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Cognitive Science Approaches

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COGNITIVE SCIENCE APPROACHES IN THE

CLASSROOM: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE


This report summarises the contents of a longer systematic, evidence and practice review produced by a team
from the University of Birmingham, England.

We would like to thank all those who have contributed or provided advice in the production of the original
review, and this teacher facing summary.

Review team: Dr Thomas Perry, Dr Rosanna Lea, Clara Rübner Jørgensen (University of Birmingham),
Prof. Philippa Cordingley (CUREE), Prof. Kimron Shapiro, Prof. Deborah Youdell (University of Birmingham).

Additional support in writing this practitioner summary was provided by Jonathan Kay and Harry Madgwick (EEF).

We would also like to thank the advisory panel who assisted the review team.

Advisory panel: Dr Robin Bevan, Prof. Robert Coe, Dr Iroise Dumontheil, Dr Amy Fancourt, Dr Davinia
Fernández-Espejo, Julia Harrington, Dr Niki Kaiser, Mark Stow, Prof. Hillevi Lenz Taguchi, Sonia Thompson,
Prof. Sam Twiselton.

July 2021

About the Education Endowment Foundation


The Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) is an
independent charity supporting teachers and school
leaders to use evidence of what works—and what
doesn’t—to improve educational outcomes, especially
for disadvantaged children and young people.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 2


CONTENTS

Foreword 3
Executive summary 4
Introduction 9


Different aspects of cognitive science and


how they might be applied in the classroom

1 Spaced learning 15

2 Interleaving 19

3 Retrieval practice 21

4 Managing cognitive load 25

5 Working with schemas 31

6 Multimedia learning (including dual coding) 37

7 Embodied learning 42

Overarching findings 46
Glossary of terms 49

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 3


FOREWORD

One of the most important As with much evidence, the key message here is
questions educational research the importance of nuance. Principles from cognitive
can ask is how children learn. science are neither myths to be discounted, nor silver
If we know how they process bullets that directly translate into accelerated progress.
and retain information, we can
adapt our approach to teaching There are still many questions to be answered on how
accordingly and in turn, principles from cognitive science can be applied in order
increase effectiveness. to make the biggest positive difference for all young
people. We need to know more about the effectiveness
At the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF), of approaches when used in different subjects, phases
our mission is to ensure that pupils, regardless of and their impact on disadvantaged pupils.
their background, are able to reach the full extent
of their potential. Developing our understanding of The future research work of the EEF can help fill
memory and how to balance cognitive load, and then some of these gaps. We will continue to work to
applying this understanding in the classroom, has the generate and accurately summarise evidence on the
potential to improve outcomes for all children. approaches that can make a difference for all pupils,
particularly the most disadvantaged.
This is why the EEF has produced this evidence
summary on the impact of cognitive science
approaches when applied in the classroom.
Our hope is that by providing a transparent
summary of the evidence that shows both the
strengths and weaknesses of the current research,
we can support schools as they consider how Professor Becky Francis
principles might make a difference to their pupils. Chief Executive

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 4


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The role of cognitive science in the classroom


Cognitive science is being used increasingly to These theories are already having an impact
inform interventions, practice, and policy in education. on teaching policy and practice in England.
Of particular interest to education has been research For example, the evidence review underpinning the
into motivation and reward, working memory and Ofsted inspection framework draws significantly
long-term memory, and cognitive load. on approaches inspired by cognitive science:

Findings from two areas of cognitive science have ‘It is, for example, becoming increasingly clear
been especially influential: cognitive psychology, that using spaced or distributed practice, where
which is underpinned by interpretive, behavioural, knowledge is rehearsed for short periods over a
and observational methods, and cognitive longer period of time, is more effective than so-
neuroscience, which is underpinned by brain imaging called massed practice.’
technologies. Many theories of effective learning have
been derived from these research areas, including: Our survey of teachers found that over 85% of
respondents said that cognitive science strategies
• spaced learning—distributing learning and retrieval were central to their own approach to teaching.
opportunities over a longer period of time rather In addition, all early career teachers will be taught
than concentrating them in ‘massed’ practice; about memory and cognitive load as part of the
Early Career Framework.
• interleaving—switching between different types of
problem or different ideas within the same lesson
or study session;

• retrieval practice—using a variety of strategies to


recall information from memory, for example flash
cards, practice tests or quizzing, or mind-mapping;

• strategies to manage cognitive load—focusing


students on key information without overloading
them, for example, by breaking down or ‘chunking’
subject content or using worked examples,
exemplars, or ‘scaffolds’; and

• dual coding—using both verbal and non-verbal


information (such as words and pictures) to
teach concepts; dual coding forms one part of
a wider theory known as the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning (CTML).

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 5


The approach taken in this evidence review
Many recent reviews have examined and explained This report summarises the key findings and
the principles of cognitive science and how these implications from a substantial evidence review; the
principles might be applied in the classroom. Much of full report can be found here. The review comprises
this evidence comes from studies in the psychology a theoretical review of cognitive science, a practice
laboratory or from researcher-led trials. This evidence review on how approaches have been applied and
summary looks at the impact of these principles when received in English classrooms, and a systematic
they have been applied in the classroom. All of the review of studies that have rigorously tested the
studies included and summarised have taken place impact of approaches.
within schools.

In other words, this summary is focused on applied


cognitive science. Applied research reveals many Key Terms
problems not encountered in laboratory or tightly
controlled conditions. Classrooms are ‘messy’
and complex, with teachers needing to balance a ‘Basic’ cognitive science—seeks fundamental
wide range of considerations, both practical and understanding of learning, memory, and the
pedagogical. Findings from the lab do not always
brain. It typically uses experiments in controlled
translate into effective teaching and learning in the
classroom and they may not apply across different conditions to establish knowledge that is likely to
pupil age groups, subject areas, and school contexts. have wide applicability.
With any educational approach, implementation in
the classroom and variation in how the theories are
translated can have a massive influence over whether ‘Applied’ cognitive science—seeks to apply
the expected impacts are achieved. knowledge from basic cognitive science to solve
practical problems. Here we are focused on
By examining studies taking place in the classroom
cognitive science that is applied in the classroom
it is possible to build a picture of whether cognitive
that aims to improve learning of children and young
science principles work in practice, how they might
be applied most effectively, and begin to understand people aged 3–18.
the barriers and misapplications that mean that they
sometimes have a weaker than desirable, or even
negative, impact.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 6


Main findings
Cognitive science principles of learning of these, while plausible given the basic science, are yet
can have a real impact on rates of learning to be tested and found effective in the classroom.
in the classroom. There is value in teachers
having working knowledge of cognitive Even approaches with indicative evidence of promise
science principles. like retrieval practice, spaced practice, and the use
of worked examples are, as yet, only supported by
Theories from basic cognitive science imply principles a few studies that examine their impact in everyday
for effective teaching and learning. Principles include classroom conditions—delivered by teachers over
‘spacing’ learning out over time, providing worked long periods of time.
examples or ‘scaffolds’ to support problem-solving,
and presenting information both verbally and visually. • With some approaches—like interleaving—there
The applied evidence summarised does provide are studies with promising results but they have
support for many of the principles of learning implied almost exclusively been tested in one subject area
by basic cognitive science, albeit in specific contexts. (mathematics). More generally, there are serious
For most of the strategies included in this review, gaps and limitations in the age ranges, subjects,
cognitive science principles were significant factors and learning outcomes studied for most of the
affecting rates of learning and retention of information strategies we reviewed. These gaps make the
in the classroom. Most of the results could be extent to which strategies apply across all age
explained using theories from basic cognitive science ranges and subject areas unclear.
and practice-facing versions of these.
• Some approaches—like combining verbal
The evidence for the application of cognitive explanations with graphical representations,
science principles in everyday classroom also known as ‘dual coding’—are possible to
conditions (applied cognitive science) is implement poorly. While some studies show
limited, with uncertainties and gaps about positive impacts on pupil outcomes, there are also
the applicability of specific principles across multiple studies showing null or negative findings.
subjects and age ranges.
It is important to note that a lack of evidence is
Applied cognitive science is, so far, more limited and not the same as evidence that an approach is not
provides a less positive, and more complex, picture than successful. We should be cautious about concluding
the basic science. For many of the strategies that have that because a principle is found to be ineffective in
been tested in practice, the evidence was restricted the lab or in one classroom context that it cannot be
to particular age groups, subject areas, or learning deployed effectively elsewhere.
outcomes. Applications of cognitive science outside

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 7


Applying the principles of cognitive science Schools should consider how—and in which
is harder than knowing the principles and one contexts—to give teachers high quality CPD around
does not necessarily follow from the other. cognitive science approaches, and enough time to
Principles do not determine specific teaching test and incorporate approaches appropriately into
and learning strategies or approaches to their practice and for their subject and learners. Many
implementation. Considering how cognitive teachers report that their main form of engagement
science principles are implemented in the with cognitive science is independent study.
classroom is critical.
Principles of cognitive science interact
Some accounts of cognitive science principles and should not be considered in isolation
prescribe practice based on the strength of the from each other, or without taking into
underlying theory and claim that the behavioural account wider practical and pedagogical
or neuroscientific evidence justifies application considerations.
across subjects and ages (see previous). These are
inevitably interpretations of how principles apply in There are clear links between the different approaches
the classroom. The fact that many strategies have summarised within this review. In particular there are
not been consistently tested in everyday classroom relationships between:
settings means that it is particularly important to think
carefully about if, and in what circumstances, they are • approaches that consider how to optimise retrieval
applicable and how we could implement them in a of information from the long-term memory: spaced
way that has a positive impact on pupil outcomes: learning, interleaving, and retrieval practice;

• Teachers looking to apply cognitive science • approaches that consider the balance between
principles in the classroom will need to consider didactic instruction and the pupil’s role in learning:
how, and in what conditions, approaches strategies for working with schemas, learner-
informed by cognitive science might improve led strategies within managing cognitive load,
learning. The effectiveness of strategies is likely cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and
to depend on factors including the age of embodied learning.
learners, learner prior knowledge, the nature of
the subject and learning outcomes, and whether Little research has effectively explored how distinct
the approach is practically feasible—and make and similar strategies interact but it is clear that
sure that they are successfully enacted. careful consideration is required to optimise mergers
between approaches, for example, combining retrieval
• Special care should be taken to make sure approaches with appropriate spacing.
that principles are successfully implemented,
avoiding ‘lethal mutations’ when a practice The survey of teachers, review of the underpinning
becomes disconnected from the theory. For science, and the applied evidence in areas such as
example, teachers have reported that dual coding embodied learning suggest that social, emotional and
sometimes means that irrelevant illustrations physical aspects to cognition are also important for
are added to presentations, which may be a teachers to consider.
distraction rather than a way of developing
schemas and optimising cognitive load.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 8


INTRODUCTION

What is cognitive science?


Cognitive science is gaining increasing influence One of the appealing prospects for both these
in education and many existing and developing approaches is that they might reveal something
educational approaches are described as ‘inspired fundamental about learning, memory, and the brain.
by cognitive science’. Many of these approaches These understandings might be applicable across
have been long practiced or described as effective many contexts—to the extent to which humans share
pedagogy, without any reference to cognitive the same basic processes of learning and memory.
science—for example, quizzing pupils on topics has
been common even without this being thought of as
a form of ‘retrieval practice’.

The principles of cognitive science are typically


derived from two areas of research:

• cognitive psychology—which is underpinned


by interpretive, behavioural, and observational
methods and in cognitive science has commonly
derived principles from ‘lab studies’ in which
different ways of influencing learning are tested
and their results observed for individuals or small
groups; and

• cognitive neuroscience—which is underpinned


by brain imaging technologies such as functional
imaging (fMRI) and tests principles by examining
the physiological response of the brain rather
than the behavioural response of participants
in experiments.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 9


Important concepts and theories from cognitive science
Perhaps the most important concept used from Some strategies (reviewed in our section on
cognitive science concerns the processes by which managing cognitive load and also informing other
all of us commit information to our memories. areas such as dual coding and embodied learning)
focus on the best ways of ensuring that the use of
Memory can be separated out into sensory, working, the working memory is optimised to focus on relevant
and long-term memory. The process of going from learning content rather than distractions. Other
seeing or hearing something to storing it in your long- strategies are more focused on practicing the process
term memory goes through several stages: of retrieving information from the long-term memory
(such as spaced learning, retrieval practice,
• an input (for example, hearing a teacher explain and interleaving).
multiplication tables), the vast majority of which is
forgotten (for example, the background noise, the
clothes that the teacher is wearing, what is on the
wall behind the teacher); Key principles to remember

• a fraction of the input enters the working memory 1. Learning requires information to be committed
(for example, 2 x 2 = 4); and to long-term memory.

• through attention and rehearsal, the information 2. Information is processed through the
moves from the working memory to the long- working memory.
term memory.
3. The working memory has limited capacity
Many of the strategies derived from cognitive science and can be overloaded.
focus on the crucial interactions between working
memory and long-term memory and the important
observation from cognitive science that our working
memories have limited capacity.

Rehearsal

Encoding
Input Sensory Attention Working Long term
(stimuli) memory memory Retrieval memory

R e h e ar s al

Forgetting

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 10


Theory and practice divide
While discovering fundamental principles of memory whether something found in artificial conditions
or learning might be appealing precisely because applies in specific, realistic conditions. It also requires
they might be applicable to all pupils, the process overcoming many barriers that can prevent positive
of understanding whether a principle that works in results even if the theory itself is sound.
the lab is also effective in the classroom—and the
job of actually applying these principles—is far from Rather than reviewing the theories that underpin
straightforward. Understanding cognitive science cognitive science, this review examines instances
and using lessons from cognitive science to improve where these theories have been applied in real
teaching and learning are not the same thing. Applying classrooms and how they have impacted the results
a theory in the classroom requires understanding of pupils.

Lost in translation: how to lose the power of a good theory

1. Misunderstanding an important part of 3. Failing to target the theory effectively


the theory
Mrs Rushby has heard that worked examples with
Mr Bell has heard a lot about dual coding— incorrect information in them has been shown to
and that learning can be enhanced by pictorial be an effective way of teaching information while
representations alongside information. He fills all managing cognitive load. When she uses the
of his classroom slides with quirky illustrations examples in her Year 7 maths class, most pupils
that he hopes will make the learning memorable. struggle to identify any errors—many of them end up
Unfortunately, the images end up distracting his reinforcing rather than addressing misconceptions
pupils and increasing their cognitive load meaning and only a few of the top attaining pupils in the class
that they struggle to remember the content itself. respond positively to the task.

2. Failing to equip teachers to deliver the theory 4. Or… the theory doesn’t actually work
in schools?
The Ofsted inspection framework prompts senior
leadership to book some staff training on cognitive It might be that none or all of these factors are in
science. While the twilight session covers some of play and that the theory itself has only ever been
the principles behind spaced learning, staff are given shown to work in highly controlled laboratory
no guidance on how to apply the approach. Senior settings or for particular age ranges or subject
leadership are not keen on any changes to school areas. In medicine, treatments are often shown
timetabling or the curriculum. No follow-up training to reduce in efficacy as they move from lab-testing,
is provided. to larger trials, to the real world.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 11


How close to classroom practice?
One of the challenges when using evidence is It is important to note that any of these studies might
understanding how close the research is to everyday contain useful information on whether a cognitive
classroom practice. We have consciously excluded science approach might be successful; for example,
any ‘lab studies’ from this review. If an approach has knowing whether the vocabulary intervention does
been tested outside of a classroom setting, it has not actually teach the words intended is useful. But these
be included. This still, however, leaves large scope for studies do not necessarily mean that the approach
studies that take place in real classrooms but that are will translate to similar results in every classroom. For
further away from the reality of everyday teaching. example, if the approach is delivered by a researcher
For example: this conveniently sidesteps any issues with how easy
it might be to train teachers to deliver the approach
• studies where the activity takes place in the across a school.
classroom but the actual activities are delivered
by a researcher rather than a teacher; Most scientific studies are designed to isolate and test
the effect of a single principle or strategy. This is also
• studies where a teacher delivers an activity but true of even most applied studies, where researchers
their teaching is scripted and/or the researcher is are usually focused on how a specific change in the
present and providing more assistance than would teaching and learning can affect the learner outcomes.
be possible in a usual classroom setting; Researchers tend to use experiments across many
schools to ‘control for’ or ‘average out’ all the myriad
• approaches that focus on very particular or narrow factors that affect teaching and learning. Teachers,
learning objectives or are tested for a very short on the other hand, must necessarily consider a wide
period of time; range of practical and pedagogical factors. These
factors interact in complex ways and change moment-
• studies where the outcome measured is very to-moment in complex classroom environments.
close to the intervention—for example, testing
knowledge of specific words taught by a During the review, researchers examined the literature
vocabulary intervention; to identify possible factors that might influence
whether cognitive science principles work and are
• studies that only look at a very small group of successfully implemented in a particular teaching and
pupils in one particular school that may not be learning context. The table below summarises a range
representative of all pupils; or of factors relating to teachers, learners, classrooms,
and the curriculum that might influence the impact of
• studies that include only a small number of cognitive science strategies.
teachers, or the teachers are cognitive science
experts and enthusiasts.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 12


Possible factors affecting the impact of cognitive science techniques

Teachers, teaching Pupil individual factors


(potentially different for each student)
• Extent of teacher professional development and • Prior level of knowledge, in general and for the topic
learning for the cognitive science technique being learnt (and extent to which the teacher takes this
into account)
• Teacher general pedagogical and subject-specific
knowledge and skills • Working memory capacity
• Level of teacher experience • Nutrition and hydration
• Teacher motivation and enthusiasm for the cognitive • Alertness/activity level
science technique
• Mood and emotional state
• Extent to which technique replaces or improves
• General and learning-specific motivation
teacher’s existing practice
• Personality and temperament
• (Many of the pupil factors, right, also apply to teachers)
• Special educational needs, difficulties, or disabilities
• Learning behaviours and strategies
• Age and maturity

Classroom/social environment Activity, topic, and subject

• Relations in the classroom (teacher-pupil, pupil-pupil) • Subject or curriculum area (e.g., general differences in
the nature of subject content and pedagogy)
• Culture of participation
• Nature of specific learning content (e.g., complexity/
• Emotional environment
element interactivity, novelty, connection with
• Disruption, noise, or distraction other learning)
• Decoration and information • Nature of specific learning activity (e.g., student-led,
length, structure, resources)
• Access to learning resources

This is not an exhaustive list. It is also important As with any evidence base, it is important to
to note that whether or not a specific strategy (for remember that lack of evidence or lack of quality
example, dual coding) works in practice may be evidence is not the same as evidence of no impact.
influenced by any one of these factors, and more likely It is also possible, despite the complexity of teaching
most of them. As we describe above, even applied and learning, to identify guiding principles and ‘best
studies rarely study much of this variation. The best bets’ for action. The evidence around cognitive
applied studies provide an authentic test of a strategy science is evolving quickly and areas that rely
in realistic conditions; they are designed to take these on lab-based studies or studies with researcher
into account and make sense of why and in what delivery today may be tested in realistic classroom
circumstances something works as well as providing environments tomorrow.
a strong test of whether or not it does. Unfortunately,
at present, well-designed applied studies are rare.

