume 5 ｜ Issue 2 ｜ April 2023 ｜ Page1-78
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research
Contents
Editorial
76 Editorial for Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research: Vol. 5 Issue 2 (2023)
Amin Beiranvand Pour
Articles
1 Application of 2-D and 3-D Geo-electrical Resistivity Tomography and Geotechnical Soil Evaluation for
Engineering Site Investigation: A Case Study of Okerenkoko Primary School, Warri-Southwest, Delta
State, Nigeria
U. Stanley Eze, M. Edirin Okiotor, J. E. Ighodalo, B. Jennifer Owonaro, A. Saleh Saleh, A. Sikiru Jamiu
24 Petrology and Geochemical Features of Crystalline Rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria
O.A. OlaOlorun, O.O. Akinola, A.O. Oyinloye
38 Toxicity of Radon-222 in Groundwater across Keana in Nasarawa, Nigeria
Abubakar Saidu Bako, Usman Rilwan, Ibrahim Umar, Samson Dauda Yusuf, Idris Muhammad Mustapha,
Abdullahi Abubakar Mundi, Ibrahim Maina
50 Correlation of Ground Penetrating Radar Data with Geotechnical Prospect Profiles: Reduto Case Study,
Belém-PA, Brazil
Danusa Mayara de Souza, Lyvio Luiz Clávio de Alcântara Júnior
64 Radio Direction Finding Method to Mitigate Tsunami Risk in Sierra Leone
Valentino Straser, Daniele Cataldi, Gabriele Cataldi
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 02 | April 2023

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/agger
ARTICLE
Application of 2-D and 3-D Geo-electrical Resistivity Tomography

and Geotechnical Soil Evaluation for Engineering Site Investigation:
A Case Study of Okerenkoko Primary School, Warri-Southwest,
Delta State, Nigeria
U. Stanley Eze1* , M. Edirin Okiotor2, J. E. Ighodalo3, B. Jennifer Owonaro2, A. Saleh Saleh4, A. Sikiru Jamiu2
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, 330102, Nigeria
2
Department of Marine Geology, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Warri South, Delta State, 332105, Nigeria
3
Department of Physics (Applied Geophysics program), University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, 300213, Nigeria
4
Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, 330102, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
In the design of building structures, joint efforts must be decided to resolve the depth of competent layers across
the intended site to safeguard the durability of civil engineering structures and to avert the disastrous consequences
of structural failure and collapse. In this study, an integrated methodology that employed DC resistivity tomography
involving 2-D and 3-D techniques and geotechnical-soil analysis was used to evaluate subsoil conditions for engineering
site investigation at Okerenkoko primary school, in the Warri-southwest area of Delta State, to adduce the phenomena
responsible for the visible cracks/structural failure observed in the buildings. The results obtained brought to light the
geological structure beneath the subsurface, which consists of four geoelectric layers identified as topsoil, dry/lithified
upper sandy layer, wet sand (water-saturated) and peat/clay/sandy clayey soil (highly water-saturated). The deeply-seated
peat/clay materials (ρ ≤ 20 Ωm) were delineated in the study area to the depths of 17.1 m and 19.8 m from 2-D and 3-D
tomography respectively. 3-D images presented as horizontal depth slices revealed the dominance of very low resistivity
materials i.e. peat/clay/sandy clay within the fourth, fifth and sixth layers at depths ranging from 8.68-12.5 m, 12.5-
16.9 m and 16.9-21.9 m respectively. The dominance of mechanically unstable peat/clay/sandy clay layers beneath the
subsurface, which are highly mobile in response to volumetric changes, is responsible for the noticeable cracks/failure
detected on structures within the study site. These observations were validated by a geotechnical test of soil samples in
the study area. Atterberg’s limits of the samples revealed plasticity indices of zero. Thus, the soil samples within the depth
analyzed were representatives of sandy soil that does not possess any plasticity. The methods justifiably provided relevant
information on the subsurface geology beneath the study site and should be appropriated as major tools for engineering
site assessment/geotechnical projects.
Keywords: 2D and 3D resistivity tomography; Engineering site/structure; Atterberg limits; Orthogonal lines; Radar
sounding
*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
U. Stanley Eze, Department of Earth Sciences, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, 330102, Nigeria; Email: uchechuk-
wueze2014@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 3 January 2023 | Revised: 4 March 2023 | Accepted: 7 March 2023 | Published Online: 22 March 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5382
CITATION
Eze, S.U., Okiotor, M.E., J. E. Ighodalo, J.E., et al., 2023. Application of 2-D and 3-D Geo-electrical Resistivity Tomography and Geotechnical
Soil Evaluation for Engineering Site Investigation: A Case Study of Okerenkoko Primary School, Warri-Southwest, Delta State, Nigeria. Advanc-
es in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 1-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5382
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
1
1. Introduction both lateral and vertical contrast in ground resistivity

measured using electrodes implanted on the surface
An ample evaluation of geologic and geotechni- of the earth [8]. The 2-D resistivity model from a 2-D
cal subsurface conditions in an intended engineering
ERT dataset affords an improved approximation of
site is critical for the secure design of building struc-
the subsurface model of the earth [9].
tures, to avert the disastrous consequences of struc-
Nevertheless, images resulting from 2-D elec-
tural failure and collapse prevalent of late. In subsoil
trical resistivity surveys often produce misleading
evaluation, joint efforts must be decided to resolve
subsurface features, due to out-of-plane variation in
the depth to competent layers across the intended
apparent resistivity anomaly in magnitude and loca-
site, to safeguard the durability of civil engineering
tion [10] as cited in Eze et al. [9]. These inaccuracies
structures i.e. buildings, bridges, roads and other
frequently arise because the basic presumption of
infrastructures [1,2]. On the 1st of November 2021,
two dimensions for geological features is only an ap-
it was reported that a 21-storey building on Gerard
proximation. In reality, geological features/structures
Road, Ikoyi, Lagos State collapsed killing many
known in environmental/near surface research are
people, due to lack of quality assurance/control, poor
intrinsically three-dimensional (3-D) in the attribute.
management of the project and negligence by agen-
Therefore, these spurious effects oftentimes lead to
cies responsible for approval and supervision of the
errors in the interpretation of 2-D ERT data.
building project [3]. Premium Times report [3], also
In environmental investigations, where the sub-
stated that the building’s density and impediment
surface geology is frequently complex, subtle and
on the site displayed gross negligence of the Lagos
multi-scaled, the objections with 2-D ERT in precisely
State building moderations.
Over 50 percent of all building/structural failures gauging geometrically complex structures notably in
in developing countries like Nigeria can be allied to a deeply heterogeneous geologic environment without
geologic and geotechnical problems, in accordance misconception necessitated the demand for 3-D resis-
with the information provided by Chendo and Obi [4]. tivity imaging which is a more accurate model of the
The geologic and geotechnical problems cover a subsurface as reported in the literature [11-15].
wide spectrum from foundation defects caused by In three-dimensional (3-D) resistivity imaging
poor investigation of the nature/type of soils in the the apparent resistivity magnitudes are recognized
area to the subsurface geology. Areas such as coastal to fluctuate in all three directions (vertical, lateral
environments, swamp belts and flood plains might and perpendicular). Therefore, 3-D geoelectrical re-
have experienced differential sedimentation of di- sistivity imaging with a 3-D model of interpretation
verse organic matters and sediments. These domains should in theory accord a superior interpretation as
are inherently overflowing due to the existence of noted by Loke [16].
impermeable soil layer-mostly clay, resulting in the Another extensive expression of 3-D resistivity
habitation of mechanically unstable peat material tomography is the capability to array a 3-D resistiv-
(moderately decomposed organic substance) may be ity model of the subsurface. A 3-D apparent resis-
imminent [5] as cited in Ayolabi et al. [6]. tivity volume can be realized and shown in horizon-
In evaluating subsoil conditions in an engineering tal-depth slices and vertical cross-sectional cuts next
site, the electrical resistivity method, plays a decisive to volume rendering. Cross-sectional cuts have the
role in the detection of subsoil properties for engi- improvement that values of the apparent resistivity
neering site probing. Two-dimensional (2-D) geoe- in each cell are displayed in all directions (x-y, y-z
lectrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a familiar and x-z planes). From the preceding, the dominance
geophysical imaging technique extensively utilized of 3-D ERT to 2-D ERT in detailing complex hetero-
in environmental and civil engineering investiga- geneous geological environments cannot be overem-
tions [6,7]. The 2-D ERT technique fits the image of phasized, and has been validated in the reports [6,9,13].
2
The study area ‘Okerenkoko primary school’ than about 5 m above sea level.
located in Okerenkoko community in Gbaramatu
Kingdom, Warri-south local government area of
Delta State, was reported to be suffering from poor
maintenance and negligence over a long period of
time which has resulted in visible cracks observed
in the classroom walls, failure/subsidence and di-
lapidated buildings (Figure 1a-1c). The degree of
damage observed in the school building ranges from
moderate to severe risk category according to Bos-
carding and Cording’s [17] building damage classifi-
cation. If nothing is done in addressing the situation,
these are warning signs of instability/structural fail-
ure that will result in differential settlement of the
dilapidated/failed buildings which causes geoenvi-
ronmental hazards. It was this extremity that necessi-
tated the adoption of an integrated methodology that
employed DC resistivity tomography involving 2-D,
3-D techniques and 1-D VES soundings supported
with geotechnical-soil analysis to evaluate the geo-
logic and geotechnical conditions of the subsurface Figure 1(a-c). Physical condition of the study site (Okerenkoko
soil and to adduce the phenomena responsible for the primary school in Okerenkoko community) as at the time of this
structural failure’s observed in the school buildings. study showing the survey location, cracks and dilapidated buildings.
In this paper, an orthogonal set of ten (10) 2-D re- The permanent campus of Nigeria Maritime Uni-
sistivity imaging data all-inclusive of five (5) parallel versity is based in this community. Warri Southwest
and five (5) perpendicular traverses were obtained
local government is home to the Delta State’s Itekiri
within the school premises (Figure 1). The survey
and Ijaw ethnic groups.
was guided, with the objective of assessing the ap-
The geology of the Warri-South Okerenkoko re-
propriateness of the site for building construction
gion is located in the Niger Delta, and the geology of
and defining the subsurface geology characteristics
the region has been examined by many scholars such
beneath the area.
as Asseez [19]; Reyment [20]; Short and Stauble [21]. The
stratigraphic layers of the Niger Delta include the
2. Geological setting of the study Akata, Agbada and Benin Formations. Typical sec-
area and hydrogeology tions of these formations are briefed in other reports
Okerenkoko community is based in the Gbara- such as Short and Stauble [21]; Doust and Omatsola [22];
matu Kingdom in the Warri-south local government Kulke [23]. The Akata Formation is principally com-
area of Delta State (Ijaw-ethnic group). The composed of marine shale with sandy and silty beds laid
munity is positioned between latitude 05°37’39.22” down in turbidities and continental slope channel
to 05°37’10.12” N and longitude 005°23’30.64” to fills, about 7000 m in thickness, serves as the source
005°23’08.79” E. It is stationed within the coastal rock [22]. The Upper Agbada Formation is an array of
creeks between the Benin River and the Escravos sandstone and shale deposits [24]. It rests mainly on
River (Figure 2) that links Warri and Escravos. Veg- sand in the upper part alongside limited amount of
etation is defined by mangrove forests and rainfor- shale, and contains shale predominantly in the lower
ests. The Mangrove swamps are low, generally less part. Over 3,700 m thick, Benin`s upper layers are
3
enclosed in divers’ places with thin layers of laterite (the first occurrence of groundwater) is estimated to
of varying thickness, still, are also uncovered bor- lie between 4 m to 5 m beneath [26].
dering the coast. The Somebreiro-Warri Deltaic sand In general, sedimentary rocks are taken into con-
is Quaternary to Recent in maturity and precisely sideration to be good aquifers due to their excessive
underlies the study area. The dominant aquifer entity porosity and permeability which arbitrates the hydro-
in the area falls inside the sands of the upper deltaic geological settings of the rocks relative to its texture
top lithofacies [25]. The water table in the study area and mineralogy.
Figure 2. Geological map of the Niger Delta region showing the areal dispersal of mangrove swamps and the Benin Formation.
Source: Adapted from Nigeria Geological Survey Agency, NGSA [18].
3. Methodology were established and in the X-direction, 2-D pro-

