Electrical Measurements in the 100 Hz

to 10 GHz Frequency Range for Efficient

Rock Wettability Determination
Nicola Bona, SPE, and Elio Rossi, ENI/Agip, and Simone Capaccioli, INFM/U. of Pisa

Summary in contact with the oil and the location of the two fluids is the
This paper summarizes an experimental and theoretical study opposite of the water-wet case.
conducted to investigate the effect of rock wettability on the elec- Putting an electric field on the rock will produce different
trical response of water- and oil-saturated core samples in a wide effects depending on the wettability. In the water-wet case, the ions
frequency band. The aim of the study was to evaluate a technique dissolved in the water will be able to move in the film of water that
not previously applied to wettability determination as a practical coats the pores and will travel fairly long distances before being
alternative to conventional tests, and to ascertain the consequent trapped within a water/rock or water/oil interface. In an oil-wet
economic and technical benefits in reservoir appraisal. system (at irreducible water saturation), the distance traveled by
the ions, contained in spherical water droplets inside the larger
Introduction pores or in globules that extend over several pores, will have more
There are two main problems in determining reservoir wettability. or less the same diameter as these pores. The difference in the
One is that current methods are time-consuming. It takes several shape of the water inclusions creates two different electrical
weeks to carry out a wettability test using the Amott or USBM responses and allows determination of rock wettability.
technique, and only a limited number of plug samples can be ana- The key parameters are the dielectric constant, e, and the electri-
lyzed for a reservoir study. The other problem is that wettability cal conductivity, s. Both describe the interaction of the rock with the
may be altered by extracting the core from the reservoir, bringing electric field and are complex functions of the angular frequency w
it to the surface, transporting it to the laboratory, and preparing of the field. In mathematical terms, we conventionally write:
samples for analysis. This influences the quality of subsequent
measurements, particularly relative permeabilities results. No sat- e(w)=e'(w) - i e''(w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1a)
isfactory solution has yet been found for the first problem. and s(w)=s'(w) + i s''(w), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1b)
Regarding the second, some companies use bland drilling muds
and take great care during core handling and cleaning to minimize where i= −1 is the imaginary unity (note the minus sign in the
wettability alteration; others prefer to restore the wettability by first of the two expressions). Quantities e(w) and s(w) are perfect-
aging the core in the reservoir fluid at reservoir conditions. ly equivalent, being related by the simple relationship
However, we cannot be sure in either case that representative core
s(w)=iwe0e(w), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1c)
samples are obtained.
Dielectric constant measurements produce data that correlate which follows directly from Maxwell’s equations (e0=8.854´10-12
well with rock wettability. They have the advantage of taking just Farad/m is the permittivity of the vacuum). In practice, if we know
a few hours and are easy to perform, consisting of standard electri- one quantity, we can immediately calculate the other. The real part of
cal impedance tests similar to those usually performed to deter- the dielectric constant e and the imaginary part of conductivity s are
mine the Archie parameters. Furthermore, in-situ wettability can in a measure of how much energy from the electric field is stored in the
theory be determined with the dielectric results, comparing the for- rock; the imaginary part of e and the real part of s are a measure of
mation conductivity obtained from a high-frequency tool with the how dissipative the rock is in relation to the electric field. A widely
conductivity obtained from a low-frequency one. used parameter in the oil industry is the dc conductivity, sdc, which
appears, for example, in Archie’s laws; sdc is the low-frequency limit
Theory and Definitions of the real part of the complex conductivity s(w), and—according to
The effects of wettability on the electric properties of a rock can be Eqs. 1a and 1c—it can be written as we0e''(w), which provides the
divided into two categories: connectivity effects that dominate at low key to expressing Archie’s laws in terms of dielectric constant.
frequencies (below 1 kHz), and shape effects that appear at interme- Although several dielectric mechanisms contribute to the com-
diate to high frequencies (above 10 kHz). Many studies have been plex dielectric constant e, a previous study4 showed that the response
made in the past on low-frequency effects1,2 (low-frequency effects of the rock in the 100 Hz to 10 GHz frequency range can be
control the Archie parameters), while few studies have been described well by overlapping the contributions of the three terms: a
published about the intermediate- /high-frequency effects. This is real constant (e¥), a complex function of the frequency (eMW(w)) that
probably owing to the difficulty in performing wide-band, high- describes Maxwell-Wagner polarization, and a complex Power-Law
frequency electrical measurements. This study takes into considera- function (ePL(w)) associated with charge transport. Thus,
tion both the low- and intermediate- /high-frequency effects.
To understand how wettability affects the electrical response of A (M ) = A∞ + AMW (M ) + APL (M ), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2a)
a rock, consider that wettability governs the geometrical distribu-
tion of the water phase in the pore space. According to W.G. where
Anderson,3 when the rock is water-wet, water tends to occupy the
small pores and contact most of the rock surface. The water will ∆A
AMW (M ) = >
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2b)
form a continuous phase down to very low saturations, while the 1 + (iMJ )1−= 
oil will be isolated in pockets even at rather high oil saturations.  
In an oil-wet system, on the other hand, the rock is preferentially N
B (iM )
and APL (M ) = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2c)
Copyright © 2001 Society of Petroleum Engineers
iMA0
This paper (SPE 69741) was revised for publication from SPE 50720, first presented at the In the above expressions, e¥, De, t, a, b (0£a£b£1), B, and
1999 SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, Houston, 16–19 February.
Original manuscript received for review 24 August 1999. Revised manuscript received 6
N (0£N£0.5) are all fitting parameters. Fig. 1 shows the trend of
November 2000. Manuscript peer approved 20 November 2000. the functions eMW(w) and ePL(w) and their sum for a given choice

80 March 2001 SPE Journal

 1E+06
E E=0
1E+05 epsilon(MW)—real part
epsilon(PL)—real part
1E+04 Total—real part

1E+03

1E+02

1E+01

1E+00

1E-01
1E+02 1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09 1E+10

frequency, Hz

1E+06 (a) (b)

1E+05
Epsilon(MW)—imaginary part
Epsilon(PL)—imaginary part positive ion negative ion brine oil rock
1E+04 Total—imaginary part

1E+03
Fig. 2—Diagram of Maxwell-Wagner (MW) polarization in a
1E+02
brine/oil/rock system at irreducible water saturation. A water-
wet condition is assumed.
1E+01

another. If the charge carriers were completely free, in Eq. 2c N

would be zero; in this case ePL(w) would be a purely imaginary quan-
1E+00

1E-01 tity, the corresponding conductivity iwe0ePL would be purely real,

1E+02 1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09 1E+10

frequency, Hz
and charge transport would be a nondispersive process. However,
this never happens in real rocks. The ions are always loosely bound
(i.e., confined in zones limited by potential barriers that are difficult
Fig. 1—Frequency response of the functions eMW(w), ePL(w), and to overcome), and consequently N>0; as a result, ePL(w) has a real
their sum. Above: real components; below: imaginary compo- part that is not zero and there is an effect on the storage factors e' and
nents. Values attributed to the parameters: De=315; t=0.123 s'', leading to dispersive conduction mechanisms.
ms; a=0.26; b=1; B=4.22´10-3; and N=0.019. PL mechanisms indicate that loss and storage decrease with fre-
quency (Fig. 1). A peculiar characteristic of a PL mechanism is that
of fitting parameters in the 100 Hz to 10 GHz frequency interval. the phase does not depend on frequency. Such behavior has been
The real and imaginary parts are illustrated for both functions. As connected to hierarchical self-similarity (many-bodies effects) in
shown, charge transport is the prevalent mechanism at the low fre- the dynamics of the microscopic relaxation that originates from the
quencies, while Maxwell-Wagner polarization controls the rock dispersive nature of charge transport or to the fractal character of
response at intermediate and high frequencies. the geometric microstructure of the system. However, its origin is
not yet clear and no conclusive results exist, particularly in terms of
Maxwell-Wagner Polarization. The Maxwell-Wagner (MW) theoretical models. It is noteworthy that most of the experimental
effect5-8 is described by the function eMW (w). This dielectric mech- evidence of the PL behavior of dielectric constants comes from
anism is characteristic of heterogeneous systems like water- and studies on rocks; we refer to the literature for further details.6,9-14
oil-saturated rocks, where insulating and conductive phases coex- Multiplying Eq. 2c by iwe0 and taking the real part of the resulting
ist. Under the effect of an external electric field, the ions dissolved expression gives a real conductivity at low frequency of the form
in the water concentrate in the regions where electrical properties s'(w)=BwN cos(Np/2) [the imaginary unit i can be expressed as
undergo sudden changes (Fig. 2a). These charge concentrations exp(ip/2), thus i N=exp(iNp/2)=cos(Np/2)+isin(Np/2)]. Because
produce interfacial or MW polarization of the water inclusions. N is usually very small, the above formula is appropriate in the 100
MW polarization essentially occurs at the oil/water interfaces or on Hz to 1 kHz frequency range, and the dc conductivity of the system
pore walls. When the electric field is switched off, the ions return may be obtained with reasonable accuracy from the s' value at 100
to their initial random distribution (Fig. 2b). The time constant that Hz. In practice, the final expression is sdc= B×628Ncos(1.57N),
controls the process is termed relaxation time and is usually indi- given that w is equal to 2p times the frequency. We expect that rock
cated by t; the reciprocal of t is termed the relaxation frequency. wettability affects both parameters B and N.
The relaxation frequency for MW polarization lies between 10 kHz
and 100 MHz, depending on the type of rock, the water salinity, Materials
and the spatial distribution of the water. Measurements of the complex dielectric constant were carried out on
At low frequencies the alternating electric field is slow enough 39 samples. These included eight sintered glass filters, four Berea
for the ions to follow the field variations. Because the polarization sandstone samples, and 27 reservoir samples (both sandstone and car-
is able to develop fully, eMW'(w) assumes its highest value, and the bonate) taken from nine different fields. The samples were analyzed
loss factor eMW"(w) is directly proportional to the frequency. As the in two different wetting conditions, obtained in the following ways:
frequency increases, eMW"(w) continues to increase, but the storage • Water-wet samples. This group comprised glass filters and
factor eMW'(w) begins to decrease owing to the phase delay Berea samples with their original, strong water wettability, and
between the fluctuations of the ions and the electric field. Above reservoir samples cleaned with routine extraction (the cleaning
the relaxation frequency, both eMW"(w) and eMW'(w) drop off, as the resulted in alteration of original wettability to water-wet).
electric field is too fast to influence the diffusion of the ions, and • Oil-wet samples. This group comprised glass filters and Berea
the MW polarization disappears. samples made oil-wet through silanization, and reservoir samples
that were extracted and then silanized. A method published by N.E.
Charge Transport. Charge transport at low frequencies (<10 kHz) Takach et al.15 was used to make the samples oil-wet, which involves
is modeled with the function ePL(w). This is a Power-Law (PL) adsorbtion of bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane onto the solid sur-
effect, typical of a large number of disordered solids where the faces of the samples at a temperature of 290°C in a vacuum oven. Of
charge carriers are weakly bound or confined in regions of low the many methods tested (aging the samples in crude oil, fluxing
mobility.9 Electrical transport is a discontinuous process in these sys- with asphaltenes, and other silanization processes), this proved to be
tems owing to charge hopping from one low-mobility region to the only efficient one to produce a strong oil-wet condition.

March 2001 SPE Journal 81

 TABLE 1—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLES ANALYZED
Sample Porosity Sw Amott Index
Code Treatment Wettab. Lithology (%) (%) Water Oil
glass3
C silanized o-w glass 37.9 2.6 0.00 0.85
D silanized o-w 36.5 3.0 - -
G - w-w 31.0 6.4 0.88 0.00
H - w-w 32.6 8.3 - -
glass4
C silanized o-w glass 30.3 7.5 - -
D silanized o-w 29.6 7.8 0.00 0.48
G - w-w 44.2 8.6 - -
H - w-w 40.1 6.0 0.91 0.00
Berea
C silanized o-w Berea sand. 19.1 44.6 0.00 0.39
D silanized o-w 19.4 36.1 - -
G - w-w 21.7 18.4 - -
H - w-w 21.4 21.9 0.39 0.00
A
2 silanized o-w carbonate 16.3 60.4 - -
9 cleaned w-w 13.4 68.2 - -
D
6 silanized o-w sandstone 12.2 18.6 - -
8 cleaned w-w 12.8 13.7 - -
P
10 silanized o-w carbonate 18.3 20.6 - -
16 cleaned w-w 17.0 36.1 - -
V
8 silanized o-w carbonate 23.9 22.3 - -
16 cleaned w-w 26.3 46.5 - -
K
3 silanized o-w sandstone 23.2 17.8 - -
98 silanized o-w 22.2 16.9 - -
13 cleaned w-w 22.7 8.2 - -
99 cleaned w-w 21.8 9.0 - -
L
10 silanized o-w sandstone 13.5 (?) 11-13 - -
98 silanized o-w 22.0 8.4 - -
17 cleaned w-w 22.7 31.0 - -
99 cleaned w-w 23.8 3.7 - -
B
7 silanized o-w sandstone 13.0 33.2 - -
11 cleaned w-w 13.8 63.2 - -
23 cleaned w-w 13.3 47.4 - -
PL
9 silanized o-w sandstone ≈ 25 ≈ 20 - -
11 silanized o-w ≈ 25 ≈ 20 - -
6 cleaned w-w ≈ 25 ≈ 20 - -
16 cleaned w-w ≈ 25 ≈ 20 - -
R
7 silanized o-w sandstone 13.8 12.7 - -
98 silanized o-w 13.8 11.0 - -
11 cleaned w-w 13.5 30.1 - -
99 cleaned w-w 13.9 7.0 - -

Note: w-w=water-wet; o-w=oil-wet

All the samples analyzed were disc-shaped with a diameter of 1 MHz frequency range (all the samples), and Time Domain
or 2 in. and a thickness of between 0.65 and 0.95 cm. The 27 reser- Reflectometry (TDR) in the 25 MHz to 10 GHz frequency range
voir samples were taken from nine homogeneous core plugs (one (glass filters and samples from reservoirs K and B).
per reservoir). Every plug was sliced into two to four discs. Table
1 shows the main petrophysical characteristics of the samples ana- Measurements in the 100 Hz to 40 MHz Range. Measuring the
lyzed. The Amott wettability index is available for some of the impedance of the sample is the basis for measuring the dielectric
glass filters and Berea samples. constant in this frequency range. From the measured impedance,
The samples were saturated with brine and then centrifuged in sample area, and thickness, the dielectric constant can be calculated.
an oil environment (capillary pressure applied: 0.5 to 1 bar). A syn- An HP 4194A Impedance Analyzer was used for these measure-
thetic brine with a salinity of 75.8 g/l NaCl and a refined mineral ments. The samples were placed in a parallel golden plate capacitor
oil (Soltrol by Phillips Co.) were used. Soltrol has an ideal dielec- specifically designed for the experiment, and a standard two-contact
tric behavior, maintaining a static dielectric constant throughout method was used. The measurement is easy, rapid, and cost-
the frequency range investigated and having negligible losses.
Table 2 shows the electrical properties of the fluids used. TABLE 2—ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE FLUIDS (25°C)
100 Hz
Experimental Equipment and Procedure Static Dielectric Const. Conductivity
The complex dielectric constant of the 39 samples listed in Table 1 (dimensionless) (S/m)
was measured in the 100 Hz to 10 GHz frequency range, using two Brine 67.0 9.5
different techniques: impedance measurements in the 100 Hz to 40 Soltrol 2.015 -

82 March 2001 SPE Journal

 TDR data acquisition Open-ended coaxial probe

HP 4194A sample
Sampling Signal
head generator

coaxial line

fringing
ZL metallic
cella field
flange
portacampioni

Digital Sampling ieee488 bus Personal

Oscilloscope computer
Osc Tektronix 11802

Data storage and processing

Sample

Fig. 4—Experimental apparatus used for measuring in the 25

MHz to 10 GHz frequency range.

Fig. 3—Experimental apparatus. The sample to be analyzed is Data Analysis

placed between the plates of a flat capacitor and connected to
the Impedance Analyzer. The equivalent circuit is also shown.
In this section, we consider the dielectric measurements performed
on two glass filters (glass4) and on the samples of reservoir K. The
plots of the dielectric constant vs. frequency measured for these
effective. No special preparation of the samples is required, making samples are illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 7 shows the plots of
this method ideal for fast, routine measurements. Fig. 3 shows the another parameter that appears to be controlled by wettability: the
experimental apparatus and the associated electrical circuit. loss tangent. Each figure will be discussed separately in a subsec-
The Impedance Analyzer measures the total impedance, ZT, of tion. Curves similar to those shown in Figs. 5 through 7 were also
the equivalent circuit illustrated in Fig. 3. ZT does not coincide with obtained for the other samples analyzed (sintered glass filters,
the impedance of the sample because of two supplementary fac- Berea samples, and the remaining reservoirs’ samples). A summa-
tors. One of these is the impedance associated with the connection ry of the results will be presented for these samples, but the meas-
cables, and the other is the stray parallel capacitance caused by ured spectra will not be illustrated.
cables and fringe fields around the edge of the capacitor’s plates.
These were compensated for by measuring the open-circuit imped- Dielectric Constant of Glass Samples. Fig. 5 illustrates the dielec-
ance of the empty capacitor Z0(w); the short-circuit impedance of tric constant plots measured on two partially brine-saturated samples
the inter-connecting wires ZL(w); and the total impedance, ZT (w),
of the system with the sample inside. The dielectric constant, e(w),
of the sample was then obtained from the following equation:
(a)
−1 −1
 ZT (M ) − Z L (M ) −  Z 0 (M )
A (M ) = 1 +  . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
iMC0 10 2

where C0=the capacitance of the empty cell. Ref. 4 gives greater

details regarding this method. The advantages of the method
include relatively simple calculation of the dielectric constant,
ε' TDR
shorter times, reduced costs, and an accuracy of ±1%.
Weaknesses include the fact that the frequency range is limited to 10 1
<40 MHz and that the sample must be a flat, smooth disc less
than 1 cm thick.
f [Hz]
Measurements in the 25 MHz to 10 GHz Range. These measure-
ments were performed with the TDR technique. We used a 3.5-mm 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
coaxial transmission line, cut off at one end to form a flat surface
with the rock sample. This open-ended structure creates capacita-
tive fields that fringe beyond the conductors, into the sample. The
experimental equipment is illustrated in Fig. 4. 10
3 (b)
A digital sampling oscilloscope (Tektronix 11802) generates a
signal that propagates into the coaxial line and is then reflected by
the sample. The incident and reflected signals are sampled, digi- 10 2
tized, and transferred to a computer for processing. Because the
dielectric properties of the sample affect the magnitude and phase
ε'' TDR
1
of the signal reflected at the boundary, the measured data can be 10
converted to dielectric constant vs. frequency.16,17
This system was specially designed for the experiment. The 0
coaxial line was terminated with a modified N-type connector, fitted 10
with a metallic 1 by 1-in. square flange. This open-ended configura-
tion allowed measurements up to 10 GHz. 10 -1
The major advantages of the method include cheapness and f [Hz]
easy use, little or no sample preparation, quick and standard cali- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
bration of the line before every measurement, and a broad fre-
quency range (from 25 MHz to 10 GHz). Its weaker points are the Fig. 5—Real and imaginary part of the dielectric constant meas-
low depth of investigation of the probe (less than 5 mm)18 and the ured for two glass4 samples. Open circles: oil-wet sample
requirement of flat samples. glass4 (C). Solid triangles: water-wet sample glass4 (H).

March 2001 SPE Journal 83

 10 1
(a) (a)
10 4

TDR 10 0
3
10
TDR

10 2
ε' 10 -1
tan(δ)

10 1 f [Hz]
f [Hz]
10 -2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10

10 1
10 6
(b) (b)
5
10

10 4 10 0
TDR
TDR
tan(δ)
10 3

2
10

1
ε" 10 -1
10

f [Hz]
0
10
f [Hz]
10 -2
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10

Fig. 6—Real and imaginary part of the dielectric constant meas- Fig. 7—Loss tangent angle tan(d) measured for two glass4 sam-
ured on four sandstone samples. Open circles: oil-wet sample ples (above) and two sandstone samples (below). Open circles:
(K3). Open squares: oil-wet sample (K98). Solid up triangles: water- oil-wet samples glass4C and K3. Solid triangles: water-wet
wet sample (K13). Solid down triangles: water-wet sample (K99). samples glass4H and K13.

of glass4: one sample (C) was oil-wet, and the other (H) was water- ples this effect is more intense than in the oil-wet ones, as observed
wet. Both the real part (e') and the imaginary part (e") of the meas- on the glass samples.
ured dielectric constant are plotted as a function of the frequency. At higher frequencies, the MW effect becomes important: both
The water-wet sample has higher e' and e" values than the oil-wet e' and e" show a change in slope. This occurs at around 10 kHz in
across the frequency range studied, despite the fact that the water the oil-wet samples and at higher frequencies in the water-wet ones.
saturations of the two samples are similar. In the low-frequency Both e' and e" level off, but at 100 kHz (oil-wet samples) and at
range, e' and e" decrease with increasing frequency and both samples about 5 MHz (water-wet samples) there is a second change in slope.
exhibit a PL response, dominated by the function ePL(w). Charge At these frequencies the MW polarization is at its peak and the
transport is the dominant mechanism in this frequency region; response of the samples is dominated by the eMW(w) function. The
according to Eq. 2c, both ePL'(w) and ePL"(w) show a straight line of reciprocal of the frequency at which the second change in slope
negative slope (N-1) when plotted on a bilogarithmic scale, which occurs gives the relaxation time t for the MW effect: t»10 ms is
is consistent with the experimental data. The contribution of the obtained in the oil-wet case, and t»0.1 ms in the water-wet one.
charge transport ePL(w) is much greater in the water-wet sample, At very high frequencies, e' tends to a constant value (e¥),
where the water forms a continuous phase, than in the oil-wet one. which is higher for the water-wet samples, while e" goes to zero.
At higher frequencies, e' and e" exhibit a change in slope. The The oil-wet sample K3 shows a second, less evident relaxation
MW effect begins to come into play and the charge transport ePL(w) between 100 MHz and 1 GHz: e" has a relative maximum, and e'
no longer dominates the dielectric response of the samples. In the shows a corresponding decrease. We think that this second relax-
oil-wet case, e" shows a peak at about 100 MHz, whereas in the ation is also the result of an MW polarization effect, with an asso-
water-wet case the relaxation peak takes place at around 75 kHz ciated relaxation time of around 1 to 10 ns. This fact will be dealt
(this peak can be noted only by a change in slope of e", as it is still with further in the section “Discussion of Results.”
masked by the PL contribution). At very high frequencies, the stor-
age e' tends to a constant value (e¥), while the loss e" goes to zero. Loss Tangent. When the dielectric constant is drawn as a simple vec-
tor diagram, the real and imaginary components are 90° out of phase.
Dielectric Constant of Reservoir Samples. Fig. 6 shows the The vector sum forms an angle d with the real axis e'. The loss tangent
dielectric constant plots measured on the four samples from reser- is defined as tan(d)=e"/e'. It is a measure of the relative loss tendency
voir K. Two of the samples (K3 and K98) were oil-wet, and two of the rock, being the ratio of the energy lost to the energy stored.
(K13 and K99) were water-wet. Both the real part (e') and the Fig. 7 shows the plot of tan(d) vs. frequency in the 100 Hz to 10
imaginary part (e") are plotted as a function of the frequency. GHz frequency range for (a) the glass4 samples and (b) two of the K
The water-wet samples have higher e' and e" values than the oil- reservoir samples. Two regimes can be identified: a low-frequency
wet ones only in the frequency range studied with the Impedance region where the charge transport dominates, characterized by a PL
Analyzer HP4194A (<40 MHz). In the low-frequency range, both that gives tan(d)=cot(Np/2) values that are independent of the
e' and e" decrease for all samples in an almost linear way; the elec- frequency, and a high-frequency region where the effects of the trans-
tric response is dominated, as in the case of the glass samples, by port and MW polarization, easily identifiable by the relative maxi-
a PL effect ePL(w), with 0<N<0.5 (Eq. 2c). In the water-wet sam- mum, are summed. Our results show that the water-wet samples

84 March 2001 SPE Journal

exhibit higher tan(d) values than the corresponding oil-wet samples, at e''(w)e0w], the amplitude Atan(d) of the loss tangent peak, and the
least at low frequencies. The samples of reservoir K do not follow this frequency (fmax) at which this peak occurs. Some samples, such as
rule in the high-frequency region, where the second MW peak occurs. K3, had a second peak at a higher frequency that was modeled by
adding another MW function: a pair of values for De, t, a, b,
Discussion of Results Atan(d), and fmax are given for these samples; the first describes the
Following all dielectric constant determinations, we proceeded to fit relaxation at low frequency, and the second at high frequency. Let
the data. These can be described by equations 2a through 2c. Table 3 us now discuss the most significant parameters separately.
gives the results of the study, i.e., the values of the fitting parameters
e¥, De, t, a, b, B, and N. The fit was carried out simultaneously on Relaxation Time, t. On an intuitive level, the relaxation time is one
the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant. The aim of the of the most promising parameters to predict rock wettability.
discussion is to show how wettability affected the above parameters. Provided that in an oil-wet system at irreducible water saturation the
Table 3 also shows the dc conductivity sdc of the samples [cal- water inclusions are almost spherical, while in a water-wet one they
culated by averaging the values about 100 Hz of the product are more elongated, the water-wet system will exhibit a higher dipole

TABLE 3—VALUES OF THE PARAMETERS OF EQS. 2A THROUGH 2C OBTAINED BY FITTING THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Reservoir Sample Freq. range τ σ dc fmax
Code Code Wettab investigated ∆ε ε∞ (µs) α β B N (S/m) Atan( φ) (MHz)
glass3
C o-w 100Hz-10GHz 0.5 3.2 8.1 ×10 –5 0.4 1 8.8 ×10 –8 0.02 1.1 ×10 –7 0.040 1.9 ×10 3
D o-w 0.5 3.5 1.0 ×10–4 0.4 1 1.8 ×10 –7 0.03 2.3 ×10 –7 0.037 1.8 ×10 3
G w-w 49.6 7.1 3.1 0.4 1 4.8 ×10 –6 0.085 8.1 ×10 –6 0.55 0.22
H w-w 50.2 7.5 4.3 0.4 1 3.3 ×10 –6 0.14 7.9 ×10 –6 0.62 0.079
glass4
C o-w 100Hz-10GHz 0.6 3.7 1.35 × 10 –3 0.4 1 3.8 ×10 –8 0.04 6.0 ×10 –8 0.043 150
D o-w 0.6 3.8 1.4 × 10 –3 0.4 1 9.0 ×10 –9 0.035 1.7 ×10 –8 0.041 145
G w-w 53.7 9.6 1.3 0.4 1 4.1 ×10 –5 0.032 5.1 ×10 –5 0.59 0.22
H w-w 70.7 6.9 2.1 0.4 1 8.5 ×10 –6 0.11 1.7 ×10 –5 0.66 0.37
Berea
C o-w 100Hz-40MHz 17.7 2.1 7.2 ×10 –2 0.5 1 3.2 ×10 –9 0.30 1.1 ×10 –7 0.40 10.7
D o-w 21.8 2.7 8.7 ×10 –1 0.57 1 7.8 ×10 –9 0.25 1.0 ×10 –7 0.35 1.75
G w-w 111 3.0 3.0 ×10 –1 0.5 1 1.7 ×10 –3 0.13 3.8 ×10 –3 — —
H w-w 106 3.7 2.8 ×10 –2 0.2 1 2.4 ×10 –3 0.07 2.5 ×10 –3 — —
A
2 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 80 50.8 1.8 ×10 –3 2.10 ×10 –4 1 5.49 ×10 –5 0.020 7.3 ×10 –2 — —
9 w-w 198 24.5 3.9 ×10 –3 0.13 1 2.93 ×10 –2 0.010 3.3 ×10 –2 1.85 8.5
D
6 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 248 9.4 4.78 0.42 1 2.17 ×10 –5 0.125 4.9 ×10 –5 0.85 0.34
8 w-w 110 10.5 0.131 0.18 1 6.91 ×10 –4 0.058 1.0 ×10 –3 1.205 4.5
P
10 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 173 12.5 2.750 0.26 0.78 5.42 ×10 –5 0.057 7.8 ×10 –5 0.80 0.53
16 w-w 315 14.2 0.123 0.26 1 4.22 ×10 –3 0.019 4.8 ×10 –3 1.26 8.2
V
8 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 186 12.4 4.65 0.39 1 5.52 ×10 –5 0.19 1.9 ×10 –4 0.84 2.1
16 w-w 208 15.9 21 ×10 –3 0.21 1 9.23 ×10 –3 0.105 1.8 ×10 –2 1.6 27
K
3 o-w 100Hz-10GHz 250 8.2 9.13 0.44 1 1.93 ×10 –5 0.077 3.1 ×10 –5 0.80 0.14
3.3 3.45 ×10 –4 0.2 1 0.19 280
98 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 223 5.6 6.89 0.5 1 5.42 ×10 –5 0.087 9.5 ×10 –5 — —
13 w-w 100Hz-10GHz 107 11.8 0.13 0.19 1 1.07 ×10 –3 0.097 2.0 ×10 –3 1.46 3.0
99 w-w 100Hz-40MHz 130 8.16 0.109 0.20 1 3.26 ×10 –4 0.091 5.9 ×10 –4 1.24 7.7
L
10 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 177 12.9 0.34 0.32 1 1.42 ×10 –3 0.031 1.7 ×10 –3 — —
98 o-w 88.4 7.1 0.24 0.42 1 1.21 ×10 –4 0.09 2.2 ×10 –4 0.68 3.8
17 w-w 61 13.5 29.0 ×10 –3 0.44 1 5.22 ×10 –2 0.015 5.7 ×10 –2 — —
99 w-w 72 14.1 24.0 ×10 –3 0.13 1 8.20 ×10 –4 0.103 1.6 ×10 –3 0.96 16
B
7 o-w 100Hz-10GHz 64.6 6.4 48.3 ×10 –3 0.18 0.77 7.06 ×10 –6 0.224 2.9 ×10 –5 0.67 17
2.3 0.25 ×10 –3 0.2 1 — —
11 w-w 222 4.6 14.7 ×10 –3 0.24 1 2.23 ×10 –3 0.059 4.0 ×10 –3 1.3 120
23 w-w 137 15.5 24.7 ×10 –3 0.21 1 2.01 ×10 –2 0.016 2.5 ×10 –2 — —
PL
9 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 13 23 5.2 ×10 –3 0.48 1 5.10 ×10 –2 0.014 5.8 ×10 –2 — —
11 o-w 70 6.4 9.3 ×10 –3 0.56 1 2.08 ×10 –2 0.0034 3.4 ×10 –2 — —
6 w-w 159 17.1 1.50 0.01 1 0.4 1.4 ×10 –4 0.40 — —
16 w-w 110 22.2 0.805 0.11 1 0.24 2.0 ×10 –4 0.24
— —
R
7 o-w 100Hz-40MHz 64 8.9 3.80 0 0.6 4.74 ×10 –6 0.155 1.3 ×10 –5 0.54 0.13
24.4 0.073 0.34 1 0.50 3.4
98 o-w 57.6 4.4 0.187 0.36 1 2.20 ×10 –6 0.187 7.2 ×10 –6 0.72 6.6
11 w-w 66.4 9.8 0.014 0.12 1 1.50 ×10 –4 0.151 3.96 ×10 –4 0.98 36
99 w-w 32 9.2 0.0084 0.21 1 2.01 ×10 –5 0.194 6.89 ×10 –5 — —
Note: w-w= water-wet; o-w= oil-wet

March 2001 SPE Journal 85

moment and slower MW relaxation.7 Consequently, the relaxation considers only the accumulation of charges at the water interfaces
time t characteristic of an MW process should be shorter in an oil- and ignores the electric diffuse layer. This is a correct representa-
wet rock than in a water-wet one.19 This hypothesis was confirmed tion when the Debye shielding length is sufficiently small com-
only partially in our study. In practice, only the tests carried out on pared to the size of the system, i.e., for water thicknesses>100 nm.
glass samples demonstrated a systematic difference between the However, where this condition is not applicable, a more general
relaxation times of water-wet and oil-wet systems, while the tests theory must be used,20 which takes into account the additional
carried out on Berea samples and reservoir samples gave apparently effect of the space-charge layer. Oil-wet systems at irreducible
inconclusive results. Most of the reservoirs showed an opposite ten- water saturation belong to the latter category. If we model the
dency, with the oil-wet samples having the longer relaxation times. polarization of a thin water film (<10 nm) with the general
This discrepancy, however, is deceptive. In fact, only the high- theory, we obtain a relaxation time that is 102 to 103 times shorter
permeability glass samples were made completely oil-wet after compared with the relaxation time that we would calculate with
silanization, whereas silanization probably was not uniform for the MW theory. Spherical water drops exhibit relaxation times of a
lower-permeability reservoir samples. Silanization may have had its similar order of magnitude. The conclusion is that an oil-wet rock
effect only on the pores easily accessible to the chemical (i.e., the at low water saturation relaxes much faster than a water-wet rock,
outer pores and larger internal ones connected to the outside through regardless of the shape of the water inclusions present. This is an
high-permeability paths), leaving the smaller internal pores with the encouraging result, which makes us quite confident that the
original water wetness. With an Amott test, samples of this type are dielectric technique should also work on real systems.
markedly oil-wet, but two different MW polarization effects should
be expected. One is associated with the oil-wet pores that contain Relaxation Strength, D e. Like the relaxation time, the relaxation
spherical globules of water and have short relaxation times; the other strength in theory depends on the geometry of the inclusions of
is associated with the pores that remained water-wet, where the water. When the inclusions have an elongated shape, such as in a
inclusions of water are elongated and the relaxation time is long. water-wet system at irreducible water saturation, the storage capac-
This scenario is consistent with the data measured on sample ity of the rock increases. This results in an increase of relaxation
K3, which clearly show two distinct MW effects in the 100 Hz to strength De. Thus, the greater the water wettability of the rock, the
10 GHz frequency range (Fig. 7b). For this sample the first tan(d) greater De. We observed this relation systematically on the glass
peak, associated with the water-wet pores, is encountered at a fre- filters and on most of the rock samples (except for reservoirs D and
quency of around 100 kHz and indicates a relaxation time of L). The samples of reservoirs K and B follow this rule, if we con-
around 10 ms. The second peak, associated with the oil-wet pores, sider relaxation at high frequency for oil-wet samples (that associ-
is encountered at frequencies of around 100 MHz to 1 GHz and ated with pores made oil-wet).
indicates a much shorter relaxation time (1 to 10 ns). Comparison
of these results with those obtained for sample K13, which was not Loss Tangent, tan(dd). The relative maximum of the loss tangent
silanized and was uniformly water-wet, shows a substantial differ- tan(d) assumes distinctly lower values in the oil-wet samples
ence (Fig. 7b): the K13 sample has only one peak of tan(d), occur- compared with the water-wet samples. The weak intensity of the
ring at 10 MHz and indicating a relaxation time of 0.1 ms. Such a peak implies lower dispersivity in oil-wet systems than in water-
relaxation time is shorter than that associated with the water-wet wet systems.
pores of the silanized sample (10 ms). This seems consistent with
the hypothesis that in the silanized sample K3 the more tortuous Dc Conductivity, sdc. All the water-wet samples show dc con-
internal paths with long relaxation times remained water-wet. ductivity values that are at least one order of magnitude greater
The silanized sample (B7) and the water-wet samples of reser- than the oil-wet ones. This result is perfectly understandable,
voir B (B11 and B23) were all measured to 10 GHz and show sim- given that in a water-wet rock the water occupies the small pores
ilar behavior. Sample B7 exhibits two peaks in tan(d), while B11 and forms a continuous film on the rock surface, contributing
and B23 have only one. The remaining samples of reservoir K almost entirely to the conductivity of the rock. In an oil-wet
(silanized K98, and water-wet K99) and all the other samples not rock, on the other hand, the water phase will only be continuous
mentioned here were measured only to 40 MHz; this did not allow at high water saturations, while it will not contribute to the con-
detection of any peaks at higher frequencies. However, we believe ductivity of the rock at lower saturations. This is a well-known
that the measurements made on the glass filters and the samples of effect, which results in an increase in the Archie saturation expo-
reservoir K and B are sufficient to demonstrate that the dielectric nent n. The dc conductivity of the rock can be estimated with the
relaxation time makes it possible to discriminate between a water- formula sdc=B×628Ncos(1.57×N), which has been derived in a
wet and an oil-wet condition. Furthermore, they show that it is pos- previous section. Virtually, both B and N affected the measured
sible to quantify the volume of water-wet rock and oil-wet rock in sdc values. We expected to find parameter N much lower in the
cases of mixed wettability by using suitable cut-offs, as happens water-wet cases, where charge transport is believed to occur
when interpreting the NMR spectra. The only condition is working along continuous conducting paths or across low-energy insulat-
in a wide frequency range. ing barriers, giving rise to quasi-nondispersive conduction.
In this first phase of the study, we investigated only silanized However, systematic differences were not observed. What made
systems. They appeared better suited for testing the feasibility of sdc significantly higher in the water-wet cases was parameter B.
the new technique. However, silanization is not representative of Assuming, in first approximation, that N was not affected by
surface properties in real rocks. One possible problem with work- wettability leads to a simple relation between B and the Archie
ing on natural wetting states is that in addition to isolated water saturation exponent n: for a given water saturation Sw, the ratio
drops there may also be thin water films, which prevent the oil between the B parameter measured under water-wet conditions
from coming into direct contact with the mineral surfaces. These and that obtained with oil-wet conditions is equal to Sw to the
films have an elongated shape, like those found in water-wet rocks, (nww-now)th power. The data show that the ratio is much greater
and their relaxation time should consequently be long, making the than 1, which implies that now, the saturation exponent in the oil-
dielectric spectrum of the sample quite similar to that of a water- wet case, is always greater than nww (water-wet case); this is con-
wet system. In this case, water-wet and oil-wet situations would no sistent with many published results.
longer be distinguishable. Fortunately, things are not as bleak as
they seem. Water films in oil-wet systems are only nanometers Future Work
thick (assuming that the water saturation is close to the irreducible Definition of a Lab Procedure. On the basis of the results obtained
water saturation), while greater thicknesses (>100 nm) are found it is possible to define a laboratory procedure to measure the wetta-
in water-wet cases. A value of some nanometers is comparable bility. This should be tested and verified through further experiments.
with the Debye length—the size of the electrical diffuse layer— The procedure uses preserved samples and involves the following:
and the dynamics of dielectric relaxation in such a situation are quite • Centrifuge the sample in an oil (Soltrol) environment to reach
different from what is predicted by the MW theory. MW theory irreducible water saturation (Swi).

86 March 2001 SPE Journal

 • Measure the dielectric constant of the sample in the 100 Hz to 10 e'(w) = real component of dielectric constant
GHz frequency range, combining a low-frequency impedance meas- e"(w) = imaginary component of dielectric constant
urement with intermediate- /high-frequency TDR measurements. eMW (w) = eMW'(w) -i eMW"(w) = dielectric constant associated
• Clean the sample with soxhlet extraction and dry it. with MW polarization
• Saturate the sample with water.
ePL(w) = ePL'(w) -i ePL"(w) = dielectric constant related to
• Centrifuge the sample in an oil (Soltrol) environment to Swi.
• Measure the dielectric constant of the sample in the 100 Hz to charge transport
10 GHz frequency range. e0 = 8.854´10-12 Farad/m = permittivity of the empty
• Analyze changes in the parameters controlled by the wettability— space, m-1L-3t2q2, Farad/m
i.e., relaxation time t, relaxation strength De, loss tangent tan(d), e¥ = unrelaxed dielectric constant
and conductivity sdc. De = relaxation strength
s(w) = s'(w) - is"(w) = complex electrical conductivity,
In-Situ Wettability Determination. Various authors have dealt m-1L-3tq2, S/m
with the on-site determination of wettability in the past,21-23 s'(w) = real component of electrical conductivity, m-1L-3tq2, S/m
without obtaining entirely convincing results. The main prob- s"(w) = imaginary component of electrical conductivity,
lem linked to the determination of wettability with logging
m-1L-3tq2, S/m
measurements lies in the fact that most of the logs investigate
the zone invaded by the mud filtrate, where saturation and wet- sdc = dc conductivity, m-1L-3tq2, S/m
tability are altered. This is why the techniques used to measure t = relaxation time, t, s
wettability in situ apply only when bland, inert drilling muds a = fitting parameter
are used. The results of this study suggest a new technique to b = fitting parameter (a value of b=1 is often fixed)
measure in-situ wettability. In fact, this is a very avant-garde B = fitting parameter, m-1L-3t1+N q2, S/m´sN
method whose success is noticeably limited by the current N = fitting parameter
logging technology. tan(d) = e"/e' = loss angle tangent
The idea is to compare measurements recorded with electric Atan(d) = amplitude of the loss tangent peak
logs that operate at different frequencies. Comparison of the for- fmax = frequency at which tan(d) peaks, t-1, Hz
mation conductivity recorded with a high-frequency (>20 MHz)
tool with the conductivity obtained from a low-frequency induc-
tion (20 kHz) or resistivity (<1 kHz) tool can give indications References
about the wettability of the formation. If the high-frequency con- 1. Archie, G.E.: “The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining
ductivity is higher than the low-frequency conductivity, the water Some Reservoir Characteristics,” Trans., AIME (1942) 146, 54.
probably will be discontinuous and the formation oil-wet. 2. Donaldson, E.C. and Siddiqui, T.K.: “Relationship between the
Electromagnetic logging tools of future generations will perhaps Archie Saturation Exponent and Wettability,” SPEFE (September
be able to measure the dielectric properties of the rock in a wide, 1989) 359.
continuous frequency range. This will open up the way to using 3. Anderson, W.G.: “Wettability Literature Survey—Part 1: Rock/Oil/Brine
MW effects to determine the wettability on site, based on relax- Interactions and the Effects of Core Handling on Wettability,” JPT
ation time values, relaxation strength, and loss tangent. (October 1986) 1125.
4. Bona, N. et al.: “Characterization of Rock Wettability through
Conclusions Dielectric Measurements,” Revue de l’Inst. Français du Pétrole (1998)
We can draw the following conclusions from this study: 53, No. 6, 771.
1. The electric responses of glass filters, Berea sandstone, and 5. Sen, P.N., Scala, C., and Cohen, M.H.: “A self-similar model for sedi-
reservoir samples were analyzed in the 100 Hz to 10 GHz range, mentary rocks with application to the dielectric constant of fused glass
and the effect of wettability on the measured properties was beads,” Geophysics (1981), 46, No. 5, 781.
investigated. Both water-wet and oil-wet samples were tested, 6. Knight, R. and Nur, A.: “The dielectric constant of sandstones, 60 kHz
showing different responses throughout the entire frequency to 4 MHz,” Geophysics (1987) 52, No. 5, 644.
range investigated. At low frequencies, the dc conductivity is 7. Sillars, R.W.: “The properties of a dielectric containing semiconducting
demonstrated as the most suitable parameter for indirect deter- particles of various shape,” J. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1937) 80, 378.
mination of wettability. At intermediate to high frequencies, the 8. Nettelblad, B. and Niklasson, G.A.: “The dielectric dispersion of liquid-
relaxation time, relaxation strength, and loss tangent are the best filled porous sintered materials,” J. Phys. Condens. Matter (1996) 8, 2781.
indicators of wettability. 9. Universal Relaxation Law, A.K. Jonscher (ed.), Chelsea Dielectric
2. A new procedure is suggested to determine wettability. This Press, London (1996).
procedure involves making dielectric measurements in the 100 10. Thevanayagam, S.: “Dielectric dispersion of porous media as a fractal
Hz to 10 GHz range on a preserved sample, and repeating the phenomenon,” J. Appl. Physics (1997) 82, 2538.
dielectric measurements after cleaning the sample. Analysis of 11. Lockner, D.A. and Byerlee, J.D.: “Complex Resistivity Measurements
the variation of the dc conductivity, relaxation time and of Confined Rock,” J. Geophys. Research (1985) 90, 7837.
strength, and loss tangent should give information about the ini- 12. Börner, F.D.: “Combined Complex Conductivity and Dielectric
tial wettability of the sample. Measurements on Core Samples,” paper 9736 presented at the 1997
3. Compared to traditional methods (Amott and USBM), the International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, Calgary.
dielectric technique involves very short measuring times. 13. Glover, P.W.J. et al.: “Ionic surface electrical conductivity in sand-
Carrying out the procedure described in this paper takes stone,” J. Geophys. Research (1994) 99, 21635.
approximately 2 days instead of several weeks. The advantage 14. Da Rocha, B.R. and Habashy, T.M.: “Fractal geometry, porosity and
is that more samples can be analyzed for a reservoir study. complex resistivity: from rough pore interfaces to hand specimens,”
4. In the case of mixed-wetted systems, the dielectric technique Developments in Petrophysics, M.A. Lovell & P. K. Harvey (eds.),
gives indications that an Amott or USBM test cannot provide. London (1997) 277.
The dielectric spectra are sensitive to water-wet and oil-wet 15. Takach N.E. et al.: “Generation of Oil-Wet Model Sandstone Surfaces,”
mineral surfaces, and it is possible to separate the contributions. paper SPE 18465 presented at the 1989 SPE International Symposium
on Oilfield Chemistry, Houston, 8–10 February.
16. Cole, R.H. et al.: “Time domain reflection methods for dielectric meas-
Nomenclature
urements to 10 GHz,” J. Appl. Physics (1989) 66, 793.
f = frequency, t-1, Hz 17. Wei, Y.-Z. and Sridhar, S.: “Technique for measuring the frequency
w = 2pf = angular frequency, t-1, rad-1 dependent complex dielectric constants of liquids up to 20 GHz,” Rev.
e(w) = e'(w) - ie"(w) = dielectric constant Sci. Instrum. (1989) 60, No. 9, 3041.

March 2001 SPE Journal 87

18. Folgerø, K. and Tjomsland, T.: “Permittivity measurement of thin liq- in. ´ 2.54* E + 00 = cm
uid layers using open-ended coaxial probes,” Meas. Sci. Technol. mho ´ 1.0* E + 00 = S
(1996) 7, 1164. *Conversion factor is exact. SPEJ
19. Lysne P.C.: “A model for the high-frequency electrical response of wet
rocks,” Geophysics (1983) 48, No. 6, 775.
20. Trukhan, E.M.: “Dispersion of the Dielectric Constant of Nicola Bona is a research petrophysicist at ENI/Agip and
Heterogeneous Systems,” Soviet Physics—Solid State (1962) 4, 2560. group leader of the Core Analysis Laboratory; the group’s
21. Spinler, E.A.: “Determination of In-Situ Wettability from Laboratory responsibilities include technology development and transfer
and Well Log Measurements for a Carbonate Field,” paper SPE 38733 and operational support. e-mail: Nicola.Bona@agip.it. Bona is
involved in all aspects of rock physics, with particular interest in
presented at the 1997 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
electrical properties, fluid mechanics, and oil recovery
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, 5–8 October. processes. He holds a degree in physics from the U. of Milan.
22. Ferreira, L.E.A. et al.: “A Single Well Tracer Test To Estimate Elio Rossi works in the production laboratories at ENI/Agip, on
Wettability,” paper SPE 24136 presented at the 1992 SPE/DOE petrophysical measurements on unconsolidated and thin-
Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 22–24 April. layered formations at reservoir conditions. e-mail: Elio.Rossi@
23. Causin, E. and Bona, N.: “In-Situ Wettability Determination: Field Data agip.it. Previously, he worked in the Enhanced Oil Recovery
Analysis,” paper SPE 28825 presented at the 1994 SPE European Dept. Rossi holds a degree in chemistry from Parma U. Simone
Petroleum Conference, London, 25–27 October. Capaccioli is currently a post-doctoral fellow at the Dielectric
Spectroscopy Lab of Physics Dept. in Pisa (INFM/U. of Pisa).
e-mail: Simone.Capaccioli@df.unipi.it. Since 1996, he has
SI Metric Conversion Factors been working on the development of dielectric techniques for
the wettability assessment of rocks within an INFM/ENI collab-
Å ´ 1.0* E - 01 = nm oration. Capaccioli holds a physics diploma degree from the
cycles/sec ´ 1.0* E + 00 = Hz U. of Pisa and a PhD degree in materials engineering from
ft ´ 3.048* E - 01 = m Polytechnic of Milan.

88 March 2001 SPE Journal