This evidence summary aims to be transparent


about these challenges. Each section describes the
evidence behind an approach and makes clear where
these limitations apply.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 13


This evidence summary
This evidence summary is based on a longer review,
which can be found here. The review document
contains full details on the methodology of the review,
which combines a theoretical review with a practice
review and a systematic review, from which most of
the evidence summaries below are drawn.

This summary document is split into seven sections


based on different aspects of cognitive science and
ways they might be applied in the classroom.

1. Spaced learning
2. Interleaving
3. Retrieval practice
4. Managing cognitive load
5. Working with schemas
6. Multimedia learning (including dual coding)
7. Embodied learning

Where these sections contain multiple approaches—


for example, spacing across lessons and within
lessons—there are separate sections summarising
the evidence for each approach in more detail.

The final sections of the evidence summary discuss


mixed approaches that combine the strategies
listed above, and a discussion on some overarching
findings from the review with regards to the promise
of approaches based on cognitive science in general.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 14


1. SPACED LEARNING

Key things to consider What is the theory?


• There is evidence to suggest that spacing Spaced practice (also referred to as spaced learning,
teaching and learning of material over time and distributed practice, distributed learning, and the
between intervals of unrelated content has the spacing effect) applies the principle that material is
potential to improve pupil learning. more easily learnt when broken apart by intervals
of time. Spaced practice is often contrasted with
• More studies have examined the impact of ‘massed’ or ‘clustered’ practice, whereby material
spacing content across days and lessons than is covered within a single lesson or a linear and
within individual lessons. Regarding the former, the sequential succession of learning.
evidence suggests a small positive impact across
pupil ages and subject areas. While spaced practice is thought to make learning
more challenging for pupils as it prohibits information
• A very limited number of studies examined being held in the working memory, it may be able to
spacing within lessons. These suggest promise increase the likelihood of knowledge being embedded
but there is too little evidence to have confidence in pupils’ long-term memory. In having pupils revisit
in this result. key concepts, ideas, or skills over longer periods of
time in which content is almost forgotten, teachers
• Implementing a spaced approach across days may be able to improve learning retention.
or lessons may present significant challenges,
requiring careful integration with existing
curriculum planning. Spacing within the confines
of the existing curriculum and timetable may
therefore be a more feasible application for
classroom teachers to implement themselves.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 15


How do teachers use spaced practice in the classroom?
When adopting a spaced practice approach, teachers Some teachers also report using spaced practice as
will fill spaces of time with learning content or activities a form of retrieval practice, testing pupils’ knowledge
that do not relate to the concept, idea, or skill being of previously taught content. This approach to spacing
spaced. Where material is learnt across more than may be used as a form of revision as teachers utilise
one lesson in a subject, spacing can be a natural strategies such as multiple choices questions, recall
consequence of the timetable with lessons in different grids, quizzes, or homework tasks to help pupils
subjects occurring in between the spaced learning. identify gaps in understanding and recall information
Within-lesson spacing is built into lessons plans and from long-term memory. Such practices may be
activity sequencing. embedded into teachers’ lesson planning, meaning
that a portion of every lesson or time of day is
This is similar to the practice of interleaving, which dedicated to revisiting content.
also involves the use of spacing in a sequence of
learning. This said, where spaced practice uses Teachers might apply spacing principles to many
intervals consisting of unrelated content to encourage aspects of teaching and learning. For example,
pupils to temporarily forget information before recalling spacing could be applied to instruction, practise,
their long-term memory, interleaving is more likely to or assessment.
be used to systematically switch between concepts
and learning that are interrelated, encouraging This review identified two forms of spaced practice
learners to make distinctions and connections that have been evaluated through research:
between similar yet slightly different learning material.
1. spacing across days or lessons; and
2. spacing within lessons.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 16


Strategy 1: Spacing across days and lessons

An example approach Implementation


After teaching her class a new word, Ms Begum Planning and implementing spacing across days and
always makes a note of when she will revisit the lessons takes careful curriculum planning that may
word in other lessons throughout the coming present challenges. A pressure to cover lots of learning
material within limited timeframes can lead to teachers
week. Whether asking pupils to recall the
feeling that there is little opportunity to reintroduce
definition of the word or designing tasks in which previously taught content. Curricula are also often
they must apply it in a new context, Ms Begum organised in blocks to accord with school timetables,
always ensures the word is returned to as this can school textbooks, and prescribed by school leadership
help to embed it in pupils’ long-term memory. teams: this means that applying a spaced approach
across days or lessons can sometimes be an
organisational challenge beyond the remit of individual
What is it? classroom teachers.

Spacing across days or lessons might see pupils The evidence also highlights the value of considering
revisit a specific concept, idea, or topic several times how spacing can be informed and enhanced by
over the course of one week, or once or twice a classroom feedback and assessment. Teachers can
week for many weeks. The alternative to spacing is use assessment to decide how often learning material
usually referred to as ‘blocked’ or ‘massed’ practice, should be revisited and the best time to increase the
where content is studied in a single learning session. challenge or move on.
Spacing is frequently combined with retrieval practice,
often known as spaced retrieval practice.
What is the evidence based on?
What does the evidence say?
The review found 18 studies of spacing across
There are a significant number of studies showing that days and lessons.
spacing across days and lessons can have a small
• The ages of children in the studies ranged from
positive impact on learning outcomes.
6 to 17.
There are, however, some important limitations to the • Studies covered several different subject areas
evidence. Substantial variation is found between study including reading and vocabulary, science,
results with a significant number showing either no
and maths.
impact or a negative effect. Also, while spaced practice
principles were tested in real classrooms within these • In only six of the studies pupils were taught by
studies, the approaches were rarely delivered by teachers rather than researchers or computer
classroom teachers. Those that were designed and
packages. For these six, the training, guidance,
had the lesson materials provided by researchers.
or materials were provided by researchers.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 17


Strategy 2: Spacing within lessons

An example approach Implementation


In his Year 4 class Mr Coales regularly breaks up Fewer teachers report using spacing within lessons,
the teaching of key concepts in science with other suggesting spacing is more regularly considered as
a method of revisiting content throughout a longer
activities that distract pupils from what they have
timescale. However, given that some teachers
been learning. For example, after teaching his
seeking to apply spacing across days or lessons
class about the different components of flowering highlight the challenge of spacing content within
plants (roots, stem or trunk, leaves, and flowers), rigidly planned and time pressured curricula, spacing
Mr Coales supports his class to revise their within lessons may be a more feasible method of
drawing on the benefits of spacing without making
previous topic on forces for ten minutes. After
major adjustments to the organisation of the
this, the pupils revise and apply previous learning
timetable or curriculum.
on plant parts by labelling a diagram.
This said, given that spacing is thought to increase
the difficulty of learning for pupils by challenging then
to revisit almost-forgotten information, frequent use
What is it?
of spacing within lessons could detrimentally affect
Spacing within lessons involves the same content some pupils’ motivation.
being repeated many times within one individual
lesson, broken up by short intervals of time (often ten
minutes long) in which unrelated content is taught.
Although it may be common for key concepts, ideas, What is the evidence based on?
or definitions to be reused or revisited within single The review found two studies of spacing
lessons, spacing within lessons differs from ‘massed’
within lessons.
or ‘clustered’ practice through the teacher’s choice to
fill spacing intervals with unrelated learning or activities. • The ages of children ranged from 4 to 11 in one
study and 13 to 15 in the second study.
What does the evidence say?
• The study with 4- to 11-year-olds involved the
The two studies on the impact of within-lesson teaching of history and geography, whereas the
spaced practice suggest it may have a positive effect
older study only looked at the teaching
on learning when compared with massed practice.
of biology.
There are, however, significant limitations to the Both studies were conducted in a single school in
evidence. The range in available studies is very small,
England meaning there is insufficient variation in
both in scale of research and authorship. Results are
also varied within available studies. This means that the population to test for generalisable impact.
the positive finding is merely indicative of potential
rather than evidence of effectiveness.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 18


2. INTERLEAVING

Key things to consider Interleaving therefore draws on the use of spaced


intervals thought to assist long-term memory retention,
• Evidence suggests interleaving may be an as seen in spaced practice, as well as the benefits
effective strategy for developing upper primary of making comparisons to develop more complex
to early secondary (age 8–14) pupils’ ability schemas, as highlighted in working with schemas.
to select appropriate methods for solving
mathematical problems. How do teachers use interleaving
in the classroom?
• While plausible, there is little or no applied
evidence of interleaving being applied to topics The evidence we reviewed on interleaving in the
outside of mathematics or for younger or classroom has, with the exception of only one study,
older pupils. examined its use in Key Stage 2 or Key Stage 3
mathematics to develop pupils’ ability to select
• The rationale for interleaving is that it may support appropriate strategies to solve problems.
learners to discriminate between two similar
concepts or methods. Teachers may be able to In the wider literature and teacher accounts, many
increase the level of challenge presented through believe that the benefits of interleaving extend beyond
interleaved tasks by introducing more similar items strategy choice in maths. Some other topics of
of learning. application include students learning different artists’
styles, grammar in the language curriculum, physics
equation practice, preparation for MFL oral exams
What is the theory? (where ‘students have to be ready to talk at length
about a large number of topics’), maths teaching, and
Interleaving involves sequencing tasks so that primary languages.
learning material is interspersed with slightly (but
not completely) different content or activities, as
opposed to undertaking tasks through a blocked
An example approach
and consecutive approach. While similar to spaced
When teaching fractions to his class, Mr
practice, interleaving involves sequencing tasks or
Hodiak likes to test his pupils as this can help
learning content that share some likeness whereas a
spaced practice approach uses intervals that are filled to identify areas for improvement and gaps in
with unrelated activities. understanding. To ensure that his pupils have to
think hard about how to solve fractions, Mr Hodiak
By repeatedly reintroducing pupils to similar but
interleaves problems with different numerators and
slightly different content or activities, interleaving
denominators. Mr Hodiak thinks that by requiring
is thought to assist the drawing of comparisons
between related but discrete items of learning. When his pupils to identify the subtle differences
completing a series of related activities, pupils may between these varied types of problems, he
refine their ability to select the more appropriate can embed learning and improve pupils’ ability
method for answering certain types of questions.
to select appropriate strategies when solving
fractions in the future.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 19