files, Lx1 to Lx5) were also established as shown in
The research methods employed in carrying out
the base map in Figure 3. Inter-traverse spacing in
this study are geophysical field measurement involv-
the -Y and -X directions is 25 m and 20 m, respec-
ing 2-D and 1-D geoelectrical resistivity surveys and
tively (Figure 3). The 2-D Wenner technique was
geotechnical-soil analysis.
adopted for this study because it has remarkable depth
sensitivity, and because the Wenner array excels at
3.1 2-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
resolving vertical variations in subsurface resistivity
and 1-D vertical electrical sounding (VES)
(horizontal structures) [8]. The electrode spacing used
In this study, 2-D electrical resistivity tomogra- was 5 m in the -Y and -X directions. In the Y-direc-
phy data all-inclusive of five (5) parallel and five (5) tion (80 m length) with an electrode spacing of 5 m,
vertical traverses were measured using a PASI-16GL a total of 16 electrode positions from 0 to 80 m are
ground resistivity meter, adopting the conventional occupied by each traverse line, and in the X-direction
Wenner technique (Wenner alpha), on a rectangular (100 m length) with an electrode spacing of 5 m, a
grid of 100 × 80 m2 in the school premises. Thus, a total of 21 electrode positions from 0 to 100 m are
total of ten (10) 2-D resistivity profiles (data density) occupied by each traverse line. A total of thirteen (13)
were acquired in the study site for a reliable subsoil/ vertical electrical soundings were radially run at two
geotechnical investigation beneath the school prem- positions in the grid adopting the regular Schlum-
ises. In the Y-direction, 2-D profiles, Ly1 to Ly6 berger method, with half-electrode spacing (AB/2)
4
varying from 1 m to 200 m. The Vertical Electrical To perform 3-D inversion, we assembled the en-
Soundings (VES) involved radial sounding at directions tire orthogonal set of 2-D traverses (that is, in the Y
0°(N-S), 60°(NE-SW), 90°(E-W) and 120°(NW-SE) and X directions) into an exclusive 3-D dataset that
at positions 1 and position 2 respectively. The vertical can be viewed by a standard 3D resistivity inversion
electrical soundings (VES 1-13) are acquired to provide software [13,31] using the RES2DINV comparison
subsurface 1-D stratigraphic information to aggregate code. The 3-D apparent resistivity dataset was in-
the 2-D imagery and are performed radially to establish verted by applying Earth Imager 3D software and
the potential direction of groundwater flow and guide RES3DINV software. Using the Earth Imager 3D
future groundwater practice at the site. software, the entire 3-D dataset was inverted as a
block to generate an exclusive three-dimensional
3.2 3-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) resistivity image beneath the subsurface. The RES-
3DINV software program uses a process established
To establish a good description of the study site on smoothing constrained least squares inversion
and to minimize the errors arising from the assump- technique [9,32,33] to extract horizontal depth slices in
tion of two-dimensional geometry for geological the x-y plane and vertical slices in the x-z and y-z
features, a 3-D resistivity interpretation model that planes from the realized 3-D volume.
gives the maximum detailed results as opined by
Loke [27] was simulated adopting the orthogonal set 3.4 Geotechnical-soil evaluation
of measured 2-D apparent resistivity data. The pres-
ent-day survey cost for 3-D resistivity surveys is A geophysical inversion solution generates a model
equivalently higher than 2-D surveys [27]. Therefore, that should fit the local geology, geophysical field data
a comparison of an orthogonal set of 2-D traverse and be interpretable. However, the principal problem
lines was used to generate the three-dimensional (3- with geophysical inversion is the non-uniqueness prob-
D) apparent resistivity data used in this study. lem and one way to minimize this ambiguity is the use
of additional data to constrain geophysical inversion
3.3 Geophysical data processing and inversion solutions [34]. In this study, the accuracy of our geophys-
ical ERT survey was insufficient to completely satisfy
The VES data were analyzed by manual curve the geotechnical exploration requirements; therefore,
fitting to establish a resistivity model curve, that was our geophysical survey was constrained by the results
further curve fitted to the standard curve and result- of soil samples collected from three (3) holes on the
ing layer parameters were entered into the Win-Re- site (Okerenkoko primary school) as shown on the base
sist computer program [28] and inverted to realize the map (Figure 3). The holes were drilled along traverse
geoelectric parameters (the layer resistivity, depth 1 (Lx1), traverse 2 (Ly1) and at the center of the grid
and thickness) of the site. In addition, vertical elec- (Figure 3) after the time of this field survey and were
trical soundings were made radially along different confined within the first 8.0 m of each of the three trav-
azimuthal angles for a given ‘AB/2’ interval, so we erses. Soils intended to support engineering structures,
plotted this to create a polar diagram. For isotropic pavements, or other loads must be evaluated to predict
and uniform strata, this polar diagram is expected to their behavior under applied loads and variable mois-
be circular. However, the aberration from the circle ture conditions. In subsoil evaluation, the water content
to the eclipse indicates an anisotropic nature of the of the soil is very critical to grading its engineering
subsurface [29,30] and the possible direction of ground- properties. The water content at which soil changes
water flow was inferred from the dominant trend in from one state to the other is known as the consistency
the polar diagram. The 2-D apparent resistivity data limit, or Atterberg’s limit [35]. The Atterberg limits are an
were inverted using the ‘Earth Imager 2D program’ important measure of the critical water content of fine-
to generate a 2-D resistivity-depth structure. grained soils: Its shrinkage limit, plastic limit and liquid
5
limit. Depending on the water content, soil can be in aperture. Moisten the sieved soil with a normal con-
one of four states: Solids, semi-solids, plastics, liquids. centration of tap water (pH = 7.2), seal the moistened
Each state has different soil consistency and behavior, soil in a plastic bag and store for 3 days to meet the
and therefore different geotechnical properties [35,36]. British Standard [38].
Fundamental tests performed on soil samples in-
clude methods to determine the liquid limit, plastic
limit, and plasticity index. These were carried out
according to standard practice [38]. The boundary
between liquid and plasticity in the soil is called the
Ly Profiles
Atterberg limit.
In each case, the basic requirement is the determi-
Lx Profiles nation of the water content or moisture content (Wc)
of the soil samples at a different number of blows or
drops (N).
In each case, the water content (Wc) for each
blow was determined using the formula:
(1)
(m)
Figure 3. Data acquisition map showing the 2-D resistivity For soil sample-1 collected from the borehole
survey grid lines, VES points and Boreholes occupied in the (BH-1) the number of blows/drops used was 6, 14
study site (Okerenkoko primary school, Warri-south, Delta State, and 34 blows and water content was determined for
Nigeria).
each blow respectively. In soil sample-2 collected
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the amount of water from the borehole (BH-2) the number of blows/drops
above which loss of water does not reduce the sam- used was 13, 23 and 54 blows and water content was
ple volume. The plasticity limit (PL) is the amount determined for each blow while in soil sample-3 col-
of water at which a plastic transitions to a semi-solid lected at borehole (BH-3) the number of blows/drops
state, while the liquid limit (LL) is the amount of wa- used was 18, 23 and 30 blows respectively and water
ter at which the soil goes from a plastic state to a liq- content were determined for each blow.
uid state if the soil sample is sufficiently liquid [35,36]. For liquid limit determination we plotted the wa-
Shrinkage limits are used much less frequently than ter content (Wc) values against the corresponding
liquid and plastic limits. The practical importance of number of drops, N, on a semilogarithmic graph with
the liquid-plastic boundary lies in its ability to reflect water content on the arithmetical/linear scale, and
the types and amounts of clay minerals present in the number of drops on the logarithmic scale. A best-
fine fractions. High values of liquid limit and plas- fit straight line was drawn through the plotted points.
ticity index indicate that the soil has high clay and The water content corresponding to the intersection
colloidal size of active minerals and that such soil of the line with 25 (N) drops on the logarithmic axis
has a poor base for bearing capacity [37]. was read as the liquid limit, LL, of the soil in each
In this study, soil samples for geotechnical testing sample. The plastic limit was also determined using
were collected in plastic bags and sent to the Soil the procedure and data required for plastic limit de-
Research Laboratory at the Department of Earth termination which involves the determination of the
Sciences, Federal University of Petroleum Resourc- water content in the soil sample after oven drying for
es, Effurun (FUPRE) for analysis. The samples were a number of trials. The plastic limit was taken as the
air-dried and ground into small pieces. The ground average moisture content for the number of trails. In
sample was then sieved by him through a 4.25 mm each case the plasticity index (Ip) of the soil samples
6
was determined by finding the difference between 20 Ωm to 50 Ωm and below 90 Ωm), were predom-
the liquid and plastic limits as shown below: inant at the third and fourth layers at a depth range
Ip =LL-PL (2) of 9.9 m to 27.8 m and beyond 30.0 m respectively.
After determining the liquid limit and plastic lim- The presence of mechanically weak/unstable Peat/
it (Atterberg’s limit) of the soil samples, the soil type clay/Sandy clay layers at the third and fourth layers
was classified using the Burmister [39] scheme shown at profound depths within the near surface (27.8 m to
in Table 1. 30.0 m) apparently shows that the subsurface layers
Table 1. Plasticity Indices and Corresponding States of Plasticity at these depths are weak and not suitable for engi-
(after Burmister [39]). neering structures. Although, the dry/consolidated
Soil type Plastic limit State of Plastic sandy layer observed within the second geoelectric
1 0 Non-Plastic layer is competent as a foundation base for building
2 1-5 Slight structures [40], the underlying layers of weak and
3 5-10 Low mechanically unstable peat/clay/sandy clay make it
4 10-20 Medium vulnerable to failure. In general, clay soils exhibit
5 20-40 High unfavorable geotechnical properties (when satura-
6 >40 Very High
tion), due to their low strength, high compressibility
and high level of volumetric changes which cause
negative defects in engineering structures. This ex-
4. Results and discussion plains the visible cracks/subsidence observed in the
buildings at the primary school. The second-layer,
4.1 Vertical electrical sounding (VES) third-layer and fourth-layer resistivity maps for VES
In a nutshell, the VES model values realized from 1 to 13, are shown in Figure 5a-5c. The maps show
1-D resistivity inversion are presented in Table 2. resistivity variation within the second layers at a
The iteration outcome of 1-D inversion for VES 1-6 depth ranging from 2.90 m to 10.40 m (Table 2),
only shows the sounding curves, inverted layer vari- third layers at a depth ranging from 9.60 m to 27.80
ables and root mean square (RMS) error depicted in m (Table 2) and fourth layers at a depth beyond 30.0
Figure 4a-4f. A low RMS error in the order of 6.6%, m. In general, resistivity in sedimentary rocks is
2.4%, 2.2%, 2.7%, 3.6%, 2.6%, 3.1%, 2.1%, 2.2%, influenced by porosity [41], void space, degree of sort-
2.5%, 2.5%, 2.9%, and 2.8% was actualized in the ing and grain size assessment [42].
1-D inversion of VES 1, 2, 3... to 13 respectively (as For this reason, within each layer, groundwater
shown in Table 2). These low RMS errors endorse flows from higher resistivity zones (with low poros-
the accuracy of the VES model resistivity values. ity) to lower resistivity zones (with high porosity).
Interpretation of VES data brought to light four This implies that within a layer, areas that are less re-
geoelectric layers within the subsurface classified as sistive tend to be more saturated due to high porosity
topsoil, dry sand, wet sand and peat/clay/sandy clay and will have higher water saturation than areas with
(Table 2). From the layer parameters and inferred high resistivity (as indicated in Figure 5a-5c). From
lithology shown in Table 2, the subsurface is princi- the second layer resistivity map, it was observed that
pally sandy in lithology with varying degrees of wa- high water saturation within this layer (depth ranged
ter saturation. Dry/consolidated sand (ρ between 600 from 2.9 m to 10.4 m) was predominant in the north-
Ωm to ρ ≥ 1000 Ωm) was observed predominantly at eastern and northwestern parts of the site due to low
the second geoelectric layers from a depth range of resistivity values (100-700 Ωm) as shown in Figure
2.9 m to 10.4 m from VES 1 to 13 (Table 2). In Ta- 5a, third layer resistivity map (depth ranged from
ble 2, it was observed that wet sand (ρ < 200 Ωm), 9.6 m to 27.8 m) showed high water saturation in the
Peat/clay (ρ ≤ 20 Ωm) and Sandy clay (ρ between northeastern and western parts of the site, but pre-
7
dominant in the northeast part with very low resistiv- for the construction of building structures. At depths
ity values (40-120 Ωm) as shown in Figure 5b. The between 8.6 m to 17.1 m, a very low resistivity vari-
fourth layer resistivity map showed very high water ation of 3.7-64 Ωm was observed which is symbolic
saturation predominant within this layer (at depth be- of peat/clay/sandy clay layers, not suitable for engi-
yond 30 m) as indicated in Figure 5c. In Figure 5a- neering practice (Figure 7a). The 2-D resistivity
5c it was observed that the degree of water saturation section for line Lx2 (Traverse 5) with resistivity
in the study site apparently increased with respect to ranging from 1.0-10,000 Ωm is shown in Figure 7b.
depth, with the fourth geoelectric layer map (Figure A high resistivity structure (1000-10000 Ωm) was
5c) showing more zones with a high water saturation observed at depths of 0 to 8.6 m, 1-8.6 m and 0-10.0
than the overlying third and second layers (Figure m at electrode positions of 5-25 m, 30-60 m and 65-
5a-5b). This observation shows that the subsurface 100 m respectively along this traverse. This resistivi-
geological structure of the site contains materials ty value is symbolic of dry sands with little or no
with high water content which affects their strength water content, which was interpreted as the zone of
and volumetric properties. These findings reflect the better consolidation favorable for engineering prac-
dominance of non-competent materials in the study tice. At depth between 12.8 m to 17.1 m and 6.0 m to
area. The anisotropy polygon based on the radial 17.1 m at an electrode position of 15-95 m, a very
VES survey is shown in Figure 6a-6b. The dominant low resistivity variation of 1.0-10 Ωm was observed,
resistivity trends (as indicated) show that the flow di- which is symbolic to peat/clay layers, not suitable
rection of water is comparable to that depicted in the for engineering practice (Figure 7b). Between the
layer resistivity maps in Figure 5a-5c. consolidated layer and peat/clay layer moderate re-
sistivity structure (100 Ωm) was observed sand-
4.2 2-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) wiched between these layers and is indicative of wet
The outcomes from 2-D ERT for the ten (10) trav- sand. The 2-D resistivity section for line Lx3 (Trav-
erses are shown in Figure 7a-7j. The 2-D resistivi- erse 6) with resistivity ranging from 2.9-10,000 Ωm
ty-depth sections were labeled according to the traverse is shown in Figure 7c. A high resistivity structure
line directions (-X and -Y) occupied within the 3-D grid (1302-10000 Ωm) was observed at depth of 0 to 6.0
as shown in the data acquisition base map (Figure 3). m at electrode position of 0-100 m along this trav-
In the (-X) direction the 2-D lines were 100 m in length erse. This resistivity value is symbolic of dry sands
and labeled as (Lx1, Lx2, Lx3, Lx4 and Lx5) while in with little or no water content, which was interpreted
the (-Y) direction the 2-D lines were 80 m in length and as the zone of better consolidation favorable for en-
labeled as (Ly1, Ly2, Ly3, Ly4 and Ly5). In either case, gineering practice. At depths between 4.3 m to 8.6 m
the subsurface resistivity structure was imaged to rea- and 8.6 m to 17.1 m, moderate (170 Ωm) and very
sonable depths suitable for precise assessment of its low (2.9-22.1 Ωm) resistivity structures were ob-
suitability for engineering practice. Correlating the 2-D served which are symbolic of wet sand and peat/clay
resistivity interpretation with resistivity values realized layers, respectively (Figure 7c). These layers were
from 1-D inversion (VES survey), it is symbolic of assessed to be weak and not suitable for engineering
sand lithology with alternating degrees in water con- practice. The 2-D resistivity section for line Lx4
tent. The 2-D resistivity section for line Lx1 (Traverse (Traverse 7) with resistivity ranging from 1.6-
1) with resistivity ranging from 3.7-1113 Ωm is shown 7510 Ωm is shown in Figure 7d. A high resistivity
in Figure 7a. A high resistivity structure (267- structure (909-7510 Ωm) was observed at depth of 0
1113 Ωm) was observed at depth of 0 to 8.2 m within to 8.6 m at electrode positions of 0-85 m and 90-
the subsurface at an electrode position of 0-100 m 100 m along this traverse. This resistivity value is
and indicative of a dry sand layer which was inter- symbolic of dry sands with little or no water content,
preted as the zone of better consolidation favorable which was interpreted as the zone of better consoli-
8
dation favorable for engineering practice. At depths with little or no water content, which was interpreted
between 5.0 m to 6.0 m and 6.0 m to 17.1 m, moder- as the zone of better consolidation favorable for en-
ate (110 Ωm) and very low (1.6-13.3 Ωm) resistivity gineering practice. At depths between 0-7.1 m and
structures were observed which are symbolic of wet 7.1 m to 14.3 m, moderate (457 Ωm) and low (21.5-
sand and peat/clay layers, respectively (Figure 7d). 99.0 Ωm) resistivity structures were observed which
These layers were also assessed to be weak and not is symbolic of wet sand and peat/clay/sandy clay
suitable for engineering practice. The 2-D resistivity layers, respectively (Figure 7g). These layers were
section for line Lx5 (Traverse 3) with resistivity also assessed to be weak and not suitable for engi-
ranging from 27.8-1758 Ωm is shown in Figure 7e. neering practice. The 2-D resistivity section for line
A high resistivity structure (624-1758 Ωm) was ob- Ly3 (Traverse 9) with resistivity ranging from 7.9-
served at depth of 0 to 9.0 m at an electrode position 4871 Ωm is shown in Figure 7h. A high resistivity
of 0-100 m along this traverse. This resistivity value structure (977-4871 Ωm) was observed at depth of 0
is symbolic to dry sands with little or no water con- to 6.5 m at an electrode position of 5-80 m along this
tent, which was interpreted as the zone of better con- traverse. This resistivity value is indicative of dry
solidation favorable for engineering practice. At sands with little or no water content, which was in-
depths between 9.0 m to 13.0 m and 13.0 m to 17.1 terpreted as the zone of better consolidation favora-
m, moderate (221 Ωm) and very low (27.8-78 Ωm) ble for engineering practice. At depths between 6.5-
resistivity structures were observed which are sym- 8.0 m and 8.0 m to 14.3 m, moderate (196 Ωm) and
bolic of wet sand and peat/clay/sandy clay layers, re- low (7.9-39.3 Ωm) resistivity structures were ob-
spectively (Figure 7e). These layers were also as- served, which is symbolic of wet sand and peat/clay/
sessed to be weak and not suitable for engineering sandy clay layers, respectively (Figure 7h). These
practice. The 2-D resistivity section for line Ly1 layers were also assessed to be weak and not suitable
(Traverse 2) with resistivity ranging from 38.9- for engineering practice. The 2-D resistivity section
1584 Ωm is shown in Figure 7f. A high resistivity for line Ly4 (Traverse 10) with resistivity ranging
structure (627-1584 Ωm) was observed at depth of 0 from 6.1-6442 Ωm is shown in Figure 7i. A very
to 7.0 m at an electrode position of 0-55 m and a high resistivity structure (1130-6442 Ωm) was ob-
depth of 0 to 6.0 m at electrode position of 68-75 m served at depth of 0 to 7.1 m of the subsurface at an
along this traverse. This resistivity value is symbolic electrode position of 5-80 m along this traverse. This
to dry sands with little or no water content, which resistivity value is symbolic of dry sands with little
was interpreted as the zone of better consolidation or no water content which was interpreted as the
favorable for engineering practice. At depths be- zone of better consolidation favorable for engineer-
tween 7.1 m to 8.6 m and 8.6 m to 14.3 m, moderate ing practice. At the near surface (< 5 m) at an elec-
(248 Ωm) and low (38.9-98.0 Ωm) resistivity struc- trode position of 0-5 m, a low resistivity structure
tures were observed, which is symbolic of wet sand was observed (Figure 7i). At depths between 7.1 m
and peat/clay/sandy clay layers, respectively (Figure to less than 10 m and 9.0 m to 14.3 m, moderate
7f). These layers were assessed to be weak and not (198 Ωm) and low (6.1-34.8 Ωm) resistivity struc-
suitable for engineering practice. The 2-D resistivity tures were observed which are symbolic of wet sand
section for line Ly2 (Traverse 8) with resistivity and peat/clay/sandy clay layers, respectively (Figure
ranging from 21.5-9716 Ωm is shown in Figure 7g. 7i), which are weak and not suitable for engineering
A very high resistivity structure (2106-9716 Ωm) practice. The 2-D resistivity section for line Ly5
was observed at depths of 0 to 5.0 m, 0-4.8 m and (Traverse 4) with resistivity ranging from 2.5-
0-7.1 m at electrode positions of 5-15 m, 30-52 m, 9934 Ωm is shown in Figure 7j. A high resistivity
55-65 m and 67-75 m respectively along this trav- structure (1249-9934 Ωm) was observed at depth of
erse. This resistivity value is symbolic of dry sands 0.9 m to 7.1 m at electrode positions of 5-12 m, 0-
9
6.0 m at electrode positions of 20-25 m, 28-35 m, with very low resistivity values observed predom-
37-40 m and 55-75 m respectively along this trav- inantly at varying depths i.e. 8.6-17.1 m in profile
erse. This resistivity value is symbolic of dry sands Lx1, 12.8-17.1 m in profile Lx2, 8.6-17.1 m in pro-
with little or no water content, which was interpreted file Lx3, 6.0-17.1 m in profile Lx4, 13.0-17.1 m in
as the zone of better consolidation favorable for en- profile Lx5, 8.6-14.3 m in profile Ly1, 7.1-14.3 m in
gineering practice. At depths between 7.1 m to profile Ly2, 8.0-14.3 m in profile Ly3, 9.0-14.3 m in
10.7 m and 10.7 m to 14.3 m, moderate (157 Ωm) profile Ly4 and 10.7-14.3 m in profile Ly5 (Figure
and low (2.5-19.7 Ωm) resistivity structures were 7a-7j). Therefore, the overlain dry sand layers with
observed which are symbolic of wet sand and peat/ high resistivity values at the near surface interpreted
clay layers, respectively (Figure 7j). These layers as the zone of better consolidation will still suffer
were also assessed to be weak and not suitable for from subsidence due to the underlying mechanically
engineering practice. unstable peat/clay/sandy clay layers which are high-
In general, the interpretation of the ten (10) 2-D ly mobile in response to volumetric changes which
apparent resistivity-depth sections (Figure 7a-7j) cause negative defects to build structures and as a
showed consistency in their subsurface resistivity deduction, explains the visible cracks/failure/sub-
structure within the depths imaged in the study area, sidence observed on structures within the study site
with a dominance of peat/clay/sandy clay materials (Figure 1a-1c).
(a) VES 1 (N-S) Iteration result (b) VES 2 (E-W) Iteration result
(c) VES 3 (NE-SW) Iteration result (d) VES 4 (NW-SE) Iteration result
(e) VES 5 (N-S) Iteration result (f) VES 6 (E-W) Iteration result
Figure 4(a-f). Iteration results of 1D resistivity inversion for VES 1 to 4 Location 1 and VES 5 and 6 Location 2, showing the resis-
18
tivity sounding curves and 1-D resistivity models.
10
Table 2. Summary of VES results in the study site, showing resistivity values, thicknesses, depths and inferred lithology.
Resistivity Thickness Depth

VES-No / RMS-Error Layers Inferred lithology
(Ω-m) (m) (m)
RADAR SOUNDING-1 (VES 1 to 4)
1 469.3 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 1190.2 2.6 3.5 Consolidated Sand
VES-1 (N-S) RMS: 6.6
3 145.8* 6.1 9.6 *Wet Sand
4 17.2 --- --- **Peat/clay
1 605.2 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 881.2 2.4 3.2 Sand (Dry)
VES-2 (E-W) RMS: 2.4
3 189.7* 8.2 11.4 *Sand (Wet)
4 14.8 --- --- **Peat/clay
1 670.2 0.7 0.7 Topsoil
VES-3 (NE-SW) 2 649.9 4.4 5.1 Sand (Dry)
RMS: 2.2 3 84.2 7.4 12.5 **Sandy Clay
4 27.4 --- --- **Clay
1 738.1 0.7 0.7 Topsoil
VES-4 (NW-SE) 2 820.8 2.3 2.9 Sand (Dry)
RMS: 2.7 3 314.2* 7.2 10.1 *Sand
4 30.5 --- --- **Clay/Sandy clay
RADAR SOUNDING-2 (VES 5 to 8)
1 618.0 0.8 0.9 Topsoil
VES-5 (N-S) RMS: 3.6
3 206.9* 8.9 11.9 *Sand
4 28.3 --- --- **Clay
1 642.2 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
VES-6 (E-W) RMS: 2.6
3 121.8* 7.4 10.8 *Sand (Wet)
1 790.6 1.0 1.0 Topsoil
VES-7 (NE-SW) 2 1162.1 2.6 3.6 Consolidated Sand
RMS: 3.1 3 197.3* 6.8 10.4 *Sand (Wet)
1 635.6 0.7 Topsoil
VES-8 (NW-SE) 2 1435.4 2.4 3.1 Consolidated Sand
RMS: 2.1 3 252.8* 7.2 10.3 *Sand
4 43.5 --- --- **Sandy Clay
1 443.7 1.1 1.1 Topsoil
VES-9 RMS:2.2
3 199.6 21.2 25.8 *Sand
4 17.8 --- --- **Peat/clay
1 1150.3 0.7 0.7 Topsoil
2 961.2 4.8 5.6 Dry Sand
VES-10 RMS: 2.5 3 170.9 14.2 19.7 *Wet Sand
4 24.1 39.7 59.4 **Clay
5 82.8 -- -- **Sandy clay
11
Table 2 continued
Resistivity Thickness Depth
VES-No / RMS-Error Layers Inferred lithology
(Ω-m) (m) (m)
1 1867.5 1.3 1.3 Topsoil
2 467.8 9.1 10.4 Sand (Dry)
VES-11 RMS: 2.5
3 63.8 61.1 71.5 **Sandy clay
4 227.3 -- -- Sand
1 645.7 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 864.0 3.4 4.2 Dry Sand
VES-12 RMS: 2.9
3 148.9 23.6 27.8 *Wet Sand
4 20.1 -- -- Peat/clay
1 266.4 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 760.7 3.2 4.0 Dry Sand
VES-13 RMS: 2.8 3 138.5 14.8 18.8 *Wet Sand
4 16.5 48.6 67.4 **Peat/clay
5 140.6 -- -- *Wet Sand
*Sandy layer; **Peat/Clay/Sandy clay layer
Figure 5. (a) Second geoelectric layer Map VES 1 to 13; (b) Third geoelectric layer Map VES 1 to 13; (c) Fourth geoelectric layer
Map VES 1 to 13. From the maps, resistivity is low towards the northeastern part of the site (see black arrows).
12
Figure 6. Radar sounding plots (a) polar diagram showing the anisotropy polygon of radar sounding for VES 1 to 8; (b) Chart title
for VES 1 to 8 radial sounding.
(a) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx1 (Traverse 1)
(b) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx2 (Traverse 5)
(c) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx3 (Traverse 6)
13
(d) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx4 (Traverse 7)
(e) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx5 (Traverse 3)
(f) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly1 (Traverse 2)
(g) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly2 (Traverse 8)
14
(h) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly3 (Traverse 9)
(i) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly4 (Traverse 10)
(j) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly5 (Traverse 4)
Figure 7(a-j). showing the 2D resistivity-depth structure of the subsurface.
4.3 3-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) resistivity values (2572-15744 Ωm) were also detect-
ed at the top, indicative of dry sand. These findings
The 3-D resistivity volume of the study site were also observed from the 2-D ERT interpretation
simulated from the orthogonal set of 2-D apparent shown in Figure 7a-7j. Therefore, the low resistiv-
resistivity field data is shown in Figure 8. The 3-D ity layers of peat/clay/sandy clay delineated from a
resistivity volume displays resistivity changes in the depth of 6.6 m to 19.8 m (Figure 8) are responsi-
vertical, lateral and perpendicular directions down ble for the structural failures i.e. cracks/dilapidated
to a depth of 19.8 m within the subsurface. The 3-D structures observed in the buildings (Figure 1a-1c)
volume reflects the dominance of low resistivity ma- due to mechanical instability and high volumetric
terials (11-69 Ωm) which are symbolic of peat/clay/ changes associated with peat/clay layers, which
sandy clay layers (as indicated in Figure 8). High results in differential settlement over time. This ex-
15
plains the degree of cracks/damage observed in the 6.2-27.2 Ωm) were observed which are symbolic of
school buildings which ranges from moderate to se- peat/clay materials within the subsurface (Figure
vere risk according to Boscarding and Cording’s [17] 9a). These findings are consistent with the results
damage classification. of 2-D ERT interpretation where the dominance of
The 3-D resistivity inversion was also extended peat/clay/sandy clay was delineated and observed
by displaying horizontal depth slices and vertical within a similar depth as imaged in 3-D tomography.
slices from the realized 3-D model volume shown Therefore, the subsurface geological structure of the
in Figure 8. This procedure was actualized using area consists of high-resistivity materials (dry sand)
smoothness constrained least-squares inversion pro- underlain by very low resistivity and mechanically
cess in the RES3DINV program. unstable layers of peat/clay/sandy clay which are
not favorable for engineering structures within the
depths imaged from 2-D and 3-D resistivity tomog-
raphy. 2-D vertical slices were also extracted from
the 3-D depth slices and displayed in the x-z and y-z
plane cells (Figure 9b-9c).
Figure 8. 3-D resistivity tomography volume beneath the study

area.
The horizontal-depth slices displayed six layers at

depth of 0.00 to 2.50 m in layer 1, 2.50 m to 5.38 m
in layer 2, 5.38 m to 8.68 m in layer 3, 8.68 m to
12.5 m in layer 4, 12.5 m to 16.9 m in layer 5 and
16.9 m to 21.9 m in layer 6 (Figure 9a). The trend
of resistivity variations noted in the 3-D inversion
depth slices showed low resistivity materials becom- Figure 9a. Six-layer horizontal depth slices obtained from 3-D
ing more evident from the third to the sixth layer. inversion of orthogonal 2-D profiles using smoothness con-
strained least-squares inversion.
In the first and second layers at depths ranging from
0.00 to 2.50 m and 2.50 m to 5.38 m respectively, One of the divergent superiorities of 3-D resis-
high resistivity structures (ρ between 527-1105 Ωm) tivity inversion over 2-D inversion was checked by
symbolic of dry sand were observed (Figure 9a). matching the 2-D inversion sections in Figure 7a-
In the third layer at a depth ranging from 5.38 m to 7j, with the 3-D resistivity tomography images and
8.68 m, a low resistivity structure (ρ between 57.1- 2-D images extracted from the 3-D inversion models
120 Ωm) was observed, which is symbolic of sandy (Figures 8 and 9). 3-D resistivity tomography gave
clay/wet sand layers (Figure 9a). In the fourth, fifth continuous variations in apparent resistivity values
and sixth layers, at a depth ranging from 8.68 m to in all three directions (vertical, lateral and perpendic-
12.50 m, 12.5 m to 16.9 m and 16.9 m to 21.9 m re- ular) to profound depths of 19.8 m and 21.9 m than
spectively, very low resistivity structures (ρ between in 2-D ERT which imaged the subsurface to a maxi-
16
mum depth of 17.1 m. 4.4 Geotechnical soil analysis

Furthermore, 2-D images extracted from 3-D
Geotechnical analysis of soil samples is a neces-
inversion displayed improved image accuracy and
sary requirement for an engineering site characteri-
subsurface variation of materials which are based on zation program. The water content of the soil sam-
changes in apparent resistivity values beneath the ples was evaluated using Equation (1). The results
subsurface in the x-z and y-z planes within the 3-D of water content for the three (3) soil samples are
grid than in the 2-D inversion sections. presented in Tables 3-5.
Figure 9b. 2-D vertical slices in the x-z plane (10 to 15 plane cells).
Figure 9c. 2-D vertical slices in the y-z plane (1 to 9 plane cells).
Table 3. Summary of number of blows and moisture/water content computed in soil samples-1.
No of Blows Weight of Wet Sample Weight of Dry Sample Water content (%)
6 18.2578 14.8801 22.699
14 21.2831 17.8742 19.072
34 21.7296 19.0331 14.168
17
From the plot of moisture content against the approximately 17%. Thus, the liquid limit ≈ 17%
number of blows for soil sample-1 (Figure 10), the (Figure 11).
moisture content corresponding to 25 blows on the The plastic limit was approximated as the average
logarithmic axis is the liquid limit, which was read moisture content from Table 4 which in sample-2 is
approximately as 13%. Thus, the liquid limit ≈ 13% 17.130.
(Figure 10). From the plot of moisture content against the num-
The plastic limit was approximated as the average ber of blows for soil sample-3 (Figure 12), the moisture
moisture content from Table 3 which in sample-1 is content corresponding to 25 blows on the logarithmic
18.646. axis is the liquid limit, which was read approximately
From the plot of moisture content against the as 13%. Thus, the liquid limit ≈ 13% (Figure 12).
number of blows for soil sample-2 (Figure 11), the The plastic limit was approximated as the average
moisture content corresponding to 25 blows on the moisture content from Table 5 which in sample-3 is
logarithmic axis is the liquid limit, which was read 13.147.
Figure 10. Plot of moisture content (%) against number of blows for liquid limit determination in soil sample-1.
Weight of Weight of Wet Weight of Weight of dry

Weight of
Container + Sample Container + dry Sample Moisture
Container No of Blows
Wet Sample (g) Sample (g) content (%)
Wo (g)
W1 (g) W1 – W0 W2 (g) W2 – W0
49.97 13 71.103 21.133 67.57 17.60 20.07
56.184 23 77.136 20.952 74.11 17.926 16.88
67.54 54 89.605 22.065 86.82 19.28 14.45
18
No of Blows Weight of Wet Sample Weight of Dry Sample Water content (%)
18 15.81 13.597 16.2756
23 26.18 23.07 13.4807
30 23.33 21.27 9.6850
The plasticity index (Ip) which is the range of tomography where the subsurface geology from the
water content over which the soil remains in the top-soil to the first 8.0 m consists of sandy soil with
plastic state, was evaluated for each sample using the varying degrees of saturation i.e. dry sand and wet
relation in Equation (2) recalled as: Ip =LL-PL. sand. The clayey soil became more evident from
For sample-1: Plasticity index (Ip) = 13 – 18.646 depths beyond 8.0 m in the study area. Therefore, the
= –5.646 ≈ 0 (zero) soil samples analyzed were representatives of sandy
For sample-2: Plasticity index (Ip) = 17 – 17.13 soil, and this validates the results of the liquid limit,
= –0.130 ≈ 0 (zero) plastic limit and plasticity index obtained from the
For sample-3: Plasticity index (Ip) = 13 – 13.147 soil samples. Sandy soils do not possess any plas-
= –0.147 ≈ 0 (zero) ticity and their plasticity index is usually assumed to
The plasticity index parameter (Ip) cannot be be zero. These findings apparently justify the subsoil
negative if the plastic limit, in some exceptions is conditions defined in the interpretation of the 1-D
greater than the liquid limit, as observed in soil sam- VES survey and 2-D and 3-D geoelectrical resistivi-
ples-1, 2, and 3. In this case, it is considered to be ty imaging.
zero and the soil is considered non-plastic (Table
1), which is symbolic of sandy soil [43,44]. The plas-
5. Conclusions
ticity of soil is its tendency to undergo deformation
without cracking. It is an important index property 2-D and 3-D geoelectrical resistivity imaging
of fine-grained soil, especially clayey soils. The supported with geotechnical-soil analysis has been
adsorbed water bounded in clayey soil leads to the successfully used in evaluating subsoil properties for
plasticity of the soil [44]. engineering site investigation at Okerenkoko prima-
In this study, the soil samples were collected ry school, in Warri-southwest area of Delta State, to
within the first 8.0 m of each borehole. At this depth, adduce the phenomena responsible for the structural
the soil samples were predominantly composed of failure observed in the school buildings. The dataset
sandy soil as delineated from results of 2-D and 3-D consists of an orthogonal set of ten (10) 2-D geoelec-
19
trical resistivity lines obtained with the Wenner array inversion images. The research supports near-surface
and taken as the data density needed for a reliable surveys with specific maximum investigation depths
geophysical-geotechnical exploration study. The da- of 17.1 m, 19.8 m and 21.9 m for 2-D and 3-D im-
taset was analyzed using the Earth Imager Inversion aging, respectively. The methods employed in this
program and Res3DInv software. The results brought study justifiably provided relevant information on
to light the geological structure beneath the subsur- the subsurface geology beneath the study site and
face, which consists of four geoelectric layers iden- its suitability for engineering practice. It is therefore
tified as topsoil, dry/lithified upper sandy layer, wet highly recommended to use these methods as impor-
sand (water-saturated) and peat/clay/sandy clayey tant tools for engineering site assessment projects
soil (highly water-saturated). The profoundly-seated and groundwater inherent investigations.
peat/clay materials (ρ ≤ 20 Ωm) were delineated in
the study site to depths of 17.1 m and 19.8 m from Conflicts of Interest
2-D and 3-D tomography respectively. The domi-
We declare that this research work has never been
nance of mechanically unstable peat/clay/sandy clay
submitted previously by anyone to any journal for
layers beneath the subsurface which are highly mo-
peer review and publication; hence it is an original
bile in response to volumetric changes is responsible
work. All the ethical principles of research in the
for the visible cracks/failure/subsidence observed on
data collection, preparation, analysis and interpreta-
structures within the study site. The DC resistivity
tion were implemented.
outcome was validated using the geotechnical study
of soil specimens collected from drill holes covering
the first 8.0 m on three of the profiles. The consisten- Availability of Data and Material
cy limits of the soil samples revealed plasticity indi- Applicable and available on demand from the
ces of zero for all samples. Soil samples within the corresponding author.
depth analyzed are therefore representative of sandy
soils lacking plasticity and are assumed to have a
Funding
plasticity index of zero. These findings seem to justi-
fy subsurface conditions defined in the interpretation There was no grant or financial support provided
of 2-D and 3-D geoelectric resistivity imaging. In from any agency in the public, commercial and not-
this study, generating a 3D dataset by matching a set for profit organization for this research work.
of orthogonal or parallel 2D lines improves the speed
of field processing, reduces the cost of field logistics Acknowledgement
and is relevant to obtaining 3D datasets using square
The authors profoundly acknowledge the good
or rectangular grid methods. Both 2-D and 3-D resis-
people of Okerenkoko community for allowing us
tivity tomography results agreed with each other. 3-D
carry out the geophysical survey used for this study
images displayed as horizontal depth slices and the
within the primary school premises, and to the Fed-
3-D subsurface volume which were realized in the
eral University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun,
study, revealed the dominance of very low resistivity
Nigeria for the use of her laboratory and computing
materials i.e. peat/clay/sandy clay within the fourth,
facilities.
fifth and sixth layers at depths ranging from 8.68-12.5
m, 12.5-16.9 m and 16.9-21.9 m respectively. Thus,
the 3-D inversion model has improved the accuracy
References
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20
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23

ARTICLE
Petrology and Geochemical Features of Crystalline Rocks in Ora-

Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria
O.A. OlaOlorun*, O.O. Akinola , A.O. Oyinloye
Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, P.M.B. 5363, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This research investigates and reports on the petrology and geochemical characteristics of crystalline basement
rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria. Exhaustive geological investigation reveals migmatite, banded gneiss, gran-
ite gneiss and biotite gneiss underlie the area. In reducing order of abundance, petrographic examination reveals that
migmatite contains quartz, muscovite and opaque minerals. Banded geniuses contain quartz, biotite, plagioclase, and
opaque minerals. Granite geniuses contain quartz, plagioclase, biotite, microcline and opaque; while biotite geniuses
contain biotite, plagioclase, opaque minerals, and quartz. Silica contents in migmatite (69.50%-72.66%; ca. 71.23%),
banded gneiss (71.66%-77.1%; ca. 75.23%), biotite gneiss (72.32%-76.18%; ca. 73.83%) and granite gneiss (69.82%-
73.15%; ca. 71.95%) indicate the rocks are siliceous. High alumina contents in migmatite (12.18%), banded gneiss
(10.28%), biotite gneiss (11.46%) and granite gneiss (9.97%) are comparable to similar rocks in the basement com-
plex. All the rocks show Ba, Sr and Rb enrichment. Harker diagrams of Al2O3 versus SiO2 and CaO versus SiO2 show
negative trends while Na2O versus SiO2, K2O versus SiO2 and TiO2 versus SiO2 plots showed positive trends. This var-
iation probably depicts extensive crystal fractionation in the magmatic systems that produced the rocks prior to meta-
morphism or partial melting of the precursor rock. SiO2 versus (Na2O + K2O) classifies the rocks as granite to granodi-
orite. The rocks are high K-calc-alkaline and calc-alkalic on SiO2-K2O plot. This shows the rocks are potassic meaning
that they are formed from a potassium-rich source. The plot of Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O) versus Al2O3/(CaO +Na2O + K2O)
reveals the crystalline rocks are orogenic and originated from granitoid with meta luminous affinity. The rocks consist
of gneisses of no economic minerals, but the petrology reveals them as common rocks typical of metamorphic terrains
and geochemical features of the rocks reveal they are felsic and of granitic composition.
Keywords: Ora-Ekiti; Crystalline basement rocks; Petrology; Metaluminous affinity
O.A. OlaOlorun, Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, P.M.B. 5363, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria; Email: olusola.ola-olorun@eksu.edu.ng
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 22 November 2022 | Revised: 11 March 2023 | Accepted: 16 March 2023 | Published Online: 6 April 2023
CITATION
OlaOlorun, O.A., Akinola, O.O., Oyinloye, A.O., 2023. Petrology and Geochemical Features of Crystalline Rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern Ni-
geria. Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 24-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5243
COPYRIGHT
24
1. Introduction structurally distinct.
The study area lies within the basement complex

1.2 Banded gneiss
of southwestern Nigeria (Figure 1) and its regional
geology has been described in segments by differ- This gneiss is unique for its conspicuous bands
ent authors. Rahaman [1] noted that southwestern which form lenses of varying mineralogical compo-
Nigeria as part of the extensive basement terrain sition. Banded gneiss outcrops in Ora-Ekiti occur as
contains crystalline rocks of heterogeneous litholo- residual hills with elevation which ranges between
gies and complex structural features. The segment 535-575 m. A typical example occurs around Eliju
of this basement that falls within Ekiti State contains where the rock has fine grain texture. Some of these
the migmatite gneiss complex, the Schist belts, and bands (or lenses) contain granular minerals that are
Pan-African granites. Researchers [2,3] confirmed that bound together in interlocking textures. The most
on a regional scale, older tectonic imprints associ- distinct feature of the rock is compositional banding
ated with the rocks in this domain are grossly over- which depends largely on the interlaying of minerals
printed by newer ones. The study area consists of having various colors. Dark and light bands alternate
rocks that are typical of Precambrian terrain in Nige- due to the segregation of mafic and felsic minerals
ria. The main lithologic units in Ora-Ekiti have been (Figure 3b). Banding also arises from sorting differ-
generally categorized as undifferentiated migmatite ing grain sizes of the same minerals. Sometimes, the
basements by the Geological Survey of Nigeria [4]. bands are distributed into beadlike structures resem-
However, in the current study, detailed geological bling pinch and swell or boudins.
mapping revealed four main lithologies. These are
migmatite, banded gneiss, biotite gneiss and granite
gneiss (Figure 2).
1.1 Migmatite
Migmatite covers the northern part of the study

area and extends towards the west underlining most
of the newly developing areas of the town along
Ido-Ekiti Road. This rock unit has been described
as similar to those in and Ado-Ekiti [5]. Migmatite
in the study area consists of gneissic (mafic) and
granitic (felsic) components (Figure 3a). It is a
coarse-grained composite rock comprising granitic
components (dominantly quartz + feldspar ± mus-
covite) (leucosome) and gneissic components (bio-
tite + hornblende ± magnetite) which constitute the Figure 1. Geological map of Nigeria showing location of the
melanosome. In many parts of Nigeria’s basement, study area within the Precambrian Basement of Southwestern
migmatite forms the country rock. The structural Nigeria (Modified after [6])
attribute of Ora-Ekiti migmatite includes strong ax-
ial plane foliations and folds which show copious 1.3 Biotite gneiss
evidence of shearing. Structures such as joints, folia-
tions, lineation, folds, quartz veins, pegmatitic, aplit- Biotite gneiss in Ora-Ekiti occupies the south-
ic and dolerite dykes were also observed on many ern segment of the study area. It is highly foliated
outcrops. This rock is poorly banded which makes it with darkish tints imposed by biotite impregnations
25
alongside felsic minerals including quartz and feld- whelming evidence of pegmatite dykes and second-
spar. Biotite gneiss occupies both sides of Aye-Ora ary structures like fold, joints, quartz veins, which
Road. It is medium to coarse-grained foliated with a sometimes crosscut each other in some locations,
preponderance of biotite blades and acicular chlorite and exfoliations. Biotite-gneiss in Ora-Ekiti occurs
minerals (Figure 3c). The outcrops contain over- as a rock with low altitude masses.
Figure 2. Geological map of Ora-Ekiti.
1.4 Granite gneiss metamorphic recrystallization such as translational

fabrics and decussate textures. Some outcrops exhib-
Granite gneiss in the study area occupies the it tortuous veins and ptygmatic folds (Figure 3d).
eastern and southwestern corners of the study area. Granite gneiss in the study area is a coarse-grained
It is a felsic rock (granitic) that has suffered met- rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar and
amorphism, the rock has changed in mineralogy plagioclase and a few phyllosilicate minerals largely
and texture through the action of intense heat and represented by biotite. Granite gneiss outcrops in
pressure but still retains its granitic nature. Granitic Ora-Ekiti are extensive but of average height. Typi-
gneiss has a mineralogical composition similar to cal of this unit is an outcrop behind the King’s palace
that of granite except that it now shows evidence of in Ora-Ekiti. The grain size of granite gneiss is finer
26
than the migmatite. amorphism, migmatisation, granitization and gneissi-

fication processes which produce syn-tectonic granites
and gneisses [9]. The emplacement of late tectonic gran-
ites, granodiorites and dykes represent the final stages
of the Pan-African orogeny. The end of the orogenic
phase was marked by faulting and fracturing [10,11]. Mig-
matite is the most extensive unit in the basement of Ek-
iti State. It is an aggregation of migmatite, nebulitic and
stromatolitic migmatite, orthogneisses, paragneiss and
other varieties such as augen gneiss and calc-gneiss.
The Pan-African tectonic-thermal activities were large-
ly responsible for the recrystallization and reworking
of the basement rocks. Migmatite unit belongs to upper
amphibolite facies metamorphism and has ages ranging
from Archean to Proterozoic in Nigeria [1,8]. The unit
constitutes about 75% of the surface area of Ekiti State
Figure 3. (a) Migmatite from Oke-Iyila area of Ora-Ekiti and about 30% of the total, some of surface area of Ni-
exhibiting melanosome (dark) and neosome (light) portions. geria. Migmatite covers a substantial part of the eastern
(b) Banded-gneiss from Ora-Ekiti with mineralogical banding. segment of Ekiti State. Quartzite unit occurs towards
Mafic (ferromagnesian) and light-colored (quartzo-feldspartic)
the western corner of the state covering Effon-Alaye,
minerals components are parallel to each other (c) Biotite-gneiss
outcrop intruded by a pegmatite dyke at Ori Oke-Aanu along
Okemesi and Ogotun area. In literature, this lithologic
Aaye road, Ora-Ekiti, (d) Granite-gneiss from Ora-Ekiti showing unit has been referred to as Effon Psammite [12]. Even
quartz veins that are distorted and folded. though some quartzite units occur around Ado-Ekiti,
they are not mappable at the scale of the geologic map.
The schist belts are Proterozoic supra crustal
2. Geological setting rocks that have been in-folded into the migmatite
Ekiti State, which is one of the six states that con- gneiss-quartzite complex. It contains coarse to fine-
stitute southwestern Nigeria, is entirely underlain by grained clastic rocks, pelitic schist, phyllite, banded
crystalline rocks of igneous and metamorphic origin. iron formation, carbonate rocks (marble/dolomite)
A literature search reveals geological investigation and meta-igneous rocks (amphibolite). Other authors
on Ora-Ekiti and the environment is very scanty. believed the schist belts are fragments of ocean floor
However, a few geological investigations have been material from small back-arc basins. The Ife-Ilesha
undertaken around Ado-Ekiti and Ijero-Ekiti which schist belt extends into the northwestern corner of Ekiti
lies 25 km SE and 25 km northwest of Ora-Ekiti re- State (Figure 4) covering Ijero, Odo-Owa and Ipo-
spectively. The entire region represents the reactivat- ti-Ekiti. Falconer [13], distinguished a group of concord-
ed domain that resulted from the collision between a ant/semi-concordant deeply rooted granite within the
passive continental margin of the West African cra- basement complex which he called Older Granite. This
ton and the active Pharusian continental margin [7,8]. granite type is distinct from the high-level, discordant,
The basement has been reworked by cycles of orogen- tin-bearing granites of Northern Nigeria which he re-
eses resulting in widespread deformation, metamor- ferred to as Younger Granite. The Older granites are
phism and remobilization during the Liberian (2,700 pre-tectonic, syn-tectonic and post-tectonic rocks that
Ma), the Eburnean (2000 Ma), the Kibarian (1,100 intruded both the migmatite gneiss complex and schist
Ma), and Pan-African (600 Ma). The last episode was belts. The granite range between 750-450 Ma in age
characterized by widespread deformation, regional met- and some authors referred to them as Pan-African gran-
27
ite. The rock unit varies in composition from tonalite to The method includes fieldwork, sampling, and labo-
granodiorite to adamellite and true granites, and it rep- ratory procedures.
resents the magmatic cycle of the Pan-African orogeny.
Charnockite forms an important rock group emplaced 3.1 Fieldwork and sampling
during this period and is anatectic in origin [14]. The use
of the term Pan African Granitoid for the older granites The fieldwork essentially entails geologic map-
not only on the merit of age and not being available at ping, identification, and description of outcrop
the time they were named older granites is contended [8], exposures. It also involves describing their struc-
but opined that it should be used because it covers sev- tural features. A thorough and careful traversing of
eral important petrologic groups formed at the same the study area was done on foot with a hand-held
time. Older granite occurs together with charnockite Global Positioning System (GPS) following the
along a narrow strip around Ikere-Ekiti and Ado Ekiti major roads, minor roads, and bush paths. Trav-
while a few outcrops dotted Ilupeju and Ayede areas in erses are made to outcrops that are not assessable
the north-central part of the state. through these roads. The area is divided into grids,
each of which is mapped separately, and grid-con-
trolled sampling was adopted. Useful information
3. Materials and methods about the names of localities where good outcrops
The methodological approach adopted includes were found was made possible by people in the
systematic geologic mapping and sampling of rocks. host communities.
Figure 4. Geological map of Ekiti State and the location of the study area (after NGSA [14]).
28
In this study, only fresh samples are considered and taken to the cutting machine for size reduction.
for analysis and are safely put in sample bags. It was The reduced specimen was taken to the lapping
observed during the field exercise that the litholog- machine via lapping jig for final reduction to the
ical boundaries do not have clear-cut demarcations required thickness of 0.5 mm which is the standard
but grade into each other. Photographs of the rocks in thin section thickness. Once the thickness is achieved
situ positions were captured using a (Nikkon Coolpix the specimen is then removed and washed properly
L80) digital camera. Twenty samples of each of the to remove excess slurry around it. After washing, the
four rock types were collected during fieldwork. specimen is allowed to dry and then covered with
Fresh samples with sizes ranging between 4-5 kg glass slips using Canada balsam and washed with
were hewed from rock exposures using a sledgeham- methylated spirit (or acetone) and detergent. The
mer. The rock samples are kept in sample bags and specimen was then rinsed with water and allowed to
labeled. The points where the samples were obtained dry in the air and then labeled accordingly for micro-
in the field were translated into the corresponding scopic analysis.
positions on the topographic base map. This proce- Petrography
dure was repeated at each location, strike and dip For petrographic investigation, thin sections of
values were indicated as appropriate. The sample lo- the rock samples were prepared. The slides were ex-
cations are Oke-Iyila, Olokowu, Oke-IIekan and op- amined under petrological microscopes.
posite Ora Community High School among others. Analytical procedure
Twelve fresh samples selected from those ob-
3.2 Laboratory procedures tained from outcrop exposures during geological
mapping were subjected to analytical procedures.
Samples collected are subjected to laboratory pro-
Major elements (SiO2, A12O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO,
cedures to determine the petrology of the basement
CaO, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, and TiO2) and trace elements
rocks, the mineralogical composition and micro-
(Nb, V, Cu, Ba, Ni, Rb, Sr and Zr, Mo, Ag, Ta, Pb
structures which help to confirm the rock’s name as
and Th) analyses were conducted on X-ray Fluores-
well as the metamorphic grade are noted. In addition
cence equipment (Phillips PW 1404/10) and ICP-MS
to outcrop examinations, the petrographic study was
respectively. The analytical procedures were under-
based on a visual examination of thin sections.
taken at the Bureau Veritas Laboratories, Vancouver,
Preparation of thin section
Canada. The accuracy of trace element analyses is
After reducing the samples to the desired size (2
within ± 5 parts per million (ppm) and major ele-
cm × 1 cm × 0.5 cm) using a cutting machine, the
ments ± 0.5%. (Analytical procedure for the research
smooth surface of the rocks was glued to a glass
followed [15]. Analytical results are presented in Ta-
slide and ground down on the lapping machine.
bles 1 and 2.
Silicon carbide was put on the lapping glass which
was placed on the lapping table with some water
and the equipment was activated and observed until 4. Results
the surface becomes very smooth. After lapping, the The results of this research are presented in the
rock specimen was washed with water and mounted order: Petrography and geochemistry.
on a thermo plate switched to 120 °C for an hour to
remove excess water from the specimen. This baking 4.1 Petrography
process is important as it prevents excess bubbles
from appearing on the slide. Thereafter, the specimen Migmatite
was removed from the hot plate and allowed to cool Petrographic examination reveals Ora-Ekiti mig-
down to room temperature. The specimen was later matite (in reducing order) contains quartz, musco-
mounted into a prepared glass slide by using araldite vite, and opaque minerals (Figure 5a). Quartz being
29
the most abundant mineral reflects the siliceous

Banded gneiss
nature of Ora-Ekiti migmatite. Quartz grains occur 40
as a discretely clear mineral with a well-defined 35
30
outline. It is well-distributed within the rock while 25
Average
20
15
in some slides it forms clustered aggregate. The pre- 10
5
ponderance of quartz in the rock may be attributed to 0
remobilization during metamorphic recrystallization
ar
ite
tz
ue
ar
sp
aq
ot
Qu
ld
Bi
Op
Fe
or high silica content attributable to late-stage mag-
se
c la
io
matic crystallization in the precursor rock. Under
ag
Pl
plane-polarized light, muscovite has whitish colour Figure 5b. A chart showing the average composition of banded
but with a diagnostic bird-view appearance. It forms gneiss in the study area.
tabular crystals usually six-sided or is sometimes ir- Granite gneiss

regular in outline. Some plates form six-sided prisms Optical microscopy reveals Granite gneiss con-
elongated parallel to the c-axis. Opaque minerals are tains quartz, plagioclase feldspar, biotite, opaque
mainly iron oxide of irregular shapes. minerals and microcline (Figure 5c). Quartz is the
most abundant mineral in all the slides. Quartz is
Migmatite colorless under the plane-polarized light and suban-
14 gular. Biotite shows a red to brown color with sub-
12
hedral to anhedral habit. The crystals of plagioclase
10
are colorless in plane-polarized light with weak bire-
Average
8
fringence. It can be distinguished from other types of
6
4
feldspar by its polysynthetic twinning. Opaque min-
2
erals occur in subordinate amounts and are mainly
0 magnetite.
Muscovite Quartz Opaque
Figure 5a. A chart showing the average composition of the mig- Granite gneiss
matite in the study area. 30
25
20
Banded gneiss
Average
15
Petrological investigation reveals banded gneiss 10
5
from the study area in order of reducing abundanc- 0
es contains quartz, biotite, plagioclase feldspar and

ar
tz
ite
ue
in
ar
sp
aq
ot
ol
Qu
ld
Bi
ic r
Op
Fe
opaque minerals (Figure 5b). That quartz is the most

M
se
c la
io
abundant mineral in all the slides is a reflection of

ag
Pl
the high degree of stability of the mineral and this Figure 5c. A chart showing average composition of Granite
may indicate that the rock is of acidic antecedent. gneiss.
The mineral quartz is colorless under the plane-po- Biotite gneiss
larized light, biotite shows grey to brown coloration Biotite gneiss in Ora-Ekiti in the same order, con-
with characteristic bird view structure and bladed tains biotite, plagioclase feldspar, opaque minerals
appearance. Crystals of plagioclase are colorless in and quartz (Figure 5d). Quartz occurs as clear min-
plane polarized light exhibiting first order grey color eral grains, few are however cloudy and fractured.
under cross polars. Quartz is the least abundant mineral; it is made of
30
grains that have no cleavage or plane of weakness. applied in the classification and determination of the
Its presence in all the rocks may be consequent on evolutionary trends and geotectonic setting of rocks
quartz being one of the most stable minerals in si- in Ora-Ekiti. Harker variation plot of major oxides
liceous igneous rocks. Many siliceous rocks when against SiO2 and its correlation is useful for the pre-
subjected to metamorphic transformation have abun- diction of post-magmatic phenomena that may be
dant quartz. Biotite shows grey to brown coloration related to the rock’s protolith. Binary plots of Al2O3
with subhedral to anhedral habits. The crystals of versus SiO2 (Figure 6a) and, CaO versus SiO2 (Fig-
plagioclase are colorless in plane-polarized light but ure 6b) reveal negative trends with increasing SiO2.
exhibit first-order grey color under cross polars. However, Na2O versus SiO2 (Figure 6c) and K2O
versus SiO2 (Figure 6d) show positive trends with
Biotite gneiss SiO2 which indicates an increase in K2O produces
30 a corresponding increase in SiO2 contents. Positive
25
20 trends in K2O and Na2O may indicate albitization
Average
15
10
processes in the protolith prior to metamorphism or
5 metasomatic alteration during metamorphic remo-
0
bilization. The plot of TiO2 versus SiO2 (Figure 6e)
ar
tz
ite
ue
ar
sp
aq
ot
also demonstrates a positive trend with SiO2. Harker

Qu
ld
Bi
Op
Fe
se
diagram of MgO versus SiO2 (Figure 6f) reveals a

c la
io
ag
Pl
negative trend symbolizing that as the major ele-

Figure 5d. A chart showing average mineralogical composition ments (anions) are taken from silicate melts, their
of Biotite gneiss in the study area.
quantities reduce with time. High alumina contents
in the rocks might have resulted from a preponder-
4.2 Geochemistry ance of aluminosilicates which forms the principal
component of most rock-forming minerals like plagi-
Results of the major chemical composition of oclase, hornblende, and mica. These values are com-
rocks from Ora-Ekiti are presented (Table 1). From parable to similar migmatite gneiss rocks in other
the analytical results, SiO 2 contents in migmatite parts of Nigeria. Substantial amounts of these oxides
range from 69.50%-72.66% with an average of might have been contributed by ferromagnesian min-
71.23%. Similarly, SiO2 contents in banded gneiss erals like biotite, and hornblende and opaque miner-
(range: 71.66%-77.1%; ca. 75.23%), biotite gneiss als like magnetite. This range of value is comparable
(range: 72.32%-76.18%; ca. 73.83%) and granite to those recorded for granitoid; this may equally in-
gneiss (range: 69.82%-73.15%; ca. 71.95%) clear- dicate the rocks probably have granitic antecedents.
ly indicate the crystalline rocks in Ora-Ekiti are However, the positive correlation as indicated
siliceous. Average alumina contents in migmatite on K2O versus SiO2 and Na2O versus SiO2 (Harker
(12.18%), banded gneiss (10.28%), biotite gneiss diagrams, Figure 6c and 6d), may imply the crystal-
(11.46%) and granite gneiss (9.97%) are high. The line basement rocks may have the same progenitor
mean Fe 2O 3 contents in these rocks are 4.86%, (source materials) or similar pattern of mobility dur-
3.56%, 3.55% and 4.08% respectively. Average K2O ing metamorphism of the parent rock. The variation
and Na2O contents in migmatite (2.99%, 3.10%), may also be indicative of extensive crystal fraction-
banded gneiss (3.94%, 3.44%), biotite gneiss ation or partial melting in the magma systems that
(4.09%, 3.28%) and granite gneiss (4.46%, 3.46%) produced the rocks. This is suggestive that the rocks
falls within acceptable limits for this kind of rocks emanated from the same parent magma. On the SiO2
and makes them similar to granitoid. A number of versus (Na2O + K2O) classification scheme of Mid-
schemes based on chemical composition have been dlemost [16] (Figure 7), the rocks plots are granitic
31
to granodioritic in composition. The AFM diagram ic activity.

(Figure 8, after Irvine and Baragar [17]) classified the Trace element data (Table 2) shows enrichment in
rocks of Ora-Ekiti in Calc-alkaline series. Further Ba, Sr, Rb and Zr while there is depletion in Cu, Nb,
chemical consideration on SiO2-K2O diagram (Fig- V, Ag and Th. With average Ba content of 1238 ppm
ure 9, after Peccerillo and Taylor [18]), discriminate in migmatite, 2087 ppm in banded gneiss, 2042 ppm
the rocks into High-K Calcic-alkali field. in biotite gneiss and 1948 ppm in granite gneiss, these
The plots suggest the rocks are rich in potassium rocks are comparable to similar rocks in the basement
and may equally mean they are formed from potas- complex areas of other parts of Nigeria. The anoma-
sium-rich rocks that are oxidized. The binary plot of lous enrichment in Ba, Sr, Rb and Zr is expected like in
the molecular ratio of alumina to alkalis of Al2O3/ granites, and they are mostly concentrated in the upper
(Na2O + K2O) versus Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O) continental crust of the earth. Low values recorded for
[i.e., A/NK versus A/CNK], of the crystalline rocks Nb, Mo, Ag, Cd, and Pb are related to the geochemical
from Ora-Ekiti, (Figure 10, after Shands [19]) shows behaviors of the elements as many of them are incom-
the rocks might have originated from a granite hav- patible with lithophile elements. Hence they are of low
ing peralkaline chemistry formed during the orogen- concentration in crustal rocks.
Table 1. Analytical result of the basement rocks in Ora-Ekiti.
Oxides Migmatite Banded gneiss Biotite gneiss Granite gneiss

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SiO2 71.53 69.5 72.66 71.66 77.1 76.95 73.00 76.18 72.32 72.9 69.82 73.15
Al2O3 11.96 12.94 11.58 11.43 9.65 9.71 12.91 9.24 11.80 10.45 9.51 11.03
CaO 3.32 4.55 3.43 4.05 1.50 1.37 2.29 1.98 3.45 2.24 2.36 2.50
Fe2O3 5.09 5.36 4.13 4.45 3.2 3.04 2.66 4.19 3.8 5.42 3.61 3.22
K2O 3.04 2.65 3.25 2.69 4.55 4.51 5.08 3.8 3.61 4.31 4.46 4.36
Na2O 3.23 3.10 3.24 3.92 3.19 3.34 3.08 3.55 3.22 3.18 3.24 4.18
MgO 1.08 1.08 0.98 1.13 0.52 0.35 0.46 0.58 1.2 0.45 0.51 0.84
MnO 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05
P2O5 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.14 0 0.03 0 0 0.06 0.16 0.04 0.07
TiO2 0.61 0.63 0.34 0.56 0.24 0.43 0.23 0.35 0.44 0.61 0.46 0.38
Total 99.99 99.96 99.84 99.68 99.99 99.84 99.91 99.93 99.84 99.78 99.97 99.84
Table 2. Trace elements composition of the basement rocks in Ora-Ekiti.
Trace Migmatite Banded gneiss Biotite gneiss Granite gneiss
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Nb 13 17 13 17 23 30 41 43 12 41 25 18
V 79 62 58 73 25 63 33 61 67 65 43 56
Cu 8 24 0 11 28 7 0 17 33 11 9 21
Rb 333 202 250 234 256 347 241 303 246 282 251 327
Sr 634 468 389 490 430 266 507 496 522 308 311 289
Zr 86 264 50 87 331 376 391 393 113 241 261 203
32
Table 2 continued
Trace Migmatite Banded gneiss Biotite gneiss Granite gneiss
Mo 28 24 14 17 20 26 19 32 17 173 62 29
Ag 51 49 20 43 15 23 28 27 25 20 32 19
Ba 1647 1063 1005 1254 2663 2344 2426 2382 1318 2477 1863 1504
Ta 0 0 67 0 83 80 135 0 0 88 51 25
Pb 19 14 21 16 28 19 13 19 19 24 8 16
Th 43 0 0 0 40 0 47 0 29 26 38 49
Figure 6. Harker variation diagram of (a) Al2O3 versus SiO2, (b) CaO versus SiO2, (c) Na2O versus SiO2, (d) K2O versus SiO2 (e) TiO2
versus SiO2 and (f) MgO versus SiO2. (Symbols as in Figure 7).
33
Figure 7. (Na2O + K2O) versus SiO2 plot of the crystalline rocks in Ora-Ekiti (after Middlemost [16]).
Figure 8. AFM diagram of the rocks in the study area (after Irvine and Baragar [17]).
34
Figure 9. SiO2 versus K2O plot showing the geochemical character of the rock samples (after Peccerillo and Taylor [18]).
Figure 10. Binary plot of A/NK versus A/CNK (after Shand [19]) for the crystalline rocks in Ora-Ekiti.
35
5. Summary and conclusions basement rocks of Jebba area, Nigeria. Journal

of Mining and Geology. 35(1), 9-21.
Exhaustive geological investigation reveals the [4] GSN, 1966. Geological Survey of Nigeria, Geo-
study area is underlain by migmatite, banded gneiss,
logical map of Akure, Sheet 61, 1:250,000.
granite gneiss and biotite gneiss. Migmatite occupies
[5] Oyinloye, A.O., Obasi, R.A., 2006. Geology,
western and northern parts, banded gneiss underlies
geochemistry and geotectonic setting of the
Ora-Ekiti town and extends towards the northeast.
Pan-African granites and charnockite around
Granite gneiss underlies the eastern and southwest-
Ado-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria. Pakistan Jour-
ern corners of the area while biotite gneiss occurs
nal of Science and Industrial Research. 49(5),
towards the south.
299-308.
Petrographic examination indicates the rocks are
[6] Obaje, N.G., 2009. Geology and mineral re-
principally dominated by quartz, plagioclase, biotite
sources of Nigeria. Lecture notes in Earth Sci-
and opaque each contributing slightly varying per-
ences. Springer: Berlin. pp. 72-97.
centages to the modal composition.
[7] Burke, K.C., Dewey, J.F., 1972. Orogeny in Af-
The rocks have high alumina content with pro-
rica. Africa geology. University of Ibadan Press:
nounced enrichment in Ba, Sr and Rb. The rocks
Ibadan. pp. 583-608.
are dominantly peralkaline in nature. The rocks
[8] Dada, S.S., 2006. Proterozoic evolution of Ni-
experienced either crystal fractionation before meta-
geria. The basement complex of Nigeria and its
morphic remobilization or partial melting in the pre-
mineral resources. Petrochemical. Services Lim-
cursor rocks. The chemical composition of the rocks
ited Ibadan: Nigeria. pp. 29-45.
depicts they are metaluminous granitoids of calc-al-
kaline affinity. [9] Abaa, S.I., 1983. The structure and petrography
of alkaline rocks of the Mada Younger Granite.
Journal of African Earth Sciences. 3(1-2), 107-
Conflict of Interest 113.
There is no conflict of interest. [10] Gandu, A.H., Ojo, S.B., Ajakaiye, D.E., 1986.
A gravity study of the Precambrian rocks in the
Acknowledgement Malumfashi area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Tec-
tonophysics. 126, 181-194.
The authors wish to acknowledge Prof. (Dr).
[11] Olayinka, A.I., 1992. Geophysical siting of
Ghani, A. A. of the Department of Geology, Univer-
boreholes in crystalline basement areas of Afri-
sity of Malaya for the link for geochemical analysis.
ca. Journal of Africa Earth Science. 14, 197-207.
The students who assisted during the fieldwork are
[12] de Swardt, A.M.J., 1953. The geology of the
gratefully acknowledged.
country around Ilesha. Bulletin of Geological
Survey of Nigeria. 23, 54.
References [13] Falconer, J.D., Woods, S., 1911. The geology
[1] Rahaman, M.A., 1988. Recent advances in study and geography of Northern Nigeria. Macmillan
of the basement complex of Nigeria Precambri- and Company, limited: UK. pp.458-459.
an geology of Nigeria. Precambrian Geology of [14] NGSA, 2006. Nigeria Geological Survey Agen-
Nigeria. Geological Survey of Nigeria Publica- cy Map of Ekiti State [Internet]. Available from:
tion, Kaduna. p. 11-43. https://ngsa.gov.ng/
[2] Oluyide, P.O., Nwajide, C.S., Oni, A.O., 1998. [15] Roselee, M.H., Ghani, A.A., Umor, M.R., 2016.
The geology of the Ilorin area. Bulletin, GSN. Petrology and geochemistry of igneous rocks
42, 84. from southern Tioman Island, Pahang, Peninsu-
[3] Okonkwo, C.T., 1992. Structural geology of lar Malaysia. Bulletin of the Geological Society
36
of Malaysia. 62, 79-89. of Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the

[16] Middlemost, E.A., 1994. Naming materials in Kastamona area, northern Turkey. Contribution
the magma/igneous rock system. Earth Science to Mineralogy and Petrology. 58, 63-81.
Reviews. 37(3-4), 215-224.
[19] Shand, S.J., 1943. Eruptive rocks: Eruptive
[17] Irvine, T.N., Baragar, W.R.A., 1971. A guide to
the classification of common volcanic rocks. rocks, their genesis, composition, and classifi-
Canadian Journal Earth Science. 8, 523-548. cation, with a chapter on meteorites. Science.
[18] Peccerillo, A., Taylor, S.R., 1976. Geochemistry 99(2562), 101-102.
37

