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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Normalcy and Abnormalcy (5) Theoretical Approaches in Explaining the Etiology of
Recognizing Normal and Abnormal manifestations of Psychological Disorders (20)
behavior o One-Dimensional – looking for a single cause
o Psychological Disorder – psychological o Multidimensional – looking for a systemic cause
dysfunction within an individual associated with Genetic contributions
distress or impairment in functioning and a response o Genes – long molecules of DNA at various locations
that is not typical or culturally expected on chromosomes, within cell nucleus
o 4 D’s of Psychological Disorder o 46 Chromosomes, 23 Pairs, 22 Pairs of Autosomes,
a. Psychological Dysfunction – refers to a breakdown 1 pair Sex Chromosomes
in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning o XX – female, XY – male
▪ Interferes daily functioning o Dominant and Recessive
b. Distress or Impairment – individual is extremely o Phenotypes – observable characteristics
upset and cannot function properly o Genotypes – unique genetic makeup
▪ Either to self or to others o Endophenotypes – genetic mechanisms that
c. Atypical or Not Culturally Expected (Deviance) –
ultimately contribute to the underlying problems
deviates from the average or the norm of the culture
▪ Not just to the society but deviation from the causing the symptoms and difficulties experienced
person’s usual behavior by people with psychological disorders
d. Dangerousness – creates potential harm to self o Basic Genetic Epidemiology – statistical analysis of
(suicidal gestures) and others (excessive aggression) family, twin, and adoption studies; if the disorder can
o Psychopathology – scientific study of mental be inherited and how much is attributable to genetics
disorders o Advanced Genetic Epidemiology – studies the
o Clinical Psychology – applied branch of psychology factors that influence the disorder
that seeks to understand, assess, and treat o Gene Finding – what gene influences the behavior
psychological conditions in a clinical setting o Molecular Genetics – biological analysis of
o Abnormal Psychology – branch of psychology that individual DNA samples; biological processes genes
studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotions, and affect to produce symptoms of the disorder
thought which may or may not indicate an underlying o Family Studies – examine behavioral pattern or
condition emotional trait in the context of the family
o Normal Behavior – one behavior that is like other o Proband – family member with the trait singled out
people in the society for study
▪ Normality is social conformity – some ▪ The first person in the family to be identified as
behaviors are non-conforming but normal possibly having genetic disorder and who may
▪ Normality is personal comfort receive genetic counseling or testing
▪ Normality is a process o Adoption Studies – identify adoptees who have a
o Criteria for determining Abnormal Behavior particular behavioral pattern or psychological
✓ Norm-violation disorder and attempt to locate first-degree relatives
✓ Statistical rarity who were raised in different family settings
✓ Personal Discomfort o Twin Studies – usually conducted to identical twins
✓ Deviation because they share genetic makeup’
✓ Maladaptiveness o Those people who reported more severe stressful life
o Clinical Assessment – the systematic evaluation and events and had at least one short allele of the 5-HTT
measurement of psychological, biological, and social gene were at greater risk of developing depression
factors in an individual presenting with a possible (Caspi et al., 2003) (serotonin-transporter gene)
psychological disorder o Epigenetics – factors other than inherited DNA
o Diagnosis – process of determining whether the sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter
particular problem afflicting the individual meets all the phenotypic expression of genes
criteria for a psychological disorder
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Abnormal Psychology
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Biological and Neurological Bases o Brain Stem – lower and more ancient part of the
o Neuroscience – study of the nervous system, brain; essential for autonomic functioning such as
especially the brain to understand behavior, breathing, heartbeat, etc.
emotions, and cognitive processes ▪ Hindbrain – contains the medulla, pons, and
High Low cerebellum; regulates many autonomic activities
Dopamine Schizophrenia Parkinson’s such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion
▪ Cerebellum – controls motor coordination
Acetylcholine Alzheimer’s
abnormalities associated with autism
(Dementia)
▪ Midbrain – coordinates movements with sensory
Norepinephrine Mania Depression
input and contains parts of reticular activating
GABA Relaxation Anxiety/OCD
system (contributes to sleep, arousal and tension)
Serotonin Mania Depression
▪ Thalamus and Hypothalamus – involves in
Anxiety
regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones
Eating
o Limbic System – located around the edge of the
Disorders
center of the brain
Epinephrine Stress Fatigue ▪ Hippocampus, Cingulate Gyrus, Septum, and
Sleep Disorders Amygdala
Glutamate Psychosis Huntington’s ▪ Amygdala – emotions
Neuron Death Disease ▪ Hippocampus – shrinks when a person have
Endorphin Eating depression
Disorders ▪ Regulate emotional experiences and expressions
o Agonist – effectively increase the activity of the and, to some extent, our ability to learn and to
neurotransmitters (Excitatory) control impulses
o Antagonist – decrease or block neurotransmitter o Basal Ganglia – base of the forebrain, includes
(Inhibitory) caudate nucleus
o Inverse Agonists – produces effects opposite to ▪ Damage involved changing our posture or
those produced by the neurotransmitters twitching or shaking
o Reuptake – neurotransmitter is released, quickly ▪ Related to Parkinson’s Disease
broken down and brought back to the synaptic cleft o Cerebral Cortex – provides us with our distinctly
o Neurotransmitter – chemical messengers of the human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and
body plan, to reason, and to create
a) Glutamate (E) [ memory ]– most abundant in ▪ Left Hemisphere – responsible for verbal and
the brain and plays a key role in thinking, other cognitive processes
learning, and memory ▪ Right Hemisphere – perceiving the world
b) GABA (I) [ calming ]– most common inhibitory around us and creating images
neurotransmitter in the brain and regulates mood, ▪ Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
irritability, sleep, seizures ▪ Prefrontal Cortex – area responsible for higher
c) Serotonin (I) [ mood ]– regulates mood, sleep cognitive functions
patterns, sexuality, appetite, and pain ▪ HPA Axis – Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland,
d) Dopamine [ pleasure ]– body reward system, Adrenal Cortex
pleasures, achieving heightened arousal and o Somatic Nervous System – controls the muscles
learning o Autonomic Nervous System – regulate
e) Epinephrine [ fight-or-flight ] – responsible for cardiovascular system and endocrine system
fight-or-flight response ▪ Sympathetic – fight or flight responses
f) Norepinephrine [ concentration ] – alertness, ▪ Parasympathetic – calms the sympathetic
arousal, decision-making, attention, and focus nervous system; rest and digest functions
g) Endorphins [ euphoria ]– natural pain reliever, o Endocrine System – glands produce hormones that
reduces pain is released to the blood streams
h) Acetylcholine (E) [ learning ] – regulates heart ▪ Pituitary – master gland
rate, blood pressure and gut motility, role in ▪ Thyroid – controls metabolism and growth
muscle contraction, memory, motivation, sexual (thyroxine)
desire, sleep, and learning ▪ Parathyroid – controls the levels of calcium
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▪ Adrenal – controls metabolism, blood pressure, ▪ Modeling/observational learning: process of
sex development, stress (epinephrine) learning in which an individual acquires
▪ Pineal – releases melatonin responses by observing and imitating others
▪ Pancreas – creates insulin ▪ Observational learning
▪ Testes – makes sperm and release testosterone ▪ Social Cognitive Theory: people observe
▪ Ovaries – releases estrogen, progesterone, and models, learns chunks of behavior, and mentally
testosterone put chunks together into complex new behavior
o Permissive Hypothesis – when serotonin patterns
(norepinephrine) levels are low, other ▪ Albert Bandura
neurotransmitters are permitted to range more ▪ Hitting Doll experiment
widely, become dysregulated, and contribute to ▪ Self-Efficacy – person’s confidence in their own
mood irregularities abilities to accomplish their goals
Learning o Learned Helplessness – when rats or other animals
o Classical Conditioning – type of learning in which encounter conditions over which they have no
neutral stimulus is paired with response until it elicits control, they give up attempting to cope and seem to
that response develop the animal equivalent of depression
▪ Unconditioned Stimulus – natural stimulus ▪ Martin Seligman and colleagues
▪ Unconditioned Response – natural or unlearned ▪ People make an attribution that they have no
response control, and become depressed
▪ Conditioned Stimulus – newly conditioned ▪ Causes: coercive, ineffective, inconsistent
event introduced parents, media violence, peer rejection
▪ Conditioned Response – response from the ▪ Internal: negative effects due to internal failings
conditioned stimulus ▪ Stable: even after a particular negative events
▪ Extinction – without CS showed long enough, pass, additional bad things will “always be my
the behavior could be eliminated fault” remains
o Stimulus Generalization – strength of the response ▪ Global: attributions extend across a variety of
to similar objects or people is usually a function of issues
how similar these objects or people are ▪ Learned Optimism – if people faced with
▪ E.g., You are afraid of fury dogs because they considerable stress and difficulty in their lives,
once attacked you. Now, whenever you see nevertheless, display optimistic, upbeat attitude,
something fury, your body trembles, you cannot they are likely to function better psychologically
breathe properly and wanted to go away. and physically
o Introspection – Edward Titchener; subjects report ▪ Positive Psychology
their inner thoughts and feelings after experiencing o Prepared Learning – we have become highly
certain stimuli prepared for learning about certain types of objects
o John B. Watson – founder of behaviorism or situations over the course of evolution because this
▪ Little Albert knowledge contributes to the survival of the species
o Systematic Desensitization – patients were ▪ Learning from ancestors
gradually introduced to the objects or situations they o Hopelessness Theory – desirable outcomes will not
feared so that their fear could extinguish occur, and that the person has no responses available
o Operant Conditioning – behavior changes as a to change this situation
function of what follows the behavior (rewards or Cognitive theories with Psychoanalytic
punishment) o Fear – fight or flight response
▪ B.F. Skinner ▪ Evolutionary adaptation
▪ Edward Thorndike – Law of effect (behavior can ▪ White with fear, trembling, faster breathing,
be strengthened or weakened) increase in glucose, pupil dilate, hearing become
▪ Reinforcement – reward more acute, digestive system stops, pressure to