What has been researched? Implementation
The research focused mostly on interleaving There is some evidence to suggest that interleaving
mathematical problems that pupils independently is well suited to problem-solving tasks where pupils
solve through selecting appropriate solutions. select strategies to generate solutions.
Problems could be presented to pupils through
computer software, workbooks, or via a teacher It is possible that the more similar interleaved items
provided with a script, or researchers. are, the harder pupils must think to differentiate
between them, increasing the level of challenge. As
What does the evidence say? pupils become more able to discern the differences
of tasks and select appropriate strategies, it may be
When compared to a blocked or sequential approach, appropriate to interleave more similar problems as this
there is moderate positive evidence that interleaving should require more nuanced discrimination.
can better support Key Stage 2 and Key Stage 3
pupils to select appropriate solutions when solving Some teachers express concern over confusing
mathematical problems. students through interleaving, particularly those
with lower attainment who may take comfort in
There are, however, some important limitations to the compartmentalising their knowledge. It is possible
evidence: 11 out of 12 studies were in maths, and that some pupils need to have strong foundational
within these many focused on interleaving tasks that knowledge of learning content prior to making
required learners to select a solution strategy before effective comparisons between interleaved tasks or
implementing it. concepts, particularly if this content was originally
covered in a different unit of work.
While the approach may be transferable across
tasks or subjects, we have no evidence to support
this. The evidence is also based on a set of highly What is the evidence based on?
scripted, research-controlled studies that use mostly
The review found 12 studies of interleaving.
workbooks or computer software for delivery, so we
cannot be sure how applicable these findings are to
• The ages of children in the studied ranged from
teacher-directed interleaving.
8 to 14.

• Studies covered mostly maths topics such as


fractions, algebra, subtraction, and geometry.
One study was in physical education.

• In five of the 12 studies pupils were taught by


teachers or with some (mostly scripted) teacher

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 20


3. RETRIEVAL PRACTICE

Key things to consider or information. Also, the testing process makes


pupils aware of weaknesses in their memory and
• Short, low-stakes tests or ‘quizzes’ in various gaps in their understanding, thereby supporting
formats can be a cheap, easy-to-implement self-monitoring of learning that can lead to the
way of recapping material that might strengthen development of strategies for improvement.
pupils’ long-term ability to remember key
concepts or information. How do teachers use retrieval
practice in the classroom?
• Planning test difficulty is particularly important—
pupils should be able to retrieve at least some The most common application of retrieval practice
of the content they are tested on. in the classroom is using low-stakes quizzes to
encourage learners to retrieve information from
• Quizzing or low-stakes testing may also reveal their long-term memory. Retrieval practice is often
misconceptions. How will you ensure that contrasted with recapping material—where the
where these emerge pupils are supported to teacher reminds pupils of previous learning rather
overcome them? than asking learners to recall it themselves.

The low-stakes quizzing can take many forms including:


What is the theory?
• multiple choice questions;
Retrieval practice describes the process of recalling • short-answer fact questions;
information from memory with little or minimal • short problem-solving;
prompting. Low stakes tests (such as individual • true/false questions;
questions or quizzes) are often used as methods of • labelling diagrams;
retrieval practice as these require pupils to think hard • image recognition;
about what information they have retained and can • recitation of quotes or definitions; and
recall. When used in this way, tests can be a strategy • list creation.
for learning in addition to being an assessment of
learning. The retrieval practice evidence base (both Retrieval practice might be combined with other
basic and applied) suggests that testing learning is approaches—for example, providing targeted
often a better strategy for learning than restudying feedback on the outcomes of the low-stakes quizzes.
or recapping the same information.

Cognitive science informs us that memory has a An example approach


‘strength’, referring both to how easily something can
be recalled and how deeply information is embedded. At the beginning of German class, Mrs Key asks
When content is studied and recalled, both types of the class to think back to their learning from the
memory strength increase, meaning that information previous week and to list as many of the German
is more easily accessible and that this accessibility is
words for animals as they can on a sheet in front
more durable.
of them.
It is thought that by testing for knowledge of
previously learnt content, retrieval practice encourages
pupils to strengthen their memory on key concepts

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 21


What has been researched? Implementation
The research summarised here examines any activity Teachers have identified numerous ways that retrieval
that requires students to recall information from practice can be implemented and very few barriers to
memory rather than recapping, revising, or restudying implementation were identified. Practices identified by
the information. This can include partial recall of teachers included:
information supported by hints, cues, scaffolds,
or other contextual information. A common way of • use of knowledge organisers to rehearse
achieving this in a classroom is through low-stakes learning points;
quizzes, questions, and tests.
• retrieval grids;
What does the evidence say?
• labelling diagrams with gradual reduction
When compared to no recap activity at all, the evidence of information; and
for using quizzes is moderate and generally positive.
• true or false, multiple choice, cloze procedure,
Most studies that compare quizzing to forms of and finish the sentence.
re-study or recap have a positive impact—though
there are high levels of variation in the evidence At present, the evidence is uncertain about which
and some negative results. activity formats are most effective and whether
retrieval practice can help students learn ‘higher-
One of the weaknesses of the evidence is that many order’ or more subtle learning content beyond factual
of the approaches are designed and delivered by recall. There are, however, a number of factors that
researchers rather than classroom teachers. There teachers should consider when implementing retrieval
are examples of teacher-delivered quizzing having a practice—particularly around whether additional
positive impact but given the lack of studies, a firm support is required for pupils that struggle. When one
conclusion is not possible. There are also questions provides a test to a group of students, they will—to
about whether retrieval practice is as effective for more varying proportions:
complex or subtle learning beyond rote factual recall.
• successfully retrieve some answers;
Despite these limitations, the positive impact of the
retrieval studies, the good theoretical grounding of • be unable to retrieve others; and
the practice, and the low cost of implementing low-
stakes testing and quizzing generally mean that it is • erroneously retrieve some answers
a promising approach that teachers should consider. (for example, misconceptions).

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 22


A key consideration when implementing retrieval
approaches should be how to determine optimal task
What is the evidence based on?
difficulty. If pupils are unable to retrieve information
The review found 21 studies that compared
successfully then this is unlikely to increase memory
strength, however, the evidence is currently uncertain retrieval practice to restudy.
about optimal level of challenge. It should be noted
• The studies spanned students from early years
that quizzing has other potential benefits beyond
encouraging pupils to retrieve information. For to older pupils aged 16–17. There was a good
example, testing might identify gaps in knowledge spread across primary and secondary pupils
and where pupils erroneously retrieve wrong answers,
• Studies looked at a wide range of subjects
feedback might be used to support learning and help
including language, history, maths, science,
pupils overcome misconceptions.
and English.
An interesting challenge is how to combine retrieval
• Only one of the 21 studies was delivered by
practice with spaced learning. Spacing lessons
regular class teachers. Others were delivered
might make pupils less able to retrieve information. If
teachers are implementing both approaches together, by researchers (in keeping with the aim of this
they could carefully monitor whether the approaches review, all studies did take place in school rather
are additive and check that spacing does not reduce than lab settings).
the ability of pupils to retrieve information successfully.
Spaced retrieval can also potentially answer questions
about which learning content to prioritise in a crowded
curriculum. Moreover, revisiting previously-taught
content as part of retrieval practice—while it is likely to
be preferable to restudying or reteaching (assuming
that the material was successfully learnt)—may also
encroach on the time available to teach new material.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 23


4. MANAGING COGNITIVE LOAD

Key things to consider What is the theory?


• The evidence around strategies that seek to A key challenge for educators is that working memory
manage cognitive load is promising and indicative is limited. There are lots of things that can cause it
of the value and importance of teachers seeking to be overwhelmed. An example is when problem-
to manage cognitive load. solving learners might be presented with a large
amount of complex information and asked to follow a
• While this typically involves reducing unnecessary series of problem-solving steps. Where a student has
information and providing additional structure and limited prior knowledge committed to their long-term
support, sometimes optimising cognitive load memory this might lead to their working memory being
involves increasing the challenge and quantity overwhelmed, impairing learning.
of relevant information provided.
The aim of strategies that focus on managing cognitive
• Worked examples are appropriate for learning load is not to minimise cognitive load but to optimise
with a defined, step-by-step structure. Their it—minimising unnecessary load and ensuring that
typical application has been in secondary science working memory remains focused on the information
and maths, where all of the applied evidence we that is being taught.
reviewed is located.
How do teachers manage cognitive
• It is also possible to provide incomplete or partially load in the classroom?
incorrect worked examples to increase challenge
and ‘fade’ out the support provided. Understanding cognitive load has implications for
general teaching practice—for example, avoiding
• Other strategies for managing cognitive load distractions or anxieties that might overload the
include scaffolding through, for example, providing working memory. Teachers report practices aimed
appropriate guidance, prompts, instructions, at managing cognitive load, for example, chunking
templates, and tools. content into manageable pieces of learning, creating
frameworks and scaffolds to support understanding
• Collaborative group work can share—and thereby of key concepts, thinking about economy of language
reduce—cognitive load, with peer support acting when giving verbal instructions, and decluttering
analogously to worked examples and scaffolds. The presentation materials.
evidence suggests that optimising cognitive load in
group-work settings is possible, albeit challenging. This review has identified three specific practices that
teachers might use to manage cognitive load:

1. using worked examples to support learners


to apply and develop knowledge;

2. providing ‘scaffolding’ and other forms of support


such as prompts, cues, or targeted instructions
to help learners navigate the working memory
demands of tasks; and

3. using collaboration between pupils so that they


can share the demands of problem-solving tasks.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 24


Strategy 1: Worked examples

An example approach

When teaching her class about titration calculations,


Dr Turner demonstrates how to organise the
information in a question within a grid format.
This breaks down the steps involved in the overall
calculation, helping to ensure pupils complete each
step in the correct order. Dr Turner always models how
to use the grid correctly when teaching it to pupils.

Image © Kristy Turner reproduced with permission

What is it? What does the evidence say?


Worked examples provide students with step-by-step, There are a large number of studies showing that
or part-by-part, demonstration of a task that makes using worked examples can have a positive impact
clear the required product (that is, answers or output) on learning outcomes.
and the process of completing the task. They often
include diagrams that illustrate each step. They relate There are, however, some important limitations to the
to cognitive load theory because it is thought that evidence. No studies were found that tested using
they can support pupils in applying understanding worked examples outside of maths and science.
and applying knowledge without overloading working While the principles may be transferable, we have no
memory by requiring pupils to solve problems while evidence of the application outside of these subjects.
they are first beginning to understand an approach. The evidence is also very focused on older pupils.
Approaches will often ‘fade’ information—gradually
reducing the level of explanation provided by the
examples. In some circumstances, pupils are given What if the evidence was there?
incorrect worked examples and asked to identify
errors in the process. The review found 22 studies on worked examples.
Seven of these studies focused on the use of
incorrect or incomplete worked examples.

• Most studies took place with secondary


age students.

• All studies focused on maths and science.

• In only eight of the studies were the worked


examples delivered by regular class teachers
rather than computers or researchers.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 25


Implementation
One of the biggest challenges identified around the One of the biggest challenges identified around
use of worked examples was the ‘expert reversal’ the use of worked examples was making sure that
effect. The structure and support provided by the exemplification itself is of high quality and does
worked examples that appear to benefit learners not introduce any new misconceptions, unless it is
in an unfamiliar and complex topic can be become specifically designed to test their identification.
redundant or even harmful as pupils become more
familiar with the problem. It is important to pay Another challenge identified around managing
close attention to pupil prior understanding and the cognitive load was that many existing materials from
progress being made. The evidence also shows that core textbooks contain designs that are likely to split
individual working memory capacity varies, and can attention and overload the working memory. There
be greatly affected by emotions such as anxiety. is a balance to be struck between breaking down
information into manageable steps or ‘chunks’ and
There is some evidence that using incorrect keeping related material in one place to avoid split
examples and asking pupils to identify errors in attention. Where pre-prepared materials are poor,
a worked example can have a positive impact as it can be challenging for teachers to have capacity
learning progresses. However, a key factor identified to design worked examples that do not introduce
is matching levels of prior learning to the strategy. misconceptions, that are well-tailored to the content,
Strategies where pupils are asked to identify problems and do not contain extraneous design elements that
with incorrect worked examples need to be carefully overload the working memory (see cognitive theory
tailored to the prior knowledge of the pupils. Several of multimedia learning).
studies showed that these approaches had positive
effects for advanced pupils but mixed evidence for
pupils with low prior attainment.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 26


Strategy 2: Scaffolds, guidance,
and schema-based instruction

An example approach What does the evidence say?


Whilst reading aloud to class, Mrs Walker chunks This approach covers a wide number of different
the sections of reading into manageable lengths practices. For example, some studies examined
intelligent tutoring systems that automated support
and stops to explain difficult concepts to the class.
as learners went through tasks while another
The students were supported, through the use provided explanatory notes during reading
of a structured worksheet, to identify key terms, comprehension activities.
organise ideas from the text in sequence, and to
identify themes and the main ideas in the text. Despite the variety in approaches, there is consistent
evidence that well targeted scaffolds, guidance, and
schema-based support are an effective approach
to support students to solve problems or learn from
What is it? complex tasks in Key Stage 2 to Key Stage 4.

There are many common learning objectives and


curriculum areas that can potentially overwhelm What is the evidence based on?
working memory, especially when learning a new
topic. Not all lend themselves to step-by-step and The review found 16 studies of using scaffolds,
defined solutions that can be supported through guidance, and schema-based instruction.
worked examples. There are many techniques
teachers use to support students; many of these • The ages of children in the studied ranged from
are designed to focus learners on key information, 8 to 16.
guide them through a process, or support them
to record or organise information for reference. • Studies covered a number of different subject
areas including maths, reading, history,
These approaches typically use some kind of and science.
guidance to support pupils while engaging in tasks,
the aim being that the instructions reduce cognitive • In seven of the studies pupils were taught
load and help learners navigate the working memory by their regular teacher.
demands of the task. It might involve, for example,
including prompts, cues, instructions, definitions,
templates, and tools as resources to support a
task. Scaffolding is a general teaching strategy and
concept. The evidence here focuses on a subset of
this, specifically designed to optimise cognitive load.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 27


Implementation
Not all prompts or cues during learning tasks will providing support is likely to increase cognitive
reduce the burden on working memory. For example, load. While the classroom evidence is too limited
the study identified with a negative impact included to confirm this account, the studies identified in the
cues that were motivational rather than instructional. review did find that level of expertise determined the
Cues should be targeted in such a way that they effectiveness of scaffolding approaches.
provide instructional support involving key elements
of the problems that are being solved, for example, Some studies indicated that when fading was
explanations of difficult vocabulary. used to gradually reduce scaffolding, it was more
effective when adapted to the changing knowledge
Accounts of managing cognitive load from the of pupils rather than fading at a fixed rate. One of
theoretical evidence base indicate that reducing the risks teachers identified around scaffolding was
the level of support (or ‘fading’) is beneficial to pupils becoming reliant on the scaffolds. Carefully
learners. Pupils that already have strong foundational monitoring pupil expertise and gradually reducing
knowledge are less likely, for example, to benefit scaffolding might reduce the risk of reliance on
from the provision of key term definitions and scaffolds developing.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 28


Strategy 3: Collaborative problem-solving

An example approach What does the evidence say?


(Adapted from Zambrano et al., 2019) There is some evidence to corroborate the theory that
collaborative learning can help manage cognitive load.
When learning quadratic equations, pupils are
given partial information, which means they must The evidence, however, is not entirely positive and
work together to solve the problem. Equation seems to indicate that collaborative work is not suited
to every type of problem-solving activity.
values are unpacked to distribute them among the
pupils (for example, for -15x 2, each member would
The evidence is also very strongly focused on learning
receive -5x 2). Rather than holding all pieces of in mathematics. No studies examined collaborative
information in their head, group members depend problem-solving in the humanities or social sciences.
on others’ information to solve the problem.

What is it?
What is the evidence based on?
Collaborative problem-solving activities are those in
which learners work together to complete a problem The review found nine studies that focused on the
or complex task. Collaborative problem-solving is a optimisation of cognitive load through collaboration
general teaching strategy and concept. The evidence when problem-solving.
here focuses on a subset of this, specifically designed
to optimise cognitive load. • Eight of the studies focused on learners aged
12 to 16. The other study took place with
children aged eight and nine.

• Six of the studies focused on mathematics,


with two in biology and one in ICT.

• Most of the interventions were overseen by


the regular class teacher.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 29


Implementation
The evidence suggests that collaborative learning
is likely to reduce cognitive load as learners work
together and share information. What is less clear is
how this can be designed to optimise cognitive load
for individuals within the group, ensuring that all are
attending to relevant and challenging information
relative to their prior level of understanding.

If communication within a collaborative working


strategy is ineffective, cognitive load may be increased
by the effort of organising others and reduced in
ways that are unhelpful as only some members of the
group engage with key information. Providing support
on effective collaborative working communication
strategies, giving clear instructions on tasks, and
allowing ways of working to develop in consistent
groups of pupils may all reduce the cognitive load
of collaborative activities.

Teachers using collaborative problem-solving


approaches outside of mathematics should be aware
that there is limited evidence of its effectiveness in
other disciplines and should carefully monitor whether
the activities are reducing cognitive load and having
a positive impact on learning.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 30


5. WORKING WITH SCHEMAS

Key things to consider compare, organise, and map concepts try to make
schemas clear and visible and are thought to support
• Teachers should consider pupils’ prior learners to organise and extend their ideas.
knowledge and how this might influence their
organisation of new knowledge and experience Working with schemas can prove challenging for
of misconceptions. teachers as schemas are formed in the minds of
pupils as they relate new content to prior knowledge:
• There is some evidence that concept mapping schemas are therefore shaped by every individual’s
and comparison can improve pupil learning, preconceptions, prior experience, and personal
although the variation in impacts suggests development of understanding.
challenges with implementation. Indicative
evidence suggests that it is how students engage Also, schemas are never fixed in their contents or
with information—and the extent to which they arrangements meaning that teachers are unlikely to
self-generate and organise information—rather know exactly how their pupils’ minds organise new
than any particular format, mapping, or organising content. However, the flexible nature of schemas does
information that matters. mean that specific teaching and learning strategies
may be able to foster a more desirable order to a
• When using concept mapping and comparison, learner’s pre-existing and developing knowledge.
it is important teachers know why they are
employing these strategies and have a plan for There are several approaches to working with schemas,
assessing pupils’ understanding to ensure key many of which focus on pupils organising, comparing,
conclusions have been taken from tasks. and elaborating on their ideas to develop more complex
mental structures. Some approaches include:

What is the theory? • problem-based learning whereby pupils learn


through their struggle to apply existing knowledge
Schemas (sometimes referred to as mental models, to a challenging task;
scripts, or frames) are structures that organise
knowledge in the mind. When learning, the mind • using comparisons and analogies to add depth
connects new information with pre-existing or address misconceptions; and
knowledge, skills, and concepts thereby developing
existing schemas. Teachers often want to develop • elaborating or questioning concepts and ideas
and refine learners’ prior conceptions as opposed to strengthen, develop, and transfer learning.
to teaching something entirely new. Approaches that

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 31


How do teachers work with schemas
in the classroom?
Many teaching and learning approaches that are
informed by cognitive science are in some way
influenced by schema development. For example,
by presenting information in thematic groupings to
manage pupils’ cognitive load, teachers may also
assist efficient schematic organisation.

The review identified three specific approaches


to working with schemas. These are:

1. concept/knowledge mapping and organisation;


2. schema/concept comparison and cognitive
conflict; and
3. elaboration and self-explanation.

There was, however, insufficient evidence to


review the possible impact of elaboration and
self-explanation.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 32


Strategy 1: Concept/knowledge mapping and organisation

An example approach

After studying a text with her class, Ms Howarth uses her knowledge of the text and experience teaching
the same text with other classes to create knowledge organisers that collate the most crucial foundational
concepts and knowledge onto a single A4 page. These resources help pupils make links between ideas and
concepts, often grouping information by big overarching themes from the text, key quotes with annotations
on language devices, and relevant information on the social and historical context in which the text was
written. Ms Howarth often provides pupils with the organisers ahead of end-of-unit assessments to help
them self-assess existing knowledge and inform the writing of practise essays.

What is it? What is the evidence based on?


The review found 15 studies on concept/
Organising key concepts or knowledge on maps or
organisers. It is thought this approach may help pupils knowledge mapping and organisation that refer
receive, organise, and extend schematic knowledge to contemporary cognitive science.
of a topic in a more efficient way, encouraging
connections between related items of learning. • The ages of the students in the studies ranged
from 8 to 17. Most studies focused on the 8 to
What does the evidence say? 14 range.

• Studies looked at a range of subjects


There is some evidence to suggest that concept/
knowledge mapping can have a positive impact including science, maths, geography, and text
on pupil learning. comprehension in either literacy or general studies.

• Only six of the 15 studies were mostly delivered


The evidence, however, is not entirely positive and
seems to indicate that if tasks are pitched beyond by regular teachers. Others were designed and
pupils’ level of prior knowledge mapping approaches delivered by researchers, involved independent
can have negative impacts. study via computer software, or were
delivered by teachers but heavily scripted with
The evidence is also varied in the types of approaches
instructional materials.
concept/knowledge mapping is used for, suggesting
it is not clear which tasks are best suited to this form
of organisation. Many tasks took the form of teachers
or learners creating a mind map to summarise and
organise the key ideas in a text.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 33


Implementation
There is some evidence to suggest that concept
mapping and organisation may be more effective
when maps are generated by teachers rather than
pupils, or when pupils already have good prior
knowledge in an area. It is thought that when
generating maps themselves, pupils may experience
cognitive overload as they try to concurrently
organise and engage with material. Indicative
evidence suggests that it is how students engage
with information—and the extent to which they self-
generate and organise information—rather than
any particular format, mapping, or organisation of
information that matters.

Teachers should consider why they are using mapping


tasks and ensure pupils’ attention is focused on the
most useful components of the activity. Teachers may
choose from a range of strategies for pupils to engage
with content, including: summarising, (re)organising
it themselves, drawing, imagining, self-testing, self-
explaining, filling in gaps, elaborating, enacting in
some way, or teaching other pupils.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 34


Strategy 2: Schema or concept
comparison and cognitive conflict

An example approach: Teaching about the particle model of gases

Adapted from Burrows et al.,


(2017 p. 47)

One of the key things that pupils


need to know about gases is that
there is empty space (a vacuum)
between the particles. Solid Liquid Gas

These ideas can, however, conflict with pupils’ preconceptions. Even if pupils know that the particles in
a gas have gaps between them, they often think that the space between them is full of other things such
as bacteria, pollutants, or oxygen.

What is it? What is the evidence based on?


Studies in this area examined activities that compared The review found ten studies on schema
contrasting, complementary, or conflicting concepts or concept comparison.
or examples as means of supporting pupils to
differentiate between items of learning. • The ages of the students in the studies
ranged from 10 to 18. Most students were of
What does the evidence say? secondary age, the majority between 11 and
14 years old.
Overall, the evidence on the possible impacts of
approaches in this area are mixed, with some negative • Studies looked at a narrow range of subjects,
and neutral results amidst a majority of studies including only maths or science.
showing positive impacts on pupil learning.
• Only three of the ten studies were delivered
The variation in the findings suggests pupils may find by teachers who received training to implement
it difficult to learn from comparisons or conflicts. Care interventions. The other studies predominantly
should be taken to ensure pupils process differences used workbooks or computer programmes
in depth and derive the correct conclusions (rather for delivery.
than misconceptions) from the materials presented.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 35


Implementation
The wider evidence in this area and practice-facing
interpretation and guidance suggests that care is
needed in selecting comparisons to support learning.
How to ensure comparisons and analogies clarify
rather than confuse concepts appears to be a key
consideration. Pupils may benefit from the support
of a scaffold to help them explain the differences
between concepts, supporting them to make
detailed comparisons with correct conclusions.
For example, a teacher might provide reflection
questions to help pupils specify the cognitive and
metacognitiveprocesses they have used when
comparing concepts. Regarding the former, the
teacher might ask, ‘What features of the diagrams
did you compare to highlight the differences between
them?’ Or with regard to metacognitive processes:
‘What did you find difficult about comparing the two
diagrams and how did you overcome that difficulty
to highlight the differences between them?’

It is also important to use assessment to gather


information on what pupils have concluded by making
comparisons as this may uncover misconceptions
that need addressing before moving on or revisiting
during a later lesson.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 36


6. COGNITIVE THEORY OF
MULTIMEDIA LEARNING

Key things to consider Given the large variety of practice reviewed in this
area, we decided to frame the area using a slightly
• The evidence around the use of multimedia is broader theory: the cognitive theory of multimedia
mixed: while many studies are positive, others learning (CTML). This theory builds on ideas of dual
show low or null effects. coding, cognitive load, and generative learning (where
students actively integrate new ideas with existing
• Promising approaches use multimedia to support ideas). CTML describes organising, selecting, and
the learning of complex information, often with integrating multimedia information into coherent
older pupils. representations and combining them with prior
knowledge1. It has three core assumptions:
• Multimedia approaches can be challenging to
implement successfully. How are we to ensure that • there are two separate channels for information
the multimedia does not increase cognitive load? (that is, dual coding theory);

• each channel has a finite capacity; and


What is the theory?
• learning is an active process of working with
Dual coding theory is based on the theory that this information.
working memory has two distinct components,
one that deals with visual and spatial information
and another that deals with auditory information. By How do teachers manage cognitive
presenting content in multiple formats, it is possible that theory of multimedia learning in
teachers can appeal to both subsystems of the working
memory, which subsequently strengthens learning.
the classroom?
While approaches that explicitly describe themselves
It is thought that given the specialised nature of the as ‘dual coding’ have become very popular recently,
two subsystems of working memory, a larger amount teachers have always illustrated concepts or ideas
of content can be understood with more richness through images or illustrations. We examine the
when conveyed through multiple formats without evidence for three distinct uses of multimedia:
overloading working memory.
• visual representations or illustrations;
While this information is useful to teachers as it
suggests learning may be more effective when • diagrams; and
information is presented in this way, the many different
formats in which information can be presented—such • spatial, visualisation, and simulation approaches.
as text, images, diagrams, equations, or combinations
of any of these—means that teachers must make
difficult decisions about which format to use without
necessarily knowing how this will affect pupils’
cognitive load and learning.

1 Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 41, 31-48

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 37


Strategy 1: Visual representations and illustrations

There are also significant limitations to the evidence


An example approach
base. While all of the studies took place in school
(Adapted from Moreno et al., 2011) rather than lab conditions, few of them accurately
reflect usual school provision. Most were delivered by
When learning about circuits in science, pupils researchers, used researcher tests, and were often
are provided with images at different levels of delivered in one short session that was scripted for
abstraction. Sometimes these include pictures consistency. While these studies might give useful
insight into the principles of how visual representations
of actual lights, while at other times they use the
might have an impact in the classroom, they tell us
formal symbols for them. less about whether impacts will be transferable to
regular teacher practice.

What is it?
What is the evidence based on?
Using visual representations and illustrations
involves learners being presented with, or creating, The review found 34 studies relating to visual
an additional image, picture, or icon that symbolises, representation and illustration.
illustrates, or represents aspects of the content being
learnt. Studies in this group involved the presentation • There were no studies of Key Stage 1 or early
of additional visual information to a task or concept years, but a good representation of pupils aged
that could potentially be learnt without the visual. In 7 to 18.
some cases, the visual representation was provided,
in other cases produced by the learner. • Most of the studies took place in science
and maths, although other subjects were
What does the evidence say? represented, including geography, history,
and vocabulary learning.
While many of the impacts of the studies identified
are positive, results were mixed. Studies frequently • Most studies were not delivered in typical
reported no effect or harmful effects. The strategies school conditions: they were often small
included in this group were varied. It is likely that a interventions, delivered by researchers rather
regrouping that organised the studies by theoretically than teachers, and often delivered in one
important aspects (such as whether the images were short session.
created by, or provided to, students, or the information
content of the images) might have revealed a
clearer picture about the conditions in which visual
representations can support learning.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 38


Implementation
The limitations in the evidence mean that teachers
should think carefully about how they use visual
representations to support learning. While the
evidence is too weak to tell us what works, there are
some lessons from the theoretical evidence, which
might support stronger effects in the classroom.

Ensuring that images are informational rather than


decorative means that they are more likely to support
learning rather than placing an unnecessary strain on
cognitive load.

Teachers highlighted that while it may be


straightforward to include illustrations while teaching,
implementing approaches in a successful way so
that they are more than ‘drawing pictures for the sake
of it’ is more challenging. Surveyed teachers voiced
concerns around whether dual coding in particular
had become misunderstood and reduced to ‘pretty
icons’ and complex graphic organisers.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 39


Strategy 2: Diagrams

An example approach
What does the evidence say?

(Adapted from Coleman, McTigue and As with the wider evidence on visual aids, the evidence
on diagrams shows that while most studies have
Dantzler, 2018)
positive effects, many have null or negative effects.
When learning about the water cycle, pupils are
presented with diagrams with labels and process Similar to the evidence on visual aids, a key limitation
is that studies often were not delivered by teachers in
information that illustrate the different steps of the
usual classroom conditions. Most of the studies were
cycle. Evaporation is shown through an illustration delivered by workbooks or computer programmes.
of water rising from the sea to clouds, while a
ray from the sun shines onto the sea. An arrow Implementation
illustrates the direction of travel and a note explains
Diagrams are a subset of other visual representations
that the evaporation is caused by heat from the
and illustrations and many of the same lessons
sun’s energy and occurs in water in lakes, rivers, apply. One of the distinct factors in a diagram,
oceans, and on land. as opposed to an illustration, is considering how
concepts are structured or organised. It is important
that the visualisation does this accurately. It is
possible, for example, for inaccurate diagrams to
What is it? reinforce misconceptions.

Using diagrams is a subset of the evidence base on


visual representations that represents or organises
learning content or process information schematically. What is the evidence based on?
In most cases, the diagrammatic representation was The review found 14 studies related to the use of
an object of learning in its own right. The diagram diagrams in the classroom.
goes beyond illustration and decoration to represent
relevant concepts or phenomena and, additionally, • Twelve of the studies involved pupils between
how they are organised or structured. 12 and 16. None of the studies focused on
early years.
In the evidence, diagrams are often contrasted
to textual representations of information and • Studies were concentrated in maths and the
sometimes combined with other practices— sciences, with one study of technical illustrations
for example, spaced restudy.
in geography.

In some studies, children are shown diagrams • Most of the studies were delivered by
to explain concepts while in others children are workbooks or computers.
encouraged to draw diagrams to summarise learning.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 40


Strategy 3: Spatial, visualisation, and simulation approaches

An example approach
Implementation

(Adapted from Barner et al., 2016, 2018) The limitations in the evidence base for spatial,
visualisation, and simulation approaches mean
When doing calculation tasks in maths, pupils are that there are limited insights on how teachers
taught to use the mental image of an abacus to might apply these approaches successfully in the
visualise the way the calculation takes place. As classroom. There is significant variation in how these
approaches have been applied. Teachers should
they complete sums, they imagine their mental
carefully consider how the visualisation strategy is
abacus and use it to support their calculations. being used, for example, is it inherent to the subject,
or is it a method of retrieval or scaffolding?

What is it?
Spatial, visualisation, and simulation approaches
support children to imagine learning content, or
representations of it, often in order to simulate,
manipulate, or organise concepts and schemas
across time or space. In some cases, visualisation
is inherent to the learning objective (as, for example,
in geometry); in others, it is used as a form of
retrieval and rehearsal (for example, imagining a
story); in other cases it is used as a scaffold for
problem-solving (that is, visualising as a way of
analysing or anchoring a learning object in memory).

What does the evidence say? What is the evidence based on?
There were only seven studies that focused on
While the studies identified have small to moderate spatial, visualisation, and simulation approaches.
positive effects, the limitations of the evidence
base make it difficult to assess the effectiveness • All of the studies focused on primary aged pupils.
of the strategies.
• All but one of the studies focused on mathematics.

The number of studies is small and there is real The final study focused on reading comprehension.
variation between the approaches that go beyond • Two of the studies were delivered by
practical differences in delivery.
regular teachers.

The focus on mathematics across all but one study


means that there is limited information on the promise
of the approach for other subjects.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 41


7. EMBODIED LEARNING
AND PHYSICAL FACTORS

Key things to consider It is thought that by designing tasks and activities


that appeal to pupils in a multisensory way, teachers
• There are lots of reasons other than academic may be able to make new information more easily
outcomes to consider physical factors at comprehensible and memorable. Some actions
school such as nutrition, physical activity, and approaches for using embodied learning and
and sleep hygiene. physical activity in the classroom include play,
enacting, gesturing, movement, and tracing.
• The evidence around embodied learning is
currently limited and the studies in this area of the Another area of cognitive science includes evidence
review were loosely grouped. Nonetheless, the around exercise, nutrition, and sleep. While these
evidence we reviewed suggested considerable factors have important links to cognitive science,
promise for approaches involving the body and we have not summarised the evidence in detail as
physical activity to support learning. they were outside the scope of the review.

• The studies we reviewed explored a range of How do teachers use embodied


embodied and physical strategies including the learning and physical factors in
use of gesture, actions, playground physics and
maths, and tracing (for example, using the index
the classroom?
finger to trace over a geometry worked example or Schools frequently support physical factors that
water cycle diagram). might interact with learning. Some examples include:

• physical exercise as part of regular


What is the theory? school timetabling;

Embodied learning and physical factors refer to • incorporating physical activity into non-PE lessons;
strategies that engage and make use of movement
and the body to support effective learning. • breakfast clubs to increase nutrition; and
More generally, embodied learning often also
encompasses the role of emotions in learning—but • sleep hygiene education.
this is something we have not included in the scope
of this review. Most studies reviewed in this area Embodied learning approaches have most often
emanated from searches for visual representation been used in primary schools and use movement
and the coding of information. around the classroom while teaching other subjects,
for example, throwing beanbags to each other
In contrast to many of the other strategies explored in during counting tasks. Other examples are tracing,
this report that primarily focus on improving the mind’s the use of gestures when teaching, and play-based
ability to acquire, organise, and apply new knowledge learning approaches.
and skills, approaches that use the body and physical
movement to support teaching and learning work
under the assumption that the mind is closely related
to the body and its sensory experience.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 42


Similar to other approaches, there is limited evidence
An example approach
from studies that are comparable to usual in-school
(Adapted from Cook, Duffy and Fenn, 2013) practice. Studies have typically involved delivery from
researchers and have often only looked at short-term
When teaching equations, the teacher uses hand outcomes for pupils.
gestures when referring to different sides of the
equation. When saying the word ‘one side’, the Implementation
teacher sweeps her hand back forth beneath the
Some of the wider evidence discusses the links
left half of the equation. When the teacher says ‘the between the gestures of teachers with cognition—
other side’, she sweeps her right hand back and particularly when teaching younger pupils.
forth below the right half of the equation.
While the evidence in this area is too limited to
pull out any direct implications for practice, the
What has been researched? theoretical evidence does point to links between
things like gestures and other cognitive science
The research summarises approaches that enact approaches like dual coding and managing cognitive
or represent concepts through movement of the load. Like with dual coding, teachers might consider
whole body or part of the body (such as gestures how to ensure that gestures provide additional
or tracing) including learning or enhancing learning support rather than creating distractions that put
through the use of the body’s sensory or motor a strain on cognitive load.
capabilities. Included studies relate to physically
doing, experiencing, or acting out or playing with What is the evidence based on?
the learning object, including both concrete and
representational approaches, and in particular Unlike other strategies, the studies on embodied
gestures and actions. cognition and physical approaches were found
through general searches of cognitive science
What does the evidence say? rather than specific searches of the approaches.

The evidence in this area is consistently positive. This means that this evidence may not be a
Studies comparing embodied cognition approaches comprehensive summary of the approach.
were found to have larger impacts on learning than Fourteen studies were found in total.
normal curriculum delivery.
• The studies mostly focused on primary school
There are, however, a number of limitations to the children with ages ranging from 5 to 14.
evidence base. A key challenge in interpreting this
• There were studies of maths, science, and
evidence is that there may be missing studies as no
direct search of ‘embodied learning’ or similar terms language (including reading comprehension
took place. and vocabulary).

• Ten of the studies were designed and delivered


Almost all of the studies took place in primary
schools, so caution should be applied when trying by researchers. Other studies were either
the approaches with older pupils. delivered by teachers in collaboration with
researchers or by using digital technology.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 43


MIXED STRATEGY PROGRAMMES

An example approach

When co-designing a new Year 8 curriculum, the head of English and Key Stage 3 lead think hard about the
sequencing of schemes of work and how key concepts and items of learning can be revisited over several
weeks (spaced learning) and can be built upon to support pupils in developing complex mental models
with a secure grasp of foundational knowledge (as seen in Working with Schemas). For example, when
considering how best to develop pupils’ ability to organise the structure of literary texts, they introduce some
learning around Freytag’s pyramid during the study of Macbeth at the start of the year before building on this
through a later scheme of work on the sequencing of sections in short story narratives.