ARTICLE
Toxicity of Radon-222 in Groundwater across Keana in Nasarawa,

Nigeria
Abubakar Saidu Bako1, Usman Rilwan2* , Ibrahim Umar1, Samson Dauda Yusuf1, Idris Muhammad Mustapha1,
Abdullahi Abubakar Mundi1, Ibrahim Maina3
1
Department of Physics, Nasarawa State University, PMB 1022 Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
2
Department of Physics, Nigerian Army University, PMB 1500 Biu, Borno State, Nigeria
3
Department of Physics, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, PMB 0248 Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The most common supply of freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and other domestic uses is groundwater; however,
because of increased radon concentrations brought on by mining activities, its quality is still a severe concern. Using a
liquid scintillation detector, this study investigated the radon content, its related toxicity, and its risk to human health in
the groundwater of the Keana in Nasarawa, Nigeria. Ten (10) borehole samples and five (5) well samples totaling fif-
teen (15) groundwater samples were taken. The results showed that the average radon concentration in water samples
from Keana was 2.25 Bq/L. The mean annual effective dosage (ingestion) for adults and children in Keana was 0.016
mSv/y and 0.027 mSv/y, respectively. In Keana, the additional lifetime cancer risk per adult was 5.65 × 10–5, and per
child, it was 8.79 × 10–5. The study’s radon concentration was lower than the benchmark of 11.1 Bq/L established in
1991 by the Nigerian Standard Organization and the US Environmental Protection Agency. The results of this study
indicate that the level of radon is safe; as a result, people can continue farming and other activities. To reduce the risk
of cancer, however, more research could be done in the area. Further research should be done by looking at additional
sources in the study area in order to cover the entire zone. Further investigation should be carried out both during the
dry and wet seasons because radon concentrations in groundwater alter over time due to dilution by recharge from
rainfall.
Keywords: Ingestion; Inhalation; Irrigation; Radon; Yearly effective dose; Excess lifetime cancer risk
Usman Rilwan, Department of Physics, Nigerian Army University, PMB 1500 Biu, Borno State, Nigeria, 603108, Nigeria; Email: rilwan.usman@
naub.edu.ng
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 31 March 2023 | Revised: 19 April 2023 | Accepted: 21 April 2023 | Published Online: 28 April 2023
CITATION
Bako, A.S., Rilwan, U., Umar, I., et al., 2023. Toxicity of Radon-222 in Groundwater across Keana in Nasarawa, Nigeria. Advances in Geological
and Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 38-49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5632
COPYRIGHT
38
1. Introduction Long-term exposure to high levels of radon and

its offspring can have serious health consequences
Water is one of the most plentiful materials on for a community, including lung cancer and altered
earth and is a crucial component of all living things,
respiratory function [5,10]. Moreover, stomach and
according to a 2010 report by Darko et al. It is uti-
gastrointestinal tract cancer can result from very high
lized in many facets of daily life, including domestic
radon levels in drinking water [5,11].
work, agriculture, and the production of power. Wa-
In Nasarawa, finding access to potable water
ter must be free of chemical, microbiological, and
sources has remained one of the major challenges.
radioactive contaminants as a result [1].
As a result, the majority of people and animals de-
In the disintegration chain of Uranium-238 is the
pend on untreated surface and groundwater sources
radioactive gas radon, which is colorless and odor-
for consumption. The radon level in drinking water,
less [2].
which in high concentration can cause a significant
The above-described radon is a naturally occur-
risk of stomach and gastrointestinal tract cancer [11],
ring element that leads to radioactive contamination
among others, needs to be investigated. The geology
of drinking water and poses a health risk, according
of Nasarawa revealed that it is highly enriched in
to reports by Farai and Sanni in 1992 [3] and Darko
clay, loamy, and sandy soil, and studies have shown
et al. in 2010 [4]. It has been acknowledged as a
that high activity concentrations of Radon-222 are
health issue since the late 1980s. When uranium or
always associated with areas rich in clay soil [11].
radium decays, a radioactive gas known as radon is
This is more so because our understanding of its
created. It seeps into the environment or into human
habitations after evaporating from the earth’s crust amount of availability could be of tremendous use in
through bedrock fractures and crevices and dissolv- resource planning [12].
ing in ground water [1,4]. Due to their strong ionization strength, alpha rays
According to a 2010 assessment by Darko et al., pose a greater risk than beta and gamma rays when it
as reported by Rilwan et al. in 2022 [4,5] the people comes to internal exposure [13]. Because Radon-222
of Nasarawa only use untreated groundwater (from is very soluble, eliminating the radon can be accom-
wells and boreholes) and surface water sources. This plished by adjusting the water’s temperature [14].
is due to the limited number of pipe-borne water According to reports that have been published, the
sources that are available and the fact that they are concentration of Radon-222 in groundwater sources
frequently inoperable. A naturally occurring radi- can be estimated to be two- to three-times higher
oactive inert gas with a half-life of 3.82 days, Ra- than that of other radioactive elements [14-18].
don-222 is soluble in water and belongs to the urani- The radiological effects brought on by consuming
um decay series. The majority of the radiation from dissolved radon in drinking water are described using
all-natural sources comes from it [5]. the population’s effective radiation dosage during or-
According to studies, the amount of Radon-222 dinary water consumption. The average annual water
222
( Rn) and its offspring that makes up the total effec- consumption rates (ACR) for the general population
tive dosage equivalent from natural sources is rough- were used to calculate the doses from drinking water
ly 50% [5,6]. Water contains a high amount of 222Rn intake for children and teens [19]. However, a number
due to the decay of Radium-226 found in rocks and of 2 liters per day (730 liters per year) for adults was
soil [5,7]. Radon gas permeates rocks and soil before used here in order to be consistent with the bulk of
dissolving in water [5,8]. Drinking water from sources global drinking water guidelines [20]. The Internation-
of groundwater typically contains more radon than al Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
surface water [5,9]. age categories and related ACRs are listed in Table 1.
39
Table 1. International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) age groups and their Annual Water Consumption Rate (ACR).
Age Group Age Range (Years) Water Consumption (L/day) Water Consumption (L/years) Reference
[12,20]
3 Months 0 to 1 0.55 200
[12,20]
1 Year 1 to 2 0.71 260
[12,20]
5 Years 2 to 7 0.82 300
[12,20]
10 Years 7 to 12 0.96 350
[12,20]
15 years 12 to 17 1.64 600
[12,20]
Adults Greater than 17 2.00 730
Measurement of radon content in water sources demonstrates that radon concentrations in these plac-
near the Ririwai Artisanal Tin Mine was the focus es are significantly influenced by the local soil com-
of Zakari et al.’s (2015) research [21] who did their position.
research in Kano State, Nigeria. In their research, the Despite the fact that Nasarawa’s geology revealed
amount of 222Rn in three water sources near the Riri- that it has a high concentration of clay soil, there is
wai Artisanal Tin Mine was determined using liquid no reliable information on the concentration of radon
scintillation analysis. The annual effective dosage in the area from a review of the literature. As a re-
caused by the concentration of 222Rn in domestic and sult, this study aims to determine the potential health
surface water sources was also calculated. After their risk posed by radon in Nasarawa’s water sources as
analysis, they concluded that the mean 222Rn concen- well as the annual dose of radon consumed through
tration found in this study was less than the 10 Bq/L
drinking water. The results must be contrasted with
levels that WHO and UNSCEAR recommend. Ad-
industry standards and the results of other studies.
ditionally, the study’s annual effective dose was less
than the UNSCEAR-recommended upper limit of 0.1
mSv/year. Also, Garba et al. (2013) [22] started a pro- 2. Materials and methods
ject called Radon Assessment of Groundwater (wells 2.1 Materials
and boreholes). In their research, samples were taken
from different parts of Zaria and its surroundings, The equipment and its specifications are listed in
including Sabongari, Tudunwada, Danmagaji, Sa- Table 2, and Plate 1 shows the liquid scintillation
maru, and Bomo. In accordance with the findings of counter that was used to gauge the radon levels in
their study, the 222Rn content in borehole sources is Keana’s groundwater.
higher than that in well water sources, and both were Table 2. Materials and their specifications.
above the USEPA-set MCL of 11.1 Bq/L. In another S/N Materials Specifications
research, the estimation of indoor radon and its prog- 1 Water sample 100 mL
eny in dwellings of Akoko Area, Ondo State, South- 2 Plastic sample collection bottles 50 mL
ern Nigeria, was undertaken by Adeola and Isaac in Liquid Scintillation Counter
2017 [23]. Accustar alpha-track long-term passive test 3 (manufactured by Packard Tri-carb 1
LSA 1000TR)
devices with CR-39 solid-state nuclear track detec-
Disposable hypodemic syringe (20
tor foil were used for the test. In the Akoko region 4 mL, 10 mL and 2 mL) capacity with 8
of Nigeria’s Ondo state, radon levels were tested in 38 mm hypodermic needle
a few residences constructed from various types of 5 distilled water 1 litre
materials. The detectors were out in the elements for 6 Scintillation vial-20 mL with cap Plastic
six months. The detectors were electrochemically 7 Surgical globe 1 pack
etched after removal, and a computer-aided image 8 Indelible ink and masking tape 1
analysis system was used to count them. The study 9 Mineral oil (insta-gel) 1
40
2.2 Method
Study population
The population of the study includes all of the
boreholes and wells that are situated within the Kea-
na Local Governments of Nasarawa State, which are
Ewagu, Oleye, Emir Palace, Oki, Market, Aloshi,
GGSS Keana, Jimini, Kachiya, Kalachi, Obne, and
Madaki.
Study area
The Nasarawa South senatorial district is locat-
ed in northern Nigeria’s Guinea Savannah and is a Figure 1. Map of the area showing the sample locations.
part of the low plains of Benue origin. A number
of weathered volcanic cones, mostly made of sand- Technique used to collect samples
stone, surround the salt mining community of Kea- In plastic containers with coverings, five (5) water
na. These detached synclinal areas were created by samples and fifteen (15) groundwater samples (from
localized folding. Table 3 displays Keana’s sample wells and boreholes) were gathered. The plastic con-
codes and GPS coordinates. Figure 1 shows a map tainers were first cleaned and rinsed with distilled
of the research area. water to avoid radon in the samples from becoming
Table 3. Sample codes and GPS locations of Keana. contaminated. Water samples were held with 20 mL
of concentrated HNO3 per liter of water in order to
Sampled Sample Latitude Longitude reduce radon absorption on container walls.
S/N Location
Water Code (°) N (°) E
The water samples were only collected after the
1 Borehole Ewagu KEB1 8.1504 8.7901 boreholes had been operational for at least four minutes
2 Borehole Oleye KEB2 8.1305 8.6311 in order to ensure that new samples were obtained.
The containers were quickly sealed to prevent
Emir
3 Borehole KEB3 8.1202 8.7023 loss of radon during transport to the lab and were
Palace
then completely filled with the water sample without
4 Borehole Oki KEB4 8.1513 8.8012
any headspace. This was done to avoid CO2 being
5 Borehole Market KEB5 8.1234 8.7601 trapped and dissolved in water, which could change
6 Borehole Aloshi KEB6 8.1340 8.8103 the chemistry, such as pH, at each location.
GGSS The samples were sent for examination as soon as
7 Borehole KEB7 8.1241 8.6201
Keana they were obtained and for no more than three days
8 Borehole Jimini KEB8 8.1321 8.6420
at maximum in order to minimize the effects of ra-
dioactive decay. This is done to guarantee complete
9 Borehole Kachiya KEB9 8.1622 8.8210
accuracy without altering its composition.
10 Borehole Kalachi KEB10 8.1524 8.7204 Technique for preparing samples
Emir Each sample of water was divided into 10 mL
11 Well KEW1 8.1140 8.6622
Palace pieces, added to a 20 mL glass scintillation vial with
12 Well Obne KEW2 8.1441 8.6734 10 mL of an insta-gel scintillation cocktail, and shak-
en. The vials were tightly closed, shaken for more
13 Well Ewagu KEW3 8.1401 8.7904
than two minutes, and then Radon-222 in the aque-
14 Well Oleye KEW4 8.1503 8.8010
ous phase was extracted into the organic scintillate.
15 Well Madaki KEW5 8.1310 8.7521 The samples were then gathered, and for 60 minutes,
KEB = Borehole Water Sample; KEW = Well Water Sample. they were tallied in a liquid scintillation counter em-
41
ploying energy discrimination for alpha particles. Approach to data analysis

Technique for analyzing samples The analysis for this study is divided into four (4)
The samples were evaluated at Ahmadu Bello sections, including the determination of the concen-
University’s Centre for Energy Research and Train- tration in Bq/L, the annual effective dose for adults
ing in Zaria, Nigeria, using a liquid scintillation and children, the excess lifetime cancer risk, and a
counter (Tri-Carb LSA 1000TR type). comparison of the results with previous studies and
The liquid scintillation counter (LSC) was used industry standards. Tables are used to present the
to measure the concentration of 222Rn in water. The analysis’s findings.
approach was comparable to that created by the a. Estimation of Radon-222 concentration in Bq/L
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). According to Rilwan et al. (2022) and USEPA
An LSC vial containing an LSC cocktail that is in- (2019) [5,25], Equation (1) was used to determine the
compatible with water is mixed with a water sample. Radon-222 concentration in Bq/L as follows:
When radon has reached a state of equilibrium with 100ml (CS − CB)
its short-lived decay products, shaking is utilized Rn( BqL–1 ) = (1)
10ml × 1.0L(CF × D)
to shift it into the organic phase and count it. Some
Rn is the radon level in Bq/L, and the variables
radionuclides are unaffected by this technique. With
are CS = sample count/second, CB = background
low-background counting equipment and a 1-hour
count/second, CF = conversion factor, and D = decay
counting period, a sensitivity of around 0.5 Bq/L
constant.
could be attained [17,24].
b. Effective dose by ingestion per year
In liquid scintillation counting devices, the main
It is vital to translate radon concentration into a
detector is an organic phosphor called Cocktail. It
dose because of the harmful effects of radon on the
is uniformly disseminated after being dissolved in
human body. The radon levels for the research region
the proper solvent (this is commonly referred to as
were used to compute the annual effective dosage
the cocktail). The liquid scintillation cocktail also
equivalent. The United Nations Scientific Committee
contains a second organic phosphor that alters wave-
lengths. After adding the sample, this mixture creates on the Effects of Atomic Radiation recommended the
the test source [17,24]. following equation to calculate the annual effective
The solvent, primary, and secondary scintillators dose of 222Rn from drinking water [21,22,25]:
make up the liquid scintillation cocktail. The shelf E = K × G × C × T × 1000 (2)
life of the organic components utilized to make the where T is the amount of time (365 days) during which
scintillators is limited [17,24]. water is consumed, C is the concentration of 222Rn
The liquid scintillation counter (Tri-Carb LSA (Bq/L), G is the amount of water consumed each day
1000TR) type is shown in Plate 1 and was used to (4 L/d), E is the annual effective dose (mSv/y), D is the
assess the level of radon in the groundwater in Na- concentration of 222Rn that results from converting Sv
sarawa South, Nigeria. It is located at Ahmadu Bello to mSv (7 × 10–8 Sv/Bq), and 1000 is the conversion
University in Zaria, Nigeria’s Center for Energy Re- coefficient.
search and Training (CERT). c. Annual effective dose by inhalation
Adeola and Isaac (2017) and USEPA (2019) [23,25]
used the following equation to get the annual effec-
tive dose of 222Rn when inhaled:
He = C × F× R × D (3)
He equals the yearly effective dose (mSv/y), C the
Plate 1. Showing liquid scintillation counter (Tri-Carb LSA radon concentration (Bq/L), F the equilibrium factor
1000TR) model. (0.4), T the time of indoor occupancy (7000 h/y), and D
42
the dose conversion factor (7 × 10–8 mSv/h/Bq/L). Table 4. Rn-222 concentrations in Bq/L of water samples from
d. Estimating the excess lifetime cancer risk Keana.
Garba et al. (2013) and USEPA (2019) [22,25] com- S/N Sample ID Radon Concentration (Bq/L)
puted the increased lifetime cancer risk using Equa- 1 KEB1 2.10
tion (4) as follows: 2 KEB2 2.21
–3
ELCR = AEDE × DL × RF×10 (4) 3 KEB3 3.20
where ELCR is for excess lifetime cancer risk, 4 KEB4 2.41
AEDE is for annual effective dose equivalent, DL 5 KEB5 2.03
is for average life expectancy (about 70 years), and 6 KEB6 2.18
RF is for risk factor (Sv–1), which refers to the risk 7 KEB7 1.91
of dying from cancer according to Sievert. The ICRP 8 KEB8 2.00
adopts RF as 0.05 for public stochastic effects. 9 KEB9 2.18

10 KEB10 2.96
11 KEW1 2.22
3. Results 12 KEW2 2.12
The concentration of Radon-222 in Bq/L, the 13 KEW3 2.13
annual effective dose for adults and children, the 14 KEW4 2.06
excess lifetime cancer risk, and other outcomes from 15 KEW5 2.12
this study were all examined. These findings were Mean 2.25
compared to norms and those of other studies. Ta- KEB = Borehole Water Sample; KEW = Well Water Sample.
bles 4-7 present the findings of the analysis.

Table 4 presented the analysis for concentration 3.2 3Annual effective dose by ingestion
in Bq/L; Tables 5 and 6 presented the analysis for
annual effective doses by ingestion and inhalation Equation (2) was used to compute the annual
for adults and children; Table 7 presented the anal- effective dosage from Table 4, and the results are
ysis for excess lifetime cancer risk; and Table 8 shown in Table 5.
presented a comparison of the findings with those of Keana’s annual effective dose by ingestion was
other researchers and industry standards. calculated from Table 5 using the corresponding meas-
ured radon concentrations. It was found that for adults
3.1 Radon-222 concentration the annual effective dose by ingestion for borehole wa-
ter samples varies from 0.009 mSv/y for sample point
Table 4 provides the results for the Rn-222 con- KEB7 as the lowest value to 0.023 mSv/y for sample
centrations in Bq/L of water samples from Keana. points KEB3 as the highest value while for well water
According to Table 4, the Rn-222 concentration samples were 0.015 mSv/y for sample points KEW2,
in Bq/L values for both borehole and well water sam- KEW4 and KEW5 as the lowest values to 0.016 mSv/y
ples from Keana ranged from 2.0 Bq/L for the lowest for sample point KEW1 and KEW3 as the highest
concentration level for sample point KEB8 to 3.20 values. Ingestion of the mean effective dosage of Ra-
Bq/L for the highest con-centration level for sam- don-222 for humans from borehole and well water
ple point KEB3, while for well water samples they samples is 0.016 mSv/y.
ranged from 2.06 Bq/L for the lowest concentration The annual effective dose by ingestion for chil-
level for sample point KEW4 to 2.22 Bq/L for the dren was determined to be 0.025 mSv/y for sample
highest concentration level for sample point KEW1 points KEW2, KEW4, and KEW5, with sample
Keana’s mean radon concentration was discovered to point KEW11 having the highest value. For borehole
be 2.25 Bq/L. water samples, the annual effective dose by ingestion
43
ranged from 0.023 mSv/y for sample point KEB7 borehole and well water samples have a mean ef-
as the lowest value to 0.038 mSv/y for sample point fective dosage by inhalation owing to Radon-222 of
KEB3. Both borehole and well water samples have 0.055 mSv/y.
a mean effective dosage via consumption of Ra- Table 6. Annual effective dose by inhalation of water samples
don-222 for children of 0.027 mSv/y. from Keana.
Table 5. Annual effective dose by ingestion of water samples
Annual Effective Dose by
from Keana. S/N Sample ID
Inhalation (mSvy–1)
1 KEB1 0.053
Annual Effective Annual Effective
Sample
S/N Dose by Ingestion Dose by Ingestion for 2 KEB2 0.056
ID
for Adults (mSvy–1) Children (mSvy–1)
3 KEB3 0.055
1 KEB1 0.015 0.024 4 KEB4 0.061
2 KEB2 0.016 0.026 5 KEB5 0.051
3 KEB3 0.023 0.038 6 KEB6 0.055
4 KEB4 0.018 0.029
7 KEB7 0.048
5 KEB5 0.015 0.024
8 KEB8 0.050
6 KEB6 0.016 0.026
9 KEB9 0.055
7 KEB7 0.009 0.023
10 KEB10 0.075
8 KEB8 0.015 0.024
11 KEW1 0.056
9 KEB9 0.022 0.035
10 KEB10 0.016 0.026 12 KEW2 0.053
11 KEW1 0.016 0.027 13 KEW3 0.054
12 KEW2 0.015 0.025 14 KEW4 0.052

13 KEW3 0.016 0.026 15 KEW5 0.053
14 KEW4 0.015 0.025 Mean 0.055
15 KEW5 0.015 0.025 KEB = Borehole Water Sample; KEW = Well Water Sample.
Mean 0.016 0.027

KEB = Borehole Water Sample; KEW = Well Water Sample. 3.4 Excess lifetime cancer risk
Equation (4) was used to compute the increased

3.3 Annual effective dose by inhalation
lifetime cancer risk, and the findings are shown in
Equation (3) was used to compute the annual ef- Table 7.
fective dosage by inhalation from Table 4, and the Keana’s extra lifetime cancer risk was calcu-
results are shown in Table 6. lated using data from Table 7 and the matching
Keana’s annual effective dosage from the match- determined annual effective dosage. Adults’ excess
ing measured radon concentrations was computed lifetime cancer risk from borehole water samples
using data from Table 6. The annual effective dose ranges from 3.15 × 10–5 for sample point KEB7 to
by inhalation for adults was found to range from 8.05 × 10–5 for sample point KEB3, while the excess
0.048 mSv/y for sample point KEB7 to 0.075 mSv/y lifetime cancer risk from well water samples ranges
for sample point KEB10, while for well water sam- from 5.25 × 10–5 for sample points KEW2, KEW4,
ples, the annual effective dose ranged from 0.052 and KEW5 to 5.60 × 10–5 for sample points KEW1
mSv/y for sample point KEW4 to 0.056 mSv/y for and KE3. Both borehole and well water samples
sample point KEW1 as the highest values. Both have a mean extra lifetime cancer risk for adults ow-
44
ing to Radon-222 of 5.65 × 10–5. Table 8. Comparison of radon concentration from present study
The excess lifetime cancer risk for children in with standards.
borehole water samples ranges from 8.05 × 10–5 for Radon

sample point KEB7 to 1.33 × 10–4 for sample point S/N Standard Concentration Reference
KEB3, while the excess lifetime cancer risk in well (Bq/L)
water samples was found to be 8.75 × 10–5 for sam- United Nation
Scientific Committee
ple points KEW2, KEW4, and KEW5 as the lowest [21,26]
1 on Effect of 4.0-40.0
value to 9.45 × 10–5 for sample point KEW1. Both Atomic Radiation
borehole and well water samples have a mean extra (UNSCEAR)
lifetime cancer risk for children owing to Radon-222 United States
of 8.57 × 10–5. Environmental [21,26]
2 11.1
Protection Agency
Table 7. Excess lifetime cancer risk of water samples from Keana.
(USEPA)
Excess Lifetime Excess Lifetime European Commission

[21,25]
S/N Sample ID Cancer Risk for Cancer Risk for 3 for Drinking Water 100
Adults (×10–5) Children (×10–5) Purposes
[22]
4 World Average 10
1 KEB1 5.25 8.40
Standard Organization [21]
5 11.1
2 KEB2 5.60 9.10 of Nigeria (SON)
3 KEB3 8.05 13.30 Present Study
6 Keana 2.25
(2023)
4 KEB4 6.30 1.02
Table 9. Comparison of radon concentration from present study
5 KEB5 5.25 8.40
with other places in Nigeria.
6 KEB6 5.60 9.10
7 KEB7 3.15 8.05 Radon
S/N Location Concentration Reference
8 KEB8 5.25 8.40 (Bq/L)
9 KEB9 7.70 12.25
[21,25]
1 Kano State 2.29
10 KEB10 5.60 9.10
[22,25]
2 Kaduna State 12.29
11 KEW1 5.60 9.45
[23,25]
12 KEW2 5.25 8.75 3 Ondo State 35.54
13 KEW3 5.60 9.10 Present Study

5 Keana 2.25
(2023)
14 KEW4 5.25 8.75
15 KEW5 5.25 8.75 According to Table 8 (Figure 2), Keana’s radon
Mean 5.65 8.79 levels were within the acceptable limits recommend-
ed by the United Nations Scientific Committee on
KEB = Borehole Water Sample; KEW=Well Water Sample.
the Effect of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the
European Commission for drinking purposes, the
3.5 Comparison with standard and other re-
USEPA’s maximum contamination level, and the
searchers
global average.
As shown in Table 8 (Figure 2), Table 9 (Figure According to Table 9 (Figure 3), the radon con-
3) and Table 10 (Figure 4), the findings from this centration of groundwater samples from Keana is
study were compared to safety requirements, works lower than that of Ado-Ekiti in the state of Ekiti, Ga-
from other researchers in Nigeria, and works from dau in the state of Bauchi, Idah in the state of Kogi,
other researchers worldwide. and Zaria in the state of Kaduna.
45
Table 10. Comparison of radon concentration of groundwater

samples from present study with other parts of the world.
Radon
S/N Location Concentration Reference
(Bq/L)
[23,25]
1 India 2.63
[23,25]
2 Turkey 9.28
[23,25]
3 Romania 15.40
Jordan (many [23,25]
Figure 4. Comparison of radon concentration of groundwater
4 2.8-116
locations) samples from present study with other parts of the world.
Lebanon (many
According to Table 10 (Figure 4), groundwa-
[23,25]
5 11.30
locations)
Tassili, South-east [23,25]
ter samples from Keana have radon concentrations
6 0.67-21.25
Algeria that are lower than those from countries like India,
7
Eastern Doon Valley,
20-95 [23,25] Romania, Jordan, the outer Himalayas, Finland,
outer Himalayas
Turkey, Lebanon, and the United States, but higher
[23,25]
8 Northern Venezuela 0.1-5.76
[23,25]
than those from some regions of Algeria and some
9 Finland 63.0
regions of Northern Venezuela.
United States of [23,25]
10 5.20
America
Present 4. Discussion
11 Keana, Nigeria 2.25 Study
(2023) The results of this study showed that Keana’s
mean radon concentration was 2.25 Bq/L. This value
was lower than the global average of 10 Bq/L, the
Standard Organization of Nigeria’s (SON) 11.1 Bq/L,
the European Union Commission’s 100 Bq/L, the
United Nations Scientific Committee on Atomic Ra-
diation’s (UNSCEAR) 4.0-40.0 Bq/L, and the Unit-
ed States Environmental Protection Agency’s (11.1
Bq/L) (USEPA). The results of Zakari et al. [21], who
discovered a mean radon concentration of 2.29 Bq/L
is within the same range, are consistent with our dis-
Figure 2. Comparison of radon concentration from present study covery.
with standards. This result differs from that of Garba et al.
(2013) [22], who discovered that the mean radon concen-
tration was 12.29 Bq/L. The results of Adeola and Isaac
(2017) [23], who discovered that the mean radon concen-
tration was 35.54 Bq/L, are also out of sync.
The corresponding measured radon concentra-
tions in the borehole water samples from Keana
were 0.017 mSv/y for adults and 0.028 mSv/y for
children, whereas the corresponding measured ra-
don concentrations in the well water samples were
Figure 3. Comparison of radon concentration from present study 0.015 mSv/y for adults and 0.026 mSv/y for chil-
with other places in Nigeria. dren.
46
The Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) ap- State. Also, future researchers should determine the
proved the WHO’s recommended reference level of levels of radon in both surface water and groundwa-
0.1 mSv/y for intake of radionuclides in water and ter.
the ICRP’s recommended intervention level of 3-10
mSv/y for radionuclide intake. Author Contributions
The radon concentrations in the borehole water
samples from Keana that corresponded to the mean Idris Muhammad Mustapha, Abdullahi Abubakar
annual effective dosage by inhalation were 0.056 Mundi and Ibrahim Maina created all the figures
mSv/y and 0.054 mSv/y, respectively. in the work, while Abubakar Saidu Bako, Usman
All annual effective dosage by ingestion readings Rilwan, Samson Dauda Yusuf and Ibrahim Umaru
fell below the 1 mSv/y threshold that is advised for wrote the majority of the manuscript. The work was
the general public. examined by all writers.
For well water samples, the excess lifetime can-
cer risk was 5.39 × 10–5 for adults and 8.96 × 10–5 Conflict of Interest
for children, whereas the excess lifetime cancer risk
The corresponding authors affirm that they have
from the same annual effective dose of borehole wa-
no known financial or interpersonal conflicts that
ter samples from Keana was 5.79 × 10–5 for adults
would have appeared to have an impact on the re-
and 8.71 × 10–5 for children.
search presented in this study.
According to the global average of 2.9 × 10–4 as
reported by Ibikunle et al. in 2018, the extra lifetime
cancer risk of water samples from the Keana Local Funding
Governments was found to be lower. No funding was sought for this work because the
authors are not associated with any company that has
5. Conclusions a direct or indirect financial interest in the topic cov-
ered in the manuscript.
According to the findings, the radon levels in the
groundwater samples from Keana are safe for home
use and human consumption because they are below Acknowledgment
the maximum limit of 11.1 Bq/L established by the The corresponding authors express gratitude to
USEPA and adopted by the Standard Organization of the remaining authors for their positive criticism and
Nigeria (SON). Since this work pioneered the deter- review, which makes the work contributive and wor-
mination of radon in groundwater in the study area, thy of publication.
the data in this study might be utilized as a reference
for the study location. In order to cover the entire
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49

ARTICLE
Correlation of Ground Penetrating Radar Data with Geotechnical

Prospect Profiles: Reduto Case Study, Belém-PA, Brazil
Danusa Mayara de Souza1* , Lyvio Luiz Clávio de Alcântara Júnior2
1
Geophysics Graduate Program (CPGf), Geosciences Institute, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém, Pará,
66075-110, Brazil
2
Cosmopolita College, Civil Engineer, Belém, Pará, 66615-005, Brazil
ABSTRACT
The study presented in this manuscript aimed to relate the sedimentary strata imaged by the ground penetrating
radar (GPR) method through numerical modeling with the mapping of sedimentary strata acquired through geotechnical
surveys. The study aimed to expose how obtaining subsoil information through noninvasive/destructive electromagnetic
waves is beneficial, as they are reliable and less costly than drilling holes beyond what is necessary to have a subsurface
mapping. In this sense, physical-geological modeling was carried out. The information on the type of sediments, acquired
through simple recognition surveys carried out in the city of Belém-PA, helped to create a model of a sedimentary
package with its respective intrinsic physical properties. The result shows that the GPR recovered with good vertical
and horizontal resolution at the beginning and end of the layers of the sedimentary package studied, proving to be very
effective for locating geotechnical sounding points and safely reducing costs.
Keywords: Geotechnical prospecting; Ground penetrating radar; Numerical modeling
1. Introduction buildings, which became increasingly natural and

every day to contain the large population contingent,
The historical advance of the occupation of urban increasingly growing in the city of Belém-PA [1].
space promoted a great wave of verticalization of The stage of designing and constructing foun-
Danusa Mayara de Souza, Geophysics Graduate Program (CPGf), Geosciences Institute, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém, Pará, 66075-
110, Brazil; Email: danusa@ufpa.br
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 21 March 2023 | Revised: 22 April 2023 | Accepted: 25 April 2023 | Published Online: 30 April 2023
CITATION
Souza, D.M., Alcântara Júnior, L.L.C., 2023. Correlation of Ground Penetrating Radar Data with Geotechnical Prospect Profiles: Reduto Case
Study, Belém-PA, Brazil. Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 50-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.
v5i2.5579
COPYRIGHT
50
dation structures is paramount among the stages of ground surface and an electrical current source that
civil construction, as the total load dissipation of the injects a current into the ground through the elec-
structure will depend on it, especially in densely oc- trodes. The resulting electrical potential is measured
cupied residential buildings [2]. by a series of receiver electrodes, which are also
Considering this scenario, obtaining information placed on the ground surface. Analyzing the volt-
from the subsoil, such as that obtained from geo- age and current data makes it possible to infer the
physical measurements, which use electromagnetic electrical resistivity of the subsurface materials. The
waves and electrical resistivity data from the soil, resistivity data can then be used to create two- or
is critical, primarily because it provides essential three-dimensional images of the subsurface materi-
information about the geological environment at the als, showing variations in their resistivity properties.
study site. Geophysical methods are widely used The Slingram method involves the use of a
for soil and subsurface investigations. These meth- transmitting coil and a receiving coil. The trans-
ods involve the use of the physical properties of the mitting coil generates an electromagnetic field that
subsurface materials to infer their composition and penetrates the subsurface materials. If there is a
structure. Some commonly used geophysical meth- conductive object in the subsurface, it will affect the
ods for soil and subsurface investigations include electromagnetic field and induce a secondary electro-
ground penetrating radar, seismic refraction surveys, magnetic field that is detected by the receiving coil.
electrical resistivity imaging, and slingram. For more details about geophysics methods [3-7].
The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) method The delimitation of layers and information about
involves using a radar antenna that emits high-fre- the beginning and end of different lithologies and
quency electromagnetic waves, typically 10 to 1000 soil strata through the response to electromagnet-
MHz, propagating through the subsurface materials. ic stimuli is a great advantage, especially because
The waves reflect the surface when they encounter geophysical methodologies are nondestructive and
a boundary between materials with different dielec- noninvasive and can be carried out quickly and often
tric properties. By analyzing the amplitude, phase, free of charge (under an agreement with the univer-
and time delay of the reflected waves, it is possible sity to provide service to the community).
to infer the subsurface materials and objects’ depth, At the discretion of compliance, standardization,
location, and properties. The GPR method can also and mainly technical responsibility, the engineer car-
create two- or three-dimensional images of the sub- ries out at least one survey of simple soil recognition
surface materials and objects. for building foundations every 200 m2 of the project-
The seismic refraction method uses a seismic ed area in the plan before executing any building up
source, such as a sledgehammer or a small explo- to 1200 m2 of area, see ABNT NBR 8036 [8]. How-
sive, to generate seismic waves propagating through ever, in small works and even to reduce costs, it is
the subsurface materials. The waves are detected by common for some professional engineers to choose
a series of geophones placed along a line on the sur- to minimize costly steps, such as geotechnical in-
face. By analyzing the travel time and velocity of the vestigation, which, in turn, can result in unnecessary
seismic waves, it is possible to infer the depth and expenses with foundations or with the recovery of
composition of the subsurface materials. The seis- structures and settlements beyond those foreseen [9,10].
mic waves refract or bend at the interfaces between The use of GPR in engineering studies can be
materials with different seismic velocities, allowing considered advantageous in the application of geo-
the determination of the depth and thickness of each physics, as it allows the execution of continuous
layer. and high-resolution profiles, presents ease of data
The electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) method acquisition, performs measurements with different
involves using a series of electrodes placed on the frequencies, and has the versatility of the equipment
51
in the field, allowing its application even in urban NBR 6484 [15] and soil classification according to
areas and inside buildings. Compared to other inves- ABNT NBR 6502 [16]. The ABNT NBR 6484 [15]
tigation techniques, this method has a low cost-bene- defines the SPT drilling procedure as follows: The
fit ratio combined with the speed of execution. GPR drilling and dynamic driving of a standard sampler
numerical modeling is well established, with several every meter result in the determination of the type of
works and studies published [11], which bring the soil and a resistance index, as well as the observation
state of the art of methodology to various fields of of the water level inside the borehole. For the defini-
knowledge, including engineering. tion of these results, this standard incorporates two
Considering the previous events, the present work test systems: The manual system and the mechanized
seeks to elucidate how and to what extent geophys- system. The two systems will give different resist-
ical methodologies, particularly GPR and numerical ance index results.
modeling, can assist engineering in identifying geo- As a rule, the process is divided into stages, the
logical features and bedding in the subsurface. The first being the collection of the soil sample (zero
lack of prior knowledge about the typology of un- level). Then, the excavation stage begins, in which
derground sediments in areas where it is intended to a manual auger is usually used to remove the soil
build buildings, mainly vertical ones, before carrying sample (zero level). Then, the excavation stage be-
out direct studies such as the standard penetration gins, in which a manual auger is usually used. Then,
test (SPT), combined with insufficient information the insertion of the sampling rod is initiated using
about subsurface geology, can generate mistakes in a manual or mechanical hammer. The descent of
the location of underground studies. It generates a the rod occurs in three stretches of 15 cm, totaling
lack of essential data for the designer, which, in turn, 45 cm. The initial 15 cm is discarded for measure-
can lead to errors in the dimensioning of founda- ment purposes, and only the final 30 cm of soil pene-
tions, generating oversizing (in the case of the inser- tration is considered ABNT NBR 6484 [15].
tion of safety margins beyond the necessary ones), The SPT is performed (manual test method) using
settlements (from insufficient sizing), and patholo-
a trephine (rod with a bevel at the end) that promotes
gies (from different origins). For more information
the perforation and deterioration of the soil layers
about subsurface anomalies and their detection [12,13].
and removes debris removed through water circula-
The present study aims to obtain information on the
tion. When the depth to be analyzed is reached, the
subsurface from indirect and nondestructive meas-
sampler is inserted at the end of the rod in place of
urements, which use electromagnetic waves and
the trepan, and a typical weight (65 kg) is used as a
information on electrical soil resistivity, to correlate
hammer. The number of blows required to reach 45
the strata described by geophysical methodologies
cm (15 cm initial and 30 cm final) must be counted
with the strata mapped by SPT soundings.
to calculate the Nspt. Figure 1 shows a schematic
drawing of how a manual SPT probe is performed.
2. Materials and methods According to the ABNT NBR 6484 [15] standard,
as the sampler is introduced, in addition to providing
2.1 Standard penetration test
Nspt, soil samples are collected and stored for later
The ABNT NBR 6122 [14] establishes that any geological classification. At this stage, the depth of
building must undergo preliminary geotechnical the water level and the thickness of each sediment
investigations of at least percussion soundings. The layer (beginning and end) are also measured. In
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) provides informa- Belém, manual geotechnical surveys are the most
tion on the stratigraphy and lithological classification common [18,19]. Figure 2 depicts a photographic re-
of soils, groundwater level, and measurements of cord of the manual execution of an SPT sounding in
penetration resistance indices according to ABNT a city lot.
52
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of manual SPT sounding [17].
Figure 2. Photographic record of the manual SPT drilling process in the field.
2.2 Ground penetrating radar the electrical properties of the medium. In the case
of geological materials, the electrical properties are
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical mainly controlled by the mineralogy of the constit-
method based on the propagation of high-frequency uents, the presence of clays, the content of metallic
ElectroMagnetic (EM) waves. Practically speaking, minerals, and the water content. If there is a contrast
EM energy waves are emitted from a transmitting in at least one of the physical properties (electrical
antenna from 10 MHz to 1 GHz. When the EM wave conductivity σ, dielectric constant K, and magnet-
reaches the interface between geological materials ic permeability μ) of subsurface materials, part of
with different physical properties, part of its energy is the signal is reflected and received by the receiving
reflected toward the surface, where it is captured by antenna that directs the signal received from under-
the same antenna or a second receiving antenna [20]. ground to the receiver [20,21].
The propagation of the subsurface radar signal de- The resulting section, the radargram, is formed by
pends on the frequency of the emitted signal and each trace (scan) representing the arrival time of the
53
reflected pulses, the pulse transmitted through the air, to know two parameters: the transit time between
and the direct wave propagating through the ground. the beginning of propagation and the arrival of the
Early reflections appear later (or more significantly) reflected wave and the propagation velocity of the
in the scan. As the antenna is moved over the terrain, wave; for more details [23]. The data collection pro-
different scans are recorded at different points. The cedure is straightforward, as illustrated in Figure 4,
set of scans positioned side by side (Figure 3) in the which shows a photographic record of surveys con-
sequence of their acquisitions forms an image, which ducted in the city.
is a display analogous to a magnetic resonance im- In the present study, the analysis and modeling
age performed in humans, changing the composition were carried out in an area in the Reduto neighbor-
of the EM field from a magnetic field (Hx, Hy, and hood (in this work, it will be treated as Report RE-
Hz) that GPR uses to image to mainly the electric 001). The region was chosen because the neighbor-
field (Ex, Ey, and Ez) [22]. hood of Reduto has a high population density and
The depth of the reflection interfaces can be areas with deep foundations [18,19]. The area has three
obtained from the radargram, thus facilitating the boreholes that are not aligned laterally and a slight-
interpretation of the profile and providing an approx- ly uneven topography (a level similar to that of the
imate location of the targets. For this, it is necessary street) (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Exemplification of a GPR survey and a radargram [20].
Figure 4. Photographic record of the profile organization process and data acquisition with GPR.
54
The individual profiles of the holes show a good strokes. The three asterisks (***) in the Nspt descrip-
lateral correlation of the sedimentary layers with tion indicate that the sampler could not exceed the
each other when placed side by side. Therefore, Ta- initial 30 cm, as shown in Figure 6.
ble 1 presents the primary information contained in The sequence of sedimentary layers corresponds
drilling report RE-001. to the second hole, although the holes are not par-
Profile SP 01, in which excellent resistance to allel. As in SP 01, borehole No. 02 ends at 15.05 m
penetration is noted in a few meters of sampling and has a resistant layer of thick white sand impene-
(15.03 m) and that from 13.70 m down, the sampler trable to the standard sampler, descending only 5 cm
was unable to descend the last 30 cm, leaving 8 cm in 58 strokes at the end of the borehole, as shown in
for 46 blows, 5 cm for 49 strokes, and 3 cm for 55 Figure 7.
Figure 5. Location map of SPT Reduto reports in the city of Belém/PA.
Table 1. Organization of the information in the SPT RE-001 report.
SPT—REDUTO
SP01 prof Nspt SP02 prof Nspt SP03 prof Nspt
Variegated colored Variegated colored Variegated colored

01,70 4 02,50 3 02,80 3
clayey silt clayey silt clayey silt
Light gray silty clay 02,80 6 Light gray silty clay 04,70 6 Light gray silty clay 03,90 14
Medium light gray Medium light gray

Medium light gray sand 05,40 8 06,30 8 05,60 10
sand sand
Variegated colored silty Variegated colored silty Variegated colored

13,70 7 13,80 8 13,50 7
clay clay silty clay
Coarse white sand 15,03 55*** Coarse white sand 15,05 58*** Coarse white sand 15,08 55***
55
Figure 6. SP-01 of the RE-001 report.
56
Figure 7. SP-02 of the RE-001 report.
57
Next, in the third hole SP 03, the lateralization of analyze the behavior of the electromagnetic field and
the layers is maintained, as shown in Figure 8. the electrical properties that simulate a GPR survey.
The correlation between the layers can be seen Modeling begins with the insertion of information
more clearly in Figure 9, which illustrates the afore- about layer thickness (top and bottom depth), phys-
mentioned lateral continuity by observing the de- ical properties (σ, k[ɛ], and µ), and sediment type to
scription of the sequence of the layered sediments. form a data matrix in which each element (i, j) cor-
With the framework of information obtained responds to information. Completing the modeling
from the SPT drillings, the modeling stage began, stage, correlating the information between the geo-
in which both geotechnical and physical informa- technical soundings and the responses of the GPR
tion was inserted into the modeling software. The profiles, which combine geological information with
models used here were made in Reflex software to the inserted physical properties, began.
Figure 8. SP 03 of the RE-001 report.
58
Figure 9. SPT profiles No. 01, No. 02, and No. 03—RE-001.
3. Results and discussion GPR equipment, and the wave propagation direction
(Ey component) is from the transmitting antenna to
Aiming to minimize errors in the dimensioning of the geological environment.
foundations due to erroneous information about the With the completion of the setting and configura-
subsurface region, the present work uses numerical tion of the electromagnetic characteristics of the sim-
modeling resources to simulate the behavior of dif- ulation, tomography (generation of multiple scans,
ferent types of sediments and degrees of water satu- called a “radargram”) is generated and can be seen in
ration through electromagnetic stimulation, similar Figure 11.
to a conventional GPR campaign. The scale on the left in Figure 11 represents the
Figure 10 shows the graphical interface of the Re- propagation velocity window of the EM wave in the
flex software by Sandmeier [24] with physical param- geological medium (m/ns); the scale in the upper
eters enabled. Entering layer information is simple to center represents the distance (m) or length from SP
carry out. It defines the initial and final depth data in 01 to SP 03, which is 10 m; and the correct scale rep-
the “layer” field and the respective values of electrical resents the depth (m) of the layers, which can reach
conductivity, dielectric constant/electrical permittivity, 15.08 m. Using interpolation, a three-dimensional
magnetic permeability, and lateral extension. model (Figure 12) was created with the information
The right part of Figure 10 shows the configura- obtained from modeling the GPR response.
tions of the boundary conditions (absorbing edges), Analyzing the radargram, it is clear that the pres-
which prevent the energy emitted by the antenna ence of saturated clay (clayey sediment with the
from reverberating at the edges and contaminating presence of water in its pores) attenuated the propa-
the model. The source type (plane wave) establish- gation of the electromagnetic wave in an accelerated
es that the electromagnetic wavefront will arrive in way, causing a fading of it in the deeper layers, even
each layer as a plane, thus disregarding its spherical though these are composed of sand. More studies
aspect (simplification). The Kuepper signal simulates on the effects of clay presence on the attenuation of
59
GPR data [25-28]. This behavior is consistent with what high electrical conductivity and causes a large part
is observed in the literature and real-world surveys of the energy sent to the medium to be absorbed and
carried out in other studies. This is because clay has dissipated along the top of the layer.
Figure 10. Information from the geological model of SPT RE-001 is being inserted into Reflex.
Figure 11. GPR response for the geological model of SPT RE-001.
60
Figure 12. Data cube with the GPR response for the SPT RE-001 geological model.
4. Conclusions package. The soil layers must be confirmed with SPT

soundings, which will tie the information together.
By analyzing the results obtained with numeri- Another essential aspect observed during this
cal modeling of the ground penetrating radar (GPR) study is that the lithological description present in
geophysical method and correlating them with
the geotechnical drilling bulletins refers to the sed-
profiles of SPT soundings carried out in the city of
iments recovered by the sampler as sand, silt, and
Belém-PA, it was possible to create a correspondence
clay, as well as their variations: Silty sand and clayey
between the geophysical responses and the geolog-
sand, sandy silt and silt clayey, sandy clay and silty
ical environment in the subsurface. In short, it was
clay, not including the presence of other fragments
possible to delimit the layers and obtain information
such as pebbles and various materials buried in the
about the beginning and end of different lithologies
soil. Such a description in the eyes of the GPR only
and soil strata by responding to electromagnetic
refers to the size of the grains found and not their
stimuli.
mineralogical composition per se, which generates
Based on the boreholes, which even showed
extreme ambiguity in situations where different types
excellent lateral correlation with layers practically
of materials, as well as their proportions and water
parallel and Nspt relatively equal, the response of the
content, can produce electromagnetic anomalies that
GPR modeling proved to be very effective since it
are very similar. The realization of the more practical
recovered with good vertical and horizontal resolu-
survey in the study area is intended shortly, with the
tion at the beginning and end of layers. However, the
use of 250 MHz, 400 MHz, and 700 MHz antennas
presence of clay slowed the wave’s arrival in deeper
to verify the underground response to different oper-
regions.
ating frequencies.
Although GPR modeling has fulfilled the role for
which it was designed very well, it should be noted
that it does not provide direct information on the me-
Author Contributions
chanical strength of the layers and, therefore, should The first author acquired GPR data, accompanied
not be the only means for verifying the sedimentary the SPT survey in the field, built the numerical mod-
61
el, and wrote the manuscript. The coauthor super- otechnical study of land subsidence and vulnera-
vised the data and revised the text of the manuscript. bility of rural buildings. International Journal of
Geosciences. 3(04), 878.
Conflict of Interest [6] Bahia, V., Luiz, J.G., Fenzl, N., et al., 2009. A
subsuperfície rasa na área do Parque Ambiental
The authors declare not to have any conflict of
de Belém: Estudo a partir de dados geofísicos e
interest.
de poços (Portuguese) [The shallow subsurface
in the Parque Ambiental de Belém area: Study
Funding based on geophysical and well data]. Brazil:
This research received no external funding. Contribuições À Geologia da Amazônia. 1ed
Belém-PA. 6, 183-192.
[7] do Nascimento, C.T.C. (editor), 2011. Determi-
Acknowledgment
nação da estrutura vertical de latossolos usando
The authors are thankful to the CPGf/UFPA, sondagens elétricas verticais (Portuguese) [De-
Cosmopolita College, and his fellow professors of termination of the vertical structure of latosols
the Civil Engineering course, Glauciane Santos da using vertical electrical soundings]. 12th Inter-
Silva and Clementino José dos Santos Netto. national Congress of the Brazilian Geophysical
Society; 2011 Aug; the Netherlands: European
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63

ARTICLE
Radio Direction Finding Method to Mitigate Tsunami Risk in Sierra

Leone
Valentino Straser1* , Daniele Cataldi2 , Gabriele Cataldi2
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Makeni, Fatima Campus, Makeni, 00232, Sierra Leone
2
Group Radio Emission Project, Lariano, Rome, 00076, Italy
ABSTRACT
In this study, the Radio Direction Finding method is proposed for the detection of electromagnetic signals, in the VLF
band, to try to anticipate the occurrence of potentially destructive geophysical events. The experimentation concerns the
interception of electromagnetic anomalies in Sierra Leone, in the five-day time window, associated with seismic events
that could potentially generate tsunamis. The area of investigation is Sierra Leone, whose coastline is subjected to tidal
wave hazards triggered by earthquakes generated in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Although Sierra Leone is not affected by
recurrent earthquakes, there is nevertheless a low probability, estimated at 2 percent, of the occurrence of destructive
earthquakes in the next 50 years. Also in estimates, the risk of rogue and potentially damaging waves is estimated to strike
the Sierra Leone coast at least once in the next 10 years. The Radio Direction Finding experiment carried out continuously
24/7, has shown a close relationship between increased radio-anomalies, in the frequencies of 6,000 Hz, a time window
between electromagnetic anomaly detection and the imminence of an earthquake, and higher frequency times for the risk
of earthquake occurrence in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Keywords: Tsunami; Radio direction finding; Destructive earthquakes; Mid-Atlantic ridge; Sierra Leone
1. Introduction by international research centers and universities

The problem of safety and loss of life, due to around the world for a number of years. Potentially
large geophysical events, has been a subject of study destructive earthquakes and catastrophic tsunamis
Valentino Straser, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Makeni, Fatima Campus, Makeni, 00232, Sierra Leone; Email: valentino.straser@gmail.
com.
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 9 March 2023 | Revised: 25 April 2023 | Accepted: 28 April 2023 | Published Online: 12 May 2023
CITATION
Straser, V., Cataldi, D., Cataldi, G., 2023. Radio Direction Finding Method to Mitigate Tsunami Risk in Sierra Leone. Advances in Geological and
Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 64-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5617
COPYRIGHT
64
have prompted the scientific community and technol- Electric and Magnetic Phenomena” [9], described
ogy to experiment with methods and make devices to some electrical phenomena magnetic and related to
intercept preseismic signals. Research that has mul- seismic activity. It was the first scientific publication
tiplied in recent decades has shown that we are con- ever in which they described a series of electromag-
fronted with a technological limitation that hopefully netic phenomena, about one hundred years later,
can be overcome as early as the next few years. In the international scientific community renamed as
this study, a method, Radio Direction Finding (RDF), “electromagnetic seismic precursors” or ESP [10]. In
is proposed based on intercepting electromagnetic 2007, Gabriele Cataldi and Daniel Cataldi founded a
frequencies, identifying their propagation direction scientific research project (Radio Emissions Project)
and potential source. The RDF method, still under- dedicated to monitoring and study of Electromag-
going experimentation and technological evolution, netic Seismic Precursors (ESPs) and, in a few years,
was devised in 2017 in Rome, Italy, by physicists they have developed an innovative electromagnetic
Daniele Cataldi and Gabriele Cataldi. Its application tracking method, who was able to provide valuable
has been tested on both seismic events, including po- data on the pre-seismic electromagnetic anomalies,
tentially destructive ones, and volcanic activity mon- meaning by this term also electromagnetic phenome-
itoring. The experimentation has recently started in na of solar origin and those of geomagnetic nature [11].
Sierra Leone, a geologically ancient land that is rare-
ly affected by strong earthquakes. Precisely for this 1.2 Theoretical basis on pre-seismic radio
reason, Sierra Leone represents an open-air labora- emissions
tory for the study of potential catastrophic scenarios,
induced by geophysical events, which could affect, The pre-seismic radio signals are generated by a
especially, stretches of Atlantic Ocean coastline and series of mechanisms that occur at the level of the
the capital Freetown. lithosphere (Earth’s crust) which have been well
known and studied for years. They are mainly emit-
ted by the micro-fractures that are generated on the
1.1 The electromagnetic seismic precursors
seismic fault plane when the level of mechanical
(ESPs)
stress reaches such levels as to start breaking up the
The study of electromagnetic emissions associ- rocks. Studies confirming the production of radio
ated with earthquakes is based on mechanisms for frequency emitted by rocks placed under mechani-
the production of radio emissions generated by me- cal stress have also been conducted in recent years
chanical deformation, and the following fracturing thanks to the funds allocated NASA (National Aero-
of rocks present in the earthquake preparation zone nautics and Space Administration) [3,4].
in the preseismic phase. Electromagnetic anomalies Microfractures are small cracks in the rock which,
were observed, for example, on March 11, 2011 be- from a geological point of view, generally have a
fore the earthquake that occurred in Japan [1], or those length of a few millimeters (or less) and a width
of the Peruvian earthquake of September 25, 2013 [2], of less than 0.1mm and are formed in the phases
or even those recorded on August 24, 2016 in Italy [3]. preceding the macrofractures. Since the size of a
These cases are just some of the earthquakes preced- microfracture substantially depends on the homoge-
ed by electromagnetic emissions or electromagnetic neity of the rock subjected to tectonic stress, it is ev-
anomalies recorded on a global scale [4-8]. It was 1890 ident that fractures of much more varied dimensions
when the British geologist John Milne, inventor of have also been observed. The first microfractures
the eponymous horizontal seismograph, a professor were observed in 1850 through transmitted light mi-
at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo and croscopy (TL), while only in 1960 it was possible to
founder of the Seismological Society of Japan (SSJ), observe them through scanning electron microscopy
in his work entitled “Earthquakes in Connection with (SEM) [11]. The creation of experimentally induced
65
microfractures was demonstrated for the first time and considering the volumes involved, this ratio is >
through triaxial compression tests [12] and current- 200:1. Subtracting the energy released by the seismic
ly, the study of microfractures produced in the waves by the energy that theoretically is accumulat-
laboratory has allowed us to provide important in- ed as a result of tectonic stress within the earthquake
formation on rock breaking processes and a better preparation zones, the result is that only a small part
understanding of faults and formation of microf- of the energy contained in the earthquake focal zone
ractures in nature [13]. Since the faults do not have is converted into seismic waves. According to T. Lay
a planar morphology but are irregular, they can be and T. C. Wallace [20], only 1-10% of the energy and
described graphically as a fractal [14]. This condi- seismic moment contained in earthquake zone prepa-
tion means that when tectonic stress accumulates, ration is converted into seismic waves. It is therefore
the geometric irregularities of the fault influence conceivable that 90% (or more) of this energy, or
each other, leading to the formation of addition- part of it, can be converted to radiofrequency. Taking
al microfractures in the surrounding rock that has as a reference an earthquake of magnitude 5, this has
a different orientation than the main ones [15-17]. an energy and a seismic moment between 1012 Nm
It is therefore evident that the volume of the Earth’s and 1018 Nm [20].
crust involved in the creation of microfractures Over the decades, since the 1980s, the interna-
is larger than the area defined as the “earthquake tional scientific community has been concerned with
preparation zone”: According to some estimates, the study of pre-seismic radio emissions by creating
this volume could be between 24 and 520 times ad-hoc research projects. Some of them are listed be-
larger than the earthquake preparation area. The low:
locally generated pre-seismic radiofrequency is an - EMSEV (Electromagnetic Studies of Earth-
electromagnetic phenomenon caused by the tectonic quakes and Volcanoes). A project of the “Earthquake
stress that deforms and creates microfractures and Prediction Research Center” of Tokai University
macrofractures in the rocks present in the earthquake (Japan) to promote cooperation among researchers in
preparation area through the phenomenon of piezo- scientific research on earthquake prediction (2009).
electricity [18]. The amplitude of the electromagnetic http://www.emsev-iugg.org/emsev/
signals caused by the formation of microfractures - EMV (Electromagnetic Variations). Greek pro-
of the rocks subjected to tectonic stress in the earth- ject for monitoring electromagnetic seismic precur-
quake preparation area mainly depends on the den- sors active since 1987.
sity of the microfractures and their size; The mor- http://users.teiath.gr/gregkoul/
phology of the electromagnetic field depends on the - SEMEP (Search for Electro-Magnetic Earth-
orientation of the microfractures; on the other hand, quake Precursors). A project established as a collabo-
the period of oscillation of the electromagnetic field ration between the European Community and Russia
(temporal modulation) depends on the geological in 2010 after a meeting at the Seventh Framework
characteristics of the fault and on the characteristics Programme (FP7).
of the tectonic stress that determine a growth of the https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/96924/report-
microfractures that does not proceed linearly. Ac- ing/en; https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/262005/
cording to a study carried out in 2007 [19], the volume reporting
of the Earth’s crust concerned issues pre-seismic - Pre-Earthquakes Project - The project was born
electromagnetic due to the accumulation of tectonic out of an agreement between Italy (University of Ba-
stress, it has a much larger size than the volume of silicata), Germany, Turkey and Russia that dealt with
the affected Earth’s crust solely on the production the study of pre-earthquake radio emissions (2011-
of micro-fractures (focal area of the earthquake). 2012).
Taking as reference an earthquake of magnitude 6 - iSTEP Project (integrated Search for Taiwan
66
Earthquake Precursor) Chinese scientific research with destructive earthquakes. The Chinese-Italian
project to study earthquake precursors (2002-2012). agreement involves the launch into orbit of an arti-
T52D.08T/abstract ficial satellite capable of making measurements of
- Integrated Earthquake Frontier Project. Scientif- the Earth’s geomagnetic field and solar wind ionic
ic project for the study of earthquake precursors cre- parameters.
ated by the former Japanese Government Technology http://cses.roma2.infn.it
and Science Agency (JST) after the disastrous M7.3 - Stanford University, Department of Geophysics.
earthquake that was recorded on January 17, 1995, Stanford University’s Department of Geophysics has
in Kobe. Under this project, two agencies were sent created an inter-graduate course dedicated to moni-
to conduct 5 years of studies (1996-2001) on the fea- toring electromagnetic seismic precursors.
sibility of using electromagnetic seismic precursors: - MEMFIS (Multiple Electromagnetic Field and
The RIKEN (Physical and Chemical Institute) and Infrasound Monitoring Network), complex geophys-
the NASDA (National Space Development Agency ical monitoring project produced by the University
of Japan). This study project was named the “Earth- of Bucharest, Romania, active since 2004 [22].
quake Remote Sensing Frontier Project.” https://iee- - QuakeSat. Stanford University nanosatellite,
explore.ieee.org/document/1177344 launched into space in 2003 (mission ended in 2005).
- SSTL (Small Satellite for Earthquake Predic- It was equipped with a triaxial magnetometer and
tion). Active between 2001 and 2003, it was the an electric field sensor. Instruments specifically de-
research project of the Surrey Space Center of the signed to study electromagnetic seismic precursors.
University of Surrey (England), dedicated to the https://www.quakefinder.com/
study of ionospheric seismic precursors and carried - INFREP (International Network for Frontier
out through electromagnetic background monitoring Research on Earthquake Precursors). European elec-
and space meteorology [21]. tromagnetic monitoring network for the study of
- Berkeley Seismological Lab. Scientific research earthquake-induced ionospheric disturbances [22].
laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley,
under which electromagnetic seismic precursors are 1.3 Correlation between electromagnetic waves
monitored and studied. and earthquakes
http://seismo.berkeley.edu Analysis of ambient radio frequency conducted
- Quake Finder Project. Scientific research project since 1890 has led to the understanding that there are
dedicated to elettromagnetic seismic precursors ac- natural radio emissions, with wide bandwidth, that
tive since 2000 and subsidized by N.A.S.A. can be observed with greater intensity in the imme-
https://www.quakefinder.com diate vicinity of potentially destructive earthquake
- DEMETER (Detection of Electro-Magnetic epicenters [23,24]. Laboratory experiments have shown
Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions) that this pre-earthquake radio frequency is generated
Satellite. First project of the French National Center through direct piezoelectric effect when crystalline
for Space Studies (CNES) to study ionospheric and materials in the earthquake preparation zone polarize
environmental electromagnetic anomalies preceding due to tectonic stress, generating a potential differ-
earthquakes. Active between 2004 and 2010. ence. Electromagnetic emission starts during defor-
https://demeter.cnes.fr/en/DEMETER/lien4_sci- mation of crystalline materials and not only during
ence.htm their rupture (microfractures and macrofractures).
- CSES (China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satel- In this context, the greater the volume of the
lite). Project operational since 2018, established Earth’s crust included in the earthquake preparation
in collaboration between China and Italy to study zone, the greater will be the intensity of radio emis-
ionospheric electromagnetic anomalies associated sion generated through the direct piezoelectric effect
67
(Epicentral Ionic Emissions or EIE—Term coined structures, and loss of life [28]. The long lapse of time
by the Radio Emissions Project in 2012) [25,26]. When from the occurrence of disastrous tsunamis until now
these radio emissions emerge from the Earth’s sur- induces caution and consideration of potential pit-
face, they propagate within the Earth-ionosphere falls for the coastal population, and the capital Free-
cavity and can be detected through electromagnetic town, in the coming years. At least from a statistical
monitoring stations that can identify their geograph- point of view.
ical area of origin using Radio Direction Finding
(RDF) technology. This scientific approach enables 1.5 Seismotectonics and tsunamis
crustal diagnosis by identifying areas of the Earth’s
surface from which broadband pre-seismic radiof- Sierra Leone is included in the fourth of the
requency is emitted, making it possible to identify six seismotectonic provinces of the West African
areas of the Earth’s surface within which a seismic Craton [29], formed by three Archaic and Paleopro-
event may occur. Since a pre-seismic electromag- terozoic metamorphic and magmatic shields that
netic source cannot be considered an isotropic elec- include the Central African fault systems of Angola,
tromagnetic source due to the characteristics of the DR Congo, Cameroon, and Chad, determined by
Earth’s crust and tectonic stress, it is evident that it the tectonic regime [30-32]. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
is more convenient to study this pre-seismic elec- earthquakes are essentially related to an extensional
tromagnetic phenomenon through a dense network tectonic regime, which, however, do not rule out an
of electromagnetic monitoring stations rather than interaction with magmatic activity in the Ridge [33].
through a few stations. Recent studies have shown that the crust of the
equatorial Atlantic Ocean, with a thickness of about
5.5 km, is predominantly magmatic, ranging in age
1.4 The risk of geophysical and catastrophic
from 8 to 70 Ma. The semi-diffusion of the ridge
events in Sierra Leone
is about 16 mm/year, fed by three mega-transform
Sierra Leone is a West African state located on faults running east-west, St. Paul, Romanche and
the coast of the Atlantic Ocean bordering Guinea to Chain. The St. Paul transform fault system, which is
the north and east and Liberia to the southeast. It has related to tectonic activities of fracture systems and
a population of about 8,421,000 as of 2021 census. earthquakes that could potentially generate tsunamis
Sierra Leone has a low seismic hazard but, never- on the Sierra Leone coast, includes four minor faults
theless, there is a 2 percent probability of potentially that collectively extend a total of about 600 km [34].
destructive seismic tremors occurring within the Seismic studies of the mid-Atlantic ridge have made
next 50 years. Probabilistic assessment has indicated it possible to interpret the structure of the oceanic
very long return times of major seismic events, on crust and catalog historical earthquakes to draw up a
the order of 475, 2475, and 9975 years [27]. The risk map of seismic and potentially destructive tsunami
of coastal flooding, on the other hand, is classified risk [35-37]. The Atlantic Ocean, except for the Lisbon
as high, i.e., that potentially damaging waves may tsunami of 1755, does not generate transoceanic
inundate the Sierra Leone coast at least once in the tsunamis due to the geodynamic conditions of the
next 10 years. In fact, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge can Mid-Atlantic Ridge, unlike the Pacific and Indian
generate major earthquakes with magnitudes that can Oceans. Instead, Atlantic Ocean tsunamis have local
reach and exceed M7.1, as in the case of the strong significance and of their impact on cities and human
1982 earthquake (https://earthquakes.zone/sierra-le- activities, requiring an effective warning system for
one). The potential damage induced by geophysical high risk on the coasts [38,39].
events, is an element of concern for Sierra Leone, Looking at Sierra Leone’s population density data
especially in terms of coastal effects, and the conse- for 2000, the majority of the population is concen-
quences on society, with economic losses, damage to trated on the coast, which faces the Atlantic Ocean
68
where strong earthquakes and tsunamis can be pro- tween 0,000 Hz and 96 kHz; in this study, the elec-
duced [40]. tromagnetic signals monitored are those between the
SELF band and the VLF band (0,000 Hz - 30 kHz).
2. Materials and methods The range detected in the electromagnetic spectrum,
where electromagnetic signals appear most frequent-
This study is based on electromagnetic moni-
ly, potentially indicates a pre-earthquake signal that
toring of Sierra Leone through Italy’s 24/7 Radio
can anticipate strong earthquakes that can generate
Direction Finding (RDF) network. The monitoring
tsunamis [41].
data were analyzed, modeled, and compared with the
Precursor signals (SEPs—Seismic Electromag-
occurrence of earthquakes published on the network
netic Precursors) are those of crustal, and local,
in real time.
origin, that is, generated by the Earth’s lithosphere
The monitoring stations used for signal detection
(crust), which due to the tectonic stress to which the
are in Italy at an average distance of about 4,900 km
rocks are subjected, generate electrical (ions) and
in the SSW direction,
electromagnetic (electromagnetic field—moving
1) RDF station in Pontedera, Pisa, Italy.
ions) emissions, which can then be picked up at a
2) RDF station in Lariano, Rome, Italy.
distance [7,42-44].
The radio direction finding system
The detection system used by the research team

is based on an electromagnetic monitoring system
developed by the Italian Radio Emissions Project,
starting in 2017. It consists of a series of electromag-
netic sensors capable of detecting and recording the
occurrence of electromagnetic signals of natural ori- Figure 1. Schematization of the operation of an Italian RDF sta-
gin, and indicating their intensity, time duration and tion, developed by the Radio Emissions Project. Credits: Radio
azimuth of origin, with respect to the geographical Emissions Project.
position of the detection station itself.
Such a network of sensors, deployed on Italian
3. Results
soil can triangulate radio signals emitted by a natural
source, thanks to the technique of “radio triangulation”, The electromagnetic monitoring, indicated by the
a technology from the 1920s of the last centuries, the RDF spectrograms with the yellow-green interfer-
technology of which was employed in this very project ence, covers the coast of Sierra Leone and, the capi-
and is called Radio Direction Finding (RDF). tal Freetown, the area most exposed to tsunami risk.
The RDF station, it is basically based on a series There were 55 spectrograms analyzed to compile
of loop antennas, positioned in orthogonal pattern, by the present study, in which electromagnetic signals
a radio amplifier developed by Daniele Cataldi and having the monitored area as the direction of arrival
Gabriele Cataldi, whose amplified signals are sent to were considered. The spectrogram shows an exam-
the sound card of a PC, and processed there (Figure ple of the data recorded by the Italian RDF network,
1). Such a sensing system can generate an archive and the azimuth of the electromagnetic signals. In
of dynamic and graphical spectrograms based on this case it is an obvious signal recorded at 06:15
the electromagnetic signals detected by the antennas UTC on January 28, 2023, then terminated at 09:40
and of natural origin. At present, an RDF station UTC on January 28, 2023. The RDF stations used
can constantly document electromagnetic emissions for electromagnetic monitoring, carried out contin-
from the Earth’s crust (radio-nature), in the band be- uously 24/7, are those of Lariano (Rome) and Pont-
69
edera (Pisa), both located in Italy. The earthquakes Atlantic Ocean, in the period between January 28,
considered in this study, with magnitude between 4.7 2023 and February 18, 2023 detected by the Italian
and 5.0, occurred in the Central Mid-Rigde of the RDF network (Table 1):
Table 1. Earthquakes list (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/).
N. Date time (UTC) Magnitude Depth Location Region
1 2023-01-29 17:04:15.3 mb 4.9 10 km 8.63°N; 39.50°W Central Mid-Atlantic Ridge
5 2023-02-15 02:13:12 mb 5.3 10 km 8.016°N; 37.066°O Central Mid-Atlantic Ridge
8 2023-02-17 02:11:31 mb 5.3 10 km 1.079°N 28.081°O Central Mid-Atlantic Ridge
9 2023-02-18 14:07:43 mb 4.7 10 km 7.365°N 36.037°O Central Mid-Atlantic Ridge
the order of tens of times. This is a condition that can

4. Discussion be considered normal precisely because in this case
Analysis of the electromagnetic data, in the changes in electromagnetic frequency are associated
SELF-VLF band, indicate that fluctuations in the du- with an increase in energy accumulated at the crustal
ration (in hours) of the radio-anomalies in the RDF level and capable of generating more earthquakes as
spectrograms can be associated with earthquakes in well as higher magnitudes. Earthquakes are associat-
the monitored area, in a time window ranging from ed with electromagnetic frequency of radio-anoma-
a few minutes to a little more than two hours. The lies, which occurs at 6,000 Hz (Figure 2).
RDF spectrograms show that earthquakes occur at a The duration of radio-anomalies recorded by Ital-
decrease and then by an increase in radio-anomalies, ian RDF stations (Figure 3), expressed in minutes,
lasting several minutes. The increase in the duration shows that most electromagnetic emissions of crustal
of radio-anomalies is accompanied by an increase in origin have a duration ranging from a few minutes
the number of earthquakes, especially when we con- to 125 minutes (average). It can be hypothesized that
sider those radio signals that possess an extremely the variation in the duration in minutes of these elec-
low frequency (0.001 to 3 Hz band). Data indicate tromagnetic emissions may be associated with the
that increases in the electromagnetic frequency of extent and amount of energy stored in the fault.
signals are always close (temporally) to earthquake Another important data point is the UTC time
events, in this case M4.5+ that occurred off Sier- within which radio-anomalies are emitted. Figure
ra Leone (Atlantic Ocean). The largest number of 4 shows that the time at which signals are most fre-
M4.5+ earthquakes occurred within a time frame in quently recorded is between about 04:48 UTC and
which the radio-anomalies recorded at very low fre- about 12:24 UTC, as in the case of 3 out of 4 earth-
quencies presented peaks that raised these values on quakes that occurred in that time range.
70
Figure 2. The graph shows the electromagnetic frequency of radio-anomalies recorded by Italian RDF stations, which appeared in the
Atlantic area facing Sierra Leone, and the number of earthquakes that always occurred in the same area monitored by the Italian RDF
network. Credits: Radio Emissions Project.
Figure 3. The graph shows the distribution of the duration in minutes of radio-anomalies recorded by Italian RDF stations. Credits:
Radio Emissions Project.
71
Figure 4. The graph shows the distribution of UTC time at which radio-anomalies recorded by Italian RDF stations occurred. Cred-
its: Radio Emissions Project.
5. Conclusions in Sierra Leone as well, supporting the Italian and

Malaysian to develop warning system for the risk of
The study provided significant indications of the strong earthquakes and tsunamis that may endanger
emission of electromagnetic signals with an azimuth the safety of people, especially in the centres that
of arrival located in the Atlantic area facing Sierra populate the coastal area of Sierra Leone.
Leone, converging in the frequency of 6,000 Hz, the
time (UTC) of occurrence of such signals, and their
Author Contributions
duration.
Analysis of the evolution of these radio emissions Valentino Straser has the main responsibility, and
related the variation in the duration in minutes of initiative based on several years of study of seismic
these signals to the occurrence of earthquakes, as precursors, especially in the electromagnetic field.
well as the average temporal location of these signals The co-authors supported the present study with data
throughout the day. Knowing the time of emission collection and providing the essential devices for re-
of electromagnetic signals, the mechanism of which al-time monitoring signals Radio Direction Finding.
is still to be interpreted, is particularly useful in ac-
tivating warning signals for the potential risk of an Conflict of Interest
earthquake occurrence, especially in the area of the
The author and co-authors declare that they have
capital Freetown.
no conflicts of interest.
The present study, which is still partial due to the
paucity of data to be modelled, can be enhanced in
the future with the expansion of the Radio Direc-
Funding
tion Finding network by placing monitoring stations This research received no external funding.
72
Acknowledgment pre-seismic electromagnetic signals. Asian Re-

view of Environmental and Earth Sciences. 6(1),
We express sincere thanks to Carlo Magretti for 16-27.
technical support in acquiring data for the prepara- [9] Milne, J., 1890. Earthquakes in connection with
tion of this study and anonymous reviewers who en-
electric and magnetic phenomena. Transactions
abled us to improve this paper.
of the Seismological Society of Japan. 15, 135-
162.
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75

EDITORIAL
Editorial for Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering

Research: Vol. 5 Issue 2 (2023)
Amin Beiranvand Pour
Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Kuala Nerus,
Terengganu, 21030, Malaysia
1. Introduction the earth’s future. The scope of Advances in Geolog-

ical and Geotechnical Engineering Research journal
Earth scientists aid to guarantee a supply of clean covers a variety of geology and environmental earth
water, explore for oil, gas, and coal, map the oceans, sciences. This journal is preparing to rivet a diversity
track severe weather, and discover the Earth mate- of research and support the Earth in the imminent
rials we need to build our homes and roads, and the future. A total of 5 papers finally were revised, ac-
minerals and nutrients we need to farm the land. cepted, and published in Vol. 5, Issue 2, which are
Environmental geologists help prevent and repair characteristically dedicated to geology and environ-
damage to our nation’s wetlands, streams, rivers, and mental earth sciences. The achievements of articles
shorelines. Environmental geologists similarly sup- presented in this volume are summarized in the fol-
port building new wetlands and stream channels to lowing section.
replace those lost to development. Healthy streams
and rivers support endangered salmon and other
wildlife. By studying geological issues, geologists,
2. Summary of paper presented in
along with other scientists, can anticipate Earth’s
Vol. 5, Issue 2 (2023)
future and examine any changes that may need to be Olusola A. OlaOlorun et al. [1] investigated the
made. A key example of this is the study of climate petrology and geochemical characteristics of crys-
change and how society needs to change to improve talline basement rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern
Amin Beiranvand Pour, Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Kuala Nerus, Terengganu,
21030, Malaysia; Email: beiranvand.amin80@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 28 April 2023 | Accepted: 12 May 2023 | Published Online: 15 May 2023
CITATION
Pour, A.B., 2023. Editorial for Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research: Vol. 5 Issue 2 (2023). Advances in Geological
and Geotechnical Engineering Research. 5(2): 76-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5688
COPYRIGHT
76
Nigeria. Results of the investigation show that the The deeply-seated peat/clay materials were delineat-
study area is underlain by migmatite, banded gneiss, ed in the study area to the depths of 17.1 m and 19.8
granite gneiss and biotite gneiss. Migmatite occupies m from 2-D and 3-D tomography, respectively. 3-D
western and northern parts, banded gneiss underlies images presented as horizontal depth slices revealed
Ora-Ekiti town and extends towards the northeast. the dominance of very low resistivity materials i.e.
Granite gneiss underlies the eastern and southwest- peat/clay/sandy clay within the fourth, fifth and sixth
ern corners of the area while biotite gneiss occurs to- layers at depths ranging from 8.68-12.5 m, 12.5-16.9
wards the south. Petrographic study shows the rocks m and 16.9-21.9 m respectively. The dominance of
are mainly dominated by quartz, plagioclase, biotite mechanically unstable peat/clay/sandy clay layers
and opaque each contributing slightly varying per- beneath the subsurface, which are highly mobile in
centages to the modal composition. The rocks have response to volumetric changes, is responsible for
high alumina content with pronounced enrichment the noticeable cracks/failure detected on structures
in Ba, Sr and Rb. The rocks are dominantly peralka- within the study site. These observations were val-
line in nature. The rocks experienced either crystal idated by a geotechnical test of soil samples in the
fractionation before metamorphic remobilization or study area.
partial melting in the precursor rocks. The chemical Abubakar Saidu Bako et al. [3] investigated the ra-
composition of the rocks depicts them are metalumi- don content, its related toxicity, and its risk to human
nous granitoids of calc-alkaline affinity. The rocks health in the groundwater of the Keana in Nasarawa,
consist of gneisses of no economic minerals, but Nigeria. Several borehole and well samples were
the petrology reveals them as common rocks collected. The results showed that the average radon
typical of metamorphic terrains and geochemical concentration in water samples from Keana was
features of the rocks reveal they are felsic and of 2.25 Bq/L. The radon concentration is less than the
granitic composition. benchmark of 11.1 Bq/L established in 1991 by the
U. Stanley Eze et al. [2] applied 2-D and 3-D Nigerian Standard Organization and the US Environ-
Geo-Electrical Resistivity Tomography and Geo- mental Protection Agency. Accordingly, this study
technical soil evaluation for engineering site investi- designates that the level of radon is safe and people
gation in Okerenkoko Primary School, Warri-South- can continue farming and other activities. To reduce
west, Delta State, Nigeria. In this study, an integrated the risk of cancer, however, more research could be
methodology employed DC resistivity tomography done in the area. The future investigation could be
involving 2-D and 3-D techniques and geotechni- executed during the dry and wet seasons because
cal-soil analysis was used to evaluate subsoil condi- radon concentrations in groundwater alter over time
tions for engineering site investigation to adduce the due to dilution by recharge from rainfall.
phenomena responsible for the visible cracks/struc- Valentino Straser et al. [4] proposed the Radio
tural failure observed in the buildings. The results Direction Finding method for the detection of elec-
obtained brought to light the geological structure tromagnetic signals, in the VLF band, to anticipate
beneath the subsurface, which consists of four geoe- the occurrence of potentially destructive geophysical
lectric layers identified as topsoil, dry/lithified upper events such tsunami. The area of investigation is
sandy layer, wet sand (water-saturated) and peat/ Sierra Leone, whose coastline is subjected to tidal
clay/sandy clayey soil (highly water-saturated). The wave hazards triggered by earthquakes generated in
results obtained brought to light the geological struc- the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Although Sierra Leone is
ture beneath the subsurface, which consists of four not affected by recurrent earthquakes, there is never-
geoelectric layers identified as topsoil, dry/lithified theless a low probability, estimated at 2 percent, of
upper sandy layer, wet sand (water-saturated) and the occurrence of destructive earthquakes in the next
peat/clay/sandy clayey soil (highly water-saturated). 50 years. The Radio Direction Finding experiment
77
has revealed a close relationship between increased Conflict of Interest

radio-anomalies, in the frequencies of 6,000 Hz,
There is no conflict of interest.
a time window between electromagnetic anomaly
detection and the imminence of an earthquake, and
higher frequency times for the risk of earthquake oc- References
currence in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. [1] OlaOlorun, O.A., Akinola, O.O., Oyinloye, A.O.,
Danusa Mayara de Souza et al. [5] correlated the 2023. Petrology and geochemical features of
sedimentary strata imaged by the ground penetration crystalline rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern Ni-
radar (GPR) method through numerical modeling geria. Advances in Geological and Geotechnical
with the mapping of sedimentary strata acquired Engineering Research. 5(2), 24-37.
through geotechnical surveys in Reduto Case Study, DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5243
Belém-PA, Brazil. Additionally, the study exposed [2] Eze, S.U., Okiotor, M.E., Ighodalo, J.E., et al.,
how obtaining subsoil information through noninva- 2023. Application of 2-D and 3-D geo-electrical
sive/destructive electromagnetic waves is beneficial, resistivity tomography and geotechnical soil
as they are reliable and less costly than drilling holes. evaluation for engineering site investigation: A
case study of Okerenkoko Primary School, War-
Subsequently, physical-geological modeling was ap-
ri-Southwest, Delta State, Nigeria. Advances in
plied. The information on the type of sediments is at-
Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Re-
tained using simple recognition surveys executed in
search. 5(2), 1-23.
the city of Belém-PA, which is facilitated to create of
a model of a sedimentary package with its respective
[3] Bako, A.S., Rilwan, U., Umar, I., et al., 2023.
intrinsic physical properties. The result demonstrates Toxicity of radon-222 in groundwater across
that the GPR recovered with good vertical and hori- Keana in Nasarawa, Nigeria. Advances in Geo-
zontal resolution at the beginning and end of the lay- logical and Geotechnical Engineering Research.
ers of the sedimentary units. The technique proved to 5(2), 38-49.
be very effective for locating geotechnical sounding DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5632
points and reducing costs. [4] Straser, V., Cataldi, D., Cataldi, G., 2023. Radio
direction finding method to mitigate tsunami risk
3. Concluding remarks in Sierra Leone. Advances in Geological and Geo-
technical Engineering Research. 5(2), 64-75.
The considerate and thoughtful comments con- DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5617
veyed by the reviewers enriched each of the papers [5] Mayara de Souza, D., Clávio de Alcântara
published in this volume. We would like to express Júnior, L.L.L., 2023. Correlation of ground pen-
our appreciation to the Editorial Office, all authors etrating radar data with geotechnical prospect
and reviewers who contributed their time, research, profiles: Reduto case study, Belém-PA, Brazil.
and specialty for this volume. We hope to receive Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engi-
a variety of manuscripts from different fields in the neering Research. 5(2), 50-63.
coming future. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v5i2.5579
78
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Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Sayed Hemead

Prof. Sayed Hemead

Editorial Board Members

Salvatore Grasso, Italy Sumit Kumar Ghosh, India

Application of 2-D and 3-D Geo-electrical Resistivity Tomography

1. Introduction both lateral and vertical contrast in ground resistivity

Source: Adapted from Nigeria Geological Survey Agency, NGSA [18].

3. Methodology were established and in the X-direction, 2-D pro-

Resistivity Thickness Depth

(a) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx1 (Traverse 1)

(b) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx2 (Traverse 5)

(c) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx3 (Traverse 6)

(d) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx4 (Traverse 7)

(e) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Lx5 (Traverse 3)

(f) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly1 (Traverse 2)

(g) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly2 (Traverse 8)

(h) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly3 (Traverse 9)

(i) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly4 (Traverse 10)

(j) 2D resistivity-depth section for line Ly5 (Traverse 4)

Figure 7(a-j). showing the 2D resistivity-depth structure of the subsurface.

Figure 8. 3-D resistivity tomography volume beneath the study

The horizontal-depth slices displayed six layers at

mum depth of 17.1 m. 4.4 Geotechnical soil analysis

Weight of Weight of Wet Weight of Weight of dry

technical properties for foundation design and neers. 146(1), 389-409.

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

Petrology and Geochemical Features of Crystalline Rocks in Ora-

Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, P.M.B. 5363, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

1. Introduction structurally distinct.

The study area lies within the basement complex

Migmatite covers the northern part of the study

Figure 2. Geological map of Ora-Ekiti.

1.4 Granite gneiss metamorphic recrystallization such as translational

than the migmatite. amorphism, migmatisation, granitization and gneissi-

the most abundant mineral reflects the siliceous

remobilization during metamorphic recrystallization

tabular crystals usually six-sided or is sometimes ir- Granite gneiss

es contains quartz, biotite, plagioclase feldspar and

opaque minerals (Figure 5b). That quartz is the most

abundant mineral in all the slides is a reflection of

also demonstrates a positive trend with SiO2. Harker

diagram of MgO versus SiO2 (Figure 6f) reveals a

negative trend symbolizing that as the major ele-

to granodioritic in composition. The AFM diagram ic activity.

Oxides Migmatite Banded gneiss Biotite gneiss Granite gneiss

Table 2. Trace elements composition of the basement rocks in Ora-Ekiti.

Trace Migmatite Banded gneiss Biotite gneiss Granite gneiss

Zr 86 264 50 87 331 376 391 393 113 241 261 203

5. Summary and conclusions basement rocks of Jebba area, Nigeria. Journal

of Malaysia. 62, 79-89. of Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

Toxicity of Radon-222 in Groundwater across Keana in Nasarawa,

1. Introduction Long-term exposure to high levels of radon and

ploying energy discrimination for alpha particles. Approach to data analysis

adopts RF as 0.05 for public stochastic effects. 9 KEB9 2.18

bles 4-7 present the findings of the analysis.

11 KEW1 0.016 0.027 13 KEW3 0.054