▪ Shaping – process of reinforcing successive urinate, defecate, vomit to reduce waste materials
approximations to a final behavior or set of o Introjection – direct all their feelings for the loved
behaviors one, including sadness and anger, toward themselves
o Social Learning – Albert Bandura o Symbolic or Imagined Loss – person equates other
kinds of events with the loss of a loved one
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o Attributional Style – ways in which people explain - tendency for individuals to relate external events to
the cause of events within their lives themselves, even when there is no basis for making this
Internal-External – who or what is responsible for the connection
event - egocentric thinking, everything is about him
- whether something unique about the person (internal) - “kasalanan ko kung bakit umiyak yung bata”
or something about the situation caused the event Selective Abstraction
(external) - focuses on the negative
Stable-Unstable – perceived permanence of the cause - detail is taken out of context and believed whilst
- an event can be viewed as constant and likely to everything else in the context is ignored
happen again (stable) or it only happens once (unstable) - /almost good feedback except for one /focused on that
Global-Specific – universal throughout your like single feedback
(global) or specific to a part of your life (specific) Arbitrary Inference
o Cognitive Theory of Depression - persons - evident when depressed individuals emphasize the
susceptible to depression develop negative rather than the positive aspects of a situation
inaccurate/unhelpful core beliefs about themselves, - only accepts negative thoughts
others, and the world as a result of their learning - no logical reasoning
histories - interpreting a situation when there is no factual
▪ Depressed people consistently think in illogical evidence
ways and keep arriving at self-defeating - /passed, “chamba”, /negative “kasalanan ko kasi”
conclusions Labeling and Mislabeling
▪ Tends to Overgeneralize (draw broad negative - portraying one’s identity on the basis of imperfections
conclusions on the basis of single insignificant and mistakes made in the past and allowing them to
event) [ Cognitive Bias ] define one’s true identity
▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad: depressed people - /bullied for being dark-skinned, “I am ugly.”
make cognitive errors in thinking negatively Minimization
about themselves, immediate world, and their - downplaying the significance of an event or emotion
future - common strategy in dealing with feelings of guilt
▪ Beck Hopelessness Scale - “Parang nakakarami ka na ah,”
▪ Negative Schema: an enduring negative “Luh parang tanga, sampung bote pa lang”
cognitive system about some aspects of life Magnification
▪ Self-Blame Schema: people feel personally - effects of one’s behaviors are magnified
responsible for every bad happenings - /may konting mantsa sa damit, “Iniisip siguro nila
▪ Negative Self-Evaluation Schema: “can never hindi ako naglalaba,”
do anything correctly” o General Adaption to Stress Theory –
▪ False Consensus Effect/False Consensus Bias: understanding the relationship between stressful
people tend to overestimate the extent to which events and the body’s response to stress
their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and ▪ Alarm: fight-or-flight response
habits are normal and typical of the others ▪ Resistance: coping mechanisms
(“Everyone shares the same opinion as me,”) ▪ Exhaustion: body defenses resources are
Negative Cognitive Styles: depleted
Dichotomous Thinking/Absolutist/Black and White ▪ Hans Selye
Thinking o Stress-Appraisal/Cognitive Appraisal Theory –
- seeing only of the extremes of things, never the stress is a two-way process, it involves a production
middle of stressors and the response of an individual
- “either I ace this test or fail,” subjected to these stressors
Overgeneralization o Primary Appraisal: an individual tends to ask
- making generalizations about a negative aspect questions like, “What does this stressor and/or
- “bagsak ako sa physics, hindi na ko makaka-graduate situation mean?”, and “How can it influence me?”
ng college,” ▪ Understanding the stressor
Personalization
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o Secondary Appraisal: involves those feelings ▪ Long-Term Memory – stores on a relatively
related to dealing with the stressor or the stress it permanent basis, although, at times, it can be
produces difficult to retrieve
▪ Deals with the stressor o Chunks – meaningful grouping of stimuli that can
▪ Starts to assess internal and external resources be stored as a unit in STM
available to solve the problem o Rehearsal – repetition of information that has
▪ Positive: “I can do it if I do my best,” entered the STM
▪ Negative: “I cannot do it.” ▪ Repetitive: as long as it is repeated, it states in
Memory Disorders the STM
Anosognosia: no memories of his own illness ▪ Elaborative: transfers info to LTM
Confabulation: filling in memory gaps with imaginary o Tip-Of-The-Tongue Phenomenon – inability to
experiences recall information that one realizes one knows
Disorientation: cannot identify or recognize time, o Retrieval Cue – allow us to recall more easily
places, and persons ▪ Recall: memory task in which specific
De Javu: unfamiliar perceived as familiar information is retrieved
Jamais Vu: familiar perceived as unfamiliar ▪ Recognition: individual is presented with a
Hypermnesia: increased memory stimulus and asked whether they have been
Paramnesia: false or perverted memory exposed to it in the past or to identify it from the
Amnesia: loss of memory list of alternatives
o Types of Amnesia: o Levels-Of-Processing Theory – degree to which
1. Biogenic – caused by brain damage or disease new materials is mentally analyzed
▪ Retrograde – inability to retrieve information ▪ Implicit Memory: can be recalled automatically
that was acquired before (remote memory loss) without thinking
▪ Anterograde – inability to transfer new ▪ Explicit Memory: requires conscious retrieval of
information from the short-term store to long- information
term store (recent memory loss) o Constructive Processes – memories are influenced
2. Psychogenic or Dissociative or Functional – by the meaning we give to them
caused by psychological trauma, repressed memories ▪ Autobiographical: episodes from our own lives
▪ Generalized – origin is rare psychological ▪ Flashbulb Memories: specific or surprising
disorder and spontaneous recovery from amnesia events that are so vivid in memory it as if they
in a comparatively short period of time represented a snapshot of the event
▪ Localized – no memory of specific events o Forgetting – permits us to form general impressions
▪ Selective – can only recall only small parts of the and recollections
events ▪ Helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by
▪ Situation-Specific – result of severely stressful trivial stores of meaningless data
event, as part of PTSD ▪ Failure of Encoding: failure to pay attention
▪ Global – cannot recall both past and present; total and place information in memory
memory loss ▪ Decay: loss of information due to non-use
o Memory – the process by which we encode, store, ▪ Cue-Dependent Forgetting: insufficient
and retrieve information retrieval cues
▪ Declarative: factual information ▪ Proactive Interference: learned earlier disrupts
▪ Procedural: skills and habits the recall of newer material; you forget the new
▪ Semantic: general knowledge and facts, logic info
▪ Episodic: events that occur in a particular time, ▪ Retroactive Interference: difficulty in recalling
place, or context info learned earlier because of later exposure to
o Three-System Approach to Memory – information different material; you forget the old info
must travel if it is to be remembered o Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman) – if they
▪ Sensory: initial storage of information, perceived learn that nothing they do helps them avoid the
by the senses shocks, they eventually become helpless, give up,
▪ Short-Term Memory: holds info for 15 to 20 and manifest an animal equivalent of depression
seconds ▪ Anxiety is the first response to a stressful
situation
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▪ The depressive attributional style is (1) internal, Role of culture, social interactions, and interpersonal
(2) stable, (3) global factors in the development
o Aaron T. Beck suggested that depression may result o Sociogenic Factors:
from a tendency to interpret everyday events in a a. Unemployment
negative way b. Poverty
▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad – they make c. Crime
cognitive errors in thinking negatively about d. Poor Educational Level
themselves, their immediate world, and their o People who are isolated and lack social support or
future intimacy in their lives are more likely to become
▪ Series of negative events in childhood, depressed when under stress and to remain depressed
individuals may develop deep-seated negative longer than people with supportive spouses or warm
schema, an enduring negative cognitive belief friendships
system about some aspect of life o People’s online relationships tend to parallel their
o Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Theory - depression is offline relationships
caused by a combination of stressors in a person's o Family Systems Theory – family is a system of
environment and a lack of personal skills interacting parts who interact with one another in
diathesis-stress model consistent ways and follow rules unique to each
o Diathesis-Stress Model – individuals inherit family
tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors, ▪ Structure and communication patterns of some
which may then be activated under conditions of families actually force individual members to
stress (Eric Kandel) behave in a way that otherwise seems abnormal
▪ Diathesis – a condition that makes someone o An individual’s behavior, whether normal or
susceptible to developing disorder (vulnerability) abnormal, is best understood in the light of the
▪ The higher vulnerability, the lesser life stress individual’s unique cultural context
needed to trigger traits o Multicultural Perspective – each culture within
▪ Disturbances stem from a genetic predisposition large society has a particular set of values and beliefs,
triggered by stress as well as special external pressures, that help
▪ Predisposing Factor: cause of a disorder (i.e., account for the behavior and functioning of its
situations that trigger the development of the members (Culturally Diverse Perspective)
disorder) Suicide
▪ Precipitating Factor: factors that allow the o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person
disorders to develop (i.e., factors that could acts intentionally, directly, and consciously
contribute to the development of a disorder) o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at
▪ Protective Factor: reduces the severity of the the time they attempt suicide
problems ▪ May last only a short time
▪ Perpetuating Factor: factors that maintain the o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives,
problem once established but they act out of a belief that the process is already
Gene-Environment Interaction under the way and that they are simply hastening the
o Gene-Environment Correlation Model – people process
might have genetically determined tendency to o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their self-
create the environment risk factors that trigger a inflicted death will mean the end of their existence
genetic vulnerability o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or
o Epigenetics – study how your behavior and ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the
environment can cause changes that affect your moment of their attempt, and they show this
genes work ambivalence in the act itself
o Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model – claims ▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
that people with a genetic predisposition to a disorder death
may also have a genetic tendency to create o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
environmental factors that promote the disorder plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role
o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
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o Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method Selective Mutism
for killing oneself - rare childhood disorder
o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from - characterized by a lack of speech in one or more
attempts setting in which speaking is socially expected
o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types: - restricted to a specific social situation
a. Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self, - a child could speak in one setting but cannot/do not in
family, or society another setting
b. Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important - not better explained by communication disorder
provocation for suicide - only diagnosed when a child has established a
c. Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as capacity to speak in some social situations
sudden loss of job - learn to perform avoidance and safety behaviors to
d. Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny avoid disasters
o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious - at least 1 month
hostility directed inward to the self rather than Specific Phobia
outward to the person or situation causing the anger - irrational fear of a specific object or situation that
o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to
increased risk that someone else will also function
o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide - acquired through direct experience, experiencing in
and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of false alarm, and observation
serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and - it only fears one setting, unlike Agoraphobia (which
the tendency to overreact to situation) requires 3 settings), then Specific Phobia-Situational
o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major can be diagnosed
stress may affect several individuals who are - 6 months or more
vulnerable because of existing psychological Social Anxiety Disorder
disorders - fear or anxiety about possible embarrassment or
o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present scrutiny
circumstances, problems, or mood will not change - can have panic attacks but it is cued by social
o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and situations
solutions in rigid either/or terms - typically have adequate age-appropriate social
o Common triggering factors: relationships and social communication capacity
✓ Stressful events - 6 months or more
✓ Mood and thought changes Panic Disorder
✓ Alcohol and other drug use - cannot be diagnosed unless full symptom panic
✓ Mental disorders attacks were experienced
✓ Modeling - norepinephrine activities are irregular
Psychological Disorders and Specific Symptoms based - abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort out of
on DSM-5 (50) nowhere, with no triggers
Differentiating Anxiety disorders - followed by persistent concerns about more attacks or
Separation Anxiety Disorder the consequences of it or maladaptive change in
- concerns with real or imagined separating from behavior related to the attacks
attachment figures Agoraphobia
- separation may lead to extreme anxiety and panic - developed after a person has unexpected panic attacks
attacks - fear in two or more situations (public transpo, open
- not entirely responsible for school absences or school spaces, enclosed spaces, standing in line, being outside
avoidance of the home alone) due to thoughts that escape might
- do not attend school so they won’t be separated with be difficult or no one will help them in case panic-like
their attachment figure symptoms would manifest
- fear of possible separation is the central thought - 6 months or more
- concerned about the proximity and safety of key Generalized Anxiety Disorder
attachment figures - difficulty to control worry
- at least 4 weeks (children) or 6 months or more - excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than
(adults)
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not for at least 6 months, about a number of events or than reflecting generalized low mood
activities - distress from a deceased person
- “the world is a dangerous place” Differentiating OCD-Related Disorders
- intense cognitive processing in the frontal lobes, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
particularly in the left hemisphere - Obsessions: intrusive and mostly nonsensical
- intense worrying may act as avoidance thoughts, images, or urges that the individual tries to
- worry whether or not they are judged/evaluated resist or eliminate
- fear circuit is excessively active - Compulsions: thoughts or actions used to suppress the
Differentiating Trauma-and-Stressor Related obsessions and provide relief
Disorders - Tic Disorders is common to co-occur in patients with
Reactive Attachment Disorder OCD
- withdrawn toward adult caregivers - obsessions usually do not involve real life concerns
- evident before age 5 years and can include one, irrational, or magical content
- history of severe social neglect - In BDD and Tricho, the compulsive behavior is
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder limited to hair pulling or distortions in absence of
- actively approaches and interacts with unfamiliar obsessions
adults - obsessions and compulsions are not limited to
- can be distinguished from ADHD by not showing concerns about weight and food
difficulties in attention or hyperactivity - Compulsions are usually preceded by obsessions, tics
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder are often preceded by premonitory sensory urges
- exposure to actual death, injury or sexual violence Body Dysmorphic Disorder
(direct experience, witness, learning that the event - preoccupation with some imagined defect
happened to a close family, repeated exposure) - imagined ugliness
- more than 1 month - excessive appearance-related preoccupations and
- heightened activity in the HPA axis repetitive behaviors that are time-consuming
- requires trauma exposure precede the onset of the - can be co-morbid with eating disorders
symptoms Hoarding
- too much use of dissociation - difficulty discarding or parting with possessions
Acute Stress Disorder - Prader-Willi Syndrome: characterized by severe
- exposure to trauma (direct experience, witness, hypotonia, poor appetite, and feeding difficulties in
learning that event occurred to close fam, repeated early infancy, followed in early childhood by excessive
exposure) eating and gradual development of morbid obesity
- 3 days to 1 month after trauma exposure - not direct consequence of neurodevelopmental
- if the symptoms persists for more than 1 month and disorder, nor delusion, nor psychomotor retardation,
meet the criteria for PTSD, then PTSD will be fatigue, or loss of energy
diagnosed Trichotillomania
Adjustment Disorder - should not be diagnosed when hair removal is
- development of emotional or behavior symptoms in performed solely for cosmetic reasons
response to identifiable stressors occurring within 3 - diagnosis will be OCD, if there is obsession of
months of the onset of the stressors symmetry
- If symptoms persist beyond 6 months after the stressor - someone with ASD could have hair-pulling behaviors
or its consequences have ceased, the diagnosis will no when frustrated or angry, so if it’s impairing then it can
longer apply be diagnosed as stereotypic movement disorder
- May sometimes be diagnosed instead of bereavement - note the delusion or hallucination, if then, psychotic
if bereavement is judged to be out of proportion to what disorder
would be expected or significantly impairs self-care Excoriation
and interpersonal relations - note delusion or tactile hallucination
Prolonged Grief Disorder - In absence of deception, excoriation disorder can be
- death, at least 12 months, of a person close to the diagnosed if there are repeated attempts to decrease or
bereaved individual (6 months for children) stop skin picking
- focused on loss and separation from a loved one rather
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Explaining Somatic Symptom Disorders Evaluating DID from other Disorders
Somatic Symptom Disorder Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder
- one or more symptoms cause distress and disruption - Depersonalization: your perception alters so that you
of daily life temporarily lose the sense of your own reality, as if you
- chronic, influenced by the number of symptoms, age, are in a dream watching yourself
level of impairment, and any comorbidity - Derealization: your sense of external world is lost;
- ineffectiveness of analgesics, history of mental thing may seem to change shape or size, people may
disorders, unclear palliative factors, persistence seem dead or mechanical
without cessation, and stress - characterized by the presence of constellation of
- must be accompanied by excessive or typical depersonalization/derealization symptoms and
disproportionate thoughts, feelings, or behavior the absence of manifestations of illness anxiety
- focus is on the distress that particular symptoms cause disorder
- individual’s belief that somatic symptoms might - must precede the onset of major depressive epi or
reflect serious underlying physical illness are not held clearly continues even after its resolution
with delusional intensity - when symptoms occur ONLY during panic attacks, it
- with enhanced perceptual sensitivity to illness cues must not be diagnosed with D/DD
Illness Anxiety Disorder Dissociative Amnesia
- preoccupation with having or acquiring serious illness - inability to recall important autobiographical
- usually minimal to no symptoms, mild intensity information, usually of traumatic or stressful nature,
- interpret ambiguous stimuli as threatening that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting
- develop in the context of a stressful life - usually localized or selective amnesia for specific
- People who develop these disorders tend to have a events, then generalized, if entire life history
disproportionate incidence of disease in their family - Dissociative Fugue: memory loss revolves around
when they were children specific incident, an unexpected trip; individuals just
Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological take off and later find themselves in a new place, unable
Symptom Disorder) to remember why or how you got there
- altered voluntary motor or sensory function - If a person experiencing PTSD cannot recall part or
- incompatibility between the symptom and recognized all of specific trauma event and that extends to beyond
neurological or medical conditions the immediate time of the trauma, comorbid diagnosis
- unexpected neurological disease cause for the of DA may be warranted
symptoms is rarely found at follow-up - there must be no true neurocognitive deficits
- too much use of denial - too much use of repression
Psychological Factors affecting other Medical Dissociative Identity Disorder
Conditions - disruption of identity characterized by two or more
- medical symptom is present distinct personality states
- psychological or behavioral factors affect medical - host personality: the person who becomes the patient
condition and asks for treatment; developed later
- psychological or behavioral factors are judged to - switch: transition from one personality to another
affect the course of medical condition - extreme subtype of PTSD
- Psychological factors affecting other medical - Hypnotic Trance: tend to be focused on one aspect of
conditions is diagnosed when the psychological traits their world and they become vulnerable to suggestions
or behaviors do not meet criteria for a mental diagnosis by the hypnotist
Factitious Disorder - does not have a classic bipolar sleep disturbance
- Imposed on Self: individual present himself or herself - Individuals with schizophrenia have low hypnotic
as ill capacity, whilst, individuals with DID have highest
- Imposed on Another: presents another individual as ill hypnotic capacity among all clinical groups
- absence of obvious rewards - appear to encapsulate a variety of severe personality
- Malingering: false medical symptoms or exaggerating disorder features
existing symptoms in hopes of being rewarded - too much use of dissociation
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Illustrating Depressive Disorders o Bipolar disorder may simply be a more severe variant
Unipolar Disorders of mood disorders
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder Bipolar Disorders
- recurrent temper outburst (verbally or behaviorally) Bipolar I
that are grossly out of proportion - at least 1 manic episode
- 3 or more times/week - children should be judged according to his or her
- irritable or angry most of the day own baseline in determining whether a particular
- 12 or more months, at least 2 settings behavior is normal or evidence of manic episode
- onset should be after 6 yrs-18yrs - first ep usually MDE
- do not occur exclusively during MDE - factors that should be considered: family history,
- bipolar = episodic, DMD = persistent onset, medical history, presence of psychotic
- diagnosis cannot be assigned to a child who has ever symptoms, history of lack of response to
experienced full-duration hypomanic or manic episode antidepressant treatment or the emergence of manic
(irritable or euphoric) or who has ever had a manic or episode during antidepressant treatment
hypomanic episode lasting more than 1 day - The diagnosis is “Bipolar I disorder, with psychotic
- presence of severe and frequently recurrent outburst features” if the psychotic symptoms have occurred
and persistent disruption in mood between outburst EXCLUSIVELY during manic and major depressive
- severe in at least one setting and mild to moderate to episodes
second setting - Symptoms of mania in BP1 occur in distinct
Major Depressive Disorder episodes and typically begin in late adolescence or
- at least 2 weeks of either anhedonia or depressed early adulthood
mood - When any child is being assessed for Mania, it is
- “other specified depressive disorder” can be made in essential that the symptoms represent clear change
addition to the diagnosis of psychotic disorder from the child’s typical behavior
- in schizoaffective, delusions or hallucinations occur - Symptoms of mood lability and impulsivity must
exclusively for 2 weeks without MDE represent a distinct episode of illness, or there must be
- Seasonal, Catatonic, Melancholic a noticeable increase in these symptoms over the
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) individual’s baseline in order to justify an additional
- depressed mood for at least 2 years diagnosis of BP1
- if full criteria for a MDE has been met at some point Bipolar II
during the period of illness, a diagnosis of MDD - MDE + Hypomanic episodes
would apply. Otherwise, a diagnosis of “other - often begins with depressive episodes
specified depressive disorder” or “unspecified - highly recurrent
depressive disorder” should be given - once hypomanic episode has occurred, it never
- a separate diagnosis of PDD is not made if the reverts back to MDD
symptom occur only during the course of the - BP2 is distinguished from cyclEothymic disorder by
psychotic disorder the presence of one or more hypomanic episodes and
- Double Depression: suffer from both MDE and PDD one or more MDE
with fewer symptoms Cyclothymic Disorder
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder - milder but more chronic version of bipolar disorder
- majority of menstrual cycles, at least 5 symptoms - do not meet the complete criteria for depressive
must be present symptoms and hypomanic symptoms
o Seasonal Affective Disorder – episodes must have Explaining Eating and Sleeping Disorders
occurred for at least 2 yrs with no evidence of Eating Disorders
nonseasonal MDE during that period of time Pica
▪ Cabin fever - eating of non-nutritive, nonfood substances for at
o Integrated Grief – acute grief, the finality of death least 1 month
and its consequences are acknowledged and the - inappropriate to the developmental age
individual adjusts to the loss Rumination Disorder
o Complicated Grief – this reaction can develop - repeated regurgitation of food for at least 1 month
without preexisting depressed state - re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spit-out
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- not attributable to gastrointestinal or other medical - difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep
condition - early-morning awakening with inability to return to
- self-soothing or self-stimulating sleep
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder - at least 3 nights/week, for at least 3 months
- eating or feeding disturbance - Rebound Insomnia: sleep problems re-appearing, but
- lack of interest in eating food sometimes worst
- dependence on enteral feeding or nutritional - situational, persistent, or recurrent, episodic
supplements Hypersomnolence Disorder
- requires that the disturbance of intake is beyond that - excessive sleepiness despite having at least 7 hours
directly accounted for by physical symptoms of main sleep
consistent with medical condition; the eating - recurrent periods of sleep or lapses into sleep within
disturbance may also persist after being triggered by the same day
medical condition and following resolution of the - take longer naps, have trouble waking from naps,
medical condition and do not feel alert afterward
- if eating problems is the focus, then A/RFID, if - at least 3x/week, for at least 3 months
weight, then Anorexia Nervosa Narcolepsy
- might precede the onset of Anorexia Nervosa - recurrent episodes of irrepressible need to sleep,
Anorexia Nervosa lapsing into sleep, or napping with cataplexy,
- fear of gaining weight hypocretin deficiency, and evidence from
- subtypes: binge-eating/purging type and restricting polysomnography showing REM sleep latency less
type than or equal to 15 mins
- associated with stressful life event - 3x/week, for at least 3 months
- BDD may be considered if the distortion is unrelated Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea
to body shape and size - at least 4 obstructive apneas or hypopneas per hour
- amenorrhea and cardiovascular problems of sleep or evidence from polysomnography of 15 or
- very underweight more obstructive apneas and/or hypopneas per hour of
Bulimia Nervosa sleep
- recurrent episodes of binge-eating then purging to - Apnea: absence of airflow
prevent weight gain - Hypopnea: reduction in airflow
- binge-eating for at least once a week for 3 months Central Sleep Apnea
- normal weight - evidence by polysomnography of 5 or more central
- chronic purging can result to enlargement of salivary apneas per hour of sleep
gland caused by repeated vomiting, causing chubby - Cheyne-Stokes Breathing: an abnormal pattern of
face breathing characterized by progressively deeper, and
- electrolyte imbalance that may lead to arrythmia, sometimes faster, breathing followed by a gradual
seizures, and renal failure decrease that results in a temporary stop in breathing
Binge-Eating Disorder called an apnea
- recurrent episodes of just binge eating Sleep-Related Hypoventilation
- do not show marked or sustained dietary restriction - Polysomnography demonstrates episodes of
designed to influence body weight and shape between decreased respiration associated with elevated CO2
binge-eating episodes levels
- usually overweight Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorders
Elimination Disorders - persistent or recurrent pattern of sleep disruption due
Enuresis to alteration of the circadian system or misalignment
- repeated voiding of urine in bed, voluntary or between the endogenous circadian rhythm
intentional - leads to excessive sleepiness or insomnia, or both
Encopresis Non-REM Sleep Arousal Disorders
- repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places - incomplete awakening from sleep: sleepwalking or
Sleeping Disorders sleep terrors
Insomnia - cannot remember anything when they woke up
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- occur mostly in childhood and non-rem sleeps - anxiety about anticipating vulvovaginal or pelvic
- produce rapid and complete awakening without pain
confusion, amnesia, or motor activity - at least 6 months
Nightmare Disorder Male Hypoactive Sexual Disorder
- repeated occurrences of extended, extremely - persistently deficient or absent sexual/erotic thoughts
dysphoric, and well-remembered dreams that usually or fantasies and desire for sexual activity
involve efforts to avoid threats to survival, security, or - at least 6 months
physical integrity Premature (Early) Ejaculation
- upon awakening, they become oriented and alert - ejaculation approx. 1 min following vaginal
- appear in children exposed to acute or chronic penetration or even before the individual wishes it
psychosocial stressors - at least 6 months and must be experienced on almost
- occur during REM Sleep all or all occasions
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Paraphilic disorders
- repeated episodes of arousal during sleep associated Voyeuristic Disorder
with vocalization and/or complex motor behaviors - intense arousal from observing an unsuspecting
- during REM sleep naked person for at least 6 months
- upon awakening, the individual is completely awake, - nonconsensual
alert, and not confused - at least 18 yrs old
Restless Legs Disorder Exhibitionistic Disorder
- urge to move the legs, usually accompanied or in - intense arousal from exposing genitals to an
response to uncomfortable and unpleasant sensations unsuspecting person for at least 6 months
of the legs - nonconsensual
- during rests Frotteuristic Disorder
- sense of relief during the movement - intense arousal from touching or rubbing genitals
- worse in evening against nonconsenting person for at least 6 months
- 3x/week, for at least 3 months - nonconsensual
Evaluating Sexual dysfunctions, Paraphilic disorders, Sexual Masochism
and Gender Dysphoria - intense sexual arousal from the act of being
Sexual Dysfunctions humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer
Delayed Ejaculation for at least 6 months
- delay or absence of ejaculation Sexual Sadism
- at least 6 months - intense sexual arousal from the physical suffering of
- either lifelong or acquired, generalized or situational another person for at least 6 months
Erectile Disorder Pedophilic Disorder
- difficulty having, maintaining erection and decrease - intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or
in erectile rigidity behaviors involving prepubescent child or children for
- at least 6 months at least 6 months
Female Orgasmic Disorder - has ACTED on these urges
- delay or absence of orgasm and reduced intensity of - at least 16 yrs old and at least 5 yrs older than the
orgasmic sensations child or children
- at least 6 months Fetishistic Disorder
- either lifelong or acquired, generalized or situational - intense sexual arousal from either the use of
Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder nonliving objects or highly specific focus on
- absent/reduced interest in sexual activity nongenital body parts for at least 6 months
- no sexual thoughts or fantasies, no initiation, no - not limited to cross-dressing or sex toys
sexual excitement or pleasure during sex Transvestic Disorder
- at least 6 months - intense arousal from cross-dressing for at least 6
Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder months
- difficulties in vaginal penetration during intercourse
- vaginal pain during intercourse or penetration
attempts
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Gender Dysphoria Caffeine – most common psychoactive substance
Gender Dysphoria - “gentle stimulant”
- marked incongruence between one’s - found in tea, coffee, soda, and cocoa products
experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender, for Cannabis (Marijuana) – reactions include mood
at least 6 months swings or even dream-like experiences
- intersexuality or hermaphroditism - chronic and heavy users report tolerance, especially
- slightly higher levels of testosterone or estrogen at to euphoric high: they are unable to reach the levels of
certain critical periods of development pleasure they experienced earlier
Explaining Substance-Related and Addictive Disorder Hallucinogens – most common, “LSD” produced
o Substance – chemical compounds that are ingested synthetically in the laboratory
to alter mood or behavior - others: psilocybin (mushroom), lysergic acid amide
o Psychoactive substances – alter mood, behavior, or (seeds of morning glory plant), dimethyltryptamine
both (DMT), and mescaline
o Substance Use – ingestion of psychoactive - Phencyclidine (PCP) is snorted, smoked, or injected
substances in moderate amounts that does not intravenously, and it causes impulsivity and
significantly interfere with social, educational, or aggressiveness
occupational functioning Inhalant – solvents, aerosol sprays, gases, nitrites,
o Substance Intoxication – physiological reaction to usually found at home or workplace
ingested substances Opioid – natural chemicals in the opium poppy that
o Substance Use Disorders – how much of a have narcotic effect (relieves pain and induce sleep)
substance is ingested is problematic - includes natural opiates, synthetic variation, and the
o Physiological Dependence – meaning the use of comparable substances that occur naturally in the brain
increasingly greater amounts of the drug to - also includes Heroin
experience the same effect (tolerance) and a negative Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic- - calming, sleep-
physical response when the substance is no longer inducing, and anxiety-reducing
ingested (withdrawal) - includes barbiturates and benzodiazepines
Alcohol – produced when certain yeast react with sugar - barbiturates and benzodiazepines relax the muscles
and water, then fermentation takes place and can produce mild feeling of well being
- depressant - combining alcohol with these substances can be fatal
- inhibitions are reduced and we become more outgoing (Manilyn Monroe case)
- with more drinking, alcohol depresses the brain which Stimulant – most commonly consumed psychoactive
impedes the functioning drugs in US
- Withdrawal Delirium (Delirium Tremens): condition - includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and
that can produce frightening hallucinations and body cocaine
tremors - Amphetamine: can induce feelings of elation and
- Breathalyzer: measures levels of intoxication vigor and can reduce fatigue; prescribed to people with
- GABA seems to be particularly sensitive to alcohol narcolepsy and ADHD
- The Glutamate system is involve why alcohol affects - another variants of Amphetamine are Methylene-
our cognitive abilities dioxymethamphetamine or ecstasy club drug (makes
- Two types of organic brain syndromes may result you feel euphoric) and methamphetamine (crystal
from long-term alcohol use: Dementia and Wernicke- meth)
Korsakoff Syndrome (Confusion, loss of muscle - Cocaine: increases alertness, produces euphoria,
coordination, and unintelligible speech, believed to be increases blood pressure and pulse, and causes
cause by a deficiency of thiamine) insomnia and loss of appetite
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - Intranasal use and oral use of substances result in
- Alcohol Dehydrogenase: metabolize alcohol more gradual progression occurring over months to
- Korsakoff syndrome: is a chronic memory disorder years
caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1). Tobacco – contains nicotine
- Korsakoff syndrome is most caused by alcohol - linked with signs of negative affect such as
misuse, but certain other conditions also can cause the depression, anxiety, and anger
syndrome
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- being depressed increases your risk of becoming - conveys risk for the development of anxiety disorders
dependent on nicotine and, at the same time, being and MDD
dependent will increase your risk of becoming - increased risk for a number of problems in adjustment
depressed as adults
o Acute alcohol withdrawal occurs as an episode - less severe than CD and do not include aggression
usually lasting 4-5 days and only after extended towards people, property (IED)
periods of heavy drinking - co-morbid with ADHD
o Withdrawal is rare for individuals younger than 30 - diagnosis should not be made if the symptoms occur
years exclusively during the course of a mood disorder
o The symptoms of an alcohol-induced mental - if criteria for DMDD are met, then DMM is given
disorder are likely to remain clinically relevant as even if all criteria for ODD are met
long as the individual continues to experience severe Intermittent Explosive Disorder
intoxication or withdrawal - behavioral outburst, failure to control aggressive
o Genetic factors may affect how people experience impulses
and metabolize certain drugs - verbal aggression, physical aggression twice weekly
o Positive and Negative Reinforcement for a period of 3 months
o Opponent-Process Theory – an increase in positive - at least 6 yrs of age
feelings will be followed shortly by an increase in - quite common regardless of the presence of ADHD or
negative feelings and vice versa other disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct
o Expectancy Effect – expectancies develop before disorders
people actually use drugs, perhaps as a result of loved - Also should not be made in children and adolescents
one’s use, advertising, etc. ages 6-18 years, when the impulsive aggressive
o Treatment: Nicotine replacement therapy, outbursts occur in the context of an adjustment disorder
Bupropion, Naltrexone, Acamprosate, Disulfiram, - A diagnosis of DMDD can only be given when the
Methadone, Buprenorphine, Aversion Therapy, In- onset of recurrent, problematic, impulsive aggressive
patient treatments, Aversion Therapy, etc. outburst is before age of 10 years
o Cross-Tolerance – tolerance for a substance has not - A diagnosis of DMDD should be made for the first
taken before as a result of using another substance time after 18 years
similar to it - Aggression in ODD is typically characterized by
o Synergistic Effect – an increase of effects that temper tantrums and verbal arguments with authority
occurs when more than one substance is acting on the figures, whereas IED are in response to a broader array
body at the same time of provocation and include physical assault
Gambling Disorder Conduct Disorder
- persistent and recurring gambling behavior - repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which
- at least 4-symptoms within 12 months the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate
- Onset can occur during adolescence or young societal norms or rules are violated
adulthood but in other individuals it manifests during - often bullies, initiates fights, physically cruel,
middle or even older adulthood destroying properties, theft, serious violation of rules
- Progression appears to be more rapid in women than - Onset may occur as early as the preschool years, but
in men the first significant symptoms usually emerge during
- An additional diagnosis of gambling disorder should the period from middle childhood through middle
be given only if the gambling behavior is not better adolescence
explained by manic episodes - ODD is the most common precursor to the childhood-
Explaining Disruptive, Impulse-Control disorders, onset type
and Conduct Disorder - Physically aggressive symptoms = childhood
Oppositional Defiant Disorder - Nonaggressive symptoms = adolescence
- angry irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior - May be diagnosed in adults, though onset is rare after
against authority figure for at least 6 months age 16 years
- annoys others - Childhood-onset type predicts a worse prognosis and
- blames others for his/her mistakes an increased risk of criminal behavior in adulthood
- precedes the development of conduct disorder
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- When criteria for both ODD and CD are met, both Schizotypal
diagnoses can be given - typically socially isolated and behave in ways that
- When criteria for both ADHD and CD are met, both would seem unusual to many of us, and they tend to be
diagnoses can be given suspicious and to have odd beliefs
- Individuals with conduct disorder will display - “ideas of reference” – false beliefs that random or
substantial levels of aggressive or nonaggressive irrelevant occurrences in the world directly relate to
conduct problems during periods in which there is no oneself
mood disturbance, either historically or concurrently - have odd beliefs or engage in magical thinking
- If criteria for both IED and CD has been met, the - associated with childhood mistreatment and could be
diagnosis of IED should be given only when the resulted from PTSD symptoms
recurrent impulsive aggressive outbursts warrant - “It is better to be isolated from others”
independent clinical attention Cluster B
- CD is diagnosed only when the conduct problems Histrionic
represent a repetitive and persistent pattern that is - tend to be overly dramatic and almost to be acting
associated with impairment in social, academic, or - express emotions in an exaggerated manner
occupational functioning - histrionic and antisocial co-occur more often
Pyromania - “ako ang bida”
- purposeful fire setting on more than one occasion Borderline
- arousal before the act - moods and relationships are unstable, and usually
- fascination to fire and its situational context they have poor self-image
- not done for monetary gain or etc. - often feel empty and are great risk of dying by their
- separate diagnosis is not given when fire setting own hands
occurs as part of CD, manic episode, or antisocial - often engage to suicidal behaviors
personality disorder - tend to have turbulent relationships, fearing
Kleptomania abandonment but lacking control over their emotions
- failure to resist impulses to steal objects that are not - often intense, going from anger to deep depression in
need for personal use a short time
- increase tension before committing the theft - prevalent in families with history of mood disorders
- pleasure after committing the theft - if co-occurs with mood disorders, both are diagnosed
Illustrating the different Personality Disorders - recovery is more difficult and less stable
Cluster A - “sad gorl iz me”
Paranoid Narcissistic
- excessively mistrustful and suspicious of others, - they consider themselves different from others and
without justification deserve special treatment
- more common among relatives who have - unreasonable sense of self-importance and are so
schizophrenia preoccupied with themselves that they lack sensitivity
- maybe due to early mistreatment or traumatic and compassion
childhood experiences - grandiosity
- associated with prior history of childhood - “I am the greatest in the world”
mistreatment, externalizing symptoms, bullying, and Antisocial
adult appearance of interpersonal aggression - characterized as having history of failing to comply
- “I cannot trust people” with social norms
- too much use of projection - at least 18 years of age
Schizoid - evidence of CD before 15 years old
- detachment from social relationships and limited - irresponsible, impulsive, and deceitful
range of emotions - lacking in conscience and empathy, selfishly take
- tendency to turn inward and away from the outside what they want and do as they please, violating social
world norms and expectations
- childhood shyness is reported as a precursor to later - CD will be given if the criteria for Antisocial PD is
personality disorder not met
- “Relationships are messy and undesirable”
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- Underarousal Hypothesis: psychopaths have ▪ Combined several symptoms of insanity that had
abnormally low levels of cortical arousal usually been viewed as reflecting separate and
- Fearlessness Hypothesis: psychopaths possess a distinct disorders:
higher threshold for experiencing fear than most other a. Catatonia – alternating immobility and excited
individuals agitation
- “I am entitled to break rules” b. Hebephrenia – silly and immature emotionality
Cluster C c. Paranoia – delusions of grandeur or persecution
Avoidant ▪ Distinguished dementia praecox
- extremely sensitive of the opinion of others and ▪ Also noted the numerous symptoms in people
although they desire social relationship, their anxiety with dementia praecox, including hallucinations,
leads them to avoid delusions, negativism, and stereotyped behavior
- extremely low self-esteem cause them to be limited o Eugen Bleuler – introduced the term schizophrenia
with friendships and dependent to those they feel (“splitting of mind”)
comfy with ▪ Associative Splitting
- feel chronically rejected by others and pessimistic o Positive Symptoms:
about their future 1. Delusions – misrepresentation of reality (disorder
- negative self-concept of thought content)
- Social Anxiety Disorder – negative evaluations ▪ Persecutory – belief that one is going to be
- “If they knew the real me, they would reject me” harmed, harassed and so forth
Dependent ▪ Referential – certain gestures, comments,
- rely on others to make ordinary decisions and even environmental cues, and so forth are directed at
important ones which results in an unreasonable fear of one-self)
abandonment ▪ Grandiose – when an individual believes that he
- agree with other people’s opinion just to be not or she has exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame
rejected ▪ Erotomanic – when an individual believes
- feel uncomfortable or helpless when alone falsely that another person is in love with him or
- “I need people to survive and be happy” her
Obsessive-Compulsive ▪ Nihilistic – conviction that a major catastrophe
- perfectionist will occur
- fixation on things being done “the right way” ▪ Somatic – focus on preoccupations regarding
- this preoccupation with details prevents them from health and organ function
completing much of anything ▪ Thought Withdrawal – thoughts have been
- need to control “removed” by outside force
- when criteria for both OCD and OCPD are met, both ▪ Thought Insertion – thoughts have been put into
can be given one’s mind
- “I am perfectionist, everything should be done under ▪ Delusions of Control – one’s body or actions are
my control and liking” being acted on or manipulated by some outside
Illustrating Schizophrenia force
o John Haslam – superintendent of a British Hospital ▪ Capgras Syndrome – person believes someone
who outlined a description of the symptoms of he or she knows has been replaced by a double
Schizophrenia in his book Observations on Madness ▪ Cotard’s Syndrome – the person believes he or
and Melancholy she is dead
o Philippe Pinel – French physician who described ▪ Clerambault Syndrome - characterized by the
cases of schizophrenia delusional idea, usually in a young woman, that a
o Benedict Morel – used the term demence precoce man whom she considers to be of higher social
meaning early or premature loss of mind to describe and/or professional standing is in love with her
schizophrenia ▪ Fregoli Syndrome – a person holds a delusional
o Emil Kraepelin – unified the distinct categories of belief that different people are in fact a single
schizophrenia under the name Dementia Praecox person who changes his or her appearance or is in
disguise
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▪ Motivational View of Delusions – look at these o Prodromal Stage – 1-2 year period before the
beliefs as attempts to deal with and relieve serious symptoms occur but when less severe yet
anxiety and stress unusual behaviors start to show themselves
▪ Deficit View of Delusions – sees these beliefs as o Schizophrenia is partially the result of excessive
a resulting from brain dysfunction that creates stimulation of striatal dopamine d2 receptors
these disordered cognitions or perceptions o It appears that several brain sites are implicated in the
2. Hallucinations – experience of sensory events cognitive dysfunction observed among people with
without any input from the surrounding schizophrenia, especially prefrontal cortex, various
environment related cortical regions and subcortical circuits,
▪ Auditory Hallucination – most common form including thalamus and the striatum
experienced by people with schizophrenia o Schizophrenogenic Mother – used for a time to
▪ Most active part during Hallucination is Broca’s describe a mother whose cold, dominant, and
Area (speech production) rejecting nature was thought to cause schizophrenia
▪ Autoscopic Hallucination - individual in her children
experiences, all or part of the person's own body o Double bind communication – used to portray
appeared within the external space, viewed from communication style that produced conflicting
his/her physical body messages, which cased schizophrenia to develop
▪ Hypnagogic Hallucination – happens during o Families with high expressed emotion view the
sleep symptoms of schizophrenia as controllable and that
▪ Ictal Hallucination – associated with temporal the hostility arises when family members think that
lobe foci patients just do not want help themselves
▪ Hypnopompic Hallucinations – happens when Delusional Disorder
waking up - one or more delusions for at least 1 month
o Negative Symptoms – usually indicate absence or - persistent belief that is contrary to the reality in the
insufficiency of normal behavior absence of other characteristics of schizophrenia
a. Avolition – inability to initiate and persist - tend not to have flat affect, anhedonia, or other
activities negative symptoms
b. Anhedonia – lack of pleasure - socially isolated due to being suspicious
c. Asociality – lack of interest in social interactions - Shared Psychotic Disorder (Folie a Deux): condition
d. Flat Affect/Affective Flattening – do not show in which an individual develops delusions simply as a
emotions when you would normally expect them result of a close relationship with a delusional
to individual
o Disorganized Symptoms - Erotomanic, Grandiose, Jealous, Persecutory,
1. Disorganized Speech – individual may switch Somatic, Mixed, Unspecified
from one topic to another (derailment or loose - functioning is better than what is observed in
associations) or answers to questions may be Schizophrenia
related or completely unrelated (tangentiality) - eventually develop schizophrenia
▪ Word Salad - absence of active phase of schizophrenia
▪ Clang associations – are groups of words chosen Brief Psychotic Disorder
because of the catchy way they sound, not - presence of one of the ff: delusions, hallucinations,
because of what they mean disorganized speech, catatonic behavior for at least 1
2. Inappropriate Affect – laughing or crying at day but less than 1 month, with eventual full return to
improper times premorbid level of functioning
3. Grossly Disorganized or abnormal motor - can experience relapse
behavior – childlike silliness to unpredictable - if psychotic symptoms persist for at least 1 day in PD,
agitation an additional diagnosis of Brief Psychotic Disorder
o Neologisms – construction of new words in order to may be appropriate
communicate with schizophrenics thoughts Schizophreniform Disorder
o More severe symptoms of schizophrenia first occur - two or more of the following, present during a 1-
in late adolescence or early adulthood month period: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized
speech, catatonic behavior, negative symptoms
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- at least 1 month BUT less than 6 months Speech Sound Disorder
- development similar to schizophrenia - difficulty in speech sound production
Schizophrenia - children’s progression in mastering speech sound
- two or more of the following, present during 1-month production should result in most intelligible speech by
period: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, 3 years old
catatonic behavior, negative symptoms - continuous use of immature phonological
- disturbance in one or more major areas simplification processes when the child has already
- at least 6 months passed the age wherein most of them can now produce
- abrupt or insidious words clearly
- prognosis is influenced both by duration and by - when LD is present, Speech Sound Disorder has
severity of illness and gender poorer prognosis
- possible reduced psychotic experience during late life - selective mutism may develop
- too much use of regression Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (stuttering)
Schizoaffective Disorder - disturbances in normal fluency and time patterning of
- major mood ep + delusions or hallucinations for 2 or speech that are inappropriate for the individual’s age
more weeks and language skills
- some individuals tend to change diagnosis into mood - can be insidious or more sudden
disorder or to schizophrenia over time Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder
Neurodevelopmental Disorders - difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal
Intellectual Developmental Disorder communication
- includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning - deficits in using communication for social purposes in
deficits in conceptual, social, and practical domains a manner that is appropriate for the social context
- difficulties with day-to-day activities to an extent that - difficulties in following the rules of conversating and
reflects both severity of their cognitive deficits and the do not understand metaphors, etc.
type and amount of assistance their receive - current symptoms or developmental history fails to
- difficulties in conceptual, social, and judgement reveal evidence that could meet the
- causes: deprivation, abuse, neglect, exposure to restrictive/repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or
disease or drugs during pre-natal, difficulties during activities of ASD
labor and delivery, infections, and head injury Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Phenylketonuria, Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome, Down - deficient Communication, Restrictive/Repetitive
Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome Actions/Behaviors, Impaired Social Interaction
- generally nonprogressive, there are period of - evident in early childhood
worsening, then stabilization, and in others progressive - failure to develop age-appropriate social
of intellectual function in varying degrees relationships, social reciprocity, nonverbal comms, and
- lifelong initiating and maintaining social relationships
Global Developmental Delay - inability to engage in joint attention
- for children under 5 years old when they fail to meet - maintenance of sameness
expected developmental milestone in several areas of - The developmental course and absence of restrictive,
functioning repetitive behaviors and unusual interests in ADHD
Language Disorder help in differentiating ASD and ADHD
- difficulties in acquisition and use of language - A concurrent diagnosis of ADHD should be
modalities due to DEFICITS in comprehension and considered when attentional difficulties or
production hyperactivity exceeds that typically seen in individuals
- reduced vocab, limited sentence structure, of comparable mental age
impairments in discourse - ADHD is one of the most common comorbidities in
- regional, social, or cultural/ethnic variations must be ASD
considered when an individual is being assessed - A diagnosis of ASD in individual with IDD is
- declines in critical social communication behavior appropriate when social communication and
during the first two years of life are evident in most interaction are significantly impaired relative to the
children with ASD, thus, it must be not confused with developmental level of the individual’s nonverbal skills
LD
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- IDD is appropriate diagnosis when there is no - Motor Stereotypies are defined as involuntary
apparent discrepancy between the level of social rhythmic, repetitive, predictable movements that
communicative skills and other intellectual skills appear purposeful but serve no obvious adaptive
- The diagnosis of ASD supersedes that of social function; often self-soothing or pleasurable and stop
communication disorder whenever the criteria for ASD with distraction
are met, and care should be taken to enquire carefully Neurocognitive Disorders
regarding past or current restricted/repetitive behavior Delirium
- Rett Disorder – genetic condition that affects mostly - characterized by impaired consciousness and
females and is characterized by hand wringing and poor cognition during the course of several hours or days
coordination - appear confused, disoriented, and out of touch with
- Clear genetic component their surroundings
- Evidence of brain damage combined with - effects may more lasting
psychosocial influences - can be experienced by children who have high fevers
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or taking certain medication
- pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity - reversible
that interferes functioning for at least 6 months - occurs during the course of dementia
- dislikes organization, focused work - full recovery with or without treatment
- often losses things, forgets daily activities, and easily Major Neurocognitive Disorder
distracted - gradual deterioration of brain functioning that affects
- fidgets a lot, stands up when seating is expected, memory, judgement, language, and other advanced
always “on the go” cognitive process
- present in two or more settings Mild Neurocognitive Disorder
- difficulty sustaining their attention on task or activity - early stages of cognitive declines
- in pre-school, main manifestation is hyperactivity - most impairments in cognitive abilities but can, with
- Fidgetiness and restlessness in ADHD are typically some accomodations
generalized and not characterized by repetitive o Dementia – describe a group of symptoms affecting
stereotypic movements memory, thinking, and social abilities severely
- A diagnosis of ADHD in IDD requires that inattention enough to interfere daily life
or hyperactivity be excessive for mental age Alzheimer’s
Specific Learning Disorder – most common type of neurocognitive disorder,
- difficulties learning and using academic skills for at usually occurring after the age 65, marked most
least 6 months, despite interventions prominently by memory impairment
- academic skills are substantially and quantifiably - Usually begins with mild memory problems, lapses of
below those expected for the individual’s chronological attention, and difficulties in language and
age, IQ, and education communication
Developmental Coordination Disorder - Excessive senile plaques (sphere-shaped deposits of
- acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills beta-amyloid protein that form in the spaces between
are below expected given the chronological age certain neurons and in certain blood vessels of the brain
- clumsiness, slowness, and inaccuracy of performance as people age) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted
of motor skills protein fibers that form within certain neurons)
Stereotypic Movement Disorder - includes multiple cognitive deficits that develop
- repetitive, seemingly driven, and apparently gradually and steadily
purposeless motor behavior - inability to integrate new information results to failure
- may result in self-injury to learn new association
Tic Disorders - Anomia, Apraxia, Agnosia, Amnesia, Aphasia
- Tourette’s: both motor and one or more vocal tics for - cognitive deterioration is slow during the early and
more than 1 year later stages but more rapid during middle stages
- Persistent: single or multiple motor or vocal tics, but Vascular Injury
NOT BOTH for more than 1 year - when the blood vessels in the brain are blocked or
- Provisional: single or multiple more and/or vocal tics damaged and no longer carry oxygen and other
for less than 1 year since the first onset
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nutrients to certain areas of brain tissues, damage - caused by prions (proteins that can reproduce and
results cause damage to brain cells leading to neurocognitive
- declines in speed of information processing and decline
executive functioning - no treatment but not contagious
Frontotemporal Degeneration - Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: symptoms include spasms
- categorize a variety of brain disorders that damage the of the body caused by slow acting virus that may live
frontal or temporal regions of the brain – areas that in the body for years before the disease develops
affect personality, language, and behavior Therapeutic Interventions of Psychological Disorders
- declines in appropriate behavior or language (10)
- Pick’s Disease: rare neurological condition that Different Psychological Interventions
produces symptoms similar to Alzheimer’s, usually Treatment: Definition of Terms
occurring in relatively early in life (40s or 50s) o Idiographic Data – specific details and background
Traumatic Brain Injury information
- symptoms must persist for at least a week following ▪ Specific or unique information
the trauma, including executive dysfunction and
o Nomothetic – broad information, nature, and
problems with learning and memory
treatment
Lewy Body Disease
▪ Generalization or commonalities with other
- involves the buildup of clumps of protein deposits
called Lewy Bodies, within many neurons context
- Features significant movement difficulties, visual o Treatment – also known as therapy, procedure
hallucinations, and sleep disturbances designed to change abnormal behavior to a more
- Second most common neurocognitive disorder normal behavior
- gradual and include impairment in alertness and ▪ Consists of client, therapies, and series of contact
attention, vivid visual hallucinations, and motor between them
impairment Psychological Interventions
Parkinson’s Disease Psychodynamic
- slowly progressive neurological disorder marked by 1. Free Association – therapist tells the patient to
tremors, rigidity, and unsteadiness describe any thought, feeling, or image that comes to
- motor problems, tend to have stooped posture, slow mind even if it seems unimportant
body movements (bradykinesia), tremors, and jerkiness 2. Transference – they act and feel toward the therapist
- damage in dopamine pathways as they did toward important person in their lives
HIV Infection 3. Resistance – unconscious refusal to participate fully
- HIV infection seems to be responsible for the in the therapy
neurological impairment 4. Dreams interpretation – can reveal unconscious
- early symptoms: cognitive slowness, impaired instincts, needs, and wishes
attention, and forgetfulness - Manifest: consciously remembered dream
- clumsy, repetitive movements, and become apathetic - Latent: meaning
and socially withdrawn 5. Catharsis – reliving past repressed feelings
- sometimes referred as Subcortical Dementia 6. Working Through – patient and therapist must
- more likely to experience depression and anxiety examine the same issues over and over in the course of
Substance-Use many sessions
- use of different psychoactive substances + poor diet 7. Short-Term Psychodynamic Therapies – patient
- include memory impairment, aphasia, apraxia, choose a single problem, a dynamic focus to work on
agnosia, or disturbance in executive functioning and work only on the psychodynamic issues that relate
Huntington’s to it
- inherited progressive disease in which memory 8. Relational Psychoanalytic Therapy – therapist
problems, along with personality changes and mood disclosing things about themselves, particularly their
difficulties, worsen over time own reactions to patients, and try to establish more
- Have movement problems too, such as severe equal relationships with patients
twitching and spasms
Prion Disease
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8. Hypnotherapy – patient undergoes hypnosis and is - Mindfulness-Based CBT (Acceptance and
then guided to recall forgotten events or perform other Commitment Therapy)
therapeutic activities - Behavioral Activation: therapy for depression in
9. Play Therapy – an approach to treating childhood which the client is guided systematically increase the
disorders that helps children express their conflicts and number of constructive and pleasurable activities and
feelings indirectly by drawing, playing, and making events in his or her life
stories - Cognitive Remediation: focuses on the cognitive
Humanistic impairments that often characterize people with
1. Client-Centered Therapy – clinicians try to help schizophrenia, particularly their difficulties in
clients by accepting, empathizing accurately, and attention, planning, and memory
conveying genuineness (Carl Rogers) - Hallucination Reinterpretation and Acceptance
2. Support Group 2. Neutralizing – attempting to eliminate thoughts that
3. Home-Based Self-Help Programs one finds unacceptable by thinking or behaving in ways
4. Social Skills Training that make up for those thoughts and so put right
5. Family Therapy – therapist meets with the all the internally
members of a family and helps them to change in 3. Exposure and Response (Ritual) Prevention –
therapeutic ways treatment of OCD that exposes client to anxiety-
6. Group Therapy – group of people with similar arousing thoughts or situations and then prevents the
problems meet together with a therapist to work on client from performing his or her compulsive acts
those problems 4. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy – people identify and
7. Psychological Debriefing – form of crisis change the maladaptive assumptions and ways of
intervention in which victims are helped to talk their thinking that help cause their psychological disorders
feelings and reactions to traumatic experiences 5. Aversion Therapy – client are repeatedly presented
- critical incident stress debriefing with unpleasant stimuli while performing undesirable
8. Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) – treatment for behavior such as taking drug
depression that based on belief that clarifying and 6. Relapse-Prevention Training – treatment for
changing one’s interpersonal problems will help lead to alcohol use disorder in which clients are taught to keep
recovery track of their drinking behavior, apply coping strategies
9. Motivational Interviewing – use mixture of in situation that typically trigger excessive drinking,
empathy and inquiring review to motivate clients to and plan ahead for risky situations and reactions
recognize they have serious psychological problem and 7. Cognitive Processing Therapy – intervention for
to commit to making constructive choices and behavior people with PTSD in which therapist guide individuals
changes to examine and change the dysfunctional attitudes and
10. Milieu Therapy – institutions can help patients styles of interpretation they have developed as a result
recover by creating a climate that promotes self- of their traumatic experiences, thus, enabling them to
respect, individual responsible behavior, and deal with difficult memories and feelings
meaningful activity Biological
11. Parent Management Training – combine family 1. Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs – also called as
and cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve anxiolytic, produce feelings of relaxation and
family functioning and help parents deal with their drowsiness
children more effectively - Benzodiazepines: sedative that slow down body and
12. Gestalt Therapy – clinicians actively move clients brain’s function (depressant)
toward self-recognition and self-acceptance by using - Barbiturates: medication that causes relaxation and
techniques such as role playing and self-discovery drowsiness (depressant)
exercises 2. Antidepressant – improve the mood of people with
Cognitive depression
1. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy – seek to help - increase the activity of serotonin and norepinephrine
clients change both counterproductive behaviors and 3. Antipsychotic – correct grossly confused or
dysfunctional ways of thinking distorted thinking
- Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy - relieve anxiety by altering the activity of dopamine
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4. Vagus Nerve Stimulation – treatment for 5. Contingency Management – an operant
depression in which implanted pulse generator sends conditioning training program wherein clients are
regular electrical signals to a person’s vagus nerve, then offered incentives that are contingent on the
stimulates the brain submission of drug-free urine specimens
5. Electroconvulsive Therapy – electrodes attached to Illustrate the Application of Psychological
patient’s head and send an electrical current through the Interventions for treatment
brain, causing seizure Disorder Treatment
6. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation – Generalized Anxiety - Free Association
electromagnetic coil, which placed on or above a Disorder - Dreams
person’s head sends a current into the person’s brain - Transference
7. Mood Stabilizers – stabilize the moods of people - Resistance
suffering from bipolar disorder - Client-Centered
- also known as antibipolar drugs Therapy
- Lithium: metallic element that occurs in nature as - CBT (Rational-Emotive
mineral salt and is an effective treatment for bipolar Therapy, Mindfulness-
disorders Based CBT)
8. Detoxification – systematic and medically - Benzodiazepines
supervised withdrawal from a drug - Antidepressant
9. Antagonist Drug – block or change the effects of an - Antipsychotic
addictive drug - Play Therapy
10. Antianxiety – also called as minor tranquilizers, Specific Phobia - Exposure Treatments
help in reducing tension and anxiety - Systematic
11. SSRIs – treat depression by increasing the levels of - Desensitization
serotonin in the brain - Flooding
- block reabsorption of serotonin into neurons Agoraphobia, - Exposure Therapy
Behavioral Separation Anxiety - Support Group
1. Exposure Treatment – behavior-focused Disorder - Home-Based Self-Help
intervention in which fearful people are repeatedly – Programs
exposed to the objects they dread - Benzodiazepines, SSRIs
- Virtual Therapy/Virtual Reality Treatment: cognitive- Social Anxiety - Benzodiazepines
behavioral intervention that uses VR as an exposure - Antidepressant
tool - CBT
- Prolonged Exposure: clients confront now only - Exposure Therapy
trauma-related objects and situations, but also their - Social Skills Training
painful memories of traumatic experiences - D-Cycloserine
- Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Panic Attacks - Antidepressant
(EMDR): clients move their eyes in a rhythmic nabber - CBT
from side to side while flooding their minds with Obsessive-Compulsive - Free Association
images of objects and situations they ordinarily avoid Disorder - Short-Term
2. Systematic Desensitization – exposure therapy that - Psychodynamic
uses relaxation training and a fear hierarchy to help Therapy
clients with phobias react calmly to the objects or - Neutralizing
situations they dread - Exposure and Response
3. Flooding – exposure therapy in which clients are Prevention
exposed repeatedly and intensively to a feared object - Antidepressant
and made to see that it is actually harmless PTSD and Acute Stress - Antidepressant
4. Token Economy Programs – behavior-focused Disorder - CBT (Mindfulness-
program in which a person’s desirable behaviors are Based)
reinforced systematically throughout the day by the - Exposure Therapy
awarding of tokens that can be exchanged for goods or (Virtual Reality Therapy,
privileges Prolonged Exposure)
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- Group and Family Anorexia - Nutritional
Therapy Rehabilitation (tube and
- Psychological intravenous feedings)
Debriefing - Motivational
Dissociative Amnesia - Psychodynamic Interviewing
Therapy - CBT
- Hypnotic Therapy - Family Therapy
- Drug Therapy (Amytal, Bulimia - Nutritional
Pentothal) Rehabilitation
Dissociative Identity - Psychodynamic - Antidepressant
Disorder - Supportive - CBT (Exposure and
- Cognitive Response Prevention)
- Drug Therapy - Interpersonal
Depression - Free Association Psychotherapy
- CBT (Behavioral - Psychodynamic
Activation, Acceptance Therapy
and Commitment Binge-Eating - CBT
Therapy) - Antidepressant
- Beck’s Cognitive Substance-Use - Aversion Therapy
Therapy Disorders - Contingency
- Antidepressant Management
- Vagus Nerve - Relapse Prevention
Stimulation Training
- Electroconvulsive - CBT (Acceptance and
Therapy Commitment Therapy)
- Transcranial Magnetic - Detoxification
Stimulation - Antagonist Drugs
- Interpersonal - Drug Maintenance
Psychotherapy Therapy
- Couple Therapy - Self-Help Programs
Bipolar Disorder - Psychotropic Drugs - Community-Based
- Mood Stabilizers Prevention Programs
- Antipsychotics Sexual Dysfunctions - Affectual Awareness
- