Physics For Remedial Program Lectures Note

Physics for Remedial program
Table of contents
CHAPTER ONE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

1. Vectors ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1. Vector and scalar quantities ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2.Vector addition and subtraction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
1.3. Multiplication of vectors ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 19
Chapter Two ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2. Kinematics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.1. Motion in one dimension ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.1. 1. Position and reference frame ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 32
2.1.2. Distance and displacement ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
2.1.3. Speed and velocity-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
2.1.4. Average speed and instantaneous speed------------------------------------------------------------------ 36
2.15. Average and Instantaneous Velocity----------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
2.1.6. Average and Instantaneous acceleration ----------------------------------------------------------------- 42
2.1.7. Uniform motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
2.1.8. Uniformly accelerated motion (Motion with Constant Acceleration) ------------------------------ 46
2.1.9. Free Fall Motion ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
2.1.10. Graphical representation of motion ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
2.2. Motion in two dimensions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
2.2.1. Projectile Motion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
2.2.2. Uniform Circular Motion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
Chapter Three ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
3. Angular motion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
3.1. Angular displacement (𝜃) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
3.2. Angular velocity (𝜔) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
3.3. Angular acceleration (rotational acceleration) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 92
3.4. Relation between linear and angular motion ------------------------------------------------------------------ 92
Chapter Four ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96
4. Dynamics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 96
4.1. Types of Forces ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96
4.2. Newtonian’s law of motion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
4.3. Application of Newton’s laws ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118
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4.4. Linear momentum ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 126

4.4.1. Collisions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 129
4.5. Center of Mass and moment of inertia ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 134
4.5.1. Rotational Inertia and Rotational kinetic Energy ------------------------------------------------------ 143
4.5.2. Rotational kinetic energy ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 154
4.6. Torque and angular momentum -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 158
4.6.1. Torque (𝜏) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 158
4.6.2. Angular momentum 𝐿) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 160
4.7. Condition of Equilibrium ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 166
4.8. Dynamics of circular motion circular motion---------------------------------------------------------------- 185
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CHAPTER ONE
1. Vectors
1.1. Vector and scalar quantities
Vector Quantity
A vector quantity has both magnitude (size) and direction.

Vectors obey the laws of vector algebra.
Example
Displacement momentum,
Velocity magnetic field,
Force, electric field,
weight, torque, etc.
acceleration,
Acceleration due to
gravity
Scalar quantity
Scalars are quantities that are described by a magnitude (numerical value) alone.
A scalar quantity has magnitude only no direction.
Example
Distance volume,
Speed (magnitude of velocity) density,
mass, pressure
time, area
temperature, time, etc
Energy
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Vector Representation
There two ways of vector representation
A. Algebraic method
Vectors are represented algebraically (analytically) by a letter(symbol) with an arrow over its
head or bold face letters can be used
Example
⃗⃗ ), Acceleration( 𝒂
Velocity( 𝑽 ⃗ ), 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 ( 𝒑
⃗ )𝒆𝒕𝒄.,
The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar in addition is written as either by |A| or A.
B. Geometric (Graphically) method
Geometrically (geometrically), a vectors are represented by an arrow which has a foot(or

origin) and a head(or terminal) point.
The length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector.

The head of the arrow represents direction.
A vector changes if its magnitude or direction or if both magnitude and direction changes
Example
A vector may be multiplied by a pure number or by scalar.
Multiplication by a pure number merely changes the magnitude of the vector.

If the number is negative, the direction is reversed
When a vector is multiplied by scalar, the new vector also becomes a different physical
quantity.
Example
When velocity vector is multiplied by time scalar, we obtain a displacement.
Properties of Vectors
1. Equality of vector
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.
A  B  A  B and A // B
2. Negative Vectors
Two vectors are negative if they have the same magnitude but are 180° apart (opposite
directions)
A   A if A  A  anti-parallel
1.2.Vector addition and subtraction
Vector addition
A vector is a physical quantity which is represented both in magnitude and direction.

Vector addition is the operation of adding two or more vectors together into a vector sum.

 There are different laws of vector addition and they are:
Triangle law of vector addition

Parallelogram law of vector addition
Polygon law of vector addition
A. Triangle law of vector addition
 Triangle law of vector addition states that: when two vectors are represented as two sides of
the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction, then the third side of the triangle
represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
Suppose, we have two vector A and B as shown.
Now the method to add these is very simple, what we do is to simply place the
head of one vector over the tail of the other vector as shown below.
Now join the other endpoints of both the vectors together as shown in the below
figure.
 To obtain the resultant vector, we use the following rule:
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ (1.1)

Triangle law of vector addition derivation (the magnitude of resultant vector)
⃗ , respectively, represented by the side OP and PB. Let vector 𝑅⃗ be

Consider two vectors, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗.
the resultant of vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
From the above triangle,
 OQ    OC    CQ 
2 2 2
 OQ    OP  PC    CQ  , OP  A & OQ  R
2 2 2
R 2   A  PC    CQ  1.2 
2 2
From triangle PCQ with 𝜃 as the angle between A and B,
adj. side
C os  
hypo.
PC PC
C os   
PQ B
PC  PQc os   B cos  1.3
Opp.side
sin  
hyp.
CQ CQ
sin   
PQ B
CQ  PQ sin   B sin  1.4 
Substituting Eq. (1.4) and Eq. (1.3) into Eq. (1.2) we obtain:

R 2   A  B cos     B sin  
2 2
 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

 A2  B 2 sin 2   B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos 
 A2  B 2  sin 2   cos 2    2 AB cos 
1
R 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.5 
The direction of the resultant of two vectors inclined at angle 𝜃 is given by:
Opp.side
tan  
Adj.side
B sin 
tan  
A  B cos 
 B sin  
  tan 1   1.6 
 A  B cos  
B. Parallelogram law of vector addition
The parallelogram law states that: if two vectors are considered to be the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then the resultant of two vectors is given by the vector that is a diagonal passing
through the point of contact of two vectors.
It states that the resultant R of two vectors A and B is the diagonal of the parallelogram for
which the two vectors A and B becomes adjacent sides.
Figure 2: parallelogram law of vectror addition
Drive expressions for magnitude and direction of the resultant of two vectors inclined 𝜃
from each other?

The magnitude of the resultant of two vector is given by
 OQ    OC    CQ 
2 2 2
  OP  PC    CQ 
2 2
R 2   A  B cos     B sin  
2 2
 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

 A2  B 2 sin 2   B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos 
 A2  B 2  sin 2   cos 2    2 AB cos 
1
R  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.7 
The direction of the resultant vector is given by:
Opp.side
tan  
Adj.side
B sin 
tan  
A  B cos 
1  B sin  
  tan   1.8
 A  B cos  
Cosine law
⃗ having an angle 𝜃 between them is given by:

The resultant of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  ,  c osine law if   90o 1.9 

R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    , if 90o    180o 1.10 
Since, cos(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , if 90o    180o 1.11
Sine law
Sine law: States that “the ratio of sine of an angle to its opposite side is constant.” i.e., if.
sin  sin  sin 

  1.12 
R B A
C. Polygon law of vector addition
 Polygon law of vector addition states that if a number of vectors can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant
is represented in magnitude and direction by closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite
order.

Properties of vector addition
 Vector addition is commutative

A B  B  A 1.13
 Vector addition is associative
 A  B  C  A  B  C  1.14 
 Vector addition is distributive
  A  B   A  B 1.15 
 Existence of identity. For any given vector, say 𝐴,

Ao  A 1.16 
 Existence of inverse. Every vector has an additive inverse,
 
A A  o 1.17 
Subtraction of vector
The subtraction of two vector is similar to addition.

Since vectors have both magnitude and direction two vectors cannot be subtracted from each
other by the method of ordinary algebra. Thus, this subtraction can be done either
geometrically or analytically.
⃗ which are inclined to each other at angle 𝜃, the difference
For two non-zero vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ is obtained and the angle between 𝐴 and −𝐵
⃗ is 180° − 𝜃.
If you want to subtract both the vectors using the triangle law then simply reverse the direction
of any vector and add it to the other one as shown.
Figure3: subtraction of vectors

⃗ is the same as the resultant of 𝐴 and −𝐵

 The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⃗.
⃗ = 𝐴 + (−𝐵
 We can write 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⃗ ) and using the Eq. (1.5), we have:
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    1.18

⃗ is vector with magnitude is given by Eq. (1.18).
Thus the difference 𝐴 − 𝐵
Since, 𝑐𝑜𝑠(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, we get Eq. (1.18) as,
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  1.19
Again from Figure 3, and using equation similar to Eq. (1.6), we obtain the direction of two
resultant vectors as,
 B sin 180o    
tan  2   
 A  B cos 180o    
1.20 
 
 B sin 180    
o
 2  tan 1  
 A  B cos 180o    
1.21
 
But sin(180° − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and we know that cos(180° − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, Eq. (1.20) becomes,
 B sin  
 2  tan 1   1.22 
 A  B cos  
Example
⃗ of magnitude 5 units and 7 units make an angle 60° with each other.
1. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗.
A. Find the magnitude of the difference vector 𝐴 − 𝐵
B. Find its direction with respect to the vector 𝐴.
Given Required
𝐴 = 5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝛼 =?
⃗ = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐵
𝜃 = 60°

Solution
A. The magnitude of resultant of two vector is given by:
R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 
  5    7    2  5  7  cos 60
2 2
 25  49   70  0.5 
 74  35
 39
R  6.24 unit
B. The angle that ⃗𝑨 − ⃗𝑩

⃗ makes with the vector ⃗𝑨 is given by:
 7sin 60    7  0.866   1  6.062 

 2  tan 1    tan  4.041  76.1
1 1
  tan    tan 
o
 5  7 cos 60   5   7  0.5    1.5 
2. Two vectors have equal magnitude and their resultant also has the same magnitude. What is
the angle between the two vectors?
Solution
A  B  A B
2 2
R  A B  A  B  2 A B cos
2 2
A  A B  A  A  2 A A cos
2 2
A A  A  2 A A cos  Squareboth side
2 2 2
A  A  A  2 A A cos
2 2 2
A  2 A  2 A cos 
2 2 2
A  2 A  2 A cos 
2 2
 A  2 A cos
1  2cos
1
cos 
2
  cos  2   1200
1 1

⃗ have equal magnitudes. If magnitude of 𝐴 + 𝐵

3. Two vector 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ is equal to n times the
⃗ , then the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵
magnitude 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ is?
Solution
A B  n A B
A2  B 2  2 AB cos   n A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o   
A2  B 2  2 AB cos   n A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , if A  B  A  B
A2  A2  2 AA2 cos   n A2  A2  2 AA cos 
2 A2  2 A2 cos   n 2 A2  2 A2 cos 
2 A2 1  cos    n 2 A2 1  cos    Square both side
2 A2 1  cos    2A2 n 2 1  cos  
1  cos    n 2 1  cos  
1  cos   n 2  n 2 cos 
n 2 cos   cos   n 2  1
 n2  1 cos   n2  1
n2  1
cos  
n2  1
 n2  1 
  cos 1  2 
 n 1 
4. Two vectors having equal magnitude A makes an angle 𝜃 with each other.
⃗ | and |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. Find the magnitude of |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|
⃗ | and |𝐴 − 𝐵
B. The direction of the of |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|
Given Required
⃗ | = |𝐴| = |𝐵
|𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗|=𝐴=𝐵 ⃗ | =? And |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ | =?
⃗ | & |𝐴 − 𝐵
B . 𝛼 =? For |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ | =?

Solution
⃗
A. The magnitude of the sum of 𝐴 + 𝐵
A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , hence A  B  A  B cos  2   cos    

 cos  cos   sin  sin 
 A2  A2  2 AA cos   cos 2   sin 2 
 A2  A2  2 A2 cos   cos 2   1  cos 2 
 2 A2  2 A2 cos  cos  2   2 cos 2   1
 2 A2 1  cos   , 1  cos   2 cos 2  2  cos  22   2 cos 2  2   1
 4 A2 cos 2  2  cos   2 cos 2  2   1
A  B  2 A cos  2  cos   1  2 cos 2  2 
⃗,
B. The magnitude of the difference of 𝐴 − 𝐵
A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    cos  2   2 cos 2   1

 2 1  sin 2    1
 A  A  2 AA cos  , A  B  A
2 2
 2  2 sin 2   1
 2 A2  2 A2 cos  cos  2   1  2 sin 2 
 2 A2 1  cos   , but 1  cos   2sin 2  2  cos  22   1  2 sin 2  2 
cos   1  2 sin 2  2 
 4 A2 sin 2  2 
cos   1  2 sin 2  2 
A  B  2 A sin  2  1  cos   2 sin 2  2 
C. The resultant will make an angle 𝜶 with the first vector were
A sin  2 A sin  2  cos  2  2 A sin  2  cos  2 

i ) tan      tan  2 
A  A cos A 1  cos  2 A cos 2  2 
A sin  2 A sin  2  cos  2  2 A sin  2  cos  2 
ii ) tan      cot  2 
A  A cos A 1  cos  2 A sin  2 
2 
Thus, the resultant of two equal vectors bisects the angle between them.

Vector addition using components
In the previous section we have learn about addition and subtraction of two vectors using
geometric methods.
But once we choose a coordinate system, the addition and subtraction of vectors becomes much
easier to perform.
⃗ in a Cartesian coordinate system can be expressed as

 The two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
A  Ax xˆ  Ay yˆ  Az zˆ 

 1.23
B  Bx xˆ  By yˆ  Bz zˆ 

In three dimensional coordinate system, the unit vectors are denoted by 𝑥̂, 𝑦̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧̂ along
+𝑥, +𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑧 respectively.
An alternative notation is: 𝑥̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑦̂ = 𝑗̂, 𝑧̂ = 𝑘̂, then Eq. (1.23) becomes
A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az iˆ 

ˆ ˆ ˆ  1.24 
B  Bxi  By j  Bz i  
The symbols 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ represent unit vectors
They form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-handed coordinate system.
𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1 (1.24)
 Then the addition of two vectors is equivalent to adding their corresponding x, y and z
components.
R  A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ 1.26

The magnitude of resultant vector is given by:
R  Rx2  Ry2  Rz2 1.27 

 Similarly the subtraction of two vectors is equivalent to subtracting the corresponding x, y
and z component.
R  A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ 1.28
The above rules (Eq. (1.26) and Eq. (1.28)) form an analytical way of adding and subtracting
two vectors.
Example
⃗ are given in the component form as 𝐴 = 5𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂ and 𝐵

1. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 6𝑖̂ +
3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂. Find 𝐴 + 𝐵

⃗,𝐵
⃗ + 𝐴, 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ −𝐴
Solution
  
R  A  B  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 
  5  6  iˆ   7  3 ˆj   4  2  kˆ
 11iˆ  10 ˆj  6kˆ
  
R  B  A  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ 
  6  5  iˆ   3  7  ˆj   2  4  kˆ
 11iˆ  10 ˆj  6kˆ
  
R  A  B  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 
  5  6  iˆ   7  3 ˆj   4  2  kˆ
 iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
  
R  B  A  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ  5iˆ  7 ˆj  4kˆ 
  6  5  iˆ   3  7  ˆj   2  4  kˆ
 iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ
Remark!
 The vector 𝐴 + 𝐵⃗ and 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴 are same and vector 𝐴 − 𝐵⃗ and 𝐵⃗ − 𝐴 are opposite to each
other.

 The addition of two vectors using components depends on the choice of the coordinate
system. But the geometric way of adding and subtracting two vectors is independent of the
coordinate system used.
⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 𝑎𝑗̂ are vectors in xy plane. What is the value of “a” such
2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 2𝑖̂?
that 𝐴 + 𝐵
Solution
A  B  2iˆ
   
3iˆ  2 ˆj  iˆ  ajˆ  2iˆ
 3  1 iˆ   2  a  ˆj  2iˆ
2iˆ   2  a  ˆj  2iˆ
  2  a  ˆj  2iˆ  2iˆ
  2  a  ˆj  0
 2  a  ˆj  0
2 ˆj  ajˆ  0
ajˆ  2 ˆj
a  2
Components of Vector
Vector can be resolved into its components with respect to a particular coordinate system.
Any vector can be completely described by the sum of two perpendicular vectors.
These perpendicular vectors are called the components of the vector.
Fig: components of vector A

Where 𝜃 is the angle that vector makes with +ve x-axis measured counter clockwise from this
axis.

The projection of 𝐴 along the 𝑥 − axis, 𝐴𝑥 is called the x- component of 𝐴 and the projection
𝐴 along the y – axis 𝐴𝑦 is called the y – component of vector 𝐴 .
From the former figure and the definition of sine and cosine:
adj. side Ax
cos   
hyp. A
Ax  A cos  1.28
Opp.side Ay
sin   
Hyp. A
Ay  A sin  1.29 
A vector can be resolved into two or more components such that on addition it will give the
original vector in magnitude and direction. i.e.,
A  Ax  Ay 1.30 
Since 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of their resultant vector A is
obtained by Pythagoras theorem
A  Ax2  Ay2 1.31
Unit Vector
A unit is a vector that has magnitude (length) of unity (one) and it is dimensionless (no
units).
Its purpose is to describe the vector in specified direction.
A Axi  Ay j  AZ k
Aˆ   1.32 
A Ax  Ay  Az
A  A Aˆ 1.33
Where 𝐴̂ ( A “hat” ) is unit vector in the direction of 𝐴.
Aˆ  1 1.34 

Example
1. A given 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂. Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝐴.

Given required
𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ 𝐴̂ =?
Solution
A iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ

Aˆ    
iˆ    2 ˆj    4kˆ  1  4  16
2
A 2 2 21
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 4 ˆ
Aˆ  i j k
21 21 21
The magnitude (norm) of a unit vector is given by:
2 2 2
 1  ˆ ˆ  2  ˆ ˆ  4  ˆ ˆ
Aˆ    i i    j j  k k
 21   21   21 
1 4 16
  
21 21 21
21

21
ˆ
A 1
⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ and vector 𝐶 is in the 𝑥𝑦 plane with the property 𝐴 + 𝐵

2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂, 𝐵 ⃗ −
𝐶 = 0. Determine a unit vector along 𝐶 ?

Solution
A B C  0
  
3iˆ  2 ˆj  iˆ  4 ˆj  C  0 
 3  1 iˆ   2  4  ˆj  C  0
2iˆ  6 ˆj  C  0
C  2iˆ  6 ˆj
Uˆ C 
C

2iˆ  6 ˆj
 
 
2iˆ  6 ˆj 2 iˆ  3 ˆj

1 ˆ
i
3 ˆ
j
 2    6 
2 2
C 40 2 10 10 10

1.3. Multiplication of vectors
A. Multiplication of vector by a scalar
The product of a scalar 𝜆 and a vector 𝐴 is a new vector whose magnitude is 𝜆𝐴 and whose
direction is the same as that of 𝐴 if 𝜆 is positive and opposite to 𝐴 if 𝜆 if negative.
B. Scalar (dot) product of two vectors
The scalar product (dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes
of both the vectors and cosine of the angle between them.
⃗ having an angle 𝜃 between them, then their scalar
Thus, if there are two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
product is defined as:
A  B  A B cos  1.35
A B
cos  
A B
 A B 
  cos 1   1.36 
 A B 
 
⃗ | are magnitudes of 𝐴 and 𝐵

Where |𝐴| and |𝐵 ⃗.
Properties of scalar (dot) product
⃗ is always scalar. It is positive if the angle between the vectors is

 The product quantity 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
acute (𝑖. 𝑒. , < 90°) and negative if the angle between them is obtuse (i.e., 90° < 𝜃 < 180°).
 The scalar product obeys commutative and distributive laws i.e.,
⃗ =𝐵
𝐴⋅𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ 𝐴 ⟹ commutative law
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐶 ⟹ distributive (associative law)
 The scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1, i.e., 𝜃 = 0°, i.e., when
the vectors are parallel.

 A B Max
 A B 1.37 
 The scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1, i.e., 𝜃 = 180°, i.e.,
when the vectors are anti- parallel.
 A B Min
 A B 1.38 
⃗ are perpendicular to each other then, their scalar product 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
 If two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 0,
⃗ are said to be mutually orthogonal.
because 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0. Then the vector 𝐴 and 𝐵
 The scalar product a vector with itself is termed as self-dot product and is given by:
 A 1.39 
2
 A  A  A A cos   A2 , where   0o
The magnitude or norm of the vector 𝐴 is given by
A  A A 1.40
 In case of a unit vector 𝑛̂:
nˆ  nˆ  11cos 0  1 1.41
For Example.
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 1.42 
 In the case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂,
iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  11cos 90  0 1.43
 When the vectors are in component forms as; 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ +
𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ , the dot product is obtained by:
 
A  B  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ 
 Ax Bxiˆ  iˆ  Ay By ˆj  ˆj  Az Bz kˆ  kˆ
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz 1.44 

Scalar Projection
⃗ is given by:
The scalar projection of vector 𝐴 on to 𝐵
Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz A  B
A cos    1.45
Bˆ Bˆ
⃗ on to 𝐴 is given by:
The scalar projection of vector 𝐵
Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz A  B
B cos    1.46 
Aˆ Aˆ
Application of dot production
The dot product of two vectors is applied to find physical quantities such as :
Work done, Power, Potential energy … etc.
Example
1. Consider vector 𝐴 = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ . Find the scalar projection of :
⃗
A. 𝐴 on to 𝐵
⃗ on to 𝐴
B. 𝐵
⃗
C. Find the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵
Solution
⃗ ⃗⃗
A. Projection of 𝑨 on to 𝑩 is given by
A  B Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
Aon to B  
Bˆ Bˆ

 2iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ    iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ 
,  iˆ 
2
 iˆ  iˆ
 iˆ    2 ˆj    4kˆ 
2 2 2
286 4
 
1 4  4 9
4
Aon to B 
3

⃗ on to 𝐴 is given by
B. Projection of 𝐵
B  A Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
B on to  
Bˆ B
4
 ,
 2    4    3 
2 2 2
4 4
 
4  16  9 29
4
B on to 
29
⃗ is given by
C. The angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵
A  B  A B cos 
A B 4
cos     0.2476
A B  3  29 
  cos 1  0.2476   75.660
The vector product (cross product) of two vector
⃗ is written as 𝐴 × 𝐵
The vector product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ which is a vector 𝐶 defined by
C  A  B  A B sin  nˆ 1.47 
⃗ , i.e., 𝐶 is perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
The direction 𝑛̂ of 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗
and is in the sense of advancement of the a right handed screw rotated from 𝐴 (first vector) to
⃗ (second vector) through the smaller angle between them.
𝐵
⃗ is given by
A unit vector which is perpendicular to both vector 𝐴 and 𝐵
A B
Cˆ AB  1.48
A B
Remark!
According to the right hand rule, if the curvature of the fingers of the right hand represents the
sense of rotation of the object, then the thumb, held perpendicular to the curvature of the
fingers, represents the direction of the resultant 𝐶 .

Properties of vector (cross) product
The vector product of any two vector is always another vector. The resultant of cross product
is a vector quantity. i.e.,
A  B  C  vector 1.49 
⃗ is perpendicular to both vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵

The direction of 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗.
The vector product of two vectors is not commute, i.e.,
   
A  B   B  A but A  B  C  A  B  A  C 1.50 
⃗ and 𝐵
In the case of the product vectors 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴, the magnitudes are equal but
directions are opposite to each other.
⃗ =0
For collinear vectors, 𝐴 × 𝐵
Vector that lie along the same line or parallel lines are known to be collinear vectors.
The vector product of two vectors will have maximum magnitude when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1, i.e., 𝜃 =
⃗ are orthogonal to each other.
90° i.e., when the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
 A B Max
 A B nˆ 1.51
The vector product of two non-zero vectors will be minimum when |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃| = 0, i.e., 𝜃 =
0° 𝑜𝑟 180°.
 A B Min
0 1.52 
This is, the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, if the vectors are either
parallel or anti -parallel.
The self-cross product, i.e., product of a vector with itself is the null vector.
A  A  A A sin  nˆ  0 1.53
In physics the null vector ⃗0 is simply denoted as zero.
The self-vector products of unit vectors are thus zero.
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  11sin 0  0 1.54 

When the vector are in component form as, 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂,
then the cross product is obtained by using the determinant form as;
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
A  B   Ay Bz  Az By  iˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  ˆj   Ax By  Ay Bx  kˆ 1.55
Counter clockwise direction as positive (𝑖̂ ⟶ 𝑗̂ ⟶ 𝑘̂),
iˆ  ˆj  kˆ but ˆj  iˆ  kˆ 

ˆj  kˆ  iˆ but kˆ  ˆj  iˆ  1.56 

kˆ  iˆ  ˆj but iˆ  kˆ   ˆj 

⃗ form adjacent sides in a parallelogram, then the magnitude of |𝐴 × 𝐵
If two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗|
will give the area of the parallelogram.
A  B  A B sin  1.57 
Figure: 4. Area of parallelogram

Since we can divided a parallelogram into two equal triangles, the area of a triangle with 𝐴
⃗ as sides is 1 |𝐴 × 𝐵
and 𝐵 ⃗ |.
2
A B
Area  1.58
2
Figure 5: Area of triangle
Application of vector (cross) product
A number of quantities used in physics are defined through vector products. Particularly
physical quantities representing rotational effects likes:
Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 . Where 𝐹 is force and 𝑟 is position vector of a particle.
⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑃⃗ . Where 𝑝. Is linear momentum
Angular momentum 𝐿
⃗ =𝜔
Linear velocity𝑉 ⃗ × 𝑟, where 𝜔
⃗ is angular velocity.
Magnetic force,
Area of parallelogram,
Area of triangle and volume of parallelepiped it combination of with the dot product.…. Etc.
Examples
⃗ are two non-zero vector. If |𝐴 × 𝐵

1. Vector 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ |=𝐴⋅𝐵
⃗ , what is the angle between them?
Given Required
⃗ |=𝐴⋅𝐵
|𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ 𝜃 =?

Solution
Based on the concept of scalar and cross product rule,
A B  A B
A B sin   A B cos 
sin   cos 
sin 
1
cos 
tan   1
  tan 1 1
  450
2. Suppose 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and 𝐶 is a vector in the 𝑥 axis with the
⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 0. Then determine vector 𝐶 ?
property that; 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵
Solution

A B  C  0 
3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ    iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ  Ciˆ   0
3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ   C  1 iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ   0
 
3 C 1  8  3  0
3C  3  8  3  0
3C  8  0
3C  8
8 ˆ
C i
3
⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ . Find a unit vector which is perpendicular

3. Suppose vector 𝐴 = 2𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗?
to both vector 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

Solution
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A B  2 2 0
2 3 1
A  B  2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ
A B 2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ
Uˆ A B  
A B  2    2    2 
2 2 2
2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ

12


2 iˆ  ˆj  kˆ 
2 3
Uˆ A B 
1
3

iˆ  ˆj  kˆ 
4. How do you prove that, if the sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular, then the
vectors have equal magnitude?
Solution
If two vector are perpendicular then the dot product (scalar product) must be zero.
 A  B A  B 
 A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ  B iˆ  B ˆj  B kˆ    A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ  B iˆ  B ˆj  B kˆ   0
x y z x y z x y z x y z
 Ax  Bx  Ax  Bx  iiˆˆ   Ay  By  Ay  By  ˆˆjj   Az  Bz  Az  Bz  kk
ˆˆ  0
 Ax  Bx  Ax  Bx    Ay  By  Ay  By    Az  Bz  Az  Bz   0
Ax2  Ax Bx  Ax Bx  Bx2  Ay2  Ay By  Ay By  By2  Az2  Az Bz  Az Bz  Bz2  0
Ax2  Bx2  Ay2  By2  Az2  Bz2  0
Ax2  Ay2  Az2  Bx2  By2  Bz2  0
Ax2  Ay2  Az2  Bx2  By2  Bz2
A B

5. If 𝑛̂ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ is perpendicular to the vector (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂), then determine the value of a and b?
Given Required
𝑛̂ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ 𝑎 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 =?

𝑥 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
Solution
nˆ  x  nˆ x cos90, because nˆ  x
nˆ  x  0
  
aiˆ  bjˆ  iˆ  ˆj  0
ab  0
a  b i 
nˆ  a 2  b 2  1, because, iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  1,
nˆ  a 2  b 2  1
2
a 2  b2  1  ii 
Put Eq.(i )in to Eq.  ii  ,
 b   b2  1
2
b2  b2  1
2b 2  1
1
b2 
2
1
b
2
a  b
1
a
2
⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂?
6. What is the area of a parallelogram formed by the vector 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ and 𝐵
Given Required
𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ ⃗ | =?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂
𝐵

Solution
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A B  3 4 0
1 0 3
 12iˆ  9 ˆj  4kˆ
A B   12    9    4   15.5
2 2 2
⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ and 𝐶 = −𝑖̂ + 2𝑘̂ . Find the volume of a parallelepiped

3. Suppose 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂, 𝐵
⃗ &⃗⃗⃗𝐶
formed by 𝐴, 𝐵
Solution
Volume  A  ( A  B
iˆ ˆj kˆ
BC  2 3 0
1 0 2
 6iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ
   
A  B  C  iˆ  ˆj  6iˆ  4 ˆj  3kˆ 
 64
 
A  B  C  10 unit cube

Review Question
Choose the correct answer from a given alternative choice
1. Which of the following is not correct in clockwise system?

A. 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ C. 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂
B. 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 1 D. 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
2. Which of the following is NOT true of vector product?
⃗ = −𝐵
A. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴 ⃗ = |𝐴 × 𝐵
C. 𝐴 ⊥ 𝐵 ⃗ | = 𝐴𝐵
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐵
B. 𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴+𝐴×𝐶 ⃗ ⇒𝐴×𝐵
D. 𝐴 ∥ 𝐵 ⃗ =0
3. If 𝐴 = 8𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 5𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ then what is the value of 𝐵
⃗ × 𝐴?
A. 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ C. −5 − 18𝑗̂ − 29𝑘̂

B. −3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ D. 5𝑖̂ + 18𝑗̂ + 29𝑘̂
⃗ are parallel, if
4. Two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ =0
A. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ =0
C. 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ =0
B. 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 ⃗ =0
D. 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ are equal in magnitude. What can
5. The sum and difference of two non-zero vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
you conclude about these two vector?
⃗ have the same direction
A. 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ have same magnitude
C. 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ have opposite direction
B. 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ are perpendicular to each other
D. 𝐴 and 𝐵
6. Suppose the sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other. Which one of
the following is true about vector?
⃗ | = |𝐴 − 𝐵
A. |𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗| ⃗
C. 𝐴 = 𝐵
⃗|
B. |𝐴| = |𝐵 ⃗
B. 𝐴2 = 𝐵
7. Which of the following condition is true for equal vectors?
A. They have the same direction but not same magnitude
B. They have the same magnitude and direction
C. They have the same initial point
D. They are parallel to the same line

8. A vector 𝐴 is given in a rectangular coordinate system as 𝐴 = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ where 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ are unit
vectors along the 𝑥 −axis and 𝑦 − axis. A vector which is three times as long 𝐴 is
A. 12𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ C. 12 + 3𝑗̂
B. 4𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ D. 12𝑖̂ − 9𝑗̂
9. Which of the following vectors is perpendicular to the vector 𝐴 = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂?
A. 4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ C. 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂
B. 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ D. −4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂
⃗ , 𝐶 are three vectors, which of the following is not a vector?
10. If 𝐴, 𝐵
⃗ +𝐶
A. 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐶
C. 𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗
B. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐶
D. 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵
Solution
1. B 6. B
2 B 7. B
3. D 8. A
4. A 9. B
5. D 10. D

Chapter Two
2. Kinematics
Kinematics
 Kinematics is the branch of mechanics which describes (deals) the motion of objects or system
of bodies without consideration of the cause of motion.
 Kinematics is used to define the motion of a particle or body without consideration of the
forces causing the motion
 Kinematics describes motion without its cause.
 Kinematics is a part of mechanics that studies the relationship among displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time without reference to cause motion.
 Kinematic relationships are used to help us determine the trajectory of a projectile, speed of
satellite in its orbit and accelerations of various particles
2.1. Motion in one dimension
2.1. 1. Position and reference frame
Position: Where you are located.
The location of a particle with respect to a fixed reference point is known as position.
The particle’s location is specified by its coordinate, which will be denoted by x or y.
Reference frame
The frame relative to which the position or the motion of a body is specified is called the frame
of reference.
Whenever you describe something that is moving you compare it to something that is usually
stationary. This background or object that is used for comparison is called the frame of
reference.
Earth is the most common frame of reference point.
Motion: change in position relative to a reference point.
Frame reference: a system used to identify the precise location of an object.
2.1.2. Distance and displacement
Distance (S)
How far you have traveled, regardless of direction

It is a total length of path moved by a body in a certain interval of time.
It is a scalar quantity i.e., it has only magnitude.
Its magnitude depends on the path followed by the object.
It can be more than or equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
It is always positive.
It is not necessary that distance will be zero if displacement is zero.
Displacement
Where you are in relation to where you started.

The change in position of an object with respect to a given reference frame is known as
displacement.
It is the shortest distance between initial and the final position.
It is a vector quantity i.e., it has both magnitude and direction.
Its magnitude does not depend on the path followed by the object.
Its magnitude can be less or equal to the magnitude of the distance.
Displacement can be positive, negative and even zero
It is zero if distance is zero, but it can be zero even if distance is not zero.
Displacement will be zero if the body comes back to its initial position
 As a particles moves from an initial position 𝑋𝑖 to a final position 𝑋𝑓 , the displacement of the
particle is given by

x  x f  xi  2.1
In two dimensional motion, the position of a body is given by
r  rf  ri
  
 x f iˆ  y f j  xi iˆ  yi ˆj 
  x f  xi  iˆ   y f  yi  ˆj
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  2.2 
Example
1. A particle starts from the origin and moves 4cm to the right and then 11cm to the left along the 𝑥 −
axis. What is its
A. Displacement
B. Distance
Solution
A. S  11cm  4cm  7cm

B. S  11cm  4cm  15cm
2.1.3. Speed and velocity
Speed (V): how fast you go
The rate at which an object covers a certain distance is known as speed.

Speed is a scalar (how fast something is moving regardless of its direction).
Speed can be positive or zero but can never be negative because a negative sign shows the
direction and speed does not represent direction.

Speed is the magnitude of velocity.

Speed may or may not be equal to velocity.
Speed (𝑉): 𝑖𝑠 the distance traveled divided by the time taken;
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑆
𝑉= = (2.3)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡
⃗ )
Velocity (𝑽
How fast and which way; the rate at which position changes.
Velocity is a combination of speed and direction
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
It is a vector quantity. The velocity tells us the speed and direction of the motion of a body.
The velocity can be positive and negative depending on the direction of the motion.
The average velocity of a moving body can be zero. ( when displacement equal to zero)
⃗ ): is the displacement covered divided by the time taken

Velocity (𝑉
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑠 𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆𝑖
⃗ =
𝑉 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝐷 (2.4)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
For three dimensional motion,
V
r rf  rf
 
   
x f iˆ  y f ˆj  z y kˆ  xi iˆ  yi ˆj  zi kˆ

r  t  t   r  t 
t t t t t

 x f  xi  iˆ   y f  yi  ˆj   z f  zi  kˆ
t t t
x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ
V i j k  2.5
t t t
Velocity is measured in meter per second.

It tells us how much an object’s position changes in time.

Remark!
Velocity can be positive or negative

Positive value of velocity means that the object is moving away from the reference
point or origin.
Negative value means that the object is moving towards the reference point or origin.
2.1.4. Average speed and instantaneous speed
In reality, motion cannot be uniform. So we take the average value.
Average speed 𝑽𝒂𝒗
 Average speed is the total path length traversed by an object divided by the time taken for the
motion
Average Speed (𝑽𝒂𝒗 ): is the ratio of the total distance covered to the total time taken.
total distance covered Stot Si  S f
Vav     2.6 
total time taken ttot ti  t f
Instantaneous speed (𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒔 )
 Instantaneous speed is the speed recorded at s specific point in time.

 The instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a particular moment in time.
Instantaneous speed is defined as the speed at a specific instant in time.

lim S
Vins   2.7 
t  0 t
Remark!
The average speed over a given interval may not be equal to the speed at one instant of time
The speed at particular time could be less than, greater than or equal to the average speed.

2.15. Average and Instantaneous Velocity
Average velocity is the ratio of displacement to the time taken in entire journey when the
velocity of a body moving in a particular direction changes with time
⃗𝑎𝑣 ) ∶ is the rate at which its displacement changes with respect to time.
Average velocity (𝑉
S S f  Si
Vav    2.8
t t f  ti
In three dimensional motion, the average velocity is given by,
r rf  ri xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ r  t  t   r  t 

Vav    
t t t t
xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ
  
t t t
Vav  Vav xi  Vav y j  Vav zk  2.9 
 The direction of average velocity is the direction of the displacement i.e. if the displacement
points in the positive direction, the average velocity is positive and if the displacement points
in the negative direction, the average velocity is negative.
Remark!
The average velocity between points is independent of the path taken. This is because average
velocity is proportional to displacement, which depends only on the initial and final position
vectors and not on the path taken.
The magnitude of the average velocity is not the average speed.
Under what condition is the magnitude of average velocity of an object equal to its average
speed?
A. Body moves along curved path C. Both A and B

B. Body moves along straight line D. None of the above

Explanation
The average speed is the total distance travelled in a given time and average velocity is the
total displacement in a given time. The magnitude of average velocity and average speed will
be equal when the total distance travelled is equal to the magnitude of displacement only if the
object is moving in a straight line without change direction.
Graphically, average velocity is the slop of the displacement time graph. In this case,
S S f  Si
Vav   slope PQ  2.10 
t t f  ti
⃗ 𝒊𝒏 )
Instantaneous velocity (𝑽
Instantaneous velocity: is the velocity of a body at a particular instant of time, or at a specific

point.
The instantaneous velocity is the value of the average velocity that it approaches in the limit
as ∆𝑡 goes to zero.
lim S
Vins   2.11
t  0 t
To find out instantaneous velocity of a body, it is good to follow the steps given below,
First find the displacement at t and 𝑡 + ∆𝑡, i.e., 𝑆(𝑡) and 𝑆(𝑡 + ∆𝑡).
Then find the change in displacement, ∆𝑆. i.e.,
S  S t  t   S t   2.12

Finally,
lim S lim S  t  t   S  t  ds
Vins     2.13
t  0 t t  0 t dt
In three dimensional motion, the instantaneous velocity is given by;

lim r lim r  t  t   r  t  d r
Vins   
t  0 t t  0 t dt
lim  x  t  t   x  t  y  t  t   y  t  ˆ z  t  t   z  t  ˆ 
  iˆ  j k
t  0  t t t 
ˆ
Vins  Vxiˆ  Vy ˆj  Vz k  2.14 
Remark!
 Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. It has the same value, but no
direction.
Example
1. When is the average velocity of an object equal to the instantaneous velocity?

A. This is always true
B. This is never true
C. This is the case only when the velocity is constant
D. This is the case only when the acceleration is constant
E. This is the case only when the velocity is decreasing at a constant rate
Explanation
Average velocity is equal to the instantaneous velocity when acceleration of an object equal
to zero. In order for acceleration of an object equal to zero, when an object moves with
constant velocity.
2. When you look at the speedometer in a moving car, you can see the car’s;
A. Instantaneous acceleration C. average acceleration
B. Average speed D. Instantaneous speed

Explanation
Car do not always moves at a constant speed. You can tell the speed of the car at any instant
by looking at the car’s speedometer. A speedometer shows how fast a car is going at one point
in time or at one instant.
The speedometer shown on a speedometer is the instantaneous speed. Instantaneous speed is
the speed at a given point in time.
3. If the x and y coordinate of a particle at any t is given by 𝑥 = 7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 5𝑡. What is

the instantaneous velocity of the particle?
Given required
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦̂𝑗̂ ⃗ 𝑖𝑛𝑠 =?
𝑉
𝑟 = (7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 )𝑖̂ + 5𝑡𝑗̂
Solution
lim r  t  t   r  t 
Vins  
t  0 t
 x  t  t   x  t  ˆ y  t  t   y  t  ˆ 
 i j
 t t 
lim x  t  t   x  t  lim y  t  t   y  t 
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  2t t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2 2
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7t  7 t  4t 2  8t t  4t 2  7t  4t 2  lim  5t  5t  5t 
   iˆ   ˆj 
t  0  t  t  0  t 
lim  7 t 8t t 4t 2  lim  5t 
     iˆ    ˆj
t  0  t t t  t  0  t 

lim
t  0  
7  8t  4 t iˆ 
0 lim
t  0
 5 ˆj
Vins   7  8t  iˆ  5 ˆj  m / s

4. The position of a particle moves a long x- axis varies in time a cording to the expression
𝑋 = (3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡)𝑚, where t is in second
Calculate
A. The position at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.

B. The displacement during 𝑡 = 2 sec to 𝑡 = 4 sec.
C. The average velocity during 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.
D. The instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec.
Solution
A. The position at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by
X  t  2   X 2  3 2   4  2  m  12  8 m  4m
2
 
X  t  4   X 4  3 4   4  4  m   48  16  m  32m
2
 
B. The displacement during 𝑡 = 2 sec to 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by;
S  X  X 4  X 2  32m  4m  28m
C. The average velocity during 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by.
S X4  X2 28m
Vav     14m / s
t 4sec 2sec 2sec
D. The instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2 sec and 𝑡 = 4 sec. is given by;
S  X  X  t  t   X  t 
 3  t  t   4  t  t    3t 2  4t 
2
 3  t 2  2t t  t 2   4  t  t    3t 2  4t 
 3t 2  6t t  3t 2  4t  4t  3t 2  4t
 6t t  3t 2  4t
Vins  lim St
t 
 lim 6 t t  3 t 2  4 t
t
t 
 lim
t 
 6 t t
t
 3tt  4tt
2

Vins   6t  4  m s
V t  2  8 m s
V  t  4   20 m s

⃗ )
Acceleration (𝒂
How fast you speed up, slow down, or change direction.

Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes with respect to time.
V V f  Vi
a   for 1D  2.15 
t t f  ti
Acceleration in to three dimension is given by;
V v x ˆ v y ˆ v z ˆ
a  i j k  in 3D
t t t t
a  ax iˆ  a y ˆj  az kˆ  2.16 
Note that: a body is said to be;
Accelerating, when it is speeding up, i.e., velocity increasing at some rate.
Decelerating, when it is slowing down, velocity decreasing at some rate.
2.1.6. Average and Instantaneous acceleration
⃗ 𝒂𝒗 )
Average acceleration (𝒂
 Average Acceleration: is the change in velocity divided by the time interval in which the
change occurs.
v v f  vi
aav    2.17 
t t f  ti
⃗ 𝒊𝒏𝒔 )
Instantaneous acceleration ( 𝒂
Instantaneous acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity at a specific point or at a

particular time.
It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval (∆𝑡) approaches zero.
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity at a specific point or at a particular
time.
In the language of calculus, instantaneous acceleration equals the instantaneous rate of change
of velocity with time.

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t  dv d 2 r
ains      2.16 
t  0 t t  0 t dt dt 2
 In three dimensional motion, instantaneous acceleration is given by;

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t  d r 2
ains   
t  0 t t  0 t dt 2
lim  v x  t  t   v x  t  v y  t  t   v y  t 
ˆj  z 
v t  t   v z  t  ˆ 
  iˆ  k
t  0  t t t 
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ains  ax i  a y j  az k  2.17 
Remark!
Under what conditions would average and instantaneous acceleration be equal?

When the body has constant acceleration, the average acceleration and the instantaneous
acceleration will be equal.
If the velocity of a body is non-zero, can its acceleration be zero?
If the particle has non-zero velocity that is not changing with time (constant velocity)
then the acceleration of the particle will be zero.
If a body is traveling East ward, can its acceleration be west ward?
Yes, if a car is travelling eastward and slow down (decelerating), its acceleration is
opposite to the direction of travel: its acceleration is westward.
Example
1. If the x and y coordinate of a particle at any t is given by 𝑥 = 7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 5𝑡. What is

the acceleration of the particle at 𝑡 = 5 sec?
Given required
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦̂𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 =?

𝑟 = (7𝑡 + 4𝑡 2 )𝑖̂ + 5𝑡𝑗̂

Solution
lim r  t  t   r  t 
Vins  
t  0 t
 x  t  t   x  t  ˆ y  t  t   y  t  ˆ 
 i j
 t t 
lim x  t  t   x  t  lim y  t  t   y  t 
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim 7  t  t   4  t  2t t  t    7t  4t  lim 5  t  t   5t
2 2 2
 iˆ  ˆj
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7t  7 t  4t 2  8t t  4t 2  7t  4t 2  lim  5t  5t  5t 
   iˆ   ˆj 
t  0  t  t  0  t 
lim  7 t 8t t 4t 2  lim  5t 
     iˆ    ˆj
t  0  t t t  t  0  t 

lim
t  0  
7  8t  4 t iˆ 
0 lim
t  0
 5 ˆj
Vins   7  8t  iˆ  5 ˆj  m / s
Instantaneous acceleration is given by

lim v lim v  t  t   v  t 
ains  
t  0 t t  0 t
lim  7  8  t  t  iˆ   7  8t  iˆ   5  5  ˆj 
  
t  0  t 
lim  7  8t  8t  7  8t 
   iˆ
t  0  t 
lim  8t 
 iˆ
t  0  t 
ains  t  5sec   8m / s 2iˆ
2. A particle has a velocity of 4m/s in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑥 −axis and 2 sec later, its velocity become 10𝑚/𝑠
in the −𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. What is its average acceleration during this time?

Given Required
⃗ 𝑖 = 4𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑣 =?
⃗ 𝑓 = −10𝑚/𝑠
𝑉
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Solution
v f  vi 10 m s  4 m s 14
aav     m s  7 m s
t 2 2
3. The velocity of a particle is given by 𝑉(𝑡) = 2𝑡 2 − 10𝑡 + 5.

A. When will the acceleration of the particle become zero?
B. What is the velocity of the particle when its acceleration is zero?
Solution
A. The time when instantaneous acceleration of a particle is equal to zero is given by:
V (t )  2t 2  10t  5.
lim v  t  t   v  t 
ains 
t  0 t
lim  2  t  t   10  t  t   5   2t  10t  5  
2 2
  
t  0  t 
 
lim  2t  4t t  2t  10t  10t  5  2t  10t  5 
2 2 2
  
t  0  t 
lim  4t t 2t 10t  2
    
t  0  t t t 
lim
  4t  2t  10 
t  0
ains   4t  10  , if ains  0
0  4t  10
4t  10
10
t   2.5sec .
4

B. Instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2.5 sec is given by
V  t  2.5  2  2.5  10  2.5  5

2
 12.5  25  5
V  t  2.5  7.5 m s
2.1.7. Uniform motion
 The type of motion in which the object travels in a straight line with uniform speed, is called
uniform motion.
 This means that the speed of the body remains constant as it covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time.
 In uniform motion a body moves with a constant speed and in same direction.
 In the case of uniform rectilinear motion, the acceleration of the body will be zero,
Remark!
If the motion of a body has zero acceleration, then the motion is called uniform motion.
A body moving with a constant speed in a straight line has uniform motion.
Distance time graph show a straight line of a uniform motion.
2.1.8. Uniformly accelerated motion (Motion with Constant Acceleration)
Uniformly accelerated motion is motion of an object where the acceleration is constant.

When the velocity of an object changes at the same rate throughout its motion, it is known as
uniformly accelerated motion (motion with constant acceleration).
The acceleration is uniform, when equal changes of velocity take place in equal intervals of
time.
The following figure illustrates a body moving in a straight line starting with velocity v
⃗ i and
with a constant acceleration “𝑎” in its direction of motion. v
⃗ f is its velocity at the end of times
t and S is its distance at that instant from its starting point.

The equations of motion for a body moving in a straight line with constant acceleration are
the following:
⃗𝑎𝑣 of a body is given by;

Average velocity 𝑉
S  vi  v f 
vav     2.18
t  2 
The acceleration of a body is given by;
v f  vi 
a 
t 

v f  vi 
 2.19 
t
a 
The distance traveled by a body is given by
1
S  vi t  at 2  2.20 
2
Or
v f  vi v f  vi
S   vav  t , a  ,t
t a
 i
v  v f  v  vi 

f
 
 2  a 
vi v f  vi2  v 2f  vi v f

2a
v f  vi
2 2
S  2.21
2a
⃗ 𝑓 of a body is given by;
Final velocity 𝑉
v f  vi
a
t
v f  vi  at
v f  vi  at  2.22 
Or from Eq. (2.21), we obtain final velocity;
v 2f  vi2
S
2a
v  v  2aS
2
f
2
i
v 2f  vi2  2aS  2.23

From Eq. (2.23), obtain,
v2f  vi2
a  2.24
2s

Distance travelled by a body in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ second is obtained by:

𝑆𝑛𝑡ℎ = (distance traveled in the t sec.)− (distance travelled in 𝑡𝑛 − 1)
1 1
S nth  S n  S n 1 , but S n  vi tn  atn2 & S n 1  vi tn 1  a  tn  1
2
2 2
 1   1 2
S nth   vi tn  atn2    vi  tn  1  a  tn  1 
 2   2 
   
  vi tn  atn2    vi  tn  1  a  tn2  2tn  1 
1 1
 2   2 
 1   1 1 
  vi tn  atn2    vi tn  vi  atn2  atn  a 
 2   2 2 
1 2 1 1
 vi tn  atn  vi tn  vi  atn2  atn  a
2 2 2
1
 vi  atn  a
2
 vi  a  tn  12 
1
S nth  vi  a  2tn  1  2.25 
2
 When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance. It is an important factor for road safety and depends on the initial velocity
⃗ i and braking capacity or decelerating, −𝑎 that caused by braking.
v
 Derive an expression of a vehicle in terms of 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑎;

Given Required
Velocity of moving vehicle = 𝑣𝑖 and deceleration = 𝑎 𝑠 =?

Final velocity of the vehicle 𝑣𝑓 = 0 (as it stops)

Solution
Let the stopping distance be 𝑠, then equation of motion we have;

v 2f  vi2  2   a  s, but v f  0
0  vi2  2as
 vi2  2as
vi2  2as
vi2
s  2.26 
2a
What is the deceleration (−𝑎) of a vehicle if the brakes applied and it travels with stopping
distance S?. from Eq. (2.26) we obtain the deceleration of a vehicle as
v 2f  vi2  2as
v 2f  vi2  2as
v 2f  vi2
a , but v 2f  0
2s
v2
a i  2.27 
2s
Example
𝑚
1. An Athlete accelerates at 1.9 𝑠2 for 2.2 second at the beginning of a race. What is the speed of
the athlete at the end of a 300m race?
Given Required
𝑎 = 1.9𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑣𝑓 =?
𝑡 = 2.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠 = 300𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = 0
Solution
v f  vi  at
 0  1.9 m s 2   2.2sec 
v f  4.18 m s

2. An object of mass m moving with initial speed of 15𝑚/𝑠 got an acceleration of 10𝑚/𝑠 2 after
a constant force 𝐹 is applied to it. How long does it take for the object to reach 90m from its
initial position?
Given Required
𝑣𝑖 = 15𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 =?
𝑎 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑠 = 90𝑚
Solution
1
s  vi t  at 2
2
1
90  15t  10  t 2
2
90  15t  5t 2
5t 2  15t  90  0 factor out 5 :
5t 2 15t 90
  0
5 5 5
t 2  3t  18  0  thisis quadratic equation,lets put it'sin the form
at 2  bt  c  0
a  1, b  3& c  18
b  b 2  4ac
t
2a
3   3  4 1 18 
2

2
3  9  72

2
3  81

2
3  9

2
3  9 6
t    3sec
2 2
3  9 12
t    6sec.
2 2
Ans, t  3sec

3. A car with initial speed of 4𝑚/𝑠 starts accelerating in a straight line at 3.2𝑚/𝑠 2 for 10sec. if
the brakes are then applied and it travels at further 20m before stopping. What is the
acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 ?
Solution
For the first part of motion;
v f  vi  at
 4 m s   3.2 m s2  10sec 
 4 m s  32 m s
v f  36 m s
For the second part of motion;
v f  0 and v f  vi  36 m s ,  v f in thecasefor first part of motion
v 2f  vi2
a
2s
v  vi2  36 m s 
2 2
v2
2
f 1296 m s2
a  i    32.4 sm2
2s 2s  2  20m  40m
4. If a motorcycle is moving with a velocity of 20𝑚/𝑠, and when the brakes are applied, the
acceleration is reduced to −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the distance covered before coming to rest?
Given required
vi = 20𝑚/𝑠 𝑠 =?
𝑎 = −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2
vf = 0
Solution
v 2f  vi2  2   a  s
v 2f  vi2  2as, v 2f  0
0  vi2  2as
 vi2  2as
 20 m s   400 m s2  400m
2 2
vi2
s 
2a 2  0.5 m s2  1m s2
5. A body starts with initial velocity 30𝑚/𝑠 and a retardation of 4𝑚/𝑠 2 . Find the distance
travelled by the body in 8th second?

Given Required
vi = 30𝑚/𝑠 𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝑆8𝑡ℎ =?
𝑎 = −4𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑡8 = 8
Solution
1
S nth  vi   a  2tn  1 , a  ve
2
 4   2 8   1
1
S8th  30 
2
 30  2 16  1
 30  30
S8th  0
4. A cart on an air track is moving at 0.5m/s when the air is suddenly turned off. The cart comes
to rest after traveling 1m, the experiment is repeated, but now the cart is moving at 1m/s when
the air is turned off. How far does the cart before coming to rest?
Solution
For the first experiment Now using kinematic equation to
Initial speed of the cart vi = 0.5𝑚/𝑠 ⃗ =? )
determine deceleration (−𝒂
Final speed of the cart vf = 0 v 2f  vi2  2as1
Distance of the cart 𝑠1 = 1𝑚
0   0.5 m s   2a 1m 
2
0  0.25 m  2a`m
2
s2
0.25 m2
a s2
2m
a  0.125 m s2
For the second experiment Now using kinematic equation to

Initial speed of the cart vi = 1𝑚/𝑠 determine distance (𝑠 =? )
Final velocity of the cart vf = 0 v 2f  vi2  2as
Acceleration of the cart 𝑎 = −0.125 v 2f  vi2
s
2a
vi2

2a
1m s 
2

2  0.125 m s2 
2
1m s2 100
s  m  4m
0.25 s2 25
m

5. A car accelerates steadily from 0m/s to 30m/s in a distance d and time t. another car takes time
3t to accelerate steadily from stationary to the same final velocity. What distance does the
second car cover during the new acceleration?
Solution
For the first car, Now using kinematic equation to

Initial velocity v
⃗ i = 0𝑚/𝑠 determine (𝑎1 & 𝑑1 =? )
Final velocity v⃗ f = 30𝑚/𝑠
Time taken for car 𝑡1 = 𝑡 v 2f  vi2 30  0 30
Distance of the car 𝑠1 = 𝑑1 a1   
t t t
0 1
s1  vi t1  a1t12
2
1 2
d1  at1 , t1  t
2
1  30 
  t2
2 t 
d1  15t i 
For the second car; Now using kinematic equation to
Initial speed of the vi = 0𝑚/𝑠 determine distance (𝑑2 =? )
Final velocity of the car vf = 30𝑚/𝑠 v 2f  vi2 30  0 30 10
Time taken for car 𝑡2 = 3𝑡 a2    
t2 3t 3t t
Distance of the car 𝑆2 = 𝑑2 =? 0 1
s2  vi t2  a2t22
2
1 2
d 2  a2t2 , t2  3t
2
1  10 
    3t 
2
2 t 

 5  9  t 2
t
d 2  45t  ii 
Divided Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i) we obtain
d 2 45t
 3
d1 15t
d 2  3d1  3d
6. A driver moving at a constant speed of 20m/s sees an accident up a head and hits the brakes.
If the car decelerates at a constant rate of 0.5𝑚/𝑠 2 , how far does the car go before it comes to
a stop?

Given required
v𝑓 = 0 𝑠 =?
vi = 20𝑚/𝑠
𝑎 = −0.5𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
v 2f  vi2 0   20 m s 
2 2
400 m
s   s2
 400m
2a 2  0.5 m
s2  1 m
s2
7. An object moving with uniform acceleration has a velocity of 12m/s in the positive x- direction
when its x coordinate is 3cm. if its x coordinate 2 sec later is −5𝑐𝑚, what is its acceleration?
Solution
s  s f  si
 5m  3m
s   8 m
1
s  s  vi t  at 2
2
1
8  12  2   a  2 
2
2
8  24  2a
8  24  2a
32  2a
32
a    16 m s 2
2
8. A car initially at rest and the origin has moved a distance of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 40, 50, 60, 70m
during the 1, 2, 3… 10sec. periods respectively. What is the average speed during the first 5
sec and the second half period from t= 6sec to 5= 10 sec?
Solution
S in meter 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70
t in second 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
∆𝑆 25−0
For the 1st 5 second, 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = 5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 5−0
∆𝑆 70−30 40
For the 2nd second, 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = = 10𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 10−6 4

9. A body is moving with uniform velocity of 8m/s. when the body just crossed another body, the
second one stars and moves with uniform acceleration of 4𝑚/𝑠 2 . The time after which two
bodies meet, will be
Solution
For the first body,

velocity v1 = 8𝑚/𝑠
Now using kinematic equation to determine distance ( 𝑠1 =? )
s1
v1 
t
s1  v1t  8t i 
st
For second body, it stars after 1 body cross it,
Initial speed of a 2nd body vi = 0
Acceleration 𝑎 = 4𝑚/𝑠 2
Now using kinematic equation to determine distance ( 𝑠2 =? )
0 1
s2  vi t  at 2
2
1 2
 at
2
1
  4 t 2
2
s2  2t 2  ii 
Since displacement of both bodies are the same;
s1  s2
8t  2t 2
8  2t
t  4sec
10. A body starts with an initial velocity of 10m/s and is moving along a straight line with constant
acceleration. When the velocity of particle is 50m/s, the acceleration is reversed in direction.
The velocity of particle when it again reaches the starting point is?

Solution
In the first case

Initial velocity of the body vi = 10𝑚/𝑠
Final velocity of a body v
⃗ f = 50𝑚/𝑠
Now using kinematic equation;
v 2f  vi2  2as
2as  v 2f  vi2
  50   10 
2 2
 2500  100
2as  2400 i 
For the second case;
Initial velocity of the body vi = 50𝑚/𝑠
Now using kinematic equation to determine final velocity 𝑣𝑓 =?
v 2f  vi2  2as, but 2as  2400
  50   2400
2
 2500  2400
 4900
v f  4900  70 m s
11. A body is moving with a uniform acceleration covers 40m in the first 4 sec. and 120m in next
4sec. Its initial velocity and acceleration are?
Solution

The displacement from A to B, in the first 4sec is given by

1
s  vi t  at 2
2
1
40  vi  4   a  4 
2
2
1
 4vi  a 16 
2
40  4vi  8a i 
The displacement from A to C, in the next 4sec is given by

1
s  vi t  at 2 , where S  40m  120& t  4sec 4sec  8sec
2
1
40  120  vi  8   a  8 
2
2
1
 8vi  a  64 
2
160  8vi  32a  ii 
Solving Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii) by using simultaneous equation;
2 40  4vi  8a

1 120  8vi  32a
 80   8vi  16a



 160  8vi  32a
 80  16a
80
a  5 m s2 , substituting a in to Eq.(i);
16
40  4vi  8a, a  5
40  4vi  40
4vi  40  40
4vi  0
vi  0
12. A body moves with a uniform velocity of 5m/s from a point. From the same point at the same
time another body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 2𝑚/𝑠 2 in the same
direction. When and where do they meet each other?

Solution
For the first body
s1
v1 
t
s1  v1t  5t i 
𝟐
⃗ = 𝟐𝒎/𝒔 ,
For second body, 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎, 𝒂
0
s2  vi t  12 at 2
s2  12  2  t 2
s2  t 2  ii 
Since the displacement of both bodies are the same,
s1  s2
5t  t 2
t  5sec.
13. A body, starting from rest and moving with constant acceleration, covers 20m in the first
second. The distance travelled by it in the 2nd second is
Solution
The distance covered in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 sec. is given
1
snth  vi  a  2tn  1 , , snth  s1th  20m, tn  1sec & vi  0
2
s1  0  a  2 1  1 ,
th 1
2
1
20  a
2
a  4 m s2
The distance covered in 2nd sec is given by

1
snth  vi  a  2tn  1 , here tn  2sec, & vi  0
2
1
s2   40  2(2)  1
th
2
  20  4  1
  20  3
s2  60m
th

14. An object has a constant acceleration of 3𝑚/𝑠 2 . At a certain instant, its velocity is 9.6m/s.
what is the ratio of its velocity
A. 2.5 second earlier, and

B. 2.5 sec later?
Given Required
𝑎 = 3𝑚/𝑠 2 A. 𝑣𝑖 =? At 𝑡 = 2.5𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑖 = 9.6𝑚/𝑠 B. 𝑣𝑓 =? At 𝑡 = 2.5𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Solution
A. initial velocity at 2.5 second earlier
 The expression for the equation of motion is
v f  vi  at
9.6  vi   3.2  2.5 
vi  9.6  8
vi  1.6 m s
 Thus, the value of the velocity 2.5sec earlier is 1.6m/s
B. the value of velocity 2.5 sec later i.e., 𝑣𝑓 =?, v𝑖 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 and
v f  vi  at
 9.6   3.2  2.5 
 9.6  8
v f  17.6m / s
Thus the value of the velocity 2.5 later is 17.6m/s

𝑉𝑓 17.6
So, we have = = 11
𝑉𝑖 1.6
2.1.9. Free Fall Motion
The motion of an object near the surface of the earth under the influence of the force of
gravity only is called free fall.
When an object falls to the ground under gravitational pull, experiment shows that the
object has a constant or uniform acceleration of about 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , while falling.
𝑚
The numerical value of this acceleration is usually denoted by the symbol 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑠2 .

In the absence of air resistance, all objects regardless of their size, or weights fall with
𝑚
constant acceleration, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑠2 , toward the surface the earth.
The acceleration due to gravity varies with latitude, longitude and altitude of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity is greater at the poles than at the equator and greater at sea
level than at a top of mountain.
Remark!
Objects thrown upward or downward or those of released from rest are all free fall.
When a body falls towards Earths, its motion is due to gravitational force
The best example of a straight line motion with constant acceleration is the free fall.
Sign of vectors
1. All vectors directed vertically upwards, are positive.

2. All vectors directed vertically downwards, are negative.
3. The acceleration vector 𝑔 is always directed downwards. Therefore, acceleration due to
gravity 𝑔 is always negative.
Equations of motion for free fall
The equations for constantly accelerated straight line motion are used for freely falling
bodies with some changes in notation. Here we use (∆𝑦)𝑜𝑟 (∆ℎ)instread of ∆𝑠) and (𝑔)
instead of (𝑎).
i. For an object released downward freely from rest

v y  voy  gt , voy  0 and    g  for     g    
v y  gt  2.28
1
Y  h  voy t  gt 2 , voy  0
2
1 2
Y  h  gt  2.28
2
v y  voy  2 gY (h)
2 2
v 2y  2 gY  2 g Y  Yo   2.29 

ii. For an object dropped vertically downwards with initial velocity (𝑽𝒐𝒚 )
v y  v oy  gt , and    g  for     g    
v y  v oy  gt  2.30 
1
Y  h  voy t  gt 2 ,  2.31
2
v y  v oy  2 g Y  Yo 
2 2
 2.32 
iii. For an object thrown vertically upward with initial velocity voy
v y  v oy  gt , and    g  for     g    
v y  v oy  gt  2.33
1
Y  Yo  voy t  gt 2 ,  2.34 
2
1 2
Y  voy t  gt  2.35
2
v 2y  v oy
2
 2 g Y  Yo   2.36 
voy2 1
YMax   voy tup  gtup2  2.37 
2g 2
v oy
tup   2.38
g
2voy
ttot  tup  tdown   2.39 
g
Example
1. A stone is thrown vertically upward with initial speed of 10𝑚/𝑠. Calculate

A. The time taken by the stone to reach the maximum height?
B. The maximum height? (Take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Given Required
𝑉𝑜𝑦 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 A. 𝑡𝑢𝑝 =?

𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 B. 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 =?

Solution
A. vy = voy − ⃗g𝑡, 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑜, 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥
0  voy  gtup
 voy   gtup
voy 10m / s
tup    1sec.
g 10m / s 2
10m / s   100m2 / s 2
2
voy2
B. Ymax    5m
2g  2  10m / s 2  20m / s 2
1
Ymax  voy tup  gttu2 p
2
 10m / s 1sec  
1
2
10m / s 2  1sec 
2
 10m  5m
Ymax  5m
2. Small steel fall from rest through the opining at constant rate of two balls per second. Find the
separation (h) between two consecutive balls when the lower one is dropped 5m.

Solution
Distance (height) traveled by the 1st ball is given by;
1 2
Y1  vo t  gt1 , but vo  0
2
1
5 10  t12
2
5  5t12
5
t12   1
5
t  1sec
Two balls per second i.e., second ball released after (𝟏/𝟐)sec distance travelled by 1st
ball;
then 𝒕𝟐 is given by
𝒕 𝟏
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟓 sec. i.e., the 𝒕𝟐 released 0.5 earlier.
The distance travelled by 2nd ball is given by;
1 2
Y2  vo t  gt2 , but vo  0
2
1
Y2  10  0.5 
2
2
  5  0.25 
Y2  1.25m
Change in displacement ∆𝒀 is given by
Y  Y1  Y2  5m  1.25m  3.75m
Terminal velocity
When a body falls from a very high altitude, the air resistance balances the weight of the body
and the body attains constant velocity.
Terminal velocity V: is the velocity attained by a falling body at the instant when air resistance
prevents further increase in velocity due to gravity.
So we see, at terminal velocity, resistive force (𝐹𝑟 ) =gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 ).

Fr  Fg
KV  mg
mg
V  2.40 
K
Where, 𝐾 →constant and 𝑉 → terminal velocity
Example
1. A particle of weight 26N is thrown down at a velocity of 5m/s. if the particle reaches at its
maximum velocity in 4 sec. Find:
A. The height from where it falls.

B. Its terminal velocity.
C. The proportionality constant.
Given Required
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 26𝑁 A. ℎ =?
𝑡 = 4𝑒𝑠𝑐 B. 𝑉 =?
𝑣𝑖 = 5𝑚/𝑠 C. 𝑘 =?
Solution
1 2 1
A) h  vi t  gt   5  4   10  4   100m
2
2 2
mg
B) V  or V  vi  gt   5   10  4   45 m s
k
mg mg 26
C) V  k    0.58 kg s
k V 45
2.1.10. Graphical representation of motion
Three types of graph that can represent motion are displacement-time graph, velocity- time
graphs and acceleration- time graphs

A. Displacement – time graph
Displacement time graphs show the displacement of a moving object changes with time.
In a displacement –time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is equal to the velocity
of the object.
A graph plotted between displacement S on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is
called the S- t graph.
⃗ = ∆𝑆 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑉 ∆𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
A straight line (diagonal) line represents a constant velocity.

A curved line represent an acceleration
A positive slope represents motion in the positive direction.
A negative slope represents motion in the negative direction.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest.
The area under the curve is meaningless.
Slope is positive
Slope is zero
A velocity is constant, +Ve
A velocity is zero (object at rest)
Slope is negative Slope is cureve

Velocity is constant, negative Velocity is not constant
(object is accelerating)

B. Velocity – time graph
A graph plotted between velocity V on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is called the
V- t graph.
In a velocity –time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is equal to the acceleration of the
object.
A straight line (diagonal) line represents a constant /uniform acceleration.
A curved line represent non- uniform acceleration.
A positive slope represents an increase in velocity in the positive direction.
A negative slope represents an increase in velocity in the negative direction.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents motion with constant velocity.
The area under the curve equals the displacement or distance travelled.
The V-t graph for different cases is as shown
Uniformly accelerated motion

⃗ =𝟎
Uniform motion 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝒂 ⃗ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕), slope = +𝑽𝒆
(𝒂
Non- uniformly accelertion

Uniformly deccelerated motion (acceleration 𝑎 is not constant)
⃗ = −𝐯𝐞, slope = −𝐯𝐞 )
(𝒂
C. Acceleration – time graph
A graph plotted between acceleration 𝑎 on the y – axis and time t on the x – axis is
called the V- t graph
In acceleration – time graph, the slop or gradient of the line, is meaningless.
A zero slope (horizontal line) represents an object undergoing constant acceleration.
The area under the curve equals the change in velocity.

For uniformly increasing acceleration

Constant acceleration
Non- uniformly uniformly

Object moving uniform retardation accelerated body
Remark!
The displacement- time graph indicates how the displacement of a body changes with time.
The slope of displacement – time graph can determine the velocity of the body.
The slop of the velocity – time graph can determine the acceleration of the body.
The area under the velocity – time graph determines the displacement of the body.
Example
1. The speed – time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown in figure below.
Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between
A. 𝑡 = 0𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 10sec.
B. 𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 6sec.

Solution
A. Distance travelled by the particle = area under the graph,
Distance travelled at 𝑡 = 0𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 10sec. is given by
𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑒
1
S  base    height 
2
1
 10  0  sec 12  0  m s
2
1
 10 12  m
2
120
 m
2
S  60m
B. the total distance (S) covered by the particle in time 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 𝑡 = 6𝑠𝑒𝑐 is given by
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 (𝑖)
For distance 𝑆1, let 𝑣𝑖1 be the velocity of the particle after 2 sec and 𝑎1 , be the acceleration of
the particle in 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Since the particle undergoes uniform acceleration in the interval 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐,
acceleration can be obtain as
v f  v1i  a1t , where t  5  0  5ec., v i1  0
12  0  5a1
12  5a1
12
a1   2.4 m 2
5 s
Again, from kinematic equation of motion,

1
S1  v1i  a1t 2
2
1
  4.8 3   2.4 3
2
2
S1  25.2m  ii 
Distance travelled by the particle between time 2sec and 5sec i.e., in 3sec is given by
1
S1  v1i t  a1t 2
2
1
  4.8  3   2.4  3
2
2
S1  25.2m  ii 
Let 𝑎2 be the acceleration of the particle between 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 to 𝑡 = 10𝑠𝑒𝑐.

From the kinematic equation of motion, we have
v 2 f  v1i  a2t , where v 2 f  0, t  10  5  5sec

0  12  5a2
12  5a2
12
a  2.4 m 2
5 s
S  S1  S 2
S  25.2  10.8  36m
1
v  h  b
2
1
  2  4 
2
v  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
vf  2ms  4ms  6ms
Distance travelled by the particle in 1sec (i.e., between 𝑡 = 5 to 𝑡 = 6𝑠𝑒𝑐),

1
S 2  v 2i t  a2t 2
2
1
 12 1   2.4 1
2
2
 12  1.2
S 2  10.8m  iii 
From Eq. (i), Eq.(ii) and Eq. (iii), we obtain
S  S1  S 2
S  25.2  10.8  36 m
2. The acceleration- time graph of a particle moving in a straight line is as shown in figure. The
velocity of the particle at 𝑡 = 0 is 2𝑚/𝑠. The velocity after 2 seconds will be

Solution
Area under acceleration – time graph gives the change in velocity
1
v  h  b
2
1
  2  4 
2
v  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
v f  vi  4 m s
vf  2ms  4ms  6ms
3. The velocity – time graph for the vertical component of the velocity of a body thrown upward
from the ground and landing on the roof of a building is given by in the figure. The height of
the building is
Solution
Height of building = Area
h  A1  A2
1 1
 b  h   b  h 
2 2
1 1
  3 30    4  3 10 
2 2
1 1
  90   1 10 
2 2
 45  5
h  40m

4. The velocity- time graph of a car that slows down a t a uniform rate is shown.
A. find the acceleration

B. the distance travelled before the car stops
Solution
A. acceleration of a body is given by
v
a  slope 
t
v f  vi

t f  ti
0  30

30
a  10 m s 2
B. Total displacement travelled by a body is given by

S  Area
1
  30  3
2
S  45m
2.2. Motion in two dimensions
Two dimensional (2D) motion means motion that takes place in two different directions (or
coordinates) at the same velocity.
When the object travels in x and y coordinates with a constant velocity, it is known as two
dimensional motion.
Two dimensional motion is the study of movement in two directions, including the study of
motion along curved path, such as projectile and circular motion.

2.2.1. Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object that has been thrown into air.
Projectile motion is the motion of a particle that is launched with initial velocity vo and that
follows a path influenced by gravity and air resistance.
Example of projectile
A ball that is thrown or a football which is kicked into the air

Javelins thrown in athletics
Bullets fired from guns.
The path of a projectile is called Trajectory and it is parabolic in shape.

During a projectile motion, the path of the object (called trajectory) has both a vertical
displacement, say along y- axis and a horizontal displacement along the x- axis.
Hence projectile motion is a two- dimensional motion x-y plane.
Remark!
The vertical and horizontal components of the projectile are independent.

We take (−𝑔 )for upward motion and (+𝑔 ) for downward motion.
The velocity is changing both in magnitude and direction along the vertical direction. This is
due to the effect of gravity.
The force on the projectile is constant throughout the flight
The acceleration of the projectile is constant throughout the flight
Path depends upon the initial velocity, but not upon the mass of projectile
Projectiles can be projected
Horizontally
Vertically
Inclined

The following three assumptions are necessary to analyze a projectile motion
1. The free- fall acceleration 𝑔 is constant over the range of motion and is directed downward.
Projectile has zero acceleration in the x direction ( 𝑎𝑥 = 0) and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔 in y direction
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3. The rotation of the earth does not affect the motion
Important points
When analyzing projectile motion, consider it to be superposition of two motions:
1. Constant velocity motion in the horizontal direction.
There is no force acting on a projectile of mass m in the horizontal direction. i.e.,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑎 = 0 → 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → vox = vx
Horizontal motion is motion at constant velocity.
2. Free- fall (uniform acceleration, 𝑔) motion in the vertical direction.
The force acting on the mass of a projectile in vertical direction is the force of gravity
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔
Vertical motion is motion with uniform acceleration 𝑔 (fee fall).
Consider a body that is thrown into the air with an initial speed 𝑣𝑜 at an angle 𝜃 from the
horizontal.
Fig: Motion of a projectile

Motion in x- direction (horizontal motion with constant velocity)
vox  vo cos 
v x  vox  axt , sin ce ax  0
v x  vox  cons tan t
x  vox t , vox  vo cos 
x   vo cos   t  2.42 
x
t  2.43
vo cos 
Motion in y- direction (vertical motion with uniform acceleration)
voy  vo sin 
v y  voy  a y t , sin ce ax  g
= voy  gt , voy  vo sin 
v y  vo sin   gt  2.44 
The height (ℎ = 𝑌) of a projectile is given;
1
Y  voy t  gt 2
2
1
Y   vo sin   t  gt 2  2.45
2
Substituting Eq. (2.43) into Eq. (2.45), we obtain:
2
 x  1  x 
Y   v o sin     g 
 v o cos   2  v o cos  
sin  1 gx 2
x 
cos  2 vo2 cos 2 
 g  2
Y  x  tan     2 x  2.46 
 2vo cos  
2
Or
g
Y  ax  bx 2  parabolaEquation where a  tan  , b   2.47 
2v cos 2 
2
o
Eq. (2.46) is the equation of the trajectory.

Note that Eq. (2.47) is equation of a downward parabola.

The maximum height (𝒀𝑴𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉𝑴𝒂𝒙 )
the maximum height, 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 attained by the body during its flight can be evaluate as follow:
v y2  voy2  2 gY
  vo sin    2 gY
2
v y  vo2 sin 2   2 gY
2
 2.48
At 𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 , the vertical component of the velocity is zero (𝑉𝑦 = 0) and hence Eq.(2.48)
becomes:
v y2  vo2 sin 2   2 gY , at YMax , v y  0

0  vo2 sin 2   2 gYMax
2 gYMax  vo2 sin 2 
v 2 sin 2 
YMax  o  2.49 
2g
Time to reach the maximum height (𝒕𝒖𝒑 )
From Eq. (2.44), we obtain time to reach the maximum height as follow:
v y  v o sin   gt , at YMax , v y  0
0  v o sin   gtup
gtup  v o sin 
v sin 
tup  o  2.50 
g
Total time of flight (𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒕 )
From Eq. (2.45), we obtain the total time of flight when the thrown object reached maximum
height and returns to back its original position.
1 2
Y   v o sin   t  gt , but Y  0, when aprojectile return back to its initial position
2
1 2
0 = v o sin  ttot  gttot
2
1 2
 v o sin  ttot   gttot
2
1
v o sin   gttot
2
2v o sin   gttot

2vo sin 
ttot   2.51
g
Range of Projectile (R)
The maximum horizontal distance (Range) covered by the body is derived from:
R  voxttot
 2vo sin  
  vo cos    
 g 
v  2v sin  cos  
2
R o  2.52 
g
But from trigonometric relations:
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  sin B cos A
sin      sin  cos   sin  cos 
sin  2   2sin  cos   2.53
Substituting Eq. (2.53) into Eq. (2.52), we obtain:
vo2 sin  2  2vo2 sin cos 

R   2.54 
g g
Remark!
The range of projectile is a maximum at 45°.
v o2 sin  2  45o 
Rmax 
g
v sin  90o 
2
 , sin  90o   1
o
g
2
v
Rmax  o
 2.55
g

Example
1. An astronaut on a strange planet can jump a maximum horizontal distance of 15m if his initial
speed is 3m/s. What is the free fall acceleration on the planet?
Given Required
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15𝑚 A. 𝑔 =?
𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑚/𝑠
Solution
v o2
Rmax 
g
 3m / s   9m2 / s 2  0.6m / s 2
2
v2
g o 
Rmax 15m 15m
2. A stone is thrown upward with a speed of 20m/s at an angle of 37° from the ground.
Find:
A. The position (x, y) of the stone after 2 sec.
B. Time taken to reach the maximum height
C. The maximum height of the stone
D. The range of the stone
Given Re quired
Vo  Vx  20 m s A) x & y  ?
g  10 m s 2 B ) tup  ?
t  2sec C ) Ymax  hmax  ?
  370 D) R  ?

Solution
A. B. C. D.
i ) x  Vx t Vo sin 37 0 Vo2 sin 2 37 0 2Vo2 cos 37 0 sin 37 0
tup  tmax  hmax  R
 Vo   cos 37 0   2sec  g 2g g
  20 m s  0.8  2sec   20 m s  0.6   20 m s   0.6 

2 2
 2  20 m s   0.8  0.6 
2
  
x  32m 10 m s 2
2 10 m s 2  10 m s  2
1 
12 m s  400 m 2
s 2   0.36   m2 
ii ) y  Voy t  gt 2 10 m s 2  2  2   400   0.8  0.6 
2 20 m s  s2 

 Vo   sin 37   2sec   10   2sec 
0 1
2
m
s2
2 tup  1.2sec

144 m 2 s 2 10 m s 2 
20 m s 2
  20 m s  0.6  2sec    5 m s  4sec 
2 2
hmax  7.2m 
 384 m s 
2 2
 24m  20m 10 m s  2
y  4m R  38.4m
3. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three times its maximum
height. What is the angle of projection?
Given Required
𝑅 = 3𝑌𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝜃 =?
Solution
R  3YMax
2v o2 sin  cos  3v o2 sin 2 

g 2g
3sin 
2 cos  
2
4
cos   sin 
3
4 sin 

3 cos 
4
tan    1.33
3
  tan 1.33  53.1o
1

4. A stone is thrown upward on its way up it passes point A with speed v and point B, 3m higher
than A with speed v/2. What is the speed and maximum height reached by the stone above
point B, respectively?
Solution
A. the speed of stone V above point B is given by

From equation of motion,
v 2f  vo2  2as
𝑣
At point A and B, 𝑉𝑜𝐴 = 𝑣, 𝑣𝑓𝐵 = 2, 𝑎 = −𝑔, and 𝑠 = ℎ = 3𝑚
vB2  voA
2
 2 gh
2
v
    v     2 10  3
2
2
v2
 v 2  60
4
v 2  4v 2
 60
4
3v 2
  60
4
v2 
 4  60   240
3 3
v 2  80
v  80  8.9 m s
B. The maximum height reached by the stone above point B, is given by;
Between point B and C, at maximum height, velocity = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

v
VBi  , v c  0, a  g, s  Y , take g  10 m s2
2
vC2  v 2Bi  2 gY
2
v
0     20Y
2
2
v
  20Y
4
v 2  80Y
v2
Y  , where v  80
80
 
2
80 80
Y   1m
80 80

2.2.2. Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path with a constant speed.
When a particle is moving in a circular path at constant speed we say that the particle is in
uniform circular motion.
For objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed, acceleration arises because of
the change in direction of the velocity is called centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐
Centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 : is an acceleration of a body that always points to the center of
the circle.
v2
ac   2.56
r
Where 𝑎𝑐 is called centripetal acceleration.
For one complete revolution, distance moved by the body is equal to the circumference of the
circle and its time taken is the period (T), so we have;
s 2 r
v   2.57 
t T
2 r
T  2.58
v
Remark!
There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur due to:
change in magnitude of the velocity
change in direction of the velocity
In case of uniform circular motion;
Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius of the
circular path.

Acceleration vector is always perpendicular to the circular path and points towards the
center of the circle.
Example
1. What is the centripetal acceleration of the earth as it moves in its own orbit around the sun?
(Earth distance is approximately 150 million km and assume the orbit of the earth to be
circular)
Given Required
𝑟 = 150,000,000𝑘𝑚 = 1.5 × 108 𝑘𝑚 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 =?

𝑇 = 1𝑦𝑟 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 3665 × 24 × 60 × 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.15 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where T is the time for the earth to orbit around the sun, which is one year
Solution
 2 r 
2
2  
ac   
v T 
r r
4 r  4  3.14  1.5  10 m 
2 11
2
 2 
 3.15  107 sec 
2
T
ac  6  10 3 m s 2
2. A satellite is in circular orbit at altitude of ℎ = 200𝑘𝑚 above the Earth’s surface, where 𝑔 =
9.2𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the orbital speed of the satellite?
Given Required
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑔 = 9.2𝑚/𝑠 2 v =?
ℎ = 200𝑘𝑚 = 200 × 103 𝑚
𝑅𝐸 = 6.37 × 106 𝑚

Solution
v2
ac  , r  RE  h, where ac  g
r
v2
g
RE  h
v  g  RE  h 
2
v  g  RE  h 
 9.2  6.37  106  200  10 6 
v  7770 m s
Relative velocity
In reality, everything is relative. There is no such thing absolute!

Relative velocity: is the velocity of a body relative to a fixed body or a moving body.
The velocity of a moving object with respect to another object either moving or in rest is termed
as Relative motion
 If body A and body B are moving with velocities 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 with respect to a common stationary
frame of reference, say the ground, a tree or a fixed platform;
The velocity of A with respect to B is written as, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 .

VAB  VA  VB  2.56 
The velocity of B with respect to A is written as, 𝑉𝐵𝐴
VBA  VB  VA  2.57 
When two bodies are moving in opposite direction, relative velocity between them is equal to
sum of the velocity of the bodies.
VAB  VA   VB   VA  VB  2.58
But if the bodies are moving in same direction, their relative velocity is equal to difference in
velocity of the bodies.
VAB  VA  VB  2.59 
Two bodies are moving in two mutually perpendicular direction then the relative velocity will
be the trigonometric hypotenuse of the right tringle formed by the two velocities.

R  VA2  VB2  2.61
Example
1. A ship is streaming towards East with a speed of 5m/s. A woman runs a cross the deck at a
speed of 6m/s towards north. What is the velocity of women relative to the sea?
Given Required
Velocity of ship v
⃗ s = 8𝑖̂ |𝑣𝑤 | =?
Velocity of woman w.r.t ship, v

⃗ ws = 6𝑗̂
Velocity of women = v
⃗w
Solution
v ws  v w  v s
v w  v s  v ws
v w  8iˆ  6 ˆj
vw   vs    v ws 
2 2
vw  8   6   64  36  100  10 m s
2 2
The direction of motion is given by

opp.side v ws 6 3
tan       0.75
adj.side v s 8 4
  tan 1  0.75   36.9o
The velocity of women relative to the sea is 10m/s at 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗° North East
2. A plane is travelling eastward at a speed of 500km/h. but a 90km/h wind is blowing southward.
What is the direction and speed of the plane relative to the ground?
Given Required
𝑉𝑝 = (500𝑖̂ + 0𝑗̂)𝑘𝑚/ℎ A. |𝑉𝑝𝑔 | =?
𝑉𝑤 = (0𝑖̂ − 90𝑗̂)𝑘𝑚/ℎ B. 𝜃 =?

Solution
v pg  v p    v w 
  
 500iˆ  0 ˆj  0iˆ  90 ˆj 
v pg   500iˆ  90 ˆj 
km
h
v pg  v 2p  vw2   500    90    500    90   508 km h

2 2 2 2
The angle 𝜽 is given by

opp.side v w 90
tan      0.18
adj.side v p 500
  tan 1  0.18   10o
The plane’s velocity relative to ground is 508km/h at 𝟏𝟎° south East
3. A boat is moving with velocity vb = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 in river and water is moving with a velocity
vw = (−3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 with respect to ground. Relative velocity of boat with respect to water
is
Given Required
vb = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝑏𝑤 =?
vw = (−3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠
Solution
vbw  vb  v w
  
 3iˆ  4 ˆj  3iˆ  4 ˆj 
  3iˆ  4 ˆj    3iˆ  4 ˆj 
  3  3 iˆ   4  4  ˆj

vbw  6iˆ  8 ˆj  m
s
4. A motorcycle policeman travelling at 𝑣𝑝 = 80𝑘𝑚/ℎ overtakes a car travelling at 𝑣𝑐 =

65𝑘𝑚/ℎ. The velocity of the policeman relative to the car velocity is
Given Required
vp = 80𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝑝𝑐 =?
vc = 65𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Solution
v pc  v p  v c
v pc  80  65  15 km h
5. Two cars, A and B, are approaching each other, A going at vA = 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ and B going at vB =
60𝑘𝑚/ℎ. What is the velocity of A relative to B?
Given Required
vA = 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝐴𝐵 =?
vB = 60𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Solution
v AB  v A    v B 
 v A  vB
v AB  40  60  100 km h
6. A boat is moving towards East with velocity 4m/s with respect to river flowing towards north
with velocity of 2m/s and the wind is blowing towards north with velocity 6m/s. the direction
of the flag blown over by hoisted on the boat is
Given Required
⃗ 𝑏𝑟 = 4𝑖̂ m/s
The velocity of boat with respect to river is given by 𝑉 𝜃 =?
⃗ 𝑏𝑔 = 2𝑗̂ m/s
Velocity of river with respect to ground is given by 𝑉
⃗ 𝑊𝑔 = 6𝑗̂ m/s
Velocity of wind with respect to ground is given by 𝑉

Solution
The direction of flag hoisted on the boat will be along the direction of velocity of
wind with respect to boat.
Applying the concept of relative velocity;
Vbr  Vbg  Vrg
Vbg  Vbr  Vrg i 

VWb  VWg  Vbg  ii 
Put Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain: The angle 𝜃 is given by
VWb  VWg  Vbr  Vrg 

 6 ˆj  4iˆ  2 ˆj 
 6 ˆj  4iˆ  2 ˆj
  6  2  ˆj  4iˆ
VWb  4 ˆj  4iˆ Vy 4
tan    1
Vx 4
  tan 1 1  450
On observing the component of velocity for 𝑽𝑾𝒃 it is clear that the direction will be
along North-West.
Review Question
Choose the correct answer from a given alternative choice
1. An athlete accelerates at 1.9𝑚/𝑠 2 for 2.2 sec at the beginning of race. What is the speed of
the athlete at the end of a 3000m?
A. 0.86m/s B. 1.16m/s C. 4.18m/s D. 9.2m/s
2. A ball is thrown down ward from the top of a tower. After being released, it’s downward.
A. Velocity will be uniform C. Acceleration greater than 𝑔
B. Acceleration will be equal to 𝑔 D. acceleration smaller than 𝑔
3. What does the slope of a velocity time graph represent?
A. Distance C. Displacement
B. Acceleration D. Speed

4. A small car and a bus move with velocities given by 𝑉𝑐 = (3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑉𝑏 =
(−5𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂)m/s respectively, what is the velocity of the bus according to a car driver?
A. (−2𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)m/s C. (−8𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂)m/s
B. (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)m/s D. (−8𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂)m/s
5. A bird, accelerating from rest at a constant rate, experiences a displacement of 28 m in 11 s.
What is its acceleration?
A. 0.21 𝑚/𝑠 2 B. 0.46 𝑚/𝑠 2 C. 0.64 𝑚/𝑠 2 D. 0.78 𝑚/𝑠 2
6. A body is thrown upwards and reaches its maximum height. At that point:
A. Its velocity is zero and its acceleration is also zero
B. Its velocity is zero but its acceleration is maximum
C. Its velocity is zero and its acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity
D. Its acceleration is minimum.
7. A ball is thrown vertically downwards with a velocity of 20m/s from the top of a tower. It
hits the ground after some time with the velocity of 80m/s. the height of the tower is:
(assuming 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
A. 340m B. 320m C. 300m D. 360m
8. A body is thrown vertically up from the ground. It reaches a maximum height of 100m in
5seconds. After what time will it reach the ground from the position of maximum height?
A. 1.2sec B. 5sec C. 10sec D. 25sec
9. A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration. It changes its velocity from 10m/s
to 20m/s while covering a distance of 135m in “t” second. The value “t” is
A. 10sec B. 1.8sec C. 12sec D. 9sec
10. A car travelling at a speed of 30km/h is brought to rest at a distance of 8m by applying brakes.
If the same car is moving at speed of 60km/h, then it can be brought to rest the same brakes in:
A. 64m B. 32m C. 16m D. 4m
11. If two projectiles, with the same masses and with the same velocities, are thrown at angle
60° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 30° with the horizontal, then which of the following quantities will remain the
same?
A. Time of flight C. Maximum height acquired
B. Horizontal range of projectile D. All of the above

12. A particle A is dropped from a height and another particle B is projected in horizontal
direction with speed of 5m/s from the same height, then correct statement is
A. Particle A will reach at ground first with respect to particle B.
B. Particle B will reach at ground first with respect to particle A
C. Both particles will reach at ground simultaneously
D. Both particles will reach at ground with same speed
13. Which of the following is correct about uniform circular motion?
A. Direction of motion is continuously changed
B. Direction of motion is not changed
C. Speed and direction both remain constant.
D. Speed is constant, but direction is changing
E. A and D are correct
14. A child whirls a ball at the end of a rope, in a uniform circular motion. Which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A. The speed of the ball is constant
B. The magnitude of the ball's acceleration is constant
C. The velocity is of the ball is constant
D. The acceleration of the ball is directed radially inwards towards the center
15. In a uniform circular motion, the centripetal acceleration of a body moving in a circular path
results from:
A. Change in magnitude of tangential velocity.
B. Change in direction of angular velocity
C. Change in direction of tangential velocity
D. Change in magnitude of tangential acceleration
Solution
1. C 4. D 7. C 10. B 13. E
2 B 5. B 8. B 11. B 14. C
3. B 6. C 9 D 12. C 15. C

Chapter Three
3. Angular motion
The simplest angular motion is one in which the body moves along a curved path at a constant
angular velocity, as when a runner travels along a circular path or an automobile rounds a
curved.
Rotational about a fixed axis
The rotation of the Earth creates the cycle of day and night, the rotation of wheels enables easy
vehicular motion and modern technology machines depends on rotating parts such as gears,
etc.
Rotational motion: is the motion of a body that takes place in a circular path about a fixed
axis. Example: the rotation of the Earth on its axis.
Note that
Axis of rotation, is an axis about which a body rotates.

When a body is in rotational motion, every particle of it moves in a circular path about a
fixed point.
The three concept in angular motion or rotational kinematics are
 Agular displacement (𝜃)

 Angular velocity (𝜔)
 Angular acceleration (𝛼)
3.1. Angular displacement (𝜽)
When a body moves in a circular path, its position continuously changes.

Angular displacement (𝜃): is the angle through which a body has rotated.
When a body rotates about circular path of radius 𝑟, the angle 𝜃 formed at the center is called
angular displacement.

The angle which is subtended by the position vector at the center of the circular path is called
angular displacement (𝜽)
The relationship between angular displacement (𝜃) and the tangential displacement (s) is
given by
s  r
s
  3.1
r
Where
𝑠 → arc length
𝜃 → central angle
𝑟 → radius of the circle
The Angular displacement of a body can be expressed in radian, degree, revolution or cycle.
But the SI unit of angular displacement is the radian.
One radian: is the angle formed when the arc length and the radian are equal. → 𝜃 = 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 →
𝑠 = 𝑟.
More over;
1rev  2 rad  360o  1rad  57.30  3.2 
Remark!
Angular displacement is a vector quantity, and its direction is determined using the right hand
rule.
Right hand rule: “If you curl your right hand finger in the direction of rotation, then your
thumb will point in the direction of the angular displacement.”
Thus, if a body rotates counter clockwise in the 𝑥𝑦 plane, the angular displacement is pointed
out of the page or along the positive z axis.

 In Counter clockwise rotation, angular displacement is given by

   kˆ 3.3
 In clockwise rotation, angular displacement is given by
 
   kˆ   kˆ  3.4
3.2. Angular velocity (𝝎)
Angular velocity (𝜔) is the vector measure of the rotation rate, which refers to how fast an
object rotates or revolves about an axis.
Angular velocity is the time rate at which an object rotates or revolves about an axis.
Angular Velocity (𝜔): is the time rate of change of angular displacement.

  3.5 
t
Its SI unit is rad/sec.
Remark!
 Angular velocity describes how fast a body is rotating.

 Angular velocity can be positive or negative
 Angular velocity has direction along the angular displacement.

3.3. Angular acceleration (rotational acceleration)
Angular acceleration (𝛼): is the rate at which angular velocity of a body changes with time.

  3.6 
t
Its SI unit is 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
Remark!
 The direction of angular acceleration is the same as the direction of angular velocity when the
velocity is increasing.
 The direction of angular acceleration is opposite to the direction of the angular velocity when
the velocity is decreasing.
3.4. Relation between linear and angular motion
 We have the relation:

s  r 

V  r   3.7 

at   r 
Where
𝑠 → Tangential velocity
𝑉 → Tangential velocity
𝑎𝑡 → Tangential velocity

 Equation of motion for uniformly accelerated angular motion are analogous to those equations
of motion for uniformly accelerated linear motion.
Linear Agular
V f  Vi  f  i
a   3.8 
t t
Vi  V f i   f
Vav  av   3.9 
2 2
V f  Vi  at  f  i   t  3.10 
V f2  Vi 2  2as  2f  i2  2  3.11
V f2  Vi 2  2f  i2
a   3.12 
2s 2
V f2  Vi 2  2f  i2
S   3.13
2a 2
1 1
S  Vi t  at 2   i t   t 2  3.14 
2 2
1 1
S  Vi t  at 2   i t   t 2  3.13
2 2
S dS  d
Vins  lim  ins  lim   3.14 
t  0 t dt t  0 t dt
V d 2 S  d 2
ains  lim
t  0 t
 2  ins  lim
t  0 t
 2  3.15 
dt dt
Examples
1. A body is rotated with a uniform speed in a circle of radius 1m. What is the centripetal
acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 if it completes 12 rotations in 3 sec?
Given Required
𝜃 = 12𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝜔 =?
𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐

Solution
 24 rad 1rev  2 rad
   8 rad s
t 3sec 12rev  ? x
v2
ac  , v  r 1revx  12rev  2 rad 
r
 r  12rev  2 rad   24 rad
2
  r 2 x
r 1rev
 1m  8 rad s 
2
12rev  24 rad
ac  64 2 m
s2
2. The angular position of a swinging door is described by 𝜃 = 5 + 10𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 . What is the

angular speed and acceleration of the door at 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐?
Given Required
𝜃 = 5 + 10𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 A. 𝜔 =?
𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 B. 𝛼 =?
Solution
A. Angular speed at instant of time is given by B. Angular acceleration is
   t  t     t     t  t     t 
  lim  lim   lim  lim
t  0 t  t  0 t  0 t  0 t t  0 t  0
 5  10  t  t   2  t  t 2   5  10t  2t 2    10  4  t  t   10  4t  
 lim    lim  
t  0  t 
 
t  0
 t 
 5  10  t  t   2  t 2  2t t  t 2   5  10t  2t 2   10  4t  4t  10  4t 
 lim    lim  
t  0  t  t  0
 t 
 
 5  10t  10t  2t 2  4t t  2t 2  5  10t  2t 2   4 t 
 lim    lim  
t  0 
 t 

t  0
 t 
 10t 4t t 2t 2    4 rad s 2
 lim    
t  0
 t t t 
 lim 10  4t  2t 
t  0
  10  4t
  t  3  10  4  3
  t  3  22 rad sec
3. A wheel starts from rest and rotates with constant angular acceleration to reach an angular
speed of 12rad/s in 3sec. what is the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the wheel in
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 and the angle in rad through which it rotates in this time interval respectively?

Given Required
𝜔𝑖 = 0 A. 𝛼 =?
𝜔𝑓 = 12𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 B. 𝜃 =?
Solution
A. Angular acceleration is given by B. Angular displacement is given by
 f  i 12 rad s  0 1
   4 rad s2   i t   t 2
t 3 2
1
   t 2     4 rad s   3s    2  9  rad  18rad
1 2
2
2 2
4. A wheel initially at rest is rotated with constant angular acceleration of 100rad/s in 20sec. If
the radius of the wheel is 0.3m what is the tangential acceleration of a point at the rim of the
wheel?
Given Required
𝜔𝑖 = 0 A. 𝑎𝑡 =?
𝜔𝑓 = 100𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟 = 0.3𝑚
Solution
 f  i 100 rad s  0
   5 rad s2
t 20
at  r   0.3m   5 rad s2   1.5 m s

Chapter Four
4. Dynamics
4.1. Types of Forces
The study of the physical cause of motion is called dynamics.

Dynamics is a part of mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under the action of
forces.
This is because the force is responsible for the motion of the particle.
The acceleration of the particle is also related with forces, and the force obeys Newton’s cause
of motion.
⃗)
Force (𝑭
An interaction that causes an acceleration of a body is known as force.

Force: is a push or a pull action of a body on another body.
 Force is a vector quantity and causes a body to move, to stop, to change direction of motion or
change size or shape.
The basic forces in nature
 There are four (4) fundamental force (interactions) observed in nature.
 Gravitational force
 Electromagnetic force
 Strong nuclear force
 Weak nuclear force

The fundamental interactions are characterized on the basis of the following four criteria:
 The types of particles that experience the force,

 The relative strength of the force,
 The range over which the force is effective, and
 The nature of the particles that mediate the force.
Type of Forces
 There are a variety of types of forces. A variety of force types were placed into two broad
category. These are
Non- contact force (action at a distance)

Contact force and
1) Non-contact Force (Field force)
It is a type of force that does not required a physical contact with the other object.
When objects are not in contact with each other, the force act between the object.
Long range forces that act even the bodies are separated by empty space.
Examples of Non-contact force
All fundamental force (interaction) in nature are field force (non-contact force)
Gravitational force
Electromagnetic force: magnetic force and electrostatic force
Strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force
1. Gravitational force
 It is always attractive and can act at a distant.

 It is the force of mutual attraction between two bodies by virtue of their masses.

 Everybody attracts other with this force.

 This force is governed by Newton’s law of gravitation, which states that:
1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ (4.1)
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹= (4.2)
𝑟2
Properties of Gravitational forces
It is universal attractive force

It is directly proportional to masses of two bodies
It is obey inverse square law
It is longer range force
It is central forces
It is weakest force in nature
It is conservative force
It is to be caused by the exchange of particles called graviton.
2. Electromagnetic force
It is attractive or repulsive and acts on charged particles.

The force acting between two electric charge at rest is called electrostatic force
This force is governed by coulomb's law which states that:
1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ (4.3)
𝑟2
𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= (4.4)
𝑟2
The force between two magnetic poles is called magnetic force

These two forces are inseparable and considered as the two facets of a general force
known as Electromagnetic force.
Properties of Electromagnetic force
It may be attractive or repulsive

It obey inverse square law
It is not as much longer than gravitational force.
It is 1036 times shorter than gravitational force.
It is central force
It is conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of photons between two charged bodies.
3. Strong Nuclear force
It is a force which binds together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
It is responsible to keep protons and neutrons bound together in the nucleus

This force is 100 times stronger than electromagnetic force and 1038 times stronger than
gravitational force.
Properties of strong nuclear force
It is an attractive force
It is short range force and it operates with 10−15 𝑚
It is charge independent
It does not obey inverse square law
It is non-central force
It is non-conservative force
It is caused by the exchange of particles called 𝜋 − 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛
4. Weak Nuclear force
This is the force that appears only between elementary particles involved in a nuclear
process such as the beta decay of nucleus.
It is responsible for a beta decay radioactivity
Depending on the exchanged particle, weak interaction can be electrically neutral Z-boson
and the charged W-bosons.
Properties of weak nuclear force
Any process involving neutrino or antineutrino is governed by weak nuclear force.

It is 1025 times stronger than gravitational force.
It operates only through the range of 10−19 𝑚.
This force a rises due to the exchange of particle called massive vector boson.

2) Contact Force
Contac force a type of force that requires bodily (physically) contact with another object.
One object is in physical contact with another.
When objects are in contact with each other, the force act between the objects.
Examples of contact force
Muscular force: the force resulting due to the action of muscles.

Applied force
Frictional force
Normal force
Tension force
Air resistance force
Sping force (restoring force)
⃗ 𝒂𝒑 )
Applied force (𝑭
An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object.

If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the
object.
The applied force is the force exerted on the desk y the person.
Remark!
 An applied force is one that an entity exerts on an object, typically in the form of a push or
pull.

Resolving of force
Since force is a vector quantity, it can be decomposed into components.

A force in 𝑥𝑦 plane is, can be resolved as;
Fap  F  Fxiˆ  Fy ˆj , hence Fx  F cos  & Fy  F sin 

F  F cos  iˆ  F sin  ˆj  4.5
The magnitude and direction of a force is given by
F  Fx2  Fy2  4.6 

Fy
tan    4.7 
Fx
Example
1. A man pulls a box with a force of 120N using a rope that makes 60° to horizontal. What is the
force needed to move the box?
Given Required
𝐹 = 120𝑁 𝐹𝑥 =?
𝜃 = 60°
Solution
Fx  F cos  , cos 60  0.5
 120 N  0.5
Fx  60 N
2. Triangle ABC has sides 𝐴𝐵 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝐵𝐶 = 3𝑐𝑚, and force 20N, 30N and 10N act along sides
AB, BC and CA respectively. Determine the resultant of these system of forces.

Solution
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 4 4 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. √42 + 32 √25 5
𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 3 3 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. √42 + 32 √25 5
Resolving forces horizontally,
F x  10 N  cos   40 N
4
 10 N    40 N
5
 8 N  40 N
 Fx  32 Niˆ
Resolving forces vertically,
F y  10 N  sin   30 N
3
 10 N    30 N
5
 6 N  30 N
Fy  24 N ˆj
The resultant of the force is given by
 F    F 
2 2
F  x y
  32 N    24 N   1600 N 2
2 2
F  40 N

3. A force of 𝐹1 is added to 𝐹2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁. The resulatnt of the two is in the negative x-
direction and has 5N. what is magnitude of 𝐹1 ?.
Given Required
𝐹2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁 |𝐹1 | =?

𝐹2 𝑥 = 3𝑁𝑖̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 𝑦 = −6𝑁 𝑗̂
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = −5𝑖 + 0𝑗̂
Solution
F1  F2  F
    
F1x iˆ  F1 y ˆj  F2 xiˆ  F2 y ˆj  5iˆ  0 ˆj 
 F1x  F2 x  i   F1 y  F2 y  ˆj  5iˆ  0 ˆj
 F1x  3 i   F1 y  6  j  5iˆ  0 ˆj
 F1x  3 i  5iˆ i 
F 1y  6  j  0 ˆj  ii 
From Eq. (i), we obtain; From Eq. (ii),we obtain;
 F1x  3 i  5iˆ  F1 y  6 j  0 ˆj
F1x  3  5 F1 y  6  0
F1x  5  3 F1 y  6 ˆj
F1x  8iˆ
The the magnitude of ⃗𝑭𝟏 is given by
F1  F1x  F1 y

F1  8iˆ  6 ˆj N 
F  F12x  F12y   8   6   100 N 2  10 N
2 2

⃗ 𝒇)
Forces of Friction (𝑭
It is a contact force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces.

Frictional force is a resistive force that opposes the motion of a surface over another
surface.
Remark!
Friction force exists parallel to the surfaces and always directed opposite to the direction of
motion.
Frictional force doesn’t depend on the area of the surfaces in contact.
Frictional force depends on normal force/load (the force pressing the two surfaces together)
and the nature of surfaces in contact i.e., roughness and smoothness of the surfaces
⃗ 𝑵)
Normal Force (𝑭
Normal force (𝐹𝑁 ) is a force that is always acting perpendicular to the surfaces in contact.
Friction force is always proportional to the normal force between the two interacting
surfaces. Mathematically
Ff  FN
Ff   FN  4.8
Where 𝐹𝑓 = frictional force, 𝐹𝑁 = Normal force and 𝜇 = coefficient of friction

Types of friction (𝒇𝒔 )
A. Static friction
 Static friction is a force of friction which opposes the sliding of an object when it is pulled
or push.
 Static friction is the frictional force that keeps things from moving.
 It is the friction between two surfaces that are at rest relative to each other.
Mathematically static friction is written as
f s   s FN  4.9 
Where 𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction.
The maximum static friction called limiting friction and is arises when the body is on the
verge of motion.
B. Kinetic friction (𝒇𝒌 )
Kinetic friction is the frictional force between two surfaces that are in relative motion to each
other.
Kinetic friction is the frictional force when the object is in sliding (in motion) on the surface.
It is frictional force that acts to retard (slow down) motion.
f k  k FN  4.10 
Where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Remark!
The friction force and the normal force are perpendicular.

The maximum force of friction will be the same as the smallest force necessary to start
motion
Coefficient of friction are independent of the area of contact between the surface

Kinetic friction is less than static friction 𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠 ) and Coefficient of kinetic friction is less
than coefficient of static friction (𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠 ).
Example
1. A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is

required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0 N is required
to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic
friction from this information.
Given Required
𝑚 = 25𝑘𝑔 𝜇𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑘 =?
𝑓𝑠 = 75𝑁
𝑓𝑘 = 60𝑁
𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
f s   s FN , but FN  mg
fs f 75 N
s   s   0.31
FN mg  25kg   9.8m / s 2 
f k  k FN
fk 60 N
k    0.245
FN  25kg   9.8m / s 2 
2. A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below. Find the
expression for the acceleration of the block.
A. If the inclined plane is frictionless

B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction

Solution
The free body diagram for the problem is
A. If the inclined plane is frictionless:
F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  0
m g sin   m a
a  g sin   4.11
B. If the inclined plane has coefficient of kinetic friction (𝜇𝑘 ):
F x  mg sin   f k  ma , but f k  k FN
mg sin    k FN  ma , but FN  mg
m g sin   k m g  m a
g sin   k g  a
a  g  sin   k   4.12 

Air resistance Force
 The air resistance is a special types of frictional force that acts upon objects as they travel
through the air.
Tension Force (T)
 The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rrope, cable or wire when it
is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
 The tension force is directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on
the opposite ends of the wire.
Remark!
An applied force where force is applied through a string cable, rope, etc is called tension force.
A tension force can only pull, it cannot push.
T W  0
T  W  mg  4.13
Spring Force (Restoring Force)
The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object that
is attached to it.

An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores
the object to its rest or equilibrium position.
Restoring force is a force that acts to bring a body to its equilibrium position.
The restoring force is a function only position of the mass or particle, and it is always directed
back toward the equilibrium position of the system.
Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that the force F needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance x
is proportional to the distance.
FR  x
FR   K x   K  x f  xo   4.14 
The negative sign describes the force moving it back in the opposite direction.
Where K is spring constant that shows how force is needed to compress or extend a spring
by a given distance.
4.2. Newtonian’s law of motion
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) an English scientists and mathematician famous for his
discovery of the law of gravity also discovered the three law of motion.
Today these laws are known as Newton’s Law of motion and describe the motion of all objects
on the scale we experience in our everyday lives.
Newton’s law of motion are the basic laws of dynamics.

Newton’s First law (Law of Inertia)
Newton’s first law states that “a body at rest remains at rest and a body in state of motion,
continues its motion with constant velocity if no external unbalanced acts on it”
It implies that; in the absence of external force, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body
moving with uniform motion will continue its motion. That is
A book lying on a table will remain there forever, and

A ball given a constant velocity will mover forever.
⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) on a body is zero, its motion does not change, the body is either at
If the vector sum (𝑭
rest or moving with constant velocity. The body is said to be in equilibrium. i.e.,
⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∑𝐹 = 0 → 𝑎 = 0 → 𝑉
A reference frame in which Newton’s first law of motion is valid (hold) is known as Inertial
frame of reference.
A reference frame in which a body at rest remain at rest a body in motion moves at constant
velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by external force is called inertial reference
frame.
Inertia
It is the property of a body to resist any attempt to change its state of motion.
Inertial is the tendency of a body to continue in its original state of rest or state of uniform
motion.
Mass
Mass is the measure of the body’s resistance to change in its state of motion. So, it is true
that “the bigger the mass, the greater the inertial”.

Remark!
 Newton’s laws: are valid only in inertial frame of reference.

 We can assume that the Earth as an inertial frame if we neglect its rotation. And a body moving
with a constant velocity can taken an inertial frame. However, an accelerating body is a non
inertial frame, and hence, Newton’s laws do not hold if measurements are made there.
Newton's second law of Motion (Law of acceleration or law of momentum)
“The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass.” ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 .
The net external force applied on a particle is the rate of change of linear momentum.
p
Fnet  , p  mv
t
 v 
 m 
 t 
Fnet  ma  4.15
Remark!
Newton’s 2nd law applies to a single object.

A force is necessary to produce acceleration.
The direction of the acceleration is always in the direction of the net force.
The net force is always the vector sum of the individual forces and may not be in the
direction of any one force.
F net  ma   Fx  F F
y z
F net  max iˆ  ma y ˆj  maz kˆ  4.16 

Magnitude of Force and acceleration is given by
F  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2 and a  a x2  a y2  a z2  4.17 

Example
⃗ 𝑖 = (4𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂)𝑚/𝑠 to

1. Find the force needed to accelerate amass of 40kg from velocity 𝑉
⃗ 𝑓 = (8𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂)𝑚/𝑠 in 10s?
𝑉
Given Required
⃗ 𝑖 = (4𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ) 𝑚

𝑉 𝑎 =?
𝑠
𝑚
⃗ 𝑓 = (8𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ )
𝑉
𝑠
Solution
F  ma i 
a
V f  Vi

 8iˆ  3 ˆj  5kˆ    4iˆ  5 ˆj  3kˆ 
m
s
m
s
t 10 s
(8  4)iˆ  (3  5) ˆj  (5  3) kˆ  ms
 
10 s
 4 8 ˆ 8 ˆ m
  iˆ  j  k  s2
 10 10 10 
2 4 4 
a   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2  ii 
5 5 5 
Put Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:
2 4 4 
F  40kg  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ  sm2
5 5 5 
 80 160 ˆ 160 ˆ 
  iˆ  j k  kgm / s 2
 5 5 5 

F  16iˆ  32 ˆj  32kˆ N 
2. A 1kg body accelerates by 𝐹1 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑁 and 𝐹2 = (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁.

Find
A. The net force in unit vector notation

B. The magnitude of the net force
C. The acceleration
D. The magnitude of acceleration
Given Required
𝐹1 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑁 A) 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?

𝐹2 = (−2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂)𝑁 B) | 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 | =?
𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 C) 𝑎 =?
D) |𝑎| =?
Solution
A) B) C) D
Fnet  F1  F2 Fnet  (1) 2 N 2   2  N 2

2
 F  ma 
a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2
  
 3iˆ  4 ˆj N  2iˆ  6 ˆj N   5N 2 a
Fnet
 (1) 2 m2
  2 
2 m2
s4 s4
m
  3  2  iˆ   4  6  ˆj  N Fnet  2.24 N
 iˆ  2 ˆj  N  5 ms4
2

Fnet  iˆ  2 ˆj N  
1kg a  2.24 sm2

a  iˆ  2 ˆj  m
s2
3. A body of mass 2kg is moving with velocity of 2m/s. if a force of 10N is applied on the body,
what will be its velocity after 2 sec?
Given Required
𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑓 =?
𝑉𝑖 = 2𝑚/𝑠
𝐹 = 10𝑁
Solution
F  ma
F 10 N
a   5 m s2
m 2
V f  Vi  at
 2   5  2 
 2  10
V f  12 m s
Newton’s 3rd law (Law of action and reaction)
Newton’s 3rd law states that “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
If object 1 exerts a force on object 2, the object 2 exerts an equal force, oppositely directed on
object 1.
F12   F21  4.18 
Where, 𝐹12 is the force applied by body 1 on body 2 and 𝐹21 is the force applied by body 2 on
body 1.
The action force is equal in magnitude to the reaction force and opposite in direction. i.e.,
for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Remark!
Action and reaction forces are always exist in pair; a single isolated force cannot exist.
The net external force applied on the system is not equal to zero.
Action and reaction forces acts on different objects; as the result they never cancel one another.
Action and reaction forces; can be contact and non-contact.
The two forces in Newton’s 3rd law never occur in the free body diagram.

Example
1. Three blocks 𝑚1 = 3𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 = 5𝑘𝑔 are in contact on a smooth horizontal
surface. If a horizontal force of 60N pushes them,
A. Find the acceleration of the blocks;
B. Find the resultant force on each block;
C. How much force 𝑚1 exert on 𝑚2 ?
D. How much force does 𝑚2 exert on 𝑚3 ?
Solution
A. The net force on the system and the total mass of the system are known. So, we apply Newton’s
2nd law:
Fnet  ma
Fnet Fnet 60 N 60 N
a     5 m s2
m m1  m2  m3 3kg  4kg  5kg 12kg
Three of the blocks accelerates with the same value 𝑎 = 5𝑚/𝑠 2.

B. Let (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )1 be the net force on 𝑚1 , (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )2 be net force on 𝑚2 and (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 )2 be net force on 𝑚3 .
Then,
 Fnet 1  m1a  by Newton’s 2nd law

  3kg   5 m s 
2
 Fnet 1  15 N
Therefore, the net (resultant) force on 𝑚1 is 15N
 Fnet 2  m2a   4kg  5 m s   20 N

2
Hence, the net (resultant) force on the second block is 20N. similarly,

 Fnet 3  m2a   5kg  5 m s   25N

2
Therefore, the net (resultant) force on the third block is 25N.

We observe that:
 Fnet 1   Fnet 1   Fnet 1  F  60 N

C. In order to calculate the contact force between two blocks we have to treat each block
separately.
Where
𝐹12 is the reaction force on 𝑚1 by 𝑚2
𝐹21 is the action force on 𝑚2 by 𝑚1
𝐹23 is the reaction force on 𝑚2 by 𝑚3
𝐹32 is the action force on 𝑚3 by 𝑚2
 Fnet 1  m1a  net force on block1

F  F12  m1a
F12  F  m1a
 60 N   3kg   5 m s 2 
 60 N  15 N
F12  45 N
Therefore, 𝑚1 pushes 𝑚2 with a force of 45N
D. Now, let us seen 𝑚2
 Fnet 2  m2 a
F21  F23  m2 a
But according to Newton’s 3rd law , |𝐹12 | = |𝐹21 | = 45𝑁 because they are action and
reaction forces.

45 N  F23  m2 a
F23  45 N  m2 a
 45 N   4kg   5 m s 2 
 45 N  20 N
F23  25 N
Which means 𝑚2 pushes 𝑚3 with a force of 25N.
4.3. Application of Newton’s laws
Application of Newton’s First law
Static Equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and there is no
net force acting on it
Dynamic equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is moving at a steady
velocity and there is no net force acting on it.
Equilibrium: is a condition in which the state of motion of a body does not change.
A body at equilibrium is either at rest or moves with a constant velocity (zero

acceleration)
A body is in equilibrium, if and only if the vector sum of the force acting on the body
is zero. ∑ 𝐹 = 0
For this to be true, component of the net force must be zero i.e.,
 Fx  0,  Fy  0 &  Fz  0  4.19
Condition of Equilibrium
In solving problems of static equilibrium:
ii. Draw the free diagram of the problem

iii. Decompose each force into its x and y components

iv. Apply the equation ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 by combining these equation

we will be solved.
Example
1. A bag of cement of weight 400 N hangs from three ropes as shown in the figure below. Two
of the ropes make angles of 370 and 530 with the horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium,
find the tensions 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 and 𝑇3 in the ropes. (cos370 = sin 530 = 0.8 and cos 530 =
sin 370 = 0.6)
Given Required
W  mg  400 N 𝑇1 =?, 𝑇2 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 =?
cos37 0  sin 530  0.8 and cos 530  sin 37 0  0.6
Solution
A). Free body diagram for Masses suspended by strings
 Fy  o
T3  W  0
T3  W  mg  400 N I 

B). A free body diagram for the knot holds the three cables together
i   Fx  o
T2 cos 53o  T1 cos 37 o  0

0.6T2  0.8T1  0
0.6T2  0.8T1
 0.8 
T2    T1
 0.6 
4
T2  T1  II 
3
 ii   Fy  o
T1 sin 37o  T2 sin 53o  T3  0, but T3  400 N

0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  0
0.6T1  0.8T2  400 N  III 
Substitute Eq. (II) into Eq. (III), we obtain:
0.6T1  0.8  43  T1  400 N
0.6T1  3.2
3 T1  400 N
 1.833.2  T1  400 N
5
3 T1  400 N
  400 N   53  12003 N
T1  240 N

From Eq. (II):

4
T2  T1 , but T1  240 N
3
4 960
T2   240 N   N  320 N
3 3
Therefore
T1  240 N
T2  320 N
T3  400 N
Application of Newton’s second law
Problem solving strategy of Newton’s 2nd law
The problem solving strategy is similar to our strategy for solving equilibrium problems,
presented in application of newton’s first law.
1. Draw a sketch of the physical situation, and identify the moving object or objects to which
you will apply Newton’s 2nd law
2. Draw free body diagram for each chosen object, showing all the forces acting on that
object, as described in the strategy for Newton’s 1st law.
3. Show your coordinate axes explicitly in each free- body diagram and then determine the
components of forces with reference to these axes.
4. Write the equations for Newton’s 2nd law in component for ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
5. Solve the component equations for the unknowns.
Examples
1. A crate of mass 𝑚 = 100𝑘𝑔 is pushed at a constant speed up a frictionless ramp, placed at 30°
to the horizontal, by a horizontal force 𝐹 .
A. What are the magnitudes of horizontal force 𝐹 ?

Solution
Since, crate moves with constant speed on the ramp, the net force on it is zero (i.e.,
acceleration of a crate is equal to zero).
The force acting on the crate along the ramp are:
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the horizontal component of the applied force up the ramp.
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is the component of the weight of the crate down the ramp.
From newton’s 2nd law of motion, we have,
F x  F cos   mg sin   ma, but a  0, because v  constant

F cos   mg sin   0
F cos   mg sin 
sin 
F  mg
cos 
F  mg tan 
 100kg  10 m s 2   tan 300 
F  577.35 N
2. Three blocks mass 𝑚1 = 10𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 6𝑘𝑔 and 𝑚3 = 4𝑘𝑔 are connected by string on smooth
horizontal surface and pulled by a force of 40N. A force F is applied on 𝑚3 as shown. Find the
tension in the string connected 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 .

Solution
The common acceleration of the block is given by;
F  mTot a
F 40 N 40 N
a    2 m s2
m1  m2  m3 1okg  6kg  4kg 20kg
To determine, 𝑇1 , we use free body diagram of mass 𝑚1
T1  m1a
m1 F F
T1  , where a   2 m s2
m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3
T1  10kg   2 m s2   20 N
To determine, 𝑇2 , we use the free diagram body for mass 𝑚3 ,
F  T2  m3a
T2  F  m3 a
 40 N   4kg   2 m s 2 
 40 N  8 N
T2  32 N
3. To mass A and of 10kg and 5kg respectively, are connected with a string passing over a
frictionkess pulley fixed at the corner of a table as shown in figure, the coefficient of friction
A with the table is 0.2. the minimum mass (in kg) of C that may be placed on A to prevent it
from moving is:
Given Required
𝑚𝐴 = 10𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝐶 =?
𝑚𝐵 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝜇 = 0.2 (between block A and ground)

Solution
The free body diagram for mass 𝑚𝐵 is as follow,
F y  T  mg  0
T  mg
  5kg   9.8 m s2 
T  49 N i 
And also,the free body diagram for comination of mass 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚𝐵 shown as below;
F x  T  f  ma , but a  0
T  f 0
T   Fn  0, Fn   mA  mc  g
T    mA  mc  g  0
T    mA  mc  g
T   gmA   gmc
T   gmA   gmc
T   gmA
mc  , from Eq.  i  , T  49 N
g
49 N   0.2   9.8 m s 2  10kg 
mc   15kg
 0.2   9.8 m s 
2
4. Two masses 2kg and 3kg are attached to the ends of the string passing over a pulley which is
fixed at the top. The tension and acceleration in the string in terms of acceleration due to
gravity, 𝑔 are;

Solution
From FBD,
For 2 kg mass,
T  m1 g  m1a
T  2 g  2a i 
For 3kg mass,
m2 g  T  m2 a
3 g  T  3a  ii 
Add the two Equation (Eq. (i) and Eq. (ii), we obtain;
 T  2 g  2a

3 g  T  3a
3g  2 g  2a  3a
g  5a  iii 
g
a  iv 
5
Put Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain;
T  2  5a   2 a
T  10a  2a
T  2a  10a
g
T  12a, where a 
5
12
T g
5
Therefore,
12 g
T g, a
5 5
5. A body is sliding down a rough inclined plane which makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. If the
coefficient of friction is 0.26, the acceleration in 𝑚/𝑠 2 is ( take 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 ).

Solution
By newton’s 2nd law of motion, the net force along the sliding
motion is given as
mg sin   F f  ma
mg sin    N  ma
m g sin    m g cos   m a
g sin    g cos   a
a  g  sin    cos  
 9.8  sin 30  0.26  cos 30  
 9.8  0.5   0.26  0.86  
a  2.7 m s 2
4.4. Linear momentum
 Momentum is defined as the quality of a moving object to exert a force on anything that tries
to stop it.
 If a net force acts on a body, it will cause the body’s momentum to change.
 The momentum change occurs in the direction of the force at rate proportional to the magnitude
of the force.
 The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled as a particle of mass m
moving with a velocity 𝑣 is defined to be the product of its mass and velocity:
P  mv  4.20 
 Momentum ( 𝑃⃗) is a vector quantity in the direction of the velocity with SI unit 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠.
 the time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on
the particle
F  ma
v
m
t
  mv 

t
P
F  4.22 
t
F t  I  P  Pf  Pi  4.22 

 The impulse of the net force 𝐼 acting on the particle is equal to the change in momentum of
the particle.
Law of conservation of Linear Momentum
Law of conservation of linear momentum states that; “The total momentum of the system
remains constant if no external force acts on an object or system.”
 Pi   p f  4.23
Remark!
Conservation of linear momentum is;
another way of stating Newton’s 1st law, and

an alternative and more general statement of Newton’s 3rd law
 Consider a body A of mass 𝑚1 moving with a velocity 𝑢1 collides head on with another body
B of mass 𝑚2 moving in the same direction as A with velocity 𝑢2 as shown in figure below.
 After collision, the velocities of the bodies be changed to v1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 v2 respectively, and both
moves in the same direction.
The momenta of the two ball before collision is given by:
PAi  m1u1 
  2.24
PBi  m2u2 
Total momentum of the system of two ball before collision is given by:

Pi  PAi  PBi
Pi  m1u1  m2u2  4.25
The momenta of the two ball after collision is given by:
PAf  m1v1 
  4.26
PBf  m2 v2 
Total momentum of the system of two ball after collision is given by:
Pf  PAf  PBf
Pf  m1v1  m2 v2  4.27 
 During collision, each body experiences force.
 The force acting on one body is equal to in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
acting on the other body. Both forces act for the same interval of time.
During collision, 𝐹12 be force ex exerted by A on B (action), and 𝐹21 be force exerted by B on
A (reaction) and t be the time contact of the two bodies during collision.
𝐹12 acting on the body B for a time t, changes its velocity from u2 𝑡𝑜 v2 is given by:
F12  mB aB
 v u 
F12  m2  2 2   4.28
 t 
𝐹21 acting on the body A for a time t, changes its velocity from u1 𝑡𝑜 v1 is given by:
F21  mA a A
 v u 
F21  m1  1 1   4.29 
 t 
By applying Newton’s 3rd law of motion, we can write Eq. (4.28) and Eq. (4.29) as:
F12   F21
 v u   v u 
m2  2 2    m1  1 1 
 t   t 
m2  v 2  u2   m1  u1  v1 
m2 v 2  m2u2  m1u1  m1v1
m1v1  m2 v 2  m1u1  m2u2  4.30 
P  P
i f  4.31

Eq. (4.30) implies that if no external force acts on the system of two colliding balls, the total
(before and after) is conserve.
Example
1. A 60-kg archer stands at rest on frictionless ice and fires a 0.50-kg arrow horizontally at 50
m/s. With what velocity does the archer move across the ice after firing the arrow?
Given Required
𝑚1 = 60𝑘𝑔 v1 =?
𝑢1 = 0
𝑚2 = 0.5𝑘𝑔
𝑢2 = 0
v2 = 50𝑚/𝑠
Solution
P  P
i f
 0  0
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
0  m1v1  m2 v 2
m1v1  m2 v 2
m2 v 2
v1  
m1

 0.5kg  50m / s 
 60kg 
25
 m/s
60
v1  0.42m / s
4.4.1. Collisions
Collision is an event where two or more bodies make physical contact for a very short time
and experience impulsive.

Collision - is an interaction between two different masses in which momentum is conserved

(particles may or may not come in real touch).
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between two or more bodies for a
short time as a result of which the energy and momentum of the interacting particle change.
Stage of: Before, during and after collision
Types of collision:
A. Based on conservation of kinetic energy:
1. Elastic Collision
Elastic collision is a collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy of the system
is conserved.
If two bodies in a system collide together, such that the total momentum and the total
kinetic energy of the system remain the same before and after collision is known as elastic
collision.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1
According to law of conservation of momentum
P  P
i f
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v 2  m2u2
m1  u1  v1   m2  v 2  u2   4.32 

According to law of conservation of kinetic energy
 KE   KEi f
1 1 1 1
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
2 2 2 2
m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2 v 22
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v 22  m2u22
m1  u12  v12   m2  v 22  u22 
m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1   m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2   4.33
Dividing Eq. (4.33) by Eq. (4.32), we obtain:
m1  u1  v1  u1 +v1  m2  v 2  u2  v 2  u2 

m1  u1  v1  m2  v 2  u2 
u1 +v1  v 2  u2 

u1  u2  v 2  v1   4.34 

 u1  u2     v1  v2 
Relative velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation
2. Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision is a collision in which the total momentum of the system is conserved,
but the total kinetic energy of the system does not remain the same (conserved) before and
after collision.
P  P
i f
 KE   KE i f
Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1
3. Perfect Inelastic Collision:
If in a collision two bodies stick together or move with same velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.

Coefficient of restitution e = 0.
P  P
i f
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2 but v1  v 2  v

m1u1  m2u2  m1v  m2 v
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v  4.35
m1u1  m2u2
v  4.36 
 m1  m2 
Example
1. A block of mass 𝑚1 = 1.6𝑘𝑔 initially moving to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a horizontal
frictionless track collides with a second block of mass 𝑚2 = 2.1𝑘𝑔 initially moving to the left
with a speed of 2.5m/s. If the collision is elastic, find the velocities of the two blocks after
collision.
Given Required
𝑚1 = 1.6𝑘𝑔 A. v1 =?
𝑚2 = 2.1𝑘𝑔 B. v2 =?
𝑢1 = 4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢2 = −2.5 𝑚/𝑠
Solution
Hence collision is elastic both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved,
A. we apply law of conservation of momentum:

m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2

1.6kg  4m / s    2.1kg  2.5m / s   1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2
6.4kgm / s  5.25kgm / s  1.6kg  v1   2.1kg  v 2
1.15 kg m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2  kg

1.15m / s  1.6v1  2.1v 2
1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s i 
B. we apply the conservation of relative velocity of approach is equal to the velocity of
separation:
u1 +v1  v 2  u2
v1  v 2  u2  u1
v1  v 2  2.5m / s  4m / s
v1  v 2  6.5m / s  ii 
Solving equation (a) and (b) simultaneously
1 1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s


1.6  v1  v 2  6.5m / s


 1.6v1  2.1v 2  1.15m / s

 1.6v1  1.6v 2  10.4m / s
 
 3.7v 2  11.55
3.7v 2  11.55
11.55
v2   3.12 m / s  iii 
3.7
substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (ii), we obtain
v1  3.12m / s  6.5m / s
v1  6.5m / s  3.12m / s
v1  3.38m / s

Activity
1. A 10.0-g bullet is fired into a stationary block of wood (m = 5.00 kg).The bullet sticks into the
block, and the speed of the bullet-plus-wood combination immediately after the collision is
0.600 m/s. What was the original speed of the bullet?
Given Required
𝑚1 = 10𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔 𝑢1 =?
𝑚2 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝑢2 = 0
v1 = v2 = v = 0.6𝑚/𝑠
Solution
We apply perfect inelastic collision formula;
 0
m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v
m1u1   m1  m2  v
 m  m2  v
u1  1
m1

 0.01kg  5kg  0.6m / s 
 0.01kg 

 5.01kg  0.6m / s 
 0.01kg 

 3.006  m / s
 0.01
u1  300.6m / s
4.5. Center of Mass and moment of inertia
Every object has a balance point, referred to in physics as the center of mass.
Centre of mass of a system (body) is a point that moves as though all the mass were
concentrated there and all external forces were applied there.
The center of mass is the point at which all the mass can be considered to be "concentrated".

The center of mass of the system is located somewhere on the line joining the particles and is
closer to the particle having the larger mass.
Centre of mass of a rigid body (circular ring, disc, rod and sphere)
A. Position vector of center of mass for n particle system :
If a system consists of n particles of masses 𝑚1 . 𝑚2 , . .. whose positions vectors are

𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , . .. respectively then position vector of center of mass the center of mass of n particles is
a weighted average of the position vectors of n particles making up the system.
m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn
rcm   4.37 
m1  m2  ...  mn
B. Position vector of center of mass for two particle system:

m1r1  m2 r2
rcm    X cm , Ycm   4.38 
m1  m2
m1 x1  m2 x2
X cm 
m1  m2
m1 y1  m2 y2
Ycm 
m1  m2
The center of mass lies between the particles on the line joining them.
If two masses are equal i.e., 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 then position vector of center mass is
r1  r2
rcm   4.39 
2

Important points about center of mass:
The position of center of mass is independent of the co-ordinate system chosen.

The position of center of mass depends upon the shape of the body and distribution of
mass.
The center of mass changes its position only under the translational motion. There is no
effect of rotatory motion on center of mass of the body.
If the origin is at the center of mass, then the sum of the moments of the masses of the
system about the center of mass is zero i.e.∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0.
If a system of particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … . 𝑚𝑛 move with velocity v

⃗ 1, v
⃗ 2, … . v
⃗ n , then the
velocity of center of mass is given by:
vcm 
m vi i

m1v1  m2 v 2  mn v n
 4.40 
m i m1  m2  ...  mn
If a system of particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … . 𝑚𝑛 move with acceleration a⃗1 , a⃗2 , … . a⃗n , then the
acceleration of center of mass is given by:
acm 
m ai i

m1a1  m2 a 2  mn a n
 4.41
m i m1  m2  ...  mn
If 𝑟 is a position vector of center of mass of the a system then the velocity of mass is given by:
drcm d  m1r1  m2 r2  mn rn 

vcm      4.42 
dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 
Acceleration of center of mass is given by:

2
dv dr cm d 2  m r  m2 r2  mn rn 
acm   2  2 11   4.43
dt dt dt  m1  m2  ...  mn 
Example
1. Suppose that there are three point masses arranged as shown in the figure below. Where is the
center of mass of this three- object- system with respect to the origin?

Given Required
𝑚1 = 3𝑘𝑔 (𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑦 = 2.5) A. 𝑋𝑐𝑚 =?

𝑚2 = 4𝑘𝑔(𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0.5) B. 𝑌𝑐𝑚 =?
𝑚3 = 3𝑘𝑔(𝑥 = 3.5, 𝑦 = 2.5) C. 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑦𝑐𝑚 ) = 𝑚(𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝑗̂) =?
Solution
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  3kg  0.5m    4kg  2m    3kg  3.5 

X cm  
m1  m2  m3 3kg  4kg  3kg
1.5kgm  8kgm  10.5kgm 20kgm
 
10kg 10kg
X cm  2miˆ
m y  m2 y2  m3 y3
Ycm  1 1
m1  m2  m3

 3kg  2.5m    4kg  0.5m    3kg  2.5 
3kg  4kg  3kg
7.5kgm  2kgm  7.5kgm

10kg
17 kgm

10kg
X cm  1.7 mjˆ
Therefore center of mass of a position 𝑟𝑐𝑚 is given by:
rcm   X cm , Ycm 
  2, 1.7  m

rcm  2iˆ  1.7 ˆj m 
2. Four objects are situated along the y axis as follows: a 2.00 kg object is at +3.00 m, a 3.00-kg
object is at +2.50 m, a 2.50-kg object is at the origin, and a 4.00-kg object is at -0.500 m. Where
is the center of mass of these objects?
Given Required
𝑚1 = 2.5𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 0)𝑚 𝑌𝑐𝑚 =?

𝑚2 = 3𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 2.5)𝑚
𝑚3 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, 3)𝑚
𝑚4 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 (0, −0.5)𝑚
Solution
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3  m4 y4
Ycm 
m1  m2  m3  m4
 0
 2.5kg  0m    3kg  2.5m    2kg  3m    4kg  0.5m 

2.5kg  3kg  2kg  4kg
7.5kgm  6kgm  2kgm

11.5kg
11.5kgm

11.5kg
Ycm  1m
3. A ball of mass 0.200 kg has a velocity of 150m/s; a ball of mass 0.300 kg has a velocity of -
0.4m/s. They meet in a head-on elastic collision.
A. Find their velocities after the collision.

B. Find the velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision.
Given Required
𝑚1 = 0.2𝑘𝑔, 𝑢1 = 150𝑚/𝑠 A) v1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 v2 =?
𝑚2 = 0.3𝑘𝑔, 𝑢2 = 0.4𝑚/𝑠 ⃗ 𝑐𝑚 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉

B) 𝑈 ⃗𝑐𝑚 =?

Solution
A) Hence the type of collision is elastic, we apply conservation of linear momentum:
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s    0.2kg  v1   0.3kg  v 2
30kgm / s  0.12kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg
30.12 kgm / s   0.2v1  0.3v 2  kg

30.12m / s  0.2v1  0.3v 2  divided both side by 0.2
30.12m / s 0.2v1 0.3v 2
 
0.2 0.2 0.2
150.6m / s  v1  1.5v 2
v1  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 i 
And we apply the relations of conservation of kinetic energy and momentum(Relative
velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation):
u1  u2  v 2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  v 2  v1
149.6m / s  v 2  v1  ii 
Substitute Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain
149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2 
149.6m / s  v 2  150.6m / s  1.5v 2
149.6m / s  150.6m / s  v 2  1.5v 2
300.2m / s  1  1.5  v 2
300.2m / s  2.5v 2
300.2m / s
v2 
2.5
v 2  120.08m / s  iii 
Substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i), we obtain:
v1  150.6m / s  1.5 120.08m / s 
 150.6m / s  180.12m / s
v1  29.52m / s  iv 

Therefore,
⃗ 1 = −29.52𝑚/𝑠
v
⃗ 2 = 120.08𝑚/𝑠
v
Check the results
u1  u2  v2  v1
150m / s  0.4m / s  120.08m / s   29.52 m / s 
149.6m / s  120.08m / s  29.52 m / s
149.6m / s  149.6m / s  Checked!!
B) velocity of their center of mass before and after the collision is given by
m1u1  m2u2
U cm 
m1  m2

 0.2kg 150m / s    0.3kg  0.4m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
30kgm / s  0.12m / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s i 
And
m1v1  m2 v2
Vcm 
m1  m2

 0.2kg  29.52m / s    0.3kg 120.08m / s 
0.2kg  0.3kg
5.904kgm / s  36.024kgm / s

0.5kg
30.12kgm / s

0.5kg
U cm  60.24m / s  ii 

4. Two bodies of mass 1kg and 3kg have position vectors 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and −3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂,
respectively. The center of mass this system has a position vector.
Given Required
𝑚1 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑐𝑚 =?
𝑚2 = 3𝑘𝑔
𝑥 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑦 = −3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
Solution
m1 x  m2 y
rcm 
m1  m2
1kg   iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ    3kg   3iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ 

1kg  3kg 

 iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ  9iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ  kg
4 kg

1  9  iˆ   2  6  ˆj  1  3 kˆ
4
ˆ ˆ ˆ
8i  4 j  4k

4
rcm  4i  j  kˆ
ˆ ˆ
5. Figure shows a composite system of two uniform rods of length as indicated. Then the
coordinate of the center of mass of the system of rods are

Solution
Now, let us assume the mass of rod on X axis be M,

Then the mass of the rod on the Y axis will be 2M, since the rods are of the same density. i.e.,
𝑚1 = 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 = 2𝑀
We know that the center of mass of a uniformly distributed rod is at its center or mid-point.
Therefore, the center of mass of rod on x axis will be 𝐿/2 as the length of the rod is L
Similarly, the center of mass of the rod on the Y axis will be at L as the length of the rod
is 2L
𝐿
Now, the coordinates of the center of mass of rod on X axis will be (2 , 0)i.e.,
𝐿
𝑥1 = , 𝑦1 = 0
2
And the coordinates of the center of mass of rod on Y axis will be (0, 𝐿) i.e.,
𝑥2 = 0, 𝑦2 = 𝐿
 As we know that, for coordinates of center of mass is given by
m1 x1  m2 x2
X cm 
m1  m2
M  L2   2M  0 

M  2M
L
M
 2
3M
X cm  L 1
6
m1 y1  m2 y2
Ycm 
m1  m2
M  0   2M  L 

M  2M
2 ML

3M
Ycm  32 L

6. Three identical spheres, each of mass M, are placed at the corners of a right angle triangle with mutually
perpendicular sides equal to 2m. Taking the point of intersection of the two mutually perpendicular
sides as the origin, find the position vector of center of mass.
Solution
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3
X cm 
m1  m2
M 0  M  2  M 0

M M M
2M

3M
2ˆ
X cm  i
3
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3
Ycm 
m1  m2
M 0  M 0  M  2

M  2M
2M

3M
2ˆ
Ycm  j
3
rcm  X cm iˆ  Ycm ˆj
2ˆ 2 ˆ
 i j
3 3
rcm 
3

2 ˆ ˆ
ij 
4.5.1. Rotational Inertia and Rotational kinetic Energy
The moment of inertia of a body is a measure of its rotational inertia that is, its resistance to
change in its angular velocity.
It plays the same role in rotational motion as mass plays in linear motion.

Rotational Inertia or moment of Inertia (I): is the product of the mass of a point and the square
of the distance of the point from the axis of rotation.
I  mr 2  4.44
The SI unit of moment of inertia is 𝑘𝑔𝑚2

Dimension of 𝐼 = [𝑀𝐿2 ]
 When there are a number of point masses at different distances from the axis of rotation, the
total moment of inertia of the system is the sum of the momentum of inertia of each point mass.
I  I1  I 2  I 3 ....I n
I  m1r12  m2 r22  m3r32 .... mn rn2
n
I   mi ri 2  4.45
i i

Remark!
The moment of inertia of a body depends on:
The mass of the body

The distance of the body from the axis of rotation.
The shape of the body; i.e., a spherical and cylinder of the same mass and radius have
different value of moment of inertia due to their difference in shape.
Example; the moment inertia of:
 A point mass of mass m and distance r from axis is 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2

 A disc of mass M and radius R, is 𝐼 = 12 𝑀𝑅2
 A sphere of mass M and radius R, is 𝐼 = 25 𝑀𝑅2
 A thin rod of mass M and length L is 𝐼 = 121 𝑀𝐿2
Moment of inertia does not depend:
angular velocity,
angular acceleration,
torque,
angular momentum and
Rotational kinetic energy.

Moments of inertia of different rigid bodies
Different rigid bodies have different moment of inertia depending on size mass, distribution of
mass, shape of the body and on the position of axis of rotation.
Moment of Inertia of Some Standard Bodies about Different Axes.

Example
1. Five particles of mass = 4kg are attached to the rim of a circular disc of radius 0.2m and
negligible mass. Find the moment of inertia of the system about the axis passing through the
center of the disc and perpendicular to its plane.
Given required
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 = 𝑚4 = 𝑚5 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝐼 =?
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = 𝑟4 = 𝑟5 = 0.2𝑚
Solution
5
I   mi ri 2
i i
 m1r22  m2 r22  m3r32  m4 r42  m5 r52

 5mr 2
  5  4  0.2 
2
  20  0.04 
I  0.8kgm 2
2. Four small spheres, each with a mass of 0.2kg, are arranged in a square 0.4m on a side and
connected y light rods. Find the moment of the system about an axis;
A. Through the center of the square, perpendicular to its plane through point O.
B. Bisecting the two opposite sides of the square an axis through line AB as shown in figure.
C. That passes through the center of the upper left and lower right sphere and through point
O.

Given
Mass of each point sphere 𝑚 = 0.2𝑘𝑔

Side of the square 𝑙 = 0.4𝑚
Solution
A. The distance of the four point masses from the center O is given by
1 2 2
r l l
2
1
  0.4m    0.4m 
2 2
2
0.5656m

2
r  0.2828m
Momentum of inertia of the system above an axis through the center and perpendicular to
the plane of the masses is given by;
I   mi ri 2
i 1
 mr 2  mr 2  mr 2  mr 2
 4mr 2
 4  0.2kg  0.2828m 
2
I  0.064kgm 2
B. The distance of the four point masses from the line AB is given by;
l 0.4m
r   0.2m
2 2
I   mi ri 2
i 1
 mr 2  mr 2  mr 2  mr 2
 4mr 2
 4  0.2kg  0.2m 
2
I  0.032kgm 2

C. The distance of the two diagonal point masses is given by
1 2 2
r l l
2
1
  0.4m    0.4m 
2 2
2
0.5656m

2
r  0.2828m
I   mi ri 2
i 1
 mr 2  mr 2
 2mr 2
 2  0.2kg  0.2828m 
2
I  0.032kgm 2
3. Three point masses ‘m’ each are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a.
moment of inertia of the system about an axis COD passing through a mass m at O and lying
in the plane of AOB and perpendicular to OA is
Solution
From triangle OBN,
adj. side
os  
hyh.
r
cos 60 
a
1 r

2 a
1
r a
2

Moment of inertial of system is given by
I COD  I O  I B  I A
 0  m  a2   m  a 
2 2
ma 2
  ma 2
4
ma 2  4ma 2

4
5
I COD  ma 2
4
Parallel axis theorem
 Moment of inertia of a body about a given axis I is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of
the body about an axis parallel to given axis and passing through center of mass of the body
𝐼𝑐𝑚 and 𝑀𝑅 2 where 𝑀 is the mass of the body is and 𝑅 is the perpendicular distance between
the two axes.
I p  I cm  MR 2  4.46
Where
𝐼𝑐𝑚 : is moment of inertia about the center of mass

𝑀: is mass of the body
𝑅: is distance between the two axes.
𝐼𝑃 : is moment of inertial about any axis that is parallel to the original centeral axis.

Example
2
1. Moment inertia of a solid sphere about an axis through its center is 5 𝑀𝑅 2 . Find moment of
inertia of solid sphere about it tangential axis.
Given Requited
2
𝐼𝑐𝑚 = 5 𝑀𝑅 2 𝐼𝑝 =?
Solution
I p  I cm  MR
2
2
 MR 2  MR 2
5
2MR 2  5MR 2

5
7
I p  MR 2
2. Three rings each of mass M are radius R are arranged as shown in the figure. The moment of
1
inertia of the system about YY’ will be. (moment of inertia at ot ring about diameter = 2 𝑀𝑅 2)
Given Required
𝐼1 = M.I. of ring about diameter 𝐼𝑝 =?

𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = M.I of ring aout a tangent in a plane.

Solution
I p  I1  I 2  I 3
MR 2   I cm  MR 2    I cm  MR 2 
1

2
MR 2  2  I cm  MR 2 
1

2
1 1 
 MR 2  2  MR 2  MR 2 
2 2 
1  MR 2  2MR 2 
 MR 2  2  
2  2 
1  3MR 2 
 MR 2  2  
2  2 
1 6
 MR 2  MR 2
2 2
7
Ip  MR 2
2
3. The moment of inertial of a uniform rod of mass M and length L about an axis passing through
1
its center is given by 𝐼 = 12 𝑀𝐿2 . What would be the moment of inertia of the rod about an
axis passing through its end?

Solution
I p  I cm  MR 2
1 L
 ML2  M  
12 2
1 1
 ML2  ML2
12 4
ML  3ML2
2 .

12
4 ML2

12
1
I p  ML2
3
4. Two identical rods each of mass M. and length l are joined in crossed position as shown in
figure bellow. Find the moment of inertia of this system about a bisector.
Given Required
Mass of each rod = 𝑀 𝐼𝑝 =?

Length = 𝑙
The moment of inertia of a rod about an axis perpendicular and passing its cents is
𝑀𝑙2
𝐼𝑧 = 12

Solution
For two similar rods, moment of inertia is given by
 ML2 
I  2 
 12 
ML2
I
6
Now, by perpendicular axes theorem
I  I x  I y , by symmetry , I x  I y
I  Ix  Ix
I  2I x  2Io
I  2Io
I
Io 
2
1  ML2  ML2
Io   
2  6  12
4.5.2. Rotational kinetic energy
 Rotational kinetic energy: is the energy possessed by a body due to its rotational motion.
1 2
KE  I  4.47 
2
 Rotational work done: is the product of torque and angular displacement.

W    4.48
 Power is then the rate of doing work, that is
W 
P    4.49 
t t

Torque in terms moment of inertia and angular acceleration
Torque ): is the vector product of lever arm and the force applied. It is given by:
  rF
 rF sin  , if   90o ,sin 90 o  1
 rF
 r  mat  , at  r
 r  mr 
 mr 2
  I  4.50 
Where 𝜏 − torque, I-moment of inertia and 𝛼 −angular acceleration
Example
1. A 50Nm torque acts on a wheel of moment of inertia 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2 . If the wheel starts from rest,
how long will it take the wheel to reach an angular speed of 1 rad/s?
Given Required
𝜏 = 50𝑁𝑚 𝑡 =?
𝜔𝑖 = 0
𝜔𝑓 = 1𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝐼 = 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2
Solution
 50 NM
  2
 0.25 rad s2
I 200kgm
 f  i

t
 f  i 1 rad s  0 100
t   sec  4sec
 0.25 rad s2 25

Rolling Without Slipping
 In case of combined translational and rotatory motion if the object rolls across a surface in such
a way that there is no relative motion of object and surface at the point of contact, the motion
is called rolling without slipping.
 Friction is responsible for this type of motion but work done or dissipation of energy against
friction is zero as there is no relative motion between body and surface at the point of contact.
 Rolling motion of a body may be treated as a pure rotation about an axis through point of
contact with same angular velocity 𝜔.
KETotal  KErot  KEtrans

1 1
 mv 2  I  2 , but v  r
2 2
1 1
 m  r   I  2
2
2 2
1 1
 mr 2 2  I  2
2 2
KETotal    mr 2  I 
1 2
 4.51
2
Rolling Down on Smooth Inclined Plane without Slipping
 When a body of mass m and radius r rolling down on inclined plane without slipping when
released from ‘h’ and angle of inclination with the horizontal is 𝜃, it loses its potential energy.
However it acquires both linear and angular speeds and hence, gains kinetic energy of
translational and that of rotation.
Worked Example
1. A ball of mass m and radius r is released from ‘h’ on a smooth inclined plane of inclination 𝜃
as shown below. Find it’s a) linear speed in terms of ‘g’ and ‘h’ b) its angular speed in terms
of ‘g’, ‘h’ and radius ‘r’, and c) linear acceleration in terms of ‘g’ and ‘𝜃 ‘.

Solution
𝑴𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒑 = 𝑴𝑬𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑮𝑷𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒑 = 𝑲𝑬𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 + 𝑲𝑬𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
1 2 1 2
mgh  mv  I ball 2 , I ball  mr 2
2 2 3
1 12  v
 mv 2   mr 2   2 , but v  r ,
2 23  r
2
1 1 v
 mv 2  mr 2  
2 3 r 
2
1 2 1 2 v
 mv  m r
2 3 r2
1 1
 mv 2  mv 2
2 3
 1 1 
    mv 2
 2 3
5
m gh  m v 2
6
6
V 2  gh
5
6
V gh
5
1 6
 gh
r 5
2. A solid disk is rolling without slipping on a level surface at constant speed of 4𝑚/𝑠. How far
it roll up a 30° incline plane before it stop?
Given Required
𝜃 = 30° 𝑠 =?
𝑣 = 4𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
1
M.I of solid disk 𝐼 = 2 𝑚𝑟 2

Solution
MEi  ME f
 KE 0
 PE    KE  PE 
f
0
1 1 v
mgh  mv 2  I  2 ,  
2 2 r
2
1 11  v 
 mv 2   mr 2  
2 2 2  r 
1 v
2
1
 mv 2   m r 2  2
2 4 r
1 1
 mv 2  mv 2
2 4
3
m gh  m v 2
4
3 2
gh  v
4
3v 2 3  4 
2
h   1.2m
4 g 4 10 
 From above traingle,

opp.side
sin  
hyp
h
sin 30 
s
h 1.2m
s   2.4m
sin 30 0.5
4.6. Torque and angular momentum
4.6.1. Torque (𝝉)
 Torque (𝝉): is the turning or rotational effect of force round a point.

 Mathematically, torque is obtained as follows;

Torque about a point is obtained multiplying the force and the perpendicular distance of this
point from line of action of the force.
  r  F sin   4.52 
Where 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of 𝒓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹

Unit of torque: Newton. meter (M.K.S.) and Dyne.cm (C.G.S.)
Dimension : [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇2 ]
Remark!
Torque is an axial vector i.e., its direction is always perpendicular to the plane containing
vector 𝑟 and 𝐹 in accordance with right hand screw rule.
Torque is also called as moment of force
Torque is a vector quantity.
Torque is one of the application of cross product.
A body is said to be in rotational equilibrium if resultant torque acting on it is zero i.e.,∑ 𝜏 = 0
Torque is the cause of rotatory motion and in rotational motion it plays same role as force plays
in translational motion i.e., torque is rotational analogue of force.
If the position and the force vectors are in unit vector notation as,
F  Fxiˆ  Fx ˆj  Fx kˆ and r  rxiˆ  rx ˆj  rx kˆ, then

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  r  F  rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz
   ry Fz  rz Fy  iˆ   rz Fx  rx Fz  ˆj   rx Fy  ry Fx  kˆ  4.53
 The direction of torque is determined using the right hand rule as follows.

Right hand rule: “if you curl your right hand fingers from vector 𝑟 to vector 𝐹 , then your
thumb will point in the direction of the turque (𝜏).
Example
1. Force 𝐹 = (−8𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)𝑁 acts on the a particle with position vector 𝑟 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚. What are
A. The torque on the particle
B. The angle between the position and the force vectors.
Given required
𝐹 = (−8𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂)𝑁 A. 𝜏 =?
𝑟 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂)𝑚 B. 𝜃 =?
Solution
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A.   r F  3 4 0
8 6 0
ˆ
  50kNM
B. r  F  r F sin 
r F 50 Nm 50 Nm
sin     1
r F
  3   4 
2 2
  8   6 
2 2
  510 
  sin 1 1  900
⃗)
4.6.2. Angular momentum ( 𝑳
The turning momentum of particle about the axis of rotation is called the angular momentum
of the particle or

The moment of linear momentum of a body with respect to any axis of rotation is known as
angular momentum.
If 𝑝 is the linear momentum of particle and 𝑟 its position vector from the point of rotation then
angular momentum is given by
L  r P
 r  P, P  mv
=m  r  v 
 mvr sin  nˆ , if   90o ,
 mvr , v  r
 m  r  r
 mr 2
L  I  4.54 
⃗ = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 = 𝐽. 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
The SI unit of 𝐿
Dimension: [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −1 ]
Angular momentum is an axial vector i.e. always directed perpendicular to the plane of rotation
and along the axis of rotation.
In Cartesian coordinates if 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂, then
iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  r P  x y z
px py pz
L   ypz  zp y  iˆ   zpx  xpz  ˆj   xp y  yp x  kˆ  4.55
Example
1. The position of a particle is given by : 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ̂ and momentum: 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂.Find the direction of
angular momentum.
Given Required
𝑟 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ⃗ =?
Unit vector of 𝐿
𝑝 = 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘 ̂

Solution
iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  r P  1 1 1
0 2 3
L  iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ
Direction of ⃗𝑳 is its unit vector given by:
L iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 1 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
uˆ     i j k
1   3   2 
2 2 2
L 14 14 14 14
Angular Impulse
 Angular impulse the change in angular momentum of a rotating body caused by a torque acting
over a certain time. It is given by:
J  L  t  4.56 
 The angular momentum of a system of particles is equal to the vector sum of angular
momentum of each particle i.e.,
L  L1  L2  L3  .... Ln  4.57 
Analogy between Translational Motion and Rotational Motion
Translational Motion Rotational Motion
Mass (m) Moment of Inertia (I)
Linear momentum Angular Momentum
p  mv  L  I 

p  2mE 

L  2 IE 
 4.58
Force Torque
F  ma   I  4.59
Kinetic Energy Rotational Kinetic Energy
1 2 1 2 
KEtran  mv  KER  Iv 

2
p 2 
2
L2
  4.60 
KEtran  KEtran  
2m  2I 

The Law of Conservation of angular momentum
Angular momentum is said to be conserved when its value does not change with time.
The law of conservation of angular momentum states that , “in the absence of external net
torque, the total angular momentum of a body or a system remains constant,”
L  L ,
i f if   0  4.61
Remark!
 When the angular momentum is conserved, then the angular momentum impulse is zero.
Examples of law of conservation of angular momentum:
1. The angular velocity of revolution of a planet around the sun in an elliptical orbit increases
when the planet come closer to the sun and vice-versa because when planet comes closer
to the sun, its moment of inertia I decreases there fore 𝜔 increases.
2. A circus acrobat performs feats involving spin by bringing his arms and legs closer to his
body or vice-versa. On bringing the arms and legs closer to body, his moment of inertia I
decreases. Hence 𝜔 increases.
3. A person-carrying heavy weight in his hands and standing on a rotating platform can
change the speed of platform. When the person suddenly folds his arms. Its moment of
inertia decreases and in accordance the angular speed increases.

Example
1. Two discs of moments of inertia 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 about their respective axes (normal to the disc and
passing through the center) and rotating with angular speed 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are brought into contact
face to face with their axes of rotation coincident.
A. Does the law of conservation of angular momentum apply to the situation? Why?
B. Find the angular speed of the two disc system
C. Calculate the loss of in kinetic energy of the system in the process
D. Account for this loss.
Solution
A. Yes, the law of conservation of angular momentum applies to the situation. This is because no
external torque in involved in bringing the two disc into contact face to face. External forces,
gravitational and normal reaction, act through the axis of rotation producing no torque.
B. If 𝜔 is angular speed of the two disc system, then from conservation of angular momentum,
L f  Li
I1  I 2  I11  I 22
 I1  I 2    I11  I 22
I11  I 22

I1  I 2
C. Initial KE of two discs, is given by,
1 1
KEi  I112  I 222
2 2
I112  I 222
KEi  i 
2

Final KE of the system is given by
1 I11  I 22
KE f   I1  I 2   2 , where 
2 I1  I 2
I   I  
2
1
  I1  I 2  1 1 2 22
2  I1  I 2 
I   I  
2
KE f  1 1 2 2  ii 
2  I1  I 2 
 The change in energy (kinetic energy) is given by
KE  KE f  KEi
I   I  
 1 1 2 2
2

I 
1
2
1  I 222 
2  I1  I 2  2
I1212  I 2222  2 I1 I 212  I11  I 22 
2 2
 
2  I1  I 2  2
I1212  I 2222  2 I1 I 212   I1  I 2   I112  I 222 

2  I1  I 2 
I   I   2 I1 I 212   I1212  I1 I 222  I 2 I112  I 2222 
2 2 2 2

1 1 2 2
2  I1  I 2 
I   I   2I1 I 212  I1212  I1 I 222  I 2 I112  I 2222
2 2 2 2

1 1 2 2
2  I1  I 2 
2 I1 I 212  I1 I 2  I 2 I1122
 2
2  I1  I 2 
I1 I 2 1  2 
2
KE  
2  I1  I 2 
Therefore, ∆𝐾𝐸 is negative. Hence KE is always lost.

D. The loss in KE is due to work done against friction between the two disc
2. A particle of mass 2kg located at the position (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)𝑚 has velocity 2(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂). Its angular
momentum about z axis in 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 is

Given Required
𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 ⃗ 𝑧 in z axis=?
Component of 𝐿
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)𝑚
v = 2(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )m/s
Solution
Lrp
 r   mv 
iˆ ˆj kˆ
L  m r  v  2 1 1 0
2 2 2

 2 2iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ 
L  4iˆ  4 ˆj  8kˆ
The component of angular momentum about z-axis is
𝑳𝒛 = −𝟖𝒌𝒈𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
4.7. Condition of Equilibrium
In the analysis of equilibrium of a particle it is important to have the idea of the following
terms
Concurrent forces: are forces whose line of action pass through a common points.
If the forces applied to a body are such that their lines of action meet at a single point,
then they are called concurrent forces.
Figure: concurrent forces

Line of action: is an imaginary line drawn along the direction of action of the force.

Coplanar forces: are forces that exist in the same plane.
Figure: coplanar force
 Couple: is two forces of equal magnitude but acting in opposite direction along different lines
on an object causing a rotation.
 Couple: is pair of forces with equal magnitude but opposite directions, which produces,
rotation, but bot transitional motion of a body.
Figure: couple force
Equilibrium has different expressions in different contexts.

Equilibrium, in physics is the state of balance. Here by balance, it refers net force and net
torque.
Equilibrium: is a condition in which the state of motion of a body doesn’t change.
Remark!
A body is said to be in equilibrium when the net force and net torque acting on it are zero.
A body in equilibrium may be at rest or may move with constant velocity.
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium
Static equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is at rest and there is no
net force or net torque acting on it.

Dynamic Equilibrium: is a type of equilibrium that occurs when a body is moving at a steady
(constant) velocity and there is no net force or net torque acting on it.
 Basically, there are two conditions of equilibrium in physics context.
1. First condition for equilibrium (Translational equilibrium)
 The first condition is a statement of translational equilibrium, it tells us that the linear
acceleration of the center of mass of the object must be zero when viewed from an inertial
reference frame.
If the sum of all the forces acting on a body in the x-direction is zero and the sum of the forces
acting on a body in the y-direction is zero, the body is said to be in translational equilibrium.
 Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and F net 0  4.62 
First condition of equilibrium is also known as equilibrium of particles.
Remark!
Firs condition of equilibrium is a condition where linear momentum is constant.

1st condition of equilibrium is another way of stating Newton’s 1st law.
2. Second condition of equilibrium (Rotational Equilibrium)
 The second condition is a statement of rotational equilibrium and tell us that the angular
acceleration about any axis must be zero.
If the sum all torques about a specified pivot acting on a rotating body or system is zero, the
body or system is in rotational equilibrium. Here by torque, it means rotational effect of force.
Mathematical expression of Second condition for equilibrium as follow:
 cc   c  0    0  4.63
Where 𝜏𝑐𝑐 → counterclockwise torque and 𝜏𝑐 → clockwise torque

Remark!
Second condition of equilibrium is a condition where angular momentum is constant.

2nd condition of equilibrium is a condition where a body doesn’t rotate.
Second condition of equilibrium is also known as equilibrium of rigid bodies.
After all, when we say a body or a system is in equilibrium, it must fulfil both conditions of
equilibrium.
We treat counter clockwise torque (𝜏𝑐𝑐 )as positive (+) and clockwise torque (𝜏𝑐 )as negative
(−).
 When two children balance a seesaw as shown in figure below, they satisfy the two condition
for equilibrium. Most people have perfect intuition about seesaws, knowing that the lighter
child must sit father from the pivot and that a heavier child can keep a lighter one off the ground
indefinitely.
From the above figure, two children balancing a seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium.
The lighter child sits father from the pivot to create a torque equal in magnitude to that of the
heaver child.
States of equilibrium
There are three states of equilibrium:

Stable Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium

1. Stable Equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it regains its original position on the removal of
the external force after being slightly disturbed by it.
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium and it tends to come back towards
equilibrium then it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
When the center of gravity of a body lies below point of suspension or support, the body is
said to be in stable equilibrium.
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if the line joining the center of gravity and center of
each must fall within the base of the body, after being lightly disturbed by it.
Example
A cone resting on its base

A book lying on a flat surface
Figure: stable equilibrium
2. Unstable Equilibrium
A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not regains its original position after
slightly disturbed by an external force removed.
When the center of gravity of a body lies above the point of suspension or support, the body is
said to be in unstable equilibrium.
Here the line joining the center of gravity and center of earth falls outside its base, after being
lightly disturbed by an external force.
Example
A cone resting on its apex

A bottle standing on the edge of its mouth.
Figure: unstable Equilibrium
3. Neutral Equilibrium
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when it moves to a new place on the application
of an external force and on the removal of the external force the body may or may not its
original place, but the height of its center of gravity from reference surface remains the same
When the center of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support, the body is
said to be in neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium the line joining the center of gravity and center of earth falls within
the base of the body on the application of an external force.
The height of its center of gravity does not change even after the application of an external
force.
Example
Rolling ball
A cone resting on its side
Figure: Neutral Equilibrium

Notice that the center of gravity of a body is the point at which the body’s entire weight can be
regarded as being concentrated. A body can be suspended in any orientation from its center of
gravity without tending to rotate.
Strategy for solving problems on the static equilibrium i.e., for both first and second
condition.
1. Draw a diagram showing the system.

2. Draw a free body-diagram by isolating the system. Clearly show the external forces that
are acting on the system.
3. Select convenient coordinate axes, most commonly the x-axis and y- axis, and find x-and
y- components of all the forces. Now apply the first condition for equilibrium.
4. Choose on appropriate origin (pivot) along which the axis of rotation is assumed to pass.
Through the choice of location of the axis of rotation is arbitrary you are advice to choose
one that will simplify your calculations. Apply the second condition of equilibrium.
5. The first and second conditions for equilibrium will give a set of simultaneous equations
to be solved for the unknown items of the known quantities.
Worked Examples
1. Gamachu is standing in an elevator, ascending at a constant velocity, what is the resultant force
acting on her as a particle?
 Answer: Assume that Gamachu is considered as a particle. For a particle at rest, or moving
with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame, the resultant force acting on the isolated
particle must be zero, must vanish.
2. If the vector sum of the external forces acting on it is zero, a particle is in equilibrium. What
criterion must be satisfied for a particle in equilibrium in this situation?
Answer:
 It can be at rest and remains at rest. Static Equilibrium

 It can move with constant velocity. Dynamic Equilibrium
3. If there are only two forces acting on a particle that is in equilibrium, what can we say about
these two forces?
Answer
 The two forces must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to each other.
4. If three forces act on a particle that is in equilibrium, then what can we say about these three
forces?
Answer
When the three forces are placed end to end, they must form a triangle.
Problems involving 3 or more forces can also be solved in a variety of ways, including
the sine and cosine rules (Resolving the forces as 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ unit vector notation
5. A body of mass m is suspended by two strings making angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 with the horizontal.
What are the tensions in the strings?
We apply free body diagram as follow
Since the system is static equilibrium, the resultant force on the isolated particle must vanish.

A. The net force acting on the x-axis is given by:
F x 0
T2 x  T1x  0
T1x  T2 x  0
T1 cos   T2 cos   0
T1 cos   T2 cos 
 cos  
T1    T2 i 
 cos  
A. The net force acting on the y-axis is given by:
F y 0
T1 y  T2 y  T3  0, but
T1 sin   T2 sin   mg  0
T1 sin   T2 sin   mg  ii 
Substituting Eq. (i) into Eq. (ii), we obtain:
 cos  
  T2 sin   T2 sin   mg
 cos  
 cos  sin  
  sin   T2  mg
 cos  
 cos  sin   cos  sin  
  T2  mg
 cos  
mg cos 
T2  , but sin      cos  sin   cos  sin 
cos  sin   cos  sin 
mg cos 
T2   iii 
sin    

Substituting Eq. (iii) into Eq. (i) , we obtain:
 cos    mg cos  
T1     
 cos    sin     
mg cos  cos 

cos   sin     
mg cos 
T1   iv 
sin    
Therefore,
mg cos  mg cos 
T1  , T2  and T3  mg
sin     sin    
3. The system in the figure below is in equilibrium, with the string in the center exactly horizontal.
Block A weights 40N, block B weights 50N, and angle 𝜙 is 35°. Find
A. Tension 𝑇1
B. Tension 𝑇2
C. Tension 𝑇3
D. Angle 𝜃
Solution
A. From FBD1
F y 0
T1 y  mg  0
T1 cos 35  40 N , cos 35  0.8
0.8T1  40 N
40 N
T1   50 N
0.8

B. from FBD2
F x 0
T2  T1 y  0
T2  T1 sin 35, sin 35  0.6
T2  0.6T1 , but T1  50 N
  0.6  50 N 
T2  30 N
C. from FBD3, we obtain;
F x 0
T3 sin   T2  0
T3 sin   T2  30 N
F y 0
T3 cos   mg  0
T3 cos   50 N  0
T3 cos   50 N
Therefore, 𝑇3 is obtained by using Pythagoras theorem;
T32  T3 sin    T3 cos  

2 2
T3   30 N    50 N 
2 2
 3400 N 2
T3  58 N

D. The angle 𝜃 is given by,
T3 cos   50 N
50 N 50 N
cos     0.862
T3 58 N
  cos 1  0.862   300
or
T3 sin  30 N
tan     0.6
T3 cos  50 N
  tan 1  0.6   300
4. Suppose that a uniform beam of negligible mass is pivoted about “O” and supports two masses
as shown in the figure below. Find the torque due to the two weights?
Given Required
𝐿 = 80𝑐𝑚 = 0.8𝑚 A. 𝜏𝑐𝑐 =?

𝑚1 = 4𝑘𝑔 B. 𝜏𝑐 =?
𝑟1 = 40𝑐𝑚 = 0.4𝑚 C. ∑ 𝜏 = 0
𝑚2 = 5𝑘𝑔
𝑟2 = 32𝑐𝑚 = 0.32𝑚

Solution
A. Torque due to 𝑤2 = 𝑚2 𝑔 has a clockwise sense. Thus,
 cc  w 2 r2
 m2 gr2
  5kg  10 m s2   0.32m 
 cc  16 Nm
B. Torque due to 𝑤1 = 𝑚1 𝑔, has a clockwise sense. Thus,
 c  w 2 r2
 m2 gr2
  4kg  10 m s 2   0.4m 
 c  16 Nm
 net   cc   c  0
 net  16 N   16 N   0
C. Therefore, the net torque ( 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) acting on a system as,
 net   cc   c  0
 net  16 N   16 N   0
5. A 1m long of negligible mass beam is pivoted at its center as shown in the figure below.
A. Determine the weight W if the system is to be in equilibrium?
B. How large a force is exerted on the pivot?

Given Required
1
𝑟1 = 4 𝐿 A. 𝑊 =?
𝑚2 = 200𝑁 B. 𝐹𝑦 =?
1
𝑟2 = 2 𝐿
Solution
A. Counterclockwise torque is equal to clockwise torque,

 cc   cc
m1 gr1  Wr2
 200 N   L4   W  L2 
W
50 N 
2
W  100 N
B. The net force acting along y- axis is given by
F y 0
200 N  Fy  W  0
Fy  200 N  W
 200 N  100 N
Fy  300 N
6. A 600N uniform rod is hinged at P. find

A. The tension in the rope
B. The component of forces exerted by the hinge on the rod

Solution
Free body diagram
A. The net torque on the system is given
  0
 cc   c  0, but   rF sin 
 34L  T sin 40    600 N   L2   800 N  L   0
 34L   0.643T   300 NL  800 NL  0
 3 0.643
4 LT  1100 NL  0
1.93
4 L T  1100 N L
1.93
4 T  1100 N
1.93T   4 1100 N 
4400 N
T  2279.8 N  2280 N
1.93
B. The net force along x-axis or horizontal force is given by
F x 0
T cos 40  Fx  0
Fx  T cos 45   2280 N  0.766   1746 N

The net force along y-axis is given by
F y 0
T sin 40  Fy  600 N  800 N  0
T sin 40  Fy  1400 N  0
Fy  1400 N  T sin 40
 1400 N   2280  0.643

 1400 N  1466 N
Fy  66 N
4. A uniform ladder of length L and weight 50N rests against a smooth, vertical wall. If the
coefficient of static friction between ladder and a ground is 𝜇 = 0.4.
A. Draw the free body diagram of all the forces relevant to this problem
B. Find the minimum angle such that the ladder will not slip.
Solution
A. Free body diagram

From above FBD,

50N is the weight of ladder (𝑊𝐿 ) acts center ( L/2) points of ladder.
𝑁𝐹 is the normal reaction force acting on the ladder due to the ground.
𝐹𝑓 is the force friction acting on the ladder due to the ground.
𝑁𝑊 is the normal reaction force acting on the ladder due to the wall.
B. As ladder is at rest (in the transnational equilibrium), the net force on the ladder must be
zero. i.e.,
F x 0
Ff  NW  0
Ff  NW i 
F y 0
N F  WL  0
N F  WL  50 N  ii 
For ladder to be in rotational equilibrium, the net torque on the ladder (sum of all torque)
about the point p should be zero.
 Note that: torque due to frictional force 𝐹𝑓 and normal reaction force acting on ladder due to
ground 𝑁𝐹 = 0
Only we take torque due to normal reaction force acting ( 𝑁𝑤 ) on the ladder due to the wall
and weight of ladder (𝑊𝐿 ) acts center L/2 points of ladder.
 cc  WL   L2  cos   iii 

 c   NW  L sin    iv 

From equilibrium of torque we have
  0
 cc   c  0
WL   L2  cos   NW  L sin    0
WL   L2  cos   NW   L sin    0
1
WL cos   NW sin 
2
WL sin 
 , from Eq.(i ) & Eq.(ii ),WL  N f & NW  F f
2 NW cos 
Nf
tan   , but Ff   N F
2 Ff
Nf

2 N F
1 1 1
tan      1.25
2   2  0.4  0.8
  tan 1 1.25   51.3o
5. A 10m uniform ladder weighing 200N rests against a frictionless wall. It makes an angle of
53° with horizontal. If it’s just on the on the verge of slipping when a 600N firefighter is 6m
along it from bottom. What is the coefficient of static friction between the ladder and the
ground?

Solution
Free body diagram;
Counterclockwise torque is given by:
 cc  WL  5m  cos 53o  Wm  6m   cos 53o 

  200 N  5m  0.6    600  6m  0.6 
 600 Nm  2160
 cc  2760 Nm i 
Clockwise torque is given by’
 c   F 10m   sin 53o 

 
 F 10m  0.8 
 c  8Fm  ii 
The net torque on the ladder (sum of all torque) about the point A should be zero.
  0
 cc   cc
2760 Nm  8Fm
2760 Nm
F
8m
F  345 N

The net force on the ladder must be zero. i.e.,
  Fx  0
F  Ff  0
F  Ff  345 N
  Fy  0
N F  WL  Wm  0
N F  WL  Wm  200 N  600 N
N F  800 N
 F   NF
F 345 N
   0.431
N F 800 N
4.8. Dynamics of circular motion circular motion
Horizontal circle
 When a body is moving a horizontal circle, its speed remain constant.

 And the centripetal force that keeps the body in circular path is given by
mv 2
Fc  mac   4.64 
r
 When the body is moving in a changing speed, we have tangential acceleration; which a rises
from a changing in speed.
v
at   4.65 
t
 The rate of change of the tangential velocity of a particle in circular orbit is known as
Tangential acceleration.

 Radial (centripetal) acceleration on which is due to the change in direction is given by;
v2
ar  ac   4.66 
r
Remark!
The centripetal acceleration is due to change in the direction of tangential velocity, whereas
the tangential acceleration is due to any change in the magnitude of the tangential velocity.
Tangential acceleration 𝑎𝑡 and centripetal acceleration are perpendicular to each other.
 Total acceleration is given by

a  at  ac
a  at2  ac2  4.67 
Example
1. Consider q conical pendulum with a bob of mass 𝑚 = 80𝑘𝑔 on a string of length 𝐿 = 10𝑚
that makes an angle of 𝜃 = 5°. Determine
A. The horizontal and vertical component of the force exerted on the pendulum.
B. The radial acceleration of the bob.
(use cos5° = 0.087, sin5° = 0.996 and take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given Required
𝑚 = 80𝑘𝑔 A. ∑ 𝐹𝑥 =? And ∑ 𝐹𝑦 =?
𝐿 = 10𝑚 B. 𝑎𝑐 =?
𝜃 = 5°
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
A. Applying free body diagram
The two forces acting on the bob are

Due to weight (mg) → verically downward.
Due to tension (T)→ directed along the string towards the center.
For equilibrium of the bob, the tension is resolved into two components
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → is acting along the vertical direction.
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → is acting along the horizontal direction
 The component 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is balanced by weight (mg). From Newton’s 2nd law in the y-
direction is given by
F y 0
T cos50  mg  0
T cos50  mg
mg 80kg  10 m s2 
T   803 N
cos50  0.996 

Therefore, the horizontal and vertical component of force acting on the bob is given by
Tx  T sin 50   803N  0.087   70 N
Ty  T cos50   803N  0.996   800 N
 
T  Tx iˆ  Ty ˆj  70iˆ  800 ˆj N
B. The component of 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is balanced by necessary centrifugal force.
The component of 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 provides the necessary centripetal force which is required for
circular motion. From Newton’s 2nd law in the x- direction is given by
F x  mac
T sin   mac
T sin 5o  803N  0.087  70 N

ac    kg  0.88 m s2
m 80kg 80
2. What is the maximum speed at which can round a curve of 25m radius on a level road if the
coefficient of static friction between the tires and road is 0.8?
Given Required
𝑟 = 25𝑚 v =?
𝜇𝑠 = 0.8

Solution
F net 0
Ff  Fc  0
Ff  Fc
 N f  mrv
2
 mg  m v2
r
g  v2
r
v 2   gr
v   gr   0.8 10  25    0.8 10  25   200  14.14 m s
Vertical circle
 When a body moves in a vertical circle, the forces acting on it are centripetal force towards the
center of the circle and the gravitational force which is always downwards.
 When a body is moving in a horizontal circle its speed remain constant, but when it is moving
in a vertical circle, its speed varies.
 When studying the motion of a body in a vertical circle we have to consider the effect of the
earth’s gravity.
 Due to the influence the influence of the earth’s gravitational field, the magnitude of the
velocity of the body and tension in the string change continuously.
 Velocity is maximum at the lowest point and minimum at the highest point.
 Hence the motion of in vertical circle is not uniform circular motion.

The weight mg of the body at P is resolved along the string as 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃,
perpendicular to the string.
 When the body is at P, the following forces acts on it along the string.
1. 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 acts along OP (outwards)
2. Tension T acts along PO (inwards)
 The net force on the body at P acting along PO is given by
F net  T  mg cos  mac

T  mg cos   mac
mv 2
T  mg cos 
r
 v2 
T  m  g cos    4.68
 r 
Remark!
 Centripetal and gravitational forces:

Acts in the same direction at the top of the circle, 𝜃 = 180°.
Acts in opposite directions at the bottom of the circle, 𝜃 = 0°.
Acts at right angle to each other, half way up the circle, 𝜃 = 90°.
The tension has maximum value at bottom and minimum value at the top of the circle.
 The tension of the moving mass along a vertical circle will maximum at the bottom position
and is determined by;
Tmax  mg cos  mac

mv 2ma
Tmax   mg cos , but   00
r
 v2 
Tmax  m  ma  g   4.69 
 r 

 And the maximum speed at which mass can be circulate is given by
2
mvmax
Tmax  mg 
r
r Tmax  mg   mv max
2
r
Tmax  mg   v max
2
m
r
v max  Tmax  mg   4.70 
m
Example
1. A 0.32kg ball swings a vertical circle on a 0. 65m long string at constant speed of 2.6m/s. what
is the tension at the bottom of the loop?
Given Required
𝑚 = 0.32𝑘𝑔
𝑟 = 65𝑚
v = 2.6𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
Solution
 v2 
Tmax  m  ma  g 
 r 
  2.6 m s 2 
  0.32kg    10 m s 2 
  0.65m  
 
 6.76 m s 2 
2
  0.32kg    10 m s 2 
 0.65 
  0.32kg  10.4 m s 2  10 m s 2 
  0.32kg   20.4 m s 2 
Tmax  6.53 N

2. A mass of 0.5kg is whirled attached to a cord of length of radius 2m. if the cord has a tension
of 54N .(Take 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Given Required
𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔 vmax =?
𝑇 = 54𝑁
𝑟 = 2𝑚
Solution
r
v max  Tmax  mg 
m

2m
0.5kg

54 N   0.kg  10 m s 2  
 4 m kg  54 N  5 N 

 4 m kg 49 kg m s 2 
 196 m
2
s2
v max  14 m s
3. A boy swing a 300gm ball attached to the end of a string in a vertical circle of radius 0.5m. if
the speed of the ball at the highest point is 4m/s.
Calculate
A. The speed of the ball at the lowest point.
B. The magnitude of the acceleration at the lowest point.
C. The tension in the string at the highest and at the lowest point?
Given Required
𝑚 = 300𝑔 = 0.3𝑘𝑔 A. 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?

𝑟 = 0.5𝑚 B. 𝑎𝑐 =?
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑚/𝑠 C. 𝑇𝑏 & 𝑇ℎ =?
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution
A. By using conservation of mechanical Energy,
ME at highest point  ME at lowest point

1 2 0 1 2
mgh  mvmin  mgh  mvmax
2 2
1 1
m gh  2
m vmin   m vmax
2
2 2
1 2 1 2
gh  vmin  vmax
2 2
2 gh  vmin
2
 vmax
2
,sin ce h  2r
2
vmax  4 gr  vmin
2
vmax  4 gr  vmin
2
  4 10  0.5    4 
2
vmax  36 m  6ms
2
s2
B. Centripetal acceleration is given by
 6 m s  36 m s2
2 2
v2
ac  max    72 m s2
r  0.5m  0.5m
C. The tension in the string at highest point is given by,
Th  mg  mac
Th  m  2
vmin
r
g 
Th   0.3kg    4m s 

 10 m s2   0.3kg   32 m s2  10 m s2   6.6 N
2
 0.5 m 
And the tension in the string at lowest point is given by
Tb  mg  mac
Th  m  2
vmax
r
g 
Th   0.3kg   6m s 

 10 m s 2   0.3kg   72 m s 2  10 m s 2   24.6 N
2
 0.5 m 

Review question
Choose the correct answer
1. A ladder of length 𝑙 and mass m is placed against a smooth vertical wall, but the ground is
not smooth. Coefficient of friction between the ground and the ladder is 𝜇. The angle 𝜃 at
which the ladder will stay in equilibrium is
A. 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝜇) C. 𝜃 = tan−1( 2𝜇)
𝜇 1
B. 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 2 ) D. 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 2𝜇)
2. A body experiencing two forces of equal magnitude remains in translational equilibrium.

Which of the following is the angle between the lines of the force.
A. 0° B. 45° C. 90° D. 180°
3. The necessary and sufficient condition for a rigid body to be in equilibrium is the sum of:
A. All torque acting on it zero
B. All forces acting on it should be zero
C. All forces should be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the sum of all
torque acting on it.
D. All forces and the sum of all torque be zero.
4. The point of intersection of the lines of action of the weight of all the points of body is called
A. center of the body C. center of mass of the body
B. center of gravity of the body D. none of the above
5. Two forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and not acting along the
same line is a
A. Couple B. Rotation C) Torque D. Motion
6. A body is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when it
A. Possess instantaneous velocity.
B. Is in uniform motion along a straight line.
C. is moving with changing acceleration
D. Is in uniform motion along a circular path.

7. The torque is the vector product of two vectors force and displacement and is a vector
A. At 180° to the plane of the force and displacement.
B. At 45 ° to the plane of the force and displacement.
C. At 90° to the plane of the force and displacement.
D. At 0° to the plane of the force and displacement.
8. A plank, 6 m long and weighing 400 N has its center of gravity 4 m from one end as shown in
figure below. It is supported near each end and two painters are standing on it. One weighs 500
N, and is at the center. The other weighs 350 N, and is standing 1 m from the light end. What
is the value of FB?
A. 575N B. 320 C. 456 D. 350N

9. In an orbital motion, the angular momentum vector is
A. Along the radius vector
B. Parallel to the linear momentum
C. In the orbital plane
D. Perpendicular to the orbital plane
10. A bob of mass m attached to an inextensible string of length 𝑙 is suspended from vertical
support. The bob rotates in a horizontal circle with an angular speed 𝜔 rad/s about the
vertical. About the point of suspension:
A. Angular momentum is conserved
B. Angular momentum changes in magnitude but not in the direction
C. Angular momentum changes in direction but not in magnitude.
D. Angular momentum changes both in direction and magnitude
11. The angular momentum of a particle is
A. Independent of the specific origin of coordinate
B. Zero when its position and momentum vectors are parallel

C. Zero when its position and momentum vectors are perpendicular

D. Not zero for none zero position and momentum vectors
12. Which of the following objects has the largest moment of inertia assuming they all have the
same mass and radius?
A. A solid disk C. A circular loop
B. A solid sphere D. A solid cylinder
13. A 1.5kg particle moves in xy plane with velocity v = (4.2𝑖̂ − 3.6𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠. What is the angular
momentum its position vector is 𝑟 = (1.5𝑖̂ + 2.2𝑗̂)𝑚?
A. −22𝑘̂ 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 C. −14.6𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠
B. 14.6𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠 D. 22𝑘̂𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠
14. A 50Nm torque acts on a wheel of moment of inertia 200𝑘𝑔𝑚2 . If the wheel stars from rest,
how long will it take the wheel to reach ab angular speed of 1𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠?
A. 4sec B. 2sec C. 3.1sec D. 0.25sec
15. Moment of inertia is:
A. the rotational equivalent of mass
B. The point at which all forces appear to act.
C. The time at which inertia occurs.
D. An alternative term for moment arm.
16. A man is sitting on a rotating table with his arms stretched outwards. When he suddenly folds
his arms inside, then
A. His angular velocity will decrease
B. His angular velocity remains constant
C. His moment of inertia decreases
D. Angular momentum increases
17. Moment of inertia of an object does not depend upon
A. Mass of object C. angular velocity
B. Mass of distribution D. axis of rotation

18. Three solid spheres each of mass M and radius R are arranged as shown in figure. The
moment of inertia of the arrangement about YY’ axis
7 14 16 5
A. 𝑀𝑅 2 B. 𝑀𝑅 2 C. 𝑀𝑅 2 D. 14 𝑀𝑅 2
5 5 5
19. An automobile engine develops 100KW when rotating at a speed of 1800rev/min. what
torque does it deliver?
A. 350Nm B. 440Nm C. 531Nm D. 628Nm
20. When a torque acting upon a system is zero, then which of the following will be constant.
A. Force C. angular momentum
B. Linear momentum D. linear momentum
21. The rotational KE of a body is E and its moment of inertia is I. The angular momentum is
A. 𝐸𝐼 B. 2√(𝐸𝐼) C. √(2𝐸𝐼) D. 𝐸/𝐼
22. The motion of planets in the solar system is an example of the conservation of :
A. Mass C. Angular momentum
B. Linear momentum D. Energy
23. If a person standing on a rotating disc stretches out his hands, the angular speed will
A. Increase C. remain same
B. Decrease D. none of these
24. Angular momentum of a body is defined as the product of
A. Mass and angular velocity C. linear velocity and angular velocity
B. Centripetal force ad radius D. momentum of inertia and angular velocity
25. A round disc of the moment of inertia 𝐼2 about its axis perpendicular to its plane and passing
through its center is placed over another disc of the momentum of inertia 𝐼1 rotating with an
angular velocity 𝜔 about the same axis. The final angular velocity of the combination of
discs is
𝐼2 𝜔 𝐼1𝜔 (𝐼1 +𝐼2 )𝜔
A. B.𝜔 C. 𝐼 D.
𝐼1 +𝐼2 1 +𝐼2 𝐼1

26. The law of conservation of angular momentum is valid when

A. The net force is zero and the net the net torque is non zero
B. The net force is non zero and the net torque is non zero
C. Net force may or may not be zero and net torque is zero
D. Both force and torque must be zero
Answers
1. D 6. B 11. B 16. C 21. C 26. C

2. D 7. C 12. D 17. D 22. C
3. D 8. A 13. A 18. C 23. B
4. B 9. D 14. A 19. C 24. D
5. A 10 C 15. A 20. C 25. C

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Physics for Remedial program

CHAPTER ONE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Mizan Tepi university Page i

4.4. Linear momentum ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 126

Mizan Tepi university Page ii

A vector quantity has both magnitude (size) and direction.

Mizan Tepi university Page 1

There two ways of vector representation

The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar in addition is written as either by |A| or A.

B. Geometric (Graphically) method

Geometrically (geometrically), a vectors are represented by an arrow which has a foot(or

The length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector.

Multiplication by a pure number merely changes the magnitude of the vector.

When velocity vector is multiplied by time scalar, we obtain a displacement.

1.2.Vector addition and subtraction

A vector is a physical quantity which is represented both in magnitude and direction.

Mizan Tepi university Page 3

 There are different laws of vector addition and they are:

Triangle law of vector addition

A. Triangle law of vector addition

 To obtain the resultant vector, we use the following rule:

Mizan Tepi university Page 4

Triangle law of vector addition derivation (the magnitude of resultant vector)

⃗ , respectively, represented by the side OP and PB. Let vector 𝑅⃗ be

From the above triangle,

From triangle PCQ with 𝜃 as the angle between A and B,

Mizan Tepi university Page 5

 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

B. Parallelogram law of vector addition

Figure 2: parallelogram law of vectror addition

Mizan Tepi university Page 6

The magnitude of the resultant of two vector is given by

 A2  2 AB cos   B 2 cos 2   B 2 sin 2 

The direction of the resultant vector is given by:

⃗ having an angle 𝜃 between them is given by:

Mizan Tepi university Page 7

R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  ,  c osine law if   90o 1.9 

R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , if 90o    180o 1.11

sin  sin  sin 

C. Polygon law of vector addition

Mizan Tepi university Page 8

Properties of vector addition

 Vector addition is commutative

 Existence of identity. For any given vector, say 𝐴,

The subtraction of two vector is similar to addition.

Figure3: subtraction of vectors

Mizan Tepi university Page 9

⃗ is the same as the resultant of 𝐴 and −𝐵

R  A  B  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    1.18

Mizan Tepi university Page 10

B. The angle that ⃗𝑨 − ⃗𝑩

 7sin 60    7  0.866   1  6.062 

 5  7 cos 60   5   7  0.5    1.5 

Mizan Tepi university Page 11

⃗ have equal magnitudes. If magnitude of 𝐴 + 𝐵

Mizan Tepi university Page 12

A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , hence A  B  A  B cos  2   cos    

A  B  A  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 180o    cos  2   2 cos 2   1

A sin  2 A sin  2  cos  2  2 A sin  2  cos  2 