Wollo University

Kombolcha institute of Technology

Schoolo of Mechanical and Chemenical Engineering
Department of Industrial Engineering

Module for Exit Exam

Method and value Engineering
By
Mengistu Manaye

Date Feb, 2023

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Contents
INTRODUCTION: METHOD AND VALUE ENGINEERING ............................................. 1
1.1 Introduction to Concept of Work Study .......................................................................... 1
1.2 Work study has two broad components ....................................................................... 2
1.3. Review Questions of Chapter One ............................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO: PRODUCTIVITY & STANDARD OF LIVING ....................................... 5
2.1 Introduction to Productivity, Work study and the standard of living.............................. 5
2.2 Productivity of organization ............................................................................................ 6
2.3 Factors Affecting Productivity .................................................................................... 7
2.4 Productivity, Work Content and Time ....................................................................... 8
3.5 Review Questions of Chapter Two ................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER THREE: MOTION STUDY ................................................................................ 11
3.1 Introduction to motion study ......................................................................................... 11
3.2 Motion study principles ................................................................................................. 11
3.3 Meaning of Motion Economy ....................................................................................... 12
3.4 Principles of motion Economy ...................................................................................... 12
3.5 Use of Human Body principle ....................................................................................... 12
3.6 Arrangement of Workplace principles .......................................................................... 13
3.7 Design of tools and Equipment ..................................................................................... 13
3. 8 Time Conservation ....................................................................................................... 13
Meaning and Definition of Therbligs Terms....................................................................... 15
Classification of Therbligs............................................................................................... 23
3.8 Review Questions of Chapter Three ............................................................................. 24
CHAPTER FOUR: METHOD STUDY ................................................................................. 26
4.1 Introduction to method Study........................................................................................ 26
4.2 Scope of Method Study ................................................................................................. 27
1.3 Indicators of Method study ...................................................................................... 28
4.4 Basic procedure of work study ...................................................................................... 28
4.5 Objectives of Method Study......................................................................................... 29
4.6 Considerations for Selection of Method Study ............................................................. 29
4.6.1 Economic Aspects .................................................................................................. 29

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 4.6.2 Technical Aspects ................................................................................................... 30
4.6.3 Human Considerations ........................................................................................... 30
4.7 Elements of Method Study ............................................................................................ 30
4.8 Dimensions of Method Design Elements ...................................................................... 31
4.9 Procedure of Method Study........................................................................................... 32
4.2.1 Job Design .................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.2 Job design consideration ............................................................................................ 36
4.2.3 Job Design Strategies ................................................................................................. 36
4.2.3.1 Job simplification ................................................................................................ 36
4.2.3.2 Job rotation and Enlargements ............................................................................ 36
4.2.3.3 Job Enlargement .................................................................................................. 37
4.2.3.4 Job enrichment ..................................................................................................... 37
4.2.4 Process chart symbols ................................................................................................ 37
4.4.5 Recording Techniques for Method Study .................................................................. 38
4.2.6 Charts used in Methods Study.................................................................................... 39
4.2.7 Types of Charts .......................................................................................................... 39
4.2.8 Macro Motion Charts.............................................................................................. 40
4.2.9 Flow Process Chart ................................................................................................. 40
4.3.1 Diagrams Used in Method Study ............................................................................... 41
4.3.2 Review Question of Chapter Four .............................................................................. 43
CHAPTER FIVE: WORK MEASUREMENT ....................................................................... 47
5.1 Introduction to Work Measurement .............................................................................. 47
5.2 Work Measurement Techniques.................................................................................... 48
5.3 Techniques of work Measurement Systems .................................................................. 49
5.4 Basic Procedure for Time Study ................................................................................... 49
5.5 Recording the information ............................................................................................ 50
5.7 Recording the stop-watch readings ............................................................................... 51
5.8 Work Sampling ............................................................................................................. 51
5.9 Work Sampling Procedures includes ......................................................................... 51
5.2.1 Disadvantages of Work Sampling .......................................................................... 53
5.2.2 Predetermined Motion Time Systems ........................................................................ 53

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 5.2.3 Advantage of PMT ................................................................................................. 54
5.2.4 Work Distribution Techniques ................................................................................... 54
5.2.5 Procedure of the work distribution analysis ........................................................... 55
5.2.6 Performance Rating .................................................................................................... 55
5.2.7 Review Questions of Chapter Five ............................................................................ 57
CHAPTER- SIX: VAUE ANALYSIS & VALUE ENGINEERING ..................................... 60
6.1 Introduction to Value Analysis and Value Engineering................................................ 60
6.3 Objective of Value Engineering .................................................................................... 62
6.4 Key Differences between Value Analysis and Value Engineering ............................... 62
6.5 Review Questions of Chapter Six ................................................................................. 63

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 INTRODUCTION: METHOD AND VALUE ENGINEERING
1.1 Introduction to Concept of Work Study
What is work study? Work study is the investigation, by means of a consistent system of the
work done in an organization in order to attain the best utilization of resources such as
Material, Machine, Men and Money.
Design, improvement and installation of integrated systems of people, materials, equipment
and energy in efficient and effective manner need the knowledge of work study, work
measurement and standardization.

Work study is mainly concerned with the examination of human work. The main objective
of work study is to assist the management in the optimum use of resources of the industry
to improve productivity. In fact planning is not possible unless one knows how long it will
take to do a particular job.

Work study is primarily concerned with discovering the best ways of doing jobs and with
establishing standards based on such methods. It is a great tool in the hands of management
to solve a number of managerial problems Management always tries to eliminate waste
(waste or capital, maternal, labor, supervision effort etc.) and to make better use of resources.

Work study is defined as the analysis of the methods, materials, tools and equipment used or
to be used in the performance of a piece of work.

The main aims of work study are such as to analyze the work in order to achieve work
simplification system, to have optimum utilization of resources [for instance material, man,
machine, and money],to evaluate the work content through work measurement, and to set
time standards for various jobs and thereby improving productivity.

Work study analysis is carried out with a view of the following points.
1) To find out the most economical way of doing an activity or to develop the preferred
method and Work methods design.
2) To standardize the methods developed in the process.

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 3) Determine accurately the time required by a qualified and trained worker at a normal
pace or to determining the time standards with Work measurement.
4) Assist in planning and training programs for the workers for the new methods.

1.2 Work study has two broad components

1. Method study/Methods engineering/Motion study/Work methods: It Answers: How a
job should be done?
2. Work Measurement / Time study: It answers: How much time a job should take for
completion?

Work study

Method study Work measurements

It is related with the study of methods of work
It is related with measurement of
for a job to design effective and efficient work
work required for a job, to arrive at
system in order to achieve process the best method of work, improved
improvements, improved layout, better planning and control.
working environment and reduced fatigue.

Motion study Time study

Increase productivity

Table 1: work study classification

1. Method Study: It is related with the study of methods of work for a job to design
effective and efficient work system in order to achieve process improvements,
improved layout, better working environment and reduced fatigue.
2. Work Measurement: It is related with measurement of work required for a job, to
arrive at the best method of work, improved planning and control.

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 1.3. Review Questions of Chapter One
2. Work study is mainly aimed at…….
a) Determining the most efficient method of performing a job.
b) Establishing the minimum time of completion of a job.
c) Developing the standard method and standard time of a job.
d) Economizing the motion involved on the part of the worker while performing
a job.
3. Work study consists of
a) Effective use of plant and equipment
b) Effective use of human effort
c) Evaluation of human work
d) All of the above
4. Work study examines
a) method
b) duration of work
c) both „a‟ and „b‟
d) None of the above
5. Work study is most useful
a) Where production activities are involved.
b) In judging the rating of machines
c) In improving industrial relations.
d) In judging the output of a man and improving it
e) All the above
6. Work study is concerned with
a) Improving present method and finding standard time.
b) Motivation of workers.
c) improving production capability
d) improving production planning and control

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 7. Choose the wrong statement Time study is used to……
a) determine overhead expenses
b) provide a basis for setting piece prices or incentive wages
c) determine standard costs
d) determine the capability of an operator to handle the number of machines
e) Compare alternative methods.
8. Work study is also recognized as
a) Time study
b) Motion study
c) both „a‟ and „b‟
d) None of the above
9. Work study comprises following main techniques
a) Method study and work measurement
b) Method study and time study
c) time study and work measurement
d) Method study and job evaluation
e) Value analysis and work measurement.

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 CHAPTER TWO: PRODUCTIVITY & STANDARD OF
LIVING
2.1 Introduction to Productivity, Work study and the standard of living
Productivity has now become an everyday watch word. It is crucial to the welfare of
industrial firm as well as for the economic progress of the country. High productivity refers
to doing the Work in a shortest possible time with least expenditure on inputs without
sacrificing quality and with minimum wastage of resources.
Work study forms the basis for work system design. The purpose of work design is to
identify the most effective means of achieving necessary functions. This work-study aims at
improving the existing and proposed ways of doing work and establishing standard times for
work performance.
Work-study is encompassed by two techniques, i.e., method study and work measurement.
“Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed
ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective
methods and reducing costs.”
“Work measurement is the application or techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level or performance.”
Standard of living, in too many parts of the world the ordinary man is still hardly able to
satisfy his basic needs. By the year 2000 close to one billion people will be living below the
poverty line and struggling to meet their basic needs.

The basic needs must meet in order to attain a minimum decent standard of living. These
basic needs are: 1. Food, 2. Clothing, 3. Shelter, 4. Security and 5. Health (essential service).

The first three things which a man has to obtain for himself, People must pay for it either in
the form of money or work. More and cheaper food is obtained by increasing the productivity
of agriculture. By using better seed, better methods of cultivation and more fertilizer, the
productivity of agricultural land can be raised.

Since productivity of an organization is highly dependent on the mentality of the labor in the
organization, the workers should get enough at least for their basic need. The greater the

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amount of goods and services produced in any country or community, the higher its average
standard of living will be.

For a society or a nation to raise the standard of living of its people, it must strive to
maximize the return from its resources or improve productivity so that the economy can
grow.

2.2 Productivity of organization

The definition of productivity applies in an enterprise, an industry or an economy as a whole.
The term “productivity” can be used to measure the extent to which a certain output can be
extracted from a given input. Productivity may be defined as the ration of output and input.

Productivity =

The Output means the amount produced or the number of items produced. The output can
also be measured in other units such as output per unit of floor areas, output per unit of
energy consumed, output per unit capital etc.

The input means various resources employed, in the course of production. These resources
may be land and building, materials, plant, machines and tools, and services of men or, as is
generally the case, a combination of all the above resources.

From the definition of the productivity, we can say that it is nothing more than the
arithmetical ratio between the amount produced and the amount of resources used.

The efficiency of the machine is also defined as the ratio of output and input. Thus,
productivity of a production system is analogues to the efficiency of a machine. Machine
efficiency generally less than 100%, but productivity some time may be 100%.

It can be seen from expression that the productivity can be increased by three different ways:

1) Maintaining input and increasing the output,

2) Maintaining output and decreasing the output, and
3) Increasing small amount of input to get larger amount of output.
In all the above cases, the attempt is made to increase the ratio of output and input.

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The enterprise also arranges certain resources or inputs which are used to produce the desired
output. These are mainly classified as follows:

1. Land and buildings: Land and buildings are constructed or hired in a suitable
location.
2. Materials: Arrangement of materials that can be converted into saleable products.
These include raw materials, semi-finished components and complementary
materials that are required for manufacturing and packing of finished products.
3. Energy: Energy is one of the vital resources, hence arranged and managed in its
various forms such as electricity, solar power and fuel like gas, oil, coal, etc.
4. Machinery and equipment: These are required for the various operations of the
enterprise. It also includes transport and handling, heating or air conditioning,
office equipment, computer terminals, etc.
5. Manpower: This includes the arrangement of experienced and trained manpower
(male and female) for planning, controlling and carrying out the various process
activities, procurement of materials and selling of finished products, maintaining the
accounts and other maintenance work.

2.3 Factors Affecting Productivity

Productivity can be mentioned as Productivity of labor, capital, material, power, machine, etc
and any combination of the inputs. In practice the choice of factors is limited to those cases
where measurements of productivity are possible.

To measure the productivity in cases where both the output and the input are tangible and can
be easily measured. It is more difficult to estimate productivity once intangibles are
introduced.

Some of the tangible factors affecting productivity are quantity of input, quantity of produced
products, Money invested, and Number of labor involved etc. And also Some of the
intangible factors are quality of inputs, quality of outputs, quality of work, and users‟
satisfaction, skill of operators.

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Productivity can be influenced by

1. External factors including: some of external factors are availability of raw materials
and skilled labor, Government policies towards taxation, Existing infrastructure,
Capital availability and interest rates
2. Internal factors including: some of internal factors are Inputs or resources in terms
of land and building, Materials, Machines and equipment, energy, and Human service

2.4 Productivity, Work Content and Time

What is work content? The amount of work involved in manufacture of a product is
called work content. It is generally in time unit. It is time taken by a worker or a machine
to carry out an operation or to produce a given quantity of a certain product. Work content
is measured in “work-hours” or “machine-hours”.

A work hour is defined as the labor of one person for one hour and machine hour means the
running of a machine or piece of plant for one hour. The work content of a job is affected by
many factors such as, Poor product design, improper selection of processes, Short-comings
on the part of management, and attitude of human resources.

The amount of total work content is divided into two parts

1) Basic work content

2) Excess work content

1) Basic work content: The time taken to manufacture the product or to perform the
operation. In short it can be defined as the irreducible minimum time theoretically
required producing one unit of output. If it possible when the following points will be
performed the design of the product or service provided is perfect, process or method
of operation is perfectly carried out, selection of process for its manufacture is most
economical, operator adequately trained to do the work and there is no loss of
working time from any cause whatsoever during the period of the operation. The
situation mentioned above is perfect or ideal which never occurs in practice.
2) Excess Work Content: this is the extra work to be added in the basic work content to
make it possible to occur practically. This extra work may be due to Poor design,

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 Material selection, Inefficient work method, Poor layout, Ineffective process selection
or Contribution of human resource
It is not possible to eliminate this excess work content completely. Therefore, the task
of management is to apply corrective measures in order to reduce work content to a
minimum. The Excess work content can be seen in three categories:
1. Work content added by poor design of product or improper utilization of
materials.
2. Work content added by poor selection of process or operation:
3. Work content added by human resources:

3.5 Review Questions of Chapter Two

1. Productivity increases when

a) inputs increase while outputs remain the same
b) inputs decrease while outputs remain the same
c) outputs decrease while inputs remain the same
d) inputs and outputs increase proportionately
2. Productivity is the ____ of production system.
a) Measurement
b) Efficiency
c) Both (A) and (B)
d) None of the above
3. The production cost per unit can be reduced by
a) Producing more with increased inputs
b) Producing more with the same inputs
c) Eliminating idle time
d) Minimizing resource waste
4. What is the ratio of total output divided by total input
a) Production
b) Productivity
c) Total factor productivity
d) Multifactor productivity

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 5. Productivity =
a) 1 + (Profit/Cost)
b) 1 + (Cost/Profit)
c) 1 - (Profit/Cost)
d) 1 - (Cost/Profit)
6. Total work content =
a) Basic work content + Excess time
b) Basic work content – Excess time
c) Basic work content + Ineffective time
d) Basic work content – Ineffective time
7. Which of the following does not measure productivity?
a) Output per unit labour
b) Material cost per unit labour
c) Output per unit of capital cost
d) Machine utilization
8. Productivity can be measured in which of the following input resource(s)
a) Material input
b) Labor input
c) Capital and land cost
d) All of the above

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 CHAPTER THREE: MOTION STUDY
3.1 Introduction to motion study
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth they were the founders of the modern Motion Study Technique,
which may be defined as the study of the body motions used in performing an operation, to
improve the operation by eliminating unnecessary motions, simplifying necessary motions,
and then establishing the most favorable motion sequence for maximum efficiency.

They studied body motions to increase production, reduce fatigue, and instruct operators in
the best method of performing an operation. They developed the technique of filming
motions to study them, in a technique known as micro motion Study. Additionally, they
developed the Cycle graphic analysis and Chronocyclegraphic Analysis techniques for
studying the motion paths made by an operator.

After the death of Gilbreth (at the age of 55), Lilian, who had received a PhD in Psychology
and had been a more than equal collaborator, continued on her own, advancing the concept of
work simplification especially for the physically handicapped. Lillian was dead in 1972 at
the age of 93.

As per Frank & Gilbreth it is the science of eliminating the wastefulness due to unnecessary
motion.The main aim of motion study is to find the scheme of least wastage of labors .The
scope of motion study was enlarged and it was named as method study.

What is motion study? Motion study is involves the analysis of the basic hand, arm, and
body movements of workers as they perform work. Motion study is a systematic way of
determining the best method of doing the work by examining the motions made by the
worker or the machine.

3.2 Motion study principles

Motion study principles are such as Eliminate unnecessary motions, Combine activities,
Reduce fatigue, improve the arrangement of workplace, and improve the design of tools and
equipment.

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Micro motion objectives are to eliminate ineffective therbligs if possible, to Avoid holding
objects with hand (use work holder), Combine therbligs: Perform right-hand and left-hand
motions simultaneously, Simplify overall method, and Reduce time for a motion[ for
instance: shorten distance].

3.3 Meaning of Motion Economy

In the production process, several activities have to be performed manually. It creates a lot of
physical movement, Productivity can be improved if these movements are controlled or
regulated.

The principle of motion economy is a set of rules and regulation that to reduce unnecessary
movement and increase productivity.

3.4 Principles of motion Economy

a) Use of the Human body.
b) Arrangement of the workplace.
c) Design of tools and equipment.
d) Time conservation

3.5 Use of Human Body principle

Both hands should be fully utilized

The natural tendency of most people is to use their preferred hand (RH for RH people and
LH for LH people). The other hand is relegated to a minor role, such as holding the object,
while the preferred hand works on it. And this first principle states that both hands should be
used as equally as possible.

The two hands should begin and end their motions at the same time.

It is necessary to design the method so that the work is evenly divided between the RH and
LH side of the workplace.

The motions of the hands and arms should be symmetrical and simultaneous.

Both hands are doing the same movements at the same time, less concentration will be
required than if the two hands had to perform different and independent motions.

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The work should be designed to emphasize the worker’s preferred hand.

The preferred hand is faster, stronger, and more practical. If the work to be done cannot be
allocated evenly between the two hands, then the method should take advantage of the
worker‟s best hand.

The worker’s two hands should never be idle at the same time.

The work method should be designed to avoid periods when neither hand is working. It may
not be possible to completely balance the workload between the right and left hands. But it
should be possible to avoid having both hands idle at the same time.

The worker’s two hands should never be idle at the same time.

The work method should be designed to avoid periods when neither hand is working. It may
not be possible to completely balance the workload between the right and left hands. But it
should be possible to avoid having both hands idle at the same time.

3.6 Arrangement of Workplace principles

1) An organization should provide a fixed station for all the tools and materials.

2) The company can use Bin and container to deliver the material to the production
point.

3) The machine should be arranged in the best sequence to make effective motion.

4) A proper arrangement must be there for lighting, table, chair, restrooms, snack time
etc..

3.7 Design of tools and Equipment

1) Upgrade technology from time to time to enhance the effectiveness of work. It will
help to reduce motion.

2) If possible, then two or more tools should be fixed together.

3) A proper sequence of the machine must be there for the smoothness of the operations.

4) Arrangements should be such that if there is any requirement change, then it can be
done easily.

3. 8 Time Conservation
1) The machine should not be idle like a shortage of raw material can delay the process.

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 2) A temporary delay of work by a man should not be encouraged.

3) Two or more jobs should perform simultaneously if possible.

4) The number of motions involved in completing the task should minimize if possible.

What is Micro motion study?: Micro motion study it is the study of elements of an
operation with the help of high speed movie camera in order to eliminate the unnecessary
motions involved in the operation and balancing the necessary motions.

What is the Therbligs?

Therblig represents time and energy spent by a worker to perform a task. If the task is
repetitive, of relatively short duration, and will be performed many times, it may be
appropriate to analyze the therbligs.

Therblig Chart The following table lists the Therbligs, along with their mnemonic symbols
and standard colors for charting.

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Meaning and Definition of Therbligs Terms
The following definitions are a combination of those assigned by the Gilbreths, Alan
Mogensen, Ralph Barnes and the author to provide the greatest scope for those attempting to
use the system.

Search: {icon suggested by an eye turned, as if searching}

The Search motion starts when the eyes and/or hand start to seek the object needed and ends
just as the object is located. The Gilbreths stated that in a search, “....the time and attention
required…varies with the number of dimensions in which the search is performed.” A one
dimensional search might be locating a piece of paper on a desktop. A two dimensional
search might be finding a light switch on a wall and the three dimensional search would be
locating a hanging pull-chain for a light or fan.

The Gilbreths also recognized that contrasting colors, shapes or embossed symbols could
reduce the search function. This science has been expanded by the modern study of Human
Factors Engineering. However, the classic example of the Gilbreths reducing Search was by
arranging tools and parts in a physical sequence of use through the Packet Principle.

Find: {icon suggested by an eye looking straight ahead at an object}

If there is an enigma in the Therblig system, Find is it. Dr. Barnes eliminated this Therblig,
explaining that it was a mental reaction, at the end of the Search cycle. While other mental
processes are included as Therbligs, this one is so momentary that the time taken for the Find
function would be hardly worth measuring. It has been left in since in other applications it
may be utilized. Find can be considered a demarcation line, denoting the end of the Search
cycle. Even though we may not find frequent or essential use for this Therblig, it should be
kept available, since it may become important in a future application of the system.

Select: {icon suggested by an arrow aimed at an object, much the same as a computer
cursor in form and intent}

This Therblig may be considered a part of Search. However, through usage by the Gilbreths,
it was found to indicate locating an object from a group of similar objects. For example, an
artist may Search for a box of colored pencils and then Select the proper color. If the Select

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function took too long, it might be wise to see how clearly the pencils are marked Do the
shafts of the pencil denote the color either by copying the color on their surface or having it‟s
name printed on the shaft?. Could this be aided by a pencil holder, where a bold bar of color
aligned with the pencil location? Of course, good lighting is required to discern minor
variations in color. Another aspect that the Gilbreths included under Select was in picking
objects that required a certain quantity. For example, let‟s say your job required you to fill
bags with 100 nails each. Your count must be accurate, since the customer will complain if
the count is low and management will fire you if your count is too high, giving away product.
While you could count out each and every bag (1 to 100), you could save a great deal of time
by having an accurate scale and finding the average weight of a bag of 100 nails. Then, you
could “count” the nails by weighing them. The important thing to remember is that the
Search, Find and Select Therbligs may or may not be separate elements, depending entirely
on the type of work being analyzed.

Grasp: {icon suggesting by a hand poised over an object, ready to grasp it}

In simplest terms, Grasp is when the worker‟s hand grabs the object. The Therblig ends
when the next Therblig, of Use or Transport Loaded, begins. There are actually many aspects
to Grasp, which the Gilbreths recognized and which continue to develop today. In this
Therblig, the time taken is directly proportional with the ease of the grasp. For example, the
more dimensions the object has, the quicker it can be effectively grasped. Frank Gilbreth
observed that a sales clerk would put a slight crease in a cash register receipt so it rose above
the counter surface, making it easier to pick up. Hot or cold objects could be grasped faster if
they had insulated handles rather than using a rag or gloves to pick up an un-insulated
handle. The Gilbreths also recognized that when Grasp was a static position, such as holding
a block of wood while a screw was being inserted, it should be eliminated by using a jig or
foot-activated clamp or other holding device. They felt that the hand was a poor vise and
caused great fatigue. Mogensen and Barnes separated this into a new Therblig (see Hold). An
important element in saving time was whether the initial grasping of an object would be the
proper grasp for the Use or Assemble function. In this respect, Grasp has a close relationship
with the Position and Pre-Position Therbligs. However, in the body of the Gilbreths‟ work,
the Grasp function was examined in detail, as to the type of Grasp (power grip, hook,

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precision or pinch grip). In their writings, they emphasized the advantages of the power and
hook grips and tried to avoid precision and pinch grips. These findings are supported in
current Ergonomics knowledge.

Hold: {icon suggested by a horseshoe magnet holding a bar}

Dr. Barnes said this Therblig was “…the retention of an object after it has been grasped,
[with] no movement of the object taking place.” To clarify, we can call Hold a Grasp, of an
object, occurring in one hand, while the other hand performs a Use or Assemble function.
While the Gilbreths considered this part of Grasp, Mogensen and Barnes were correct in
making it a separate Therblig, so as to alert the user to a negative Therblig, which should be
eliminated. This is particularly true in using Therbligs in ergonomics, where static holding is
an undesirable posture. By eliminating static Holding, you not only free up a hand for other
uses, but also reduce overall fatigue.

Transport Loaded: {icon shows a hand cupped, holding an object}

This Therblig begins after Grasp where the hand is doing “work” by moving the weight of an
object, and ends when just before the Release Load, Use or Assemble Therbligs. The main
objective of this Therblig is to reduce the distance and subsequent time involved for
transport. However, an obscure note in the Gilbreth papers has even more important
ramifications in applying Therbligs to Ergonomics. Gilbreth sometimes included numbers,
indicating the weight of the object inside the “fingers” of the mnemonic symbol. This
information, combined with reach distances, can identify possible problems leading to
strains. Distances and effort can be reduced by the old Gilbreth maxim of making gravity
work for you, by having sloped bins. This type of storage bin also would improve the Search
function, since objects would be easier to see. Transport Empty: {icon shows an empty hand}
This is the motion of moving the unloaded hand from the point of Release Load to the next
function within the sequence. It can also be considered the hand motions involved between
Select and Grasp, where the eye identifies the object and the hand moves towards it to grasp.
This Therblig is a non-productive one, and as such, should be kept to a minimum. One could
reduce the length of Transport Empty by placing the release point close to the Assemble
point, such as a gravity chute located by a hole in the work surface. In many instances,

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reducing the length of either Transport Therblig can reduce the extent of reaching required; a
sound ergonomic principle.

Position: {icon suggests an object, such as a pen, being placed in the hand, ready to Use}
This motion is the act of placing the object in the proper orientation for Use. For example, a
screw lies on the workbench in a horizontal orientation, but is to be used in a vertical
position. Positioning would occur when the screw is picked up and rotated into the vertical
position for inserting it into an object. This function may be completed during Transport
Loaded or be a totally separate Therblig

This Therblig begins after Grasp where the hand is doing “work” by moving the weight of an
object, and ends when just before the Release Load, Use or Assemble Therbligs. The main
objective of this Therblig is to reduce the distance and subsequent time involved for
transport. However, an obscure note in the Gilbreth papers has even more important
ramifications in applying Therbligs to Ergonomics. Gilbreth sometimes included numbers,
indicating the weight of the object inside the “fingers” of the mnemonic symbol. This
information, combined with reach distances, can identify possible problems leading to
strains. Distances and effort can be reduced by the old Gilbreth maxim of making gravity
work for you, by having sloped bins. This type of storage bin also would improve the Search
function, since objects would be easier to see.

Transport Empty: {icon shows an empty hand}

This is the motion of moving the unloaded hand from the point of Release Load to the next
function within the sequence. It can also be considered the hand motions involved between
Select and Grasp, where the eye identifies the object and the hand moves towards it to grasp.
This Therblig is a non-productive one, and as such, should be kept to a minimum. One could
reduce the length of Transport Empty by placing the release point close to the Assemble
point, such as a gravity chute located by a hole in the work surface. In many instances,
reducing the length of either Transport Therblig can reduce the extent of reaching required; a
sound ergonomic principle.

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Assemble: {icon shows several items (lines) placed together}

This Therblig starts when two or more parts are placed together (a peg into a hole) and ends
when either the assembled object is Transport Loaded or when the hand reaches for another
part (Transport Empty). Long lengths of time for this Therblig open numerous possibilities
for improvement. For example, in the case of placing a peg in a hole (each of the same
diameter), both Gilbreth and Barnes found that your can speed assembly by increasing the
size of the target. In the case of the peg, assembly time will be significantly shorter if the
holes are countersunk, which aids in guiding the peg into the hole. The Industrial
Engineering field has developed an infinite number of ways to reduce assembly time. For
example, using “key-ways” to mark the proper orientation of a part reduces errors and the
subsequent time to correct them.

Use: {icon is simple the letter U---for Use}

This Therblig should not be confused with Assemble. Use is when an object is being
operated as it was intended, and typically denotes a tool. For example, we would Assemble a
drill by placing a drill bit in the chuck and tightening it, but we Use the drill to bore holes.
Operation of controls on a machine would also be considered Use. Alan Mogensen later
categorized Use as the Therblig requiring the most skill. Disassemble: {icon shows Assemble
symbol with one part removed}

This motion is essentially the opposite of Assemble, depending on the circumstances. While
it could be used where a mistake was made in Assemble, it could also be the act of removing
a part from a jig or clamp, which held the part during the Use or Assemble motion. Again,
using our drill and bit example, we Disassemble when we unscrew the chuck and remove the
bit. Assemble would start when we inserted the next bit needed. In this example, if two
different sized drill bits were required to complete the task, the time involved for Assemble
and Disassemble could be reduced by either having two drills (each with a different sized bit)
or by substituting a drill with a keyless chuck. Gilbreth, for example, showed that the
Disassemble step could be eliminated in the case of a punch press, where the part was
normally removed by hand and placed in a box. He had an air jet installed, near the base of
the part, which activated on the upstroke of the punch press, dislodging the part and letting it

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fall down a chute to a waiting box. The Disassemble Therblig should always be examined for
possible elimination. If an item must be partially disassembled for Inspection or for addition
of other parts, the order of these operations should be reviewed to eliminate unnecessary
steps.

Inspect: {icon suggests a magnifying glass}

This Therblig involves the act of comparing the object with a predetermined standard. This
act can employ one or all human senses, depending on the object and the desirable attributes
being checked. The inspection can be for quantity (amount or size) or quality. The motion
starts when the item is first picked up or viewed and ends when it is either released or used in
assembly. Again, the extent of time involved should be examined and reduced if possible.
For example, Frank Gilbreth observed employees at a light bulb manufacturer picking up the
bulbs and holding them up to the lights in the ceiling, to see if the filament was properly
attached. Frank placed a light behind a translucent screen in front of the worker, which
allowed them to check the bulbs more easily. Inspect would also come into play as part of the
Select process. As a youngster, I used to love putting Heathkits together. In their assembly
manual, they suggested that you take the time to sort out the various sizes and types of parts
using a muffin tin. This brief investment in time virtually eliminated the Inspect function. Of
course, the issue of inspections can also cross over to the whole Quality Management issue.
Here, we can defer to the writings of Doctors Juran and Deming.

Pre-Position: {icon suggests a bowling pin being placed into proper position obviously
developed before automatic pin setting machines}

This is the motion of replacing an item in the proper orientation for its next Use. In the
example of the pen being in a holder on the table, the act of replacing the pen in the proper
Position for its next use would be Pre-Position. Like Position, it can be performed during
Transport Loaded. Frank Gilbreth‟s favorite example was when a pool shot is planned so that
the cue ball ends up in a good position for the next shot. Another Gilbreth application was
where the Pre-Position function was done before it reached the worker. He developed
numerous Packets, where parts were place in the proper Position for Grasp and in the proper
order for assembly, thus reducing the Select motion as well. However, where a workbench

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has been set up with tools properly positioned for use in assembly, the Pre-Position Therblig
becomes an important measurement. If the time to Pre-Position a tool (after Use) is longer
than Select, Grasp and Position motions, then one should consider improvements in the way
Pre-Position is done. For example, if placing a drill back in its holder takes more time, the
type of holder should be modified.

Release Load: {icon suggested by a hand with an object poised to drop}

This motion involves releasing the object when it reaches its destination. The actual time
taken will be fractions of a second and would vary with such things as if it were being Pre-
Positioned or if the release was merely down a hole, into a gravity chute. Caution must be
taken in solely working towards short release times. For example, it may be quicker to drop
the part into a bin, but what about the next station/operation? Do they have to spend time
positioning the part? How does the time compare between the various options? We know that
merely dropping the pen, when you are finished writing, may involve unnecessary Search
and Position motions, which clearly take longer than the time saved with a quick Release.

Unavoidable Delay: {icon suggested by a man bumping his nose unintentionally}

This Therblig is measured from the point where a hand is inactive to the point where it
becomes active again, with another Therblig. These delays were defined by Gilbreth as being
out of the control of the particular worker being studied. They could involve a lack of raw
materials being available or repair of a tool, etc. While these delays might be dealt with by
the overall factory/business system, they were not considered the responsibility of the
individual operator. The Gilbreths felt that these time periods should be used for rest. Time
and again, they warned management that they should never chastise a worker for resting
during these periods. It could be just as fatiguing for the worker to try and “look busy” as it
was to do actual work. Since the whole idea was to eliminate fatigue, the workers should be
allowed to take advantage of these periods.

Avoidable Delay: {icon shows a worker intentionally lying down on the job}

This counterpart to Unavoidable Delay involves inactive time the worker encounters over
which he/she has control. For example, if the worker is required to do inspections of their

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tools and report problems, and the result is a tool that breaks in the middle of the shift, the
worker is responsible for the delay. Avoidable Delays can also occur with an individual hand
or body part, which remains idle while another is working harder than needed. For example,
if the person is Selecting parts for Assembly, exclusively with one hand, while the other
remains idle, the work is not only slowed, but the hand being used is becoming more
fatigued. In many cases, the solution, in the use of both hands, can be solved by encouraging
the worker to become more ambidextrous.

Plan: {icon shows a worker with fingers on head, thinking}

This Therblig is a mental function, which may occur before Assemble (deciding which part
goes next) or prior to Inspection, noting which flaws to look for. The extent of the use of Plan
varies greatly with the type of job performed. However, in routine jobs, the time spent in the
Plan Therblig should be kept to a minimum through arrangement of parts and tools. Plan
time, by the worker, can also be eliminated by the system. For example, for those items we
purchase where “some assembly is required,” our Plan time is greatly reduced when the
instructions list out the tools needed for assembly. Looking at this another way, Plan could
also be considered another type of Delay, where a thought process is occurring rather than
merely remaining idle. In this case, if the Plan Therblig takes a certain degree of time, there
is no reason the worker‟s body couldn‟t be in a rest mode.

Rest to overcome Fatigue: {icon shows a person resting in a seated position}

This Therblig is actually a lack of motion and is only found where the rest is prescribed by
the job or taken by the worker. In the Gilbreths‟ scheme of Fatigue Reduction, after you had
eliminated all unnecessary motions and made necessary ones as least fatiguing as possible,
there would still be the need to rest. At first they devised complicated work/rest schedules,
recognizing that short, frequent rest breaks were more beneficial than longer, less frequent
rest breaks. However, these schedules could be difficult to enforce or achieve, as they
depended on the worker remembering to take their breaks and for how long. For our
purposes, it should be remembered to include rest breaks in measuring the overall time it
takes to complete a job. We should also look to “enforced” rest breaks, which, for example,
on an assembly line could be achieved by either shutting down the line at given intervals or

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by having blank or dead sections on the conveyor, where no product was placed. This type of
enforced break could be applied today, to computers. With reports of computer fatigue being
commonplace in the office, why couldn‟t there be a timed function that would freeze the
computer for five minutes every hour (this is the break frequency commonly recommended
in Ergonomics and interestingly enough, the same frequency recommended by the Gilbreths
for typists)?

Classification of Therbligs
Table 2: classification of therbligs

Effective Therbligs Ineffective Therbligs

Transport empty Hold
Grasp Pre-position
Transport loaded Position
Release load Search
Use Select
Assemble Plan
Disassemble Unavoidable delay
Inspect Avoidable delay
Rest

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3.8 Review Questions of Chapter Three
1. Micro-motion study is………
a) Analysis of one stage of motion chart.
b) Motion study, when seen on a time chart.
c) Subdivision of an operation into therbligs and their analysis
d) Enlarged view of motion.
e) All of the above
2. In micro motion study, therblig is described by……..
a) A symbol
b) An event
c) an activity
d) micro motions
e) standard symbol and color.
3. Micro motion study is……..
a) Analysis of a man-work method by using a motion picture camera with a
timing device in the field of view
b) Motion study observed on enhanced time intervals.
c) Motion study of a sequence of operations conducted systematically.
d) Study of man and machine conducted simultaneously.
e) All the above
4. Micro motion study involves following number of fundamental hand motions…
a) 8
b) 12
c) 16
d) 20
e) 24

5. Micro motion study is

a) analysis of a man-work method by using a motion picture camera with a
timing device in the field of view
b) Motion study is observed on enhanced time intervals.
c) motion study of a sequence of operations conducted systematically
d) Study of man and machine conducted simultaneously.

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 e) Scientific, analytically procedure for determining optimum work method.
6. Motion study was developed by
a) Taylor
b) Gilbreth
c) Mundel
d) Miles
6. Basic motion time study gives times for basic motions in ten thousandths of
a) Second
b) Minute
c) Hour
d) Day
e) None of the above.
7. Choose the wrong statement. Motion study is used for
a) improving a work method
b) improvising a work method
c) designing a work method
d) providing a schematic framework
e) Reducing inventory costs.
7. Father of time study was

a) F.W. Taylor
b) H.L. Gantt
c) F.B. Gilberfh
d) R.M. Barnes
e) H.B. Maynord.
8. As per principle of motion economy
a) Motion of arm should be symmetrical and opposite direction.
b) Both the hand should not remain idle except during rest period.
c) Both hands should start and complete their work simultaneously.
d) All of the above

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 CHAPTER FOUR: METHOD STUDY
4.1 Introduction to method Study
What is method study? Method study enables the industrial engineer to subject each
operation to systematic analysis. The main purpose of method study is to eliminate the
unnecessary operations and to achieve the best method of performing the operation.
Method study is also called methods engineering or work design. Method engineering is used
to describe collection of analysis techniques which focus on improving the effectiveness of
men and machines.
According to British Standards Institution (BS 3138): “Method study is the systematic
recording and critical examination or existing and proposed ways or doing work as a means
or developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing cost.”
Fundamentally method study involves the breakdown of an operation or procedure into it is
component elements and their systematic analysis.

Method study is basically conducted to simplify the work or working methods and must go
towards high productivity. It is always desirable to perform the requisite functions with
desired goal and with minimum consumption of resources. In carrying out the method study,
the right attitude of mind is important. The method study man should have:
I. The desire and determination to produce results.
II. Ability to achieve results.
III. An understanding of the human factors involved.
Method study scope lies in improving work methods through process and operation analysis,
Such as: Manufacturing operations and their sequence, Workmen, Materials, tools and
gauges, Layout of physical facilities and work station design, and Movement of men and
material.
Method signifies how a work is to be done i.e. description of how we consume resources in
order to achieve our target. Method is integral part of work accomplishment and signifies:

1) How well our methods utilize the limited available resources such as manpower,
machine, materials and money.
2) How our methods physically affect production output of the unit.
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 3) The quality of output obtained by application of our methods.
Methods determine amount of input materials, time, and power and money consumed.
Method study can decide the cost and quality of output produced.

So, Method study can be defied as: “A procedure for examining the various activities
associated with the problem which ensures a systematic, objective and critical evaluation of
the existing factors and in addition an imaginative approach while developing
improvements.”

There are three aspects of work study application:

1. Method study proper is conducted with broad investigation and improvement of a

shop/section, the layout of equipment and machines and the movement of men and
materials.

2. Motion study is a more detailed investigation of the individual worker/operator,

layout of his machines, tools, jigs and fixtures and movement of his limps when he
performs his job. The ergonomics aspects i.e. study of environment, body postures,
and noise level and surroundings temperature also form part of investigation.

3. Micro motion study i.e. much more detailed investigation of very rapid movements
of the various limbs of the worker.

So, motion study is an analysis of the flow and processing of material and the movements of
men through or at various work stations.

Method study or methods analysis is a systematic procedure for the critical analysis of
movements made by men, materials and machines in performing any work. So, motion study
is part of method study.

4.2 Scope of Method Study

The task of work simplification and compatible work system design concerns the followings
such as Layout of shop floor and working areas or work stations, Working conditions i.e.
ergonomics etc, Handling distances (material movement), Tooling and equipment used,
Quality standards to be achieved, Operators and operations in achieving the production

Method and Value Engineering Page 27

targets, Materials to be used, Power required and available, Work cycle time, and Working
processes

1.3 Indicators of Method study

Some common indicators which show the requirements of method study investigations in a
manufacturing process are such as bottle necks in the production system which results in long
delivery dates or unbalanced work flow, underutilization of resources as indicated by
idleness of plant, the quality of the product may be affected by poor workers morale and this
may lead to high absenteeism and the inconsistency wages or earning of workers also
indicate a need for review of production techniques.

4.4 Basic procedure of work study

There are eight steps in performing a complete work study. They are:

1. Select the job or process to be studied.

2. Record or collect all relevant data about the job or process, using the most suitable
data collection techniques (explained in Part Two), so that the data will be in the
most convenient form to be analyzed.
3. Examine the recorded facts critically and challenge everything that is done,
considering in turn: the purpose of the activity; the place where it is performed; the
sequence in which it is done; the person who is doing it; the means by which it is
done.
4. Develop the most economic method, taking into account all the circumstances and
drawing as appropriate on various production management techniques (explained
in Part Three), as well as on the contributions of managers, supervisors, workers
and other specialists with whom new approaches should be explored and
discussed.
5. Evaluate the results attained by the improved method compared with the quantity
of work involved and calculate a standard time for it.
6. Define the new method and the related time and present it to all those concerned,
either verbally or in writing, using demonstrations.
7. Install the new method, training those involved, as an agreed practice with the
allotted time of operation.