To ensure that teachers are aware of the rationale for these curriculum design choices, the head of
English and KS3 lead provide time to develop and explain the curriculum during a departmental meeting.
Furthermore, to support teachers responsible for delivering the new curriculum, the English department also
make time to discuss the possible misconceptions pupils might experience while learning about narrative
structures and develop worked examples and scaffolds that will assist learners with differing needs.

Key things to consider What is the theory?


• Mixed strategy programmes were amongst the While not exclusively, these programmes often
strongest examples of applied research, often embed strategies throughout curricula or
testing the strategies in realistic conditions and at learning topics, meaning they are most frequently
scale. Such programmes are of interest to teacher implemented at a school or departmental level.
educators and school leaders as potential vehicles Some mixed strategy programmes also include
for aligning teaching and learning with multiple professional development as school leaders seek to
principles from cognitive science across many develop teachers’ fluency in knowledge and use of
teachers and schools. cognitive science principles.

• The evidence on mixed strategy programmes was It is thought that by increasing knowledge and use
hard to interpret as it was difficult to ascertain which of cognitive science strategies, teachers can harness
specific strategies were influencing pupil outcomes. the evidence base of how people think and learn to
support pupils more effectively.
• The seven programmes reviewed provided a
mixture of positive and null outcomes. Many of the
applied, mixed strategy programmes also suffered How do teachers implement
with implementation challenges.
mixed strategy programmes in
• It was unclear whether these challenges related the classroom?
to the organisational aspects of the programmes, Most of the mixed strategy approaches are
school improvement efforts more generally, or programmes that are implemented at the level of the
from the nature of the cognitive science strategies school, either through professional development or
in question. curriculum development.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 44


What has been researched? Teachers’ understanding of cognitive science
principles may be a crucial component of effective
Approaches in which two or more cognitive science implementation of mixed strategy programmes and
informed strategies are used together to test the therefore professional development is likely to be key.
combined effect. Careful monitoring of teacher beliefs about cognitive
science prior to implementing a programme may be
What does the evidence say? a useful way of judging the readiness of the school or
department for the intended change. Following this,
Some studies show mixed strategy programmes consistent modelling of the new strategies, observing
can have a positive impact on pupil outcomes, ongoing delivery, and providing ongoing feedback
although several null or mixed results suggest and support can help staff make lasting change to
challenges with implementation. their practice.

Mixed strategy programmes are likely to link to


school improvement processes and may also involve
curriculum design and professional development.
The effectiveness of these other school practices
could therefore influence the success of any large-
scale approach within this area.

Implementation What is the evidence based on?


When implementing one or a combination of cognitive The review found eight studies reporting tests of
science informed strategies, it is important teachers mixed strategy programmes.
consider the applicability of research evidence
to their context and intended use of approaches. • The ages of the students in the studies ranged
The findings of studies that involve predominantly from 11 to 14.
independent study by pupils or technology-based
• Studies looked at a narrow range of subjects,
interventions give some insight into the impact of
approaches, but this evidence often focuses solely including only maths or science.
on the strategies being tested and does not explain • Five of the eight studies were delivered by
how best to integrate cognitive science principles into
regular class teachers who received professional
conventional classroom practice. Considering how
to implement cognitive science strategies in a way development in addition to curriculum resources
that complements existing school and classroom to implement strategies.
practices is of high importance.

Cognitive science approaches in the classroom: a review of the evidence 45


OVERARCHING FINDINGS

Cognitive science principles of learning can only supported by a few studies that examine
have a significant impact on rates of learning their impact in everyday classroom conditions—
in the classroom. There is value in teachers delivered by teachers over long periods of time.
having working knowledge of cognitive
science principles. • With some approaches—like interleaving—there
are studies with promising results but they have
Theories from basic cognitive science imply almost exclusively been tested in one subject area
principles for effective teaching and learning. (mathematics). More generally, there are serious
Principles include ‘spacing’ learning out over gaps and limitations in the age ranges, subjects,
time, providing worked examples or ‘scaffolds’ to and learning outcomes studied for most of the
support problem-solving, and presenting information strategies we reviewed. These gaps make the
both verbally and visually. The applied evidence extent to which strategies apply across all age
summarised does provide support for many of the ranges and subject areas unclear.
principles of learning implied by basic cognitive
science, albeit in specific contexts. For most of • Some approaches—like combining verbal
the strategies included in this review, cognitive explanations with graphical representations,
science principles were significant factors affecting also known as ‘dual coding’—are possible to
rates of learning and retention of information in the implement poorly. While some studies show
classroom. Most of the results could be explained positive impacts on pupil outcomes, there are also
using theories from basic cognitive science and multiple studies showing null or negative findings.
practice-facing versions of these.
It is important to note that a lack of evidence is
The evidence for the application of cognitive not the same as evidence that an approach is not
science principles in everyday classroom successful. We should be cautious about concluding
conditions (applied cognitive science) is that because a principle is found to be ineffective in
much more limited, with uncertainties about the lab or in one classroom context that it cannot be
the applicability of specific principles across deployed effectively elsewhere.
subjects and age ranges.
Applying the principles of cognitive science
Applied cognitive science is far more limited and is harder than knowing the principles and one
provides a less positive, and more complex, picture does not necessarily follow from the other.
than the basic science. For many of the strategies, Principles do not determine specific teaching
the evidence was restricted to particular age groups, and learning strategies or approaches to
subject areas, or learning outcomes. Applications of implementation. Considering how cognitive
cognitive science outside of these, while plausible science principles are implemented in the
given the basic science, are yet to be tested and classroom is critical.
found effective in the classroom.
Some accounts of cognitive science principles
• Even approaches with indicative evidence of prescribe practice based on the strength of the
promise like retrieval practice, spaced practice, underlying theory and claim that the behavioural
and the use of worked examples are, as yet, or neuroscientific evidence justifies application

46
across subjects and ages (see previous). These are Principles of cognitive science interact
inevitably interpretations of how principles apply in and should not be considered in
the classroom. The fact that many strategies have isolation from each other, or without
not been consistently tested in everyday classroom taking into account wider practical
settings means that it is particularly important to and pedagogical considerations.
think carefully about if, and in what circumstances,
they are applicable and how we could implement There are clear links between the different
them in a way that has a positive impact on approaches summarised within this review.
pupil outcomes: In particular there are relationships between:

• Teachers looking to apply cognitive science • approaches that consider how to optimise retrieval
principles in the classroom will need to consider of information from the long-term memory: spaced
how, and in what conditions, approaches learning, interleaving, and retrieval practice;
informed by cognitive science might improve
learning. The effectiveness of strategies is likely • approaches that consider how to present
to depend on factors including the age of information effectively and support
learners, learner prior knowledge, the nature of students to work through information
the subject and learning outcomes, and whether without overloading working memory: dual
the approach is practically feasible—and make coding and multimedia theory of learning,
sure that they are successfully enacted. strategies to optimise cognitive load such
as scaffolding and use of worked examples,
• Special care should be taken to make sure that and embodied learning approaches; and
principles are successfully implemented, avoiding
‘lethal mutations’ when a practice becomes • approaches that consider the balance between
disconnected from the theory. For example, didactic instruction and the pupil’s role in learning:
teachers have reported that dual coding strategies for working with schemas, learner-
sometimes means that irrelevant illustrations led strategies within managing cognitive load,
are added to presentations, which may be a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and
distraction rather than a way of developing embodied learning.
schemas and optimising cognitive load.
Little research has effectively explored how distinct
Schools should consider how—and in which and similar strategies interact but it is clear that
contexts—to give teachers high quality CPD around careful consideration is required to optimise mergers
cognitive science approaches, and enough time to between approaches, for example, combining
test and incorporate approaches appropriately into retrieval approaches with appropriate spacing.
their practice and for their subject and learners. Many
teachers report that their main form of engagement
with cognitive science is independent study.

47
Future work
Many of the classroom approaches inspired by
cognitive science are promising and knowledge
of cognitive science is an important part of
understanding how pupils learn. There is, however,
much more work to be done to understand in
which contexts findings from the basic science
are applicable and effective in everyday classroom
conditions, and how these can be implemented.
The EEF will continue to evaluate approaches that
provide scalable programmes or training for the
effective deployment of cognitive science principles.
We will also continue to fund teacher choices
trials, which seek to rigorously assess the non-
programmatic teacher techniques for deploying
cognitive science in the classroom.

The current evidence base on cognitive science


applied to the classroom is largely focused on
how individual learners process and remember
information. Social, emotional and physical aspects
to cognition and learning receive less attention in the
applied evidence found in this review. The survey of
teachers, review of the underpinning science, and
the applied evidence in areas such as embodied
learning however suggest that social, emotional and
physical aspects to cognition are also important
considerations for research and practice.

48
GLOSSARY

Basic science. The study of phenomena and


scientific laws, often referred to as ‘fundamental’
or ‘pure’ science.

Applied science. Using approaches informed


by conclusions from basic scientific knowledge
in practical, real world contexts.

Working memory. Where information that is


being actively processed is held—it is where
‘thinking’ happens.

Long-term memory. A ‘store of knowledge’


that is constantly updating and evolving.

Cognitive load. The amount of information


our working memory can hold at any one time.

Schema. A pattern of thought that organises


categories of information, and the links between
them. Schemas are stored in long-term memory.

Spaced practice. Distributing learning and retrieval


opportunities over a longer period of time rather than
concentrating them in ‘massed’ practice.

Interleaving. Sequencing learning tasks so that


similar items are interspersed with slightly (but not
completely) different types of items rather than being
presented consecutively.

Retrieval practice. Using a variety of strategies to


recall information from memory, for example flash
cards, practice tests or quizzing, or mind-mapping.

Dual coding. Using both verbal and non-verbal


information (such as words and pictures) to
teach concepts.

49
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