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 8. Maintain the new standard practice by monitoring the results and comparing them
with the original targets.
Steps 1, 2 and 3 occur in every study, whether the technique being used is method study or
work measurement. Step 4 is part of method study practice, while step 5 calls for the use of
work measurement. It is possible that after a certain time the new method may prove to be in
need of modification, in which case it would be re-examined again using the above sequence.
These eight steps (figure 6) will be discussed in detail in the chapters devoted to method
study and work measurement. Before doing so, however, we shall discuss the role of the
work study practitioner and the human factor in the application of work study.

4.5 Objectives of Method Study

Some of the important aims of method study are: Better design of plant equipment and
buildings, Less fatigue to workers by avoiding unnecessary movements of manpower , Better
working conditions and environment for workers/employees, To have more effective
utilization of materials, machines and manpower and money, Better product quality, Efficient
and fast material handling equipment, Leads to standardization, rationalization, simplification
and specialization, Efficient planning of the section.

4.6 Considerations for Selection of Method Study

The job should be selected for the method study based upon the following considerations:
A. Economic aspect
B. Technical aspect, and
C. Human aspect.

4.6.1 Economic Aspects

The method study involves cost and time. If sufficient returns are not attained, the whole
exercise will go waste. Thus, the money spent should be justified by the savings from it. The
following guidelines can be used for selecting a job:
a) Bottleneck operations which are holding up other production operations.
b) Operations involving excessive labor.
c) Operations producing lot of scrap or defectives.
d) Operations having poor utilization of resources.
e) Backtracking of materials and excessive movement of materials.

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4.6.2 Technical Aspects
The method study man should be careful enough to select a job in which he has the technical
Knowledge and expertise. A person selecting a job in his area of expertise is going to do full
justice. Other factors which favor selection in technical aspect are:
a) Job having in consistent quality.
b) Operations generating lot of scraps.
c) Frequent complaints from workers regarding the job.

4.6.3 Human Considerations

Method study means a change as it is going to affect the way in which the job is done
presently and is not fully accepted by workman and the union. Human considerations play a
vital role in method study. These are some of the situations where human aspect should be
given due importance:
a. Workers complaining about unnecessary and tiring work.
b. More frequency of accidents.

c. Inconsistent earning.

4.7 Elements of Method Study

To design an appropriate method the following eight elements of any system irrespective of
its size must be taken into consideration:
1. Purpose: what is required or desired from the system or in other words what the
system should achieve (function and aims etc.)
2. Input: Resources or input materials to be processed to achieve production target.
3. Output: the product of the system. Some additional output like by-product may also
be obtained.
4. Sequence: the sequence of operation required for conversion of input into output. It is
the description of how man power works with material (or work) plus machines. This
is process planning.
5. Working Environment: the working conditions such as lighting, temperature,
humidity, safety equipment and any health hazards under which material the system
operates. These are related with system design.

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 6. Manpower: the manpower helps to accomplish the steps of sequence without
becoming part of the output. However their skill level, responsibilities, motivation,
incentives and wages affect their performance to a large extent.
7. Physical Facilities: it includes machines/equipment and resources which help in the
accomplishment of meeting the output target. It also includes the nature of machines
and their layout for the system to operate most effectively.
8. Information Technology: the quality of work output is affected to a large extent by
information resources and aids like processing instructions, operation sheets, and
specification-sheets.

4.8 Dimensions of Method Design Elements

1) Basic Description: the fundamental of the element in terms of physical
characteristics & Specifications like what, when, how and who.
2) Output Rate : It is the time based measure of the element during the working of the
system may be output produced per minute or hour or number of customers
3) Control: the evaluation of each element is essential from control point of view thus
scope should be there for incorporating modification in activities in order to achieve
the desired results.
4) Interaction: It is the reaction between one element in the system such as hiring
equipment instead of purchasing etc.
5) Future Scope: research is required for suggesting what changes should be brought in
to have planned production activities.
Guidelines used in Method Study

The general strategy is to follow the following two guidelines for each element:
1. Constraints: Minimum constraints or limitations to be considered in the design of
each element and these restrictions must be part of final method specifications.
2. Regularity: the adopted method should regularly include these conditions and
specifications.

Though there are number of strategies aiming at optimum methods which have been
proposed but the search for the best method should be unending process.

Method and Value Engineering Page 31

4.9 Procedure of Method Study
Method study can be performed in the following six steps:

Step 1: Selection of Work/Job to be Studied: Particularly any activity is a potential for

improvement but only those jobs should be selected when there are some valid reasons for
method study.

Step 2: Collection and Recording of necessary Information: Obtain the facts about the
present method of doing the job and record them. In order to improve an activity or
procedure the fact information is collected from the place where the job under study is being
executed by direct visual observation. These can be done:
1) Recording movement of machines or materials
2) Recording the critical procedure in the job
3) Recording the operators „ performance
4) Recording the path of movement of workers with respect to machines and allied
operations
5) Recording the path of movement to improve work place layout
6) Recording the scrap generated.
 There are many standardized techniques (i.e. charts, diagrams, graphs etc.)
available which may be used for proper recording and presentation for further
analysis.
 The choice of technique depends on the type of information which is to be
recorded.
 Since the improvement in existing method or development of new method
depends on how exactly the facts about the existing method have been
recorded.

Step 3: Critical Examination of the existing Method : this is the key step in the whole
study. The information available in the form of charts and graphs after step II can now be
thoroughly studied and analyzed in order to detect the production stages where improvement
in the method is possible. The questions can help in the development of new method by
getting the answers for:
1) What should be done?

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 2) When should be done?
3) Who should do it?
4) Where should it be done?
5) How should it be done?

The following improvements are possible on the basic of answers to these questions:
1) Improvement in material flow.
2) Improvement in working conditions.
3) Improvement in manufacturing techniques
4) Improvement to clerical routine
5) Reduction in material waste.

Step 4. Develop the New Improved Method the analysis of existing work method can
provide a starting point for a synthesis of suggested improvements in job performance.

The technique specially designed for improving work method is called the process
improvement formula. The four steps of the formula are:
1) Eliminate the unnecessary activities
2) Combine two or more activities
3) Sequence the various activities properly
4) Simplify the activities
Complete elimination of unwanted activities is the most important step in developing an
improved method.

If elimination is not possible then possibility of combining the different activities should be
explored.

The next strategy in development stage is to identify scope of changes in the sequence of
operations or activities.

Step 5: Installing the Improved Method: this involves training of those who are going to
utilize the new method.
 Cooperation from both supervisory staff and operators is essential to the successful
installation of any proposed and selected method.

Method and Value Engineering Page 33

  So, the installation of the new method should then be entrusted to some responsible
person.
 The installation phase of the method study is complete as soon as the newly installed
method starts working smoothly and satisfactory and provides encouraging result
(such as time saving and scrap reduction etc.)

Step 6: Maintaining the improved method even after the workers have been trained and
requisite changes in machines and layout have been incorporates, there is no guarantee that
the method will be used the way it was designed.
 The proper functioning of the installed method is ensured by periodic checks and
verifications.
 Reasons for deviation if any should be explored and the required changes may be
incorporated in the procedure being practiced so as to revert back to the authorized or
selected one.
 The last and most important plus expensive step in process of method development is
simplification.
 The need of simplification of activities is in order to allow the operator/worker to
complete the job more quickly and easily by:
 reducing the number of operations
 Reducing or eliminating the delays and storages etc..
 Finally after selecting the work method to be adopted, certain amount of
experimentation will be required to locate and eliminate snags (difficulties) if any:
 Specifying or describing the improved method fully and in a systematic manner is
important step.
The Specification of the selected method accomplishes several purposes like:

1. The Communication of the method to the management for its approval.

2. The Communication to those concerned with its implementation like instructions
to workers and so far as the machines and layout are concerned.
3. Provision of an official record of the method.

The new method should possess the following aspects:

a. Full of worker‟s body

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 b. Arrangements of work place
c. Design of tools and equipment

The acceptance of new method will mainly depend upon the cost benefit, trade unions
approach, working hours and security requirements etc.

4.2.1 Job Design

A job is basic set of tasks that a person does for its work. Like talking to customer, arrange
insurance, drive trains, make films, and prepare meals. During the working days, a job is
repeated many times. This means that employees can save a lot of time and effort if they use
the best possible method for doing the job. Finding this best method is the purpose of job
design.

Job design may be defined as the function of specifying the work activities of an
individual or group in an organizational setting.

The objective is to develop job structures that to meet the requirement of the organization,
Meet its technology satisfies the job holders personal, and Satisfy individual requirements.

When designing a job, the following six factors should be considered:

1. Task Significance: the extent to which employees feel the job has a substantial
impact on the organization or the world.

2. Task Identity how the workers see the job as a whole; visible outcome such that
single piece of work from start to finish

3. Task variety the job content for variety of tasks

4. Skill variety use of variety of skill and talents

5. Autonomy freedom and independence and personal control over the work

6. Feedback from the job the extent to which clear, timely information about individual
performance is available.

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4.2.2 Job design consideration
1. Behavioral considerations
 Degree of labor specialization (advantage vs. disadvantage)
 Job enrichment (horizontal and vertical loading)
 Socio-technical system (Interaction between technology and the
workgroup/ team)

2. Physical considerations (work physiology): Ergonomics

4.2.3 Job Design Strategies

The job design strategies are:
1. Job simplification /machine model
2. Job rotation and Enlargement
3. Job enrichment

4.2.3.1 Job simplification

Job simplification is involves standardizing work procedures and employing people in clearly
defined procedures and highly specialized tasks. It is very narrow in job scope „the man who
puts the bolt doesn‟t put on the nut and the man who put on the nut doesn‟t tight it‟. The
extreme case is automation.

It increases productivity through lower skill, easier, quicker training, less difficult
supervision and It also reduces productivity due to absenteeism, poor performance as a result
of boredom.

4.2.3.2 Job rotation and Enlargements

Job rotation and Enlargement are strategies of job design that increase the number and
variety of tasks performed by the worker. They both expand „job scope‟.

Job rotation increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving
different sets of task assignments. While no change in job design, the workers gain variety by
switching jobs on a regular basis on hourly, daily or weekly basis.

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4.2.3.3 Job Enlargement
Job Enlargement is increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that
were previously assigned on separate workers. The worker can be accomplished through
horizontal loading, which pulls pre-work and /or later work stages. The old job design is
permanently changed through the added variety of component tasks.

4.2.3.4 Job enrichment

Job enrichment is one or more tasks added or rotated may not have meaningful motivation.
Job enrichment differs from other job design strategies in that it seeks to expand not just job
scope, but also job depth the planning and evaluating duties performed by individual worker
rather than the supervisor. Changes designed to increase job depth are sometimes referred to
as vertical loading.

Each strategy varies in the degree of the labor specialization involved in a division of labor.
Contingency management theory recognizes that there are favorable situations for specialized
jobs and for others specialization will be less appropriate.

4.2.4 Process chart symbols

Process charts are the graphical representation or diagrams of pictures which gives overall
view of a process. Thus a chart indicates the process with the help of symbols and aids for
better understanding with a purpose of improvement and identification of facts. The Process
charts are denoted by symbols. The symbols give a better understanding of the facts.

The recording of the facts about a job or operation on a process chart is made much easier by
the use of a set of five standard symbols, which together serve to represent all the different
types of activity or event likely to be encountered in any factory or office. They thus serve as
a very convenient, widely understood type of shorthand, saving a lot of writing and helping
to show clearly just what is happening in the sequence being recorded. The two principal
activities in a process are operation and inspection. These are represented by the following
symbols:

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 Table 3: Basic symbols of method study to describe the process flow.

No Symbols Name Description of symbols

1 Operation Indicates the main steps in a process, method or procedure.

Usually the part, material or product concerned is modified or
changed during the operation

2 Inspection Indicate an inspection on quality/checking for quality

3 Transportation Indicates the movement of workers, materials or equipment

from place to place

4 Temporary Indicates a delay in the sequence of events: for example, work

Storage Or waiting between consecutive operations, or any object laid
Delay aside temporarily without record until required

5 Permanent Indicates a controlled storage in which material is received

storage into or issued from a store under some form of authorization,
or an item is retained for reference purposes.

6 Combined When it is desired to show activities performed at the same

activities. time or by the same operative at the same workstation, the
symbols for those activities are combined, e.g. the circle within
the square represents a combined operation and inspection.

4.4.5 Recording Techniques for Method Study

The next step in basic procedure, after selecting the work to be studied is to record all facts
relating to the existing method. In order that the activities selected for investigation may be
visualized in their entirety and in order to improve them through subsequent critical
examination, it is essential to have some means of placing on record all the necessary facts
about the existing method. Records are very much useful to make before and after
comparison to assess the effectiveness of the proposed improved method.

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The recording techniques are designed to simplify and standardize the recording work. For
this purpose charts and diagrams are used

Figure 1: Recording techniques for method study

4.2.6 Charts used in Methods Study

This is the most popular method of recording the facts. The activities comprising the jobs are
recorded using method study symbols. A great care is to be taken in preparing the charts so
that the information it shows is easily understood and recognized. The following information
should be given in the chart. These charts are used to measure the movement of operator or
work (i.e.in motion study).
a) Adequate description of the activities.
b) Whether the charting is for present or proposed method.
c) Specific reference to when the activities will begin and end.
d) Time and distance scales used wherever necessary.
e) The date of charting and the name of the person who does charting.

4.2.7 Types of Charts

It can be broadly divided into
A. Macro motion charts
B. Micro motion charts.
Macro motion charts are used for macro motion study and micro motion charts are used for
micro motion study.

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Macro motion study is one which can be measured through „stop watch‟ and micro motion
study is one which cannot be measured through stop watch.

4.2.8 Macro Motion Charts

Following four charts are used under this type:
1. Operation Process Chart

It is also called outline process chart. An operation process chart gives the bird‟s eye view of
the whole process by recording only the major activities and inspections involved in the
process. Operation process chart uses only two symbols, i.e., operation and inspection.
Operation, process chart is helpful to:
a) Visualize the complete sequence of the operations and inspections in the process.
b) Know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into the entire process.
c) In operation process chart, the graphic representation of the points at which materials are
introduced into the process and what operations and inspections are carried on them are
shown.

4.2.9 Flow Process Chart

Flow process chart gives the sequence of flow of work of a product or any part of it through
the work centre or the department recording the events using appropriate symbols. It is the
amplification of the operation process chart in which operations; inspection, storage, delay
and transportation are represented. However, process charts are of three types:
i. Material type: This shows the events that occur to the materials.
ii. Man type: Activities performed by the man.
iii. Equipment type: How equipment is used.

The flow process chart is useful: to reduce the distance travelled by men (or materials), avoid
waiting time and unnecessary delays reduce the cycle time by combining or eliminating
operations, fix up the sequence of operations, and to relocate the inspection stages.
Like operation process chart, flow process chart is constructed by placing symbols on below
another as per the occurrence of the activities and are joined by a vertical line. A brief
description of the activity is written on the right hand side of the activity symbol and time or
distance is given on the left hand side.

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3. Two Handed Process Chart
A two handed (operator process chart) is the most detailed type of flow chart in which the
activities of the workers hands are recorded in relation to one another. The two handed
process chart is normally confined to work carried out at a single workplace. This also gives
synchronized and graphical representation of the sequence of manual activities of the worker.
The application of this charts are:
 To visualize the complete sequence of activities in a repetitive task.
 To study the work station layout.
4. Multiple Activity Chart
It is a chart where activities of more than subject (worker or equipment) are each recorded on
a common time scale to show their inter-relationship. Multiple activity charts is made:
 to study idle time of the man and machines,
 to determine number of machines handled by one operator, and
 to determine number of operators required in teamwork to perform the given job.

4.3.1 Diagrams Used in Method Study

The flow process chart shows the sequence and nature of movement but it does not clearly
show the path of movements. In the paths of movements, there are often undesirable features
such as congestion, back tracking and unnecessary long movements. To record these
unnecessary features, representation of the working area in the form of flow diagrams, string
diagrams can be made:
a. To study the different layout plans and thereby; select the most optimal layout.
b. To study traffic and frequency over different routes of the plant.
c. Identification of back tracking and obstacles during movements.
Diagrams are of two types:
1) Flow diagram
2) String diagram.
1. Flow Diagram
Flow diagram is a drawing, of the working area, showing the location of the various activities
identified by their numbered symbols and are associated with particular flow process chart
either man type or machine type.

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The routes followed in transport are shown by joining the symbols in sequence by a line
which represents as nearly as possible the path or movement of the subject concerned.
Following are the procedures to make the flow diagram:
1. The layout of the workplace is drawn to scale.
2. Relative positions of the machine tools, work benches, storage, and
inspection benches are marked on the scale.
3. Path followed by the subject under study is tracked by drawing lines.
4. Each movement is serially numbered and indicated by arrow for direction.
5. Different colors are used to denote different types of movements.
2. String Diagram
The string diagram is a scale layout drawing on which, length of a string is used to record the
extent as well as the pattern of movement of a worker working within a limited area during a
certain period of time. The primary function of a string diagram is to produce a record of a
existing set of conditions so that the job of seeing what is actually taking place is made as
simple as possible.

One of the most valuable features of the string diagram is the actual distance travelled during
the period of study to be calculated by relating the length of the thread used to the scale of
drawing. Thus, it helps to make a very effective comparison between different layouts or
methods of doing job in terms of the travelling involved.
The main advantages of string diagram compared to flow diagram is that respective
movements between work stations which are difficult to be traced on the flow diagram can
be conveniently shown on string diagram. Following are the procedures to draw string
diagram:
a. A layout of the work place of factory is drawn to scale on the soft board.
b. Pins are fixed into boards to mark the locations of work stations, pins are also driven at
the turning points of the routes.
c. A measured length of the thread is taken to trace the movements (path).
d. The distance covered by the object is obtained by measuring the remaining part of the
thread and subtracting it from original length.

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4.3.2 Review Question of Chapter Four
1. The difference between job enrichment and job enlargement is that
a) Enriched jobs enable an employee to do a number of boring jobs instead of
just one.
b) Enlarged jobs contain a larger number of similar tasks, while enriched jobs
include some of the planning and control necessary for job accomplishment.
c) these terms mean the same thing
d) Enriched jobs contain a larger number of similar tasks, while enlarged jobs
include some of the planning and control necessary for job accomplishment.
e) All the above
2. The correct order of procedure in method study is
a) Select – Record – Examine – Develop – Define – Install – Maintain
b) Select – Define – Examine – Develop – Record – Install – Maintain
c) Select – Record – Develop – Examine – Define – Install – Maintain
d) Select – Record – Examine – Define – Develop – Install – Maintain
3. String diagram is used when
a) Team of workers is working at a place
b) Material handling is to be done
c) Idle time is to be reduced
d) All of the above
4. The objective of time study is to determine the time required to complete a job by
a) fast worker
b) average worker
c) slow worker
d) new entrant
e) Any one of the above.
5. Job enrichment technique is applied to
a) reduce labor monotony
b) overcome boring and demotivating work
c) make people happy
d) all of the above

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 e) None of the above.

6. String diagram is used…………..

a) for checking the relative values of various layouts
b) when a group of workers are working at a place
c) where processes require the operator to be moved from one place to another
d) all of the above
e) None of the above.
7. A milk powder tin is being weighed as it is filled is an example of
a) Operation cum transportation
b) Operation cum inspection
c) Transportation cum inspection
d) None of the above
8. What does symbol „O‟ imply in work study?
a) Operation
b) Inspection
c) Transportation
d) Delay
9. In process charts the symbol used for storage is
a) Circle
b) Square
c) Arrow
d) Triangle
10. The following factor(s) must be considered while selecting the work for method study
a) Economic considerations
b) Technical considerations
c) Human reactions
d) All of the above
11. In process charts, the symbol used for storage is
a) Circle
b) Square

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 c) Arrow
d) Triangle

12. The outline (operation) process chart, the following symbols are used
a) operation and inspection
b) operation and transportation
c) inspection and transportation
d) operation and storage
13. A diagram showing the path followed by men and materials while performing a task is
known as
a) String Diagram
b) Flow process chart
c) Travel chart
d) Flow diagram
14. All five charting symbols are used in
a) outline process chart
b) flow process chart
c) SIMO chart
d) multiple activity chart
15. Flow process chart contains
a) inspection and operation
b) inspection, operation and transportation
c) inspection, operation, transportation and delay
d) inspection, operation, transportation, delay and storage
16. The following charts(s) record the movements
a) Operation process charts
b) Flow process charts
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
17. Which of the following is scale plane?
a) String diagram

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 b) Flow process chart
c) Operation process chart
d) All the above
18. In THERBLIGS, color for‟ search‟ is
a) Black
b) Grey
c) Red
d) Green
19. In SIMO chart, the movements are recorded against time measured in…….
a) Minute
b) Second
c) Micro second
d) Winks
20. A……..is based on film analysis
a) SIMO charts
b) Flow process charts
c) String diagram
d) Operation flow chart

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 CHAPTER FIVE: WORK MEASUREMENT
5.1 Introduction to Work Measurement
Work measurement is concerned with the determination of the amount of time required to
perform a unit of work. The time required for this task is commonly referred to as the
„standard‟ or „allowed time’. Thus, work measurement provides a yardstick for human
effort, which can help in efficient staffing, improved planning and control and sound
incentive schemes.

The International Labor Organization (1974), defines work measurement as “the application
of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job
at a defined level of performance.”

Definition of work measurement: The Work Study Report of the Secretariat Training
School, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India (1966) defines it as “the
application of techniques designed to establish the work content of a specified task by
determining the time required for carrying it out at a defined standard of performance by
qualified worker”.

Work measurement is thus a device for estimating more precisely the amount of time it
should take or will take to perform the assigned work. Work measurement has negative and
positive roles. Negatively, it locates the existence of ineffective time; positively it sets
standard time for the performance of work. Since method study is a technique for reducing
work content, therefore, it is necessary that method study should precede work measurement.
In short, work measurement aims at investigating, reducing and subsequently eliminating
ineffective time.

It is very easy to apply this technique to highly repetitive operations. It is considered

difficult, to apply this technique to work pertaining to key administrative posts, work with
unpredictable results and those which need special requirements. However, we must try to
use this technique even under such situations through establishing norms or standards of
performance which may be less precise but rational.

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Work measurement is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating ineffective
time in work performance. Besides, it also helps in setting performance standards which
connote, the optimum rate of output that can be achieved by a qualified worker on an average
in a working day with due allowance being made for the necessary time required for rest.

Work measurement is also called by the name „time study’. Work measurement is
absolutely essential for both the planning and control of operations. Without measurement
data, we cannot determine the capacity of facilities or it is not possible to quote delivery
dates or costs. We are not in a position to determine the rate of production and also labor
utilization and efficiency.

It may not be possible to introduce incentive schemes and standard costs for budget control.
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance.

 Qualified Worker: Physical Ability, Mental Ability and Sufficient Practice.

 Specified Job: Methods, Quality, and Health & Safety.
 Defined Level of Performance: Standard.
Objectives of work measurement are such as standardize efficient methods for completing
tasks, A realistic schedule and workforce requirements can be prepared by estimating the
target time for each job, Analyzing alternative methods to compare performance times,
Preparation of a realistic schedule of work, Identifying unnecessary activities related to a
career to reduce or eliminate them, Assist in the organization of labor by comparing the
actual performance daily, standardize the efficient process of performing operations,
Establish supervisory objectives and measure supervisor performance based on those
objectives, and Work measurement is used in determining machine effectiveness.

5.2 Work Measurement Techniques

 Time study
 Work sampling
 Work Distribution
After finding the most economical way of performing an operation, it is essential that a
permanent record/measurement be made of it.

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5.3 Techniques of work Measurement Systems
The techniques of work measurement classified into two parts such as Non-Engineered
methods and Engineered methods. The Non-Engineered Methods includes Professional
Estimates, historical Time, and negotiated Times. And also Engineered Methods includes
Time Study, Work Sampling, predetermined Motion Time Study, and standard data.

What is Time study? Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the
times and rates of working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified
conditions, and for analyzing the data. We will determine the necessary time for
carrying out the job at a defined level of performance.

Among these different techniques of work measurement, time study and work sampling are
widely used. Time study equipment‟s are the following

1) Stop watch or electronic timer

2) Motion picture camera and
3) Electronic data collector and computer.

5.4 Basic Procedure for Time Study

The following steps are time study of any process in order to determine standard time:

1) Select the job for study and define the objective of the study.
2) Analyze the operation to determine if the standard method and conditions exist and
the worker is properly trained. The method study or training of operator should be
completed before starting time study if need be.
3) Select the operator to be studied if more than one can perform the task.
4) Record the information about the standard method, operator, operation, product
machine, quality required and working conditions.
5) Divide the operation into reasonably small elements.
6) Time the operator for each of the elements. Estimate the total number of observations
to be taken.
7) Collect and record the data of required number of cycles by way of timing and rating
the operator.

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 8) For each element of operation note the representative watch time and calculate the
normal time as follows:

Normal Time = Observed time x Rating Factors

9) Calculate normal time for the whole job by adding normal time of various elements.

10) Determine standard time by adding allowances to normal time of operation.

Note: Some allowances such as personal allowance, fatigue allowance, preparation

allowance are generally used or these can be taken from the company’s policy book
or by conducting an independent study.
Standard time = Normal time + Allowances

Standard Time =

5.5 Recording the information

 Fill in all information in the heading of the observation sheet.
 Make a sketch of the work place showing the working position of the operator and the
location of the tools, fixtures, machines and materials.
 Record specifications of materials, description of equipment, machines, tools, etc.
Dividing the operation into elements the main reasons for operation breakdown the time
study can be used for training new operators on the job, It shows that excessive time is being
taken to perform certain elements of the job or that too little time is being spent on other
elements, and Since an operator may not work at the same pace throughout the cycle, it
would permit separate performance ratings to be applied to each element of the job.

5.6 Rules of dividing an operation

1. The elements should be as short in duration as can be accurately timed.
2. Handling time should be separated from machine time and
3. Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.

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5.7 Recording the stop-watch readings
 Use appropriate stop watch, board and observation sheet;
 Where possible use distinctive sounds to mark the beginning and ending of the
element; and
 Where 'foreign' elements occur they should be timed and recorded on the observation
sheet. (Foreign elements are those that do not occur regularly in the cycle, example
dropping wrench).

5.8 Work Sampling

The objective of work sampling is to estimate the proportion of the time that a worker spends
on various tasks. The method involves conducting random observations to record the activity
that the worker is performing. Work sampling is used in the following:
1. Ratio delay studies: These estimate the percentage of time employees spend in
unavoidable delays. The results are used to investigate work methods, to estimate
activity costs, and to set allowances in labor standards.
2. Setting labor standards: for setting standard times, the observer must be
experienced enough to rate the worker's performance.
3. Measuring worker performance: Sampling can develop a performance index for
workers for periodic evaluations.

5.9 Work Sampling Procedures includes

1. Take a preliminary sample to obtain an estimate of the parameter value (such as per
cent of time a worker is busy).
2. Compute the sample size required.
3. Prepare a schedule for observing the worker at appropriate times.
4. Observe and record worker activities, rate the worker's performance.
5. Record the number of units produced during the applicable portion of the study.
6. Compute the normal time per part; and
7. Compute the standard time per part.

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The following formula are used to determine the required Work sampling :…

n=

Where;
n= required sample size
z = standard normal deviation for the desired confidence level (table, normal
distribution)
p = estimated value of sample proportion (of time worker is observed busy or idle)
h = accuracy level desired in percent.
To determine the an adequate sample size,three important points must be considered.They
are as follow.

1. How accurate we want to be ( for example,is ±5% of actual close engough?) .

2. The desired level of confidence ( for example,the Z value; is 95 % adequate or is
99% required?)
3. How much variation exist within the job elements(for example,if the variation is
large, a large sample will be required)
The following formula is used to calculate required sample size:….

n=( ̅ )
where,

n= required sample size

z = standard normal deviation for the desired confidence level (table, normal
distribution)
s= standard deviation of the initial sample.
h = accuracy level desired in percent.
̅ =mean of the initial sample.

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 If the standard deviation is not provided ( which is typical the case outside the
classroom),it must be computed.The formula for doing so is….

∑ ̅
S=√

Where,

= value of each observation.

̅ =mean value of the observation.

number of observation in the sample.

5.2.1 Disadvantages of Work Sampling

 Ordinarily work sampling is not economical for studying a single operator or
machine.
 Time study permits a finer breakdown of activities and delays than is possible with
work sampling.
 The operator may change his or her work pattern upon sight of the observer.
 A work sampling study made of a group obviously presents average results, and no
information as to the magnitude of the individual differences.

5.2.2 Predetermined Motion Time Systems

Predetermined motion time system (PMTS) is a work measurement technique whereby
times established for basic human motions are used to build up the time for a job at a
defined level of performance.

PMTS also called predetermined time system (PTS), is a database (set of tables) of basic
motion elements and their associated normal time values, together with a set of
procedures for applying the data to analyze manual tasks and establish standard times for
the tasks.

The concept is similar to constructing a building. A building is composed of elements

Doors, walls, beams, bricks, plumbing.

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  The structure is the sum of the elements. Likewise, a job is also considered to consist
of elements, the total of which is the sum of the elements. The assumption is that each
job element is independent and additive; that is, each element does not affect what
happens before or after it. assigning pre-set standard times for motions and summing
these to obtain a standard time for the whole task.

5.2.3 Advantage of PMT

 PMT systems offer a number of advantages over stop-watch time study. With PMT
systems one time is indicated for a given motion, irrespective of where such a motion
is performed.
 A PMT system, which avoids both rating and direct observation, can lead to more
reliability in setting standard times.
 PMT systems are not too difficult to apply and can be less time consuming than other
methods.
 PMT systems are particularly useful for very short repetitive time cycles such as
assembly work in the electronics industry.

5.2.4 Work Distribution Techniques

One of the techniques used in improving the work situation is a work distribution study or
analysis. It is a detailed study of the soundness of the existing division of work. It asks the
following questions what activities take the most time. Is there misdirected effort? Are skills
properly used? Are workers doing too many unrelated tasks? Are tasks spread too thinly? Is
work divided evenly or equitably?

It is well to keep in mind that where work is not equitably distributed, everyone does not
carry a fair share of the work; and worker‟s morale decreases; accidents may increase and
workers may be idle.

Information or data on work done by every worker is collected and set down in a work
distribution chart.

The chart will then give a complete picture of what is done in the unit and who does what,
i.e. the contribution of each worker to each activity.

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It would, for instance, show failures to delegate, and cases for wastage of critical skills
through the assignment of routine tasks to professional or highly skilled employees.

5.2.5 Procedure of the work distribution analysis

 Prepare task lists
 Determine activities performed and prepare activity list;
 Prepare “present” work distribution chart;
 Analyze the work distribution;
 Improve the work distribution (prepare “after” work distribution chart) and
apply it upon approval by authorities concerned.
Analysis of the work distribution: to analysis the work distribution the following questions
are necessary such as what activities and tasks take the most time? Is there misdirected
effort? Are skills and talents used properly? Are employees doing too many unrelated tasks?
And Are tasks spread too thinly?

5.2.6 Performance Rating

Performance rating: It is the rating of a simple factor: the operator's pace, speed or tempo.
The rating is mostly expressed in percentage of a normal performance which is equal to
100%. Furthermore, 'accuracy' of rating usually depends on the person that does and rating
can be refined and improved with experience and training.

5.2.7 Determine the Allowance

However, since it is not expected that a person will work all day without some interruptions,
the operator may take time out for his personal needs, for rest and for reasons beyond his
control. The allowances for such interruptions to operation/production may be classified as…
Allowance: the normal time for an operation does not contain any allowances for the worker.
It is impossible to work throughout the day even though the most practicable, effective
method has been developed.
Even under the best working method situation, the job will still demand the expenditure of
human effort and some allowance must therefore be made for recovery from fatigue and for
relaxation. Allowances must also be made to enable the worker to attend to his personal
needs. The allowances are categorized as:

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 1. Relaxation allowance
2. Interference allowance, and
3. Contingency allowance.
1. Relaxation Allowance
Relaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.
Relaxation allowance is a addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with the
opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying out
specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. The
amount of allowance will depend on nature of the job.
Relaxation allowances are of two types:
a) fixed allowances
b) Variable allowances.
Fixed allowances constitute:
(a) Personal needs allowance: It is intended to compensate the operator for the time
necessary to leave, the workplace to attend to personal needs like drinking water, smoking,
washing hands. Women require longer personal allowance than men. A fair personal
allowance is 5% for men, and 7% for women.
(b) Allowances for basic fatigue: This allowance is given to compensate for energy
expended during working. A common figure considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.
2. Variable Allowance
Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working under poor environmental
conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job. The
variable fatigue allowance is added to the fixed allowance to an operator who is engaged on
medium and heavy work and working under abnormal conditions. The amount of variable
fatigue allowance varies from organization to organization.
3. Interference Allowance
It is an allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the
operator for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous stoppage of two or more
machines being operated by him. This allowance is applicable for machine or process
controlled jobs.
Interference allowance varies in proportion to number of machines assigned to the operator.

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The interference of the machine increases the work content.
4. Contingency Allowance
A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a standard
time to meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays. The precise measurement of
which is uneconomical because of their infrequent or irregular occurrence.
This allowance provides for small unavoidable delays as well as for occasional minor extra
work: Some of the examples calling for contingency allowance are:
 Tool breakage involving removal of tool from the holder and all other activities to
insert new tool into the tool holder.
 Power failures of small duration.
 Obtaining the necessary tools and gauges from central tool store. Contingency
allowance should not exceed 5%.
5. Policy Allowance
Policy allowances are not the genuine part of the time study and should be used with utmost
care and only in clearly defined circumstances.
The usual reason for making the policy allowance is to line up standard times with
requirements of wage agreement between employers and trade unions.
The policy allowance is an increment, other than bonus increment, applied to a standard time
(or to some constituent part of it, e.g., work content) to provide a satisfactory level of
earnings for a specified level of performance under exceptional circumstances. Policy
allowances are sometimes made as imperfect functioning of a division or part of a plant.

5.2.7 Review Questions of Chapter Five

1. How large should a time study sample be if we desire a 95% level of confidence
(Z=1.96), an accuracy of 5%, when the standard deviation of the initial sample is 0.50,
and the mean of the initial sample is 4.50 minutes?
a) 4.36
b) 35.76
c) 18.97
d) 2.5
e) None

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 2. The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a specified task,
working at a sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw
materials, and workplace arrangement.
a) Specialization.
b) Therbligs
c) Standard elemental times.
d) Standard time.
e) All of the above
3. Time study is………….
a) The appraisal, in terms of time, of the value of work involving human effort.
b) Machine setting time.
c) Time taken by workers to do a job.
d) Method of fixing time for workers.
4. The objective of work measurement are:-
I. To maximize the human effort
II. To compare the time of performance by alternative methods.
III. To analyze the activities for doing a job.
So which on is the correct………………..
a) I and II
b) I and III
c) II and III
d) I,II and III
5. An organization wishes to conduct a work sample procedure of their facility. They
wish to use a 95.45% confidence level (Z=2), the estimated percent of idle time is
35%, and the accepted error is 5% .What should their sample size be?
a) 364
b) 728
c) 1
d) 182
e) None
6. The standard time for a job is………

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 a) Total work content
b) Base time + relation time
c) Total work content + basic time
d) Total work content + delay contingence Allowance
7. Time study is used to……
a) Determine standard costs
b) Determine the number of machines a person may run
c) Provide a basis for setting piece price or incentive wages.
d) All the above.
8. PMTP (predetermined motion time systems) include
a) MTM (method time measurement)
b) WFS (work factor systems)
c) BNTS (basic motion time study)
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
9. Work sampling observations are taken on the basis of
a) Detailed calculations.
b) Convenience.
c) Table of random numbers.
d) Past experience.
e) Fixed percentage of daily production.
10. One time measurement unit (TMU) in method time measurement system equals
a) 0.0001 minute
b) 0.0006 minute
c) 0.006 minute
d) 0.001 minute
e) 0.06 minute.

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 CHAPTER- SIX: VAUE ANALYSIS & VALUE
ENGINEERING
6.1 Introduction to Value Analysis and Value Engineering
Value Analysis (VA) involves the implementation of a set of techniques relating to cost
reduction and cost prevention to the existing product to improve its value. On the other
hand, Value Engineering (VE) is the implementation of a similar set of techniques relating
to a new product at the time of its design.

These two are modern methods relating to product cost optimization. Many industries have
adopted these techniques. These aim to improve the value provided to the customer. These
mainly differ at the time of application of principles and techniques. This implies that the
stage at which the „value system‟ is applied differentiates the two. When the application is at
the commercial operations stage it is value analysis. But, if the application is at the design,
drawings, and engineering stage, it is value engineering.

What is Value? Value is nothing but fair return in exchange for goods, services or money.
We can calculate the value of something by dividing its performance by costs.

Definition of Value Analysis: Value Analysis is a scientific method as it involves

the systematic application of well-known techniques. It aims to improve the value of a
product or process by understanding its integral components and their related costs.
Thereafter, it attempts to look for any improvements to the components by either reducing
cost or increasing functional value.

In short, it is a planned creative approach regarding the reduction of cost. It examines the
material composition of the product and production design. In this way, the implementation
of necessary modifications and improvements takes place. But this does not involve a
reduction in the value of the product.

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It tends to identify unnecessary costs and eliminate them from the value system. But it should
take place without compromising its functional utility and performance of output. So, we
could say that the crux of value analysis rests on:

1. Identifying the function of the product.

2. Examining various alternatives to complete those functions.
3. Selecting the best alternative which involves minimum cost.

Also, it decides monetary value for the function and provides relevant functions reliably at
least cost. For this purpose, there is a need for the cooperation of various functional
departments. The functional departments of the enterprise include: Market research, Design,
Engineering, Purchase, Human Resource, and Production and so on.

6.2 Distinguishing Features of Value Analysis

1. Encourages Innovation: Value Analysis is different from other cost reduction

techniques because it encourages innovation and gives a more radical perspective.
This is due to the fact that ideas for the reduction of costs are not restricted by the
existing design of the product.
2. Recognizes various types of value: Value Analysis identifies various types of value
that are provided by the product or service. And then it analyzes this value. After that,
it looks for various alternatives to enhance or maintain aspects of value, but at a
reduced cost.

What is Unnecessary Cost? Unnecessary costs refer to those costs which do not provide any
of the following to the product or service: such are quality, use life, performance, and
appearance.

Definition of Value Engineering: Value Engineering refers to the process of improving a

product‟s value at each stage of the product life cycle. If a product is appropriate in terms
of performance and cost, the product is said to have good value. Its purpose is to assist in
maintaining or increasing a firm‟s profitability.

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It is a creative approach. It aims to make certain that the functions of products and services
are provided at the lowest cost. But again without compromising quality and reliability. In
short, a rational analysis of the relationship between cost and value carried out before the
final design of the product is value engineering. It is concerned with appraising the functions
performed by parts, components, products, procedures and services, and so on, in an
objective manner.

Also, the introduction of this methodology is to help individuals and firms that will allow
them to make necessary changes to add to their processes and services.

6.3 Objective of Value Engineering

The objective of value engineering are such as improve the value of the product by reducing
its cost, Save money or increase the cost, use cost-efficient and better quality materials,
Ensure standardization, and timely availability of the product.

Applications of Value Engineering: Application of value engineering is at the time of

introduction of new products, rise in the overall production cost, reduction in the price of the
competitors, reduction in sales, and complaints of consumers regarding the performance of
the product.

6.4 Key Differences between Value Analysis and Value Engineering

The points given here will explain the difference between value analysis and value
engineering in detail:

1. Value Analysis is a cost reduction technique depending upon systematic examination

of every cost item which involves the production of industrial products, in terms of
customer satisfaction that it brings to the product. But, value engineering is the
redesigning of a process, product or service so that value provided to the customer is
improved while costs are reduced.
2. While value analysis is a remedial process, value engineering is a preventive
process.

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 3. We apply value analysis at the time of production. As against, we apply value
engineering at the time of the product is in the design stage. Further, its
implementation is at each phase of the production process, which leads to a reduction
in cost.
4. We use the term value analysis with respect to the study of items of overheads and
products that already exist. But, we use the term value engineering to study the design
and systems before the issue of final production drawings.
5. The objective of value analysis is to achieve better optimized commercial output. As
against, attainment of better engineering results is the objective of value engineering.
6. Value Analysis is possible when the team is having enough knowledge and
experience. Conversely, implementation of value engineering is possible only when
the team possesses specific technical knowledge.
7. Value analysis facilitates the elimination of unnecessary costs that do not add any
type of value to the product. Value Engineering facilitates prevention of unnecessary
cost.

6.5 Review Questions of Chapter Six

1. The aim of value engineering is to………
a) Find the depreciation value of a machine
b) Determine the selling price of a product.
c) Minimize the cost without change in quality of the product.
d) All of the above
2. The term „value‟ in value engineering refers to……….
a) total cost of the product
b) selling price of the product
c) Utility of the product.
d) Manufactured cost of the product.
e) Depreciation value.
3. Value engineering aims at finding out the………..
a) Depreciation value of a product
b) Resale value of a product

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 c) Major function of the item and accomplishing the same at least cost without
change in quality
d) Breakeven point when machine re-quires change
e) Selling price of an item.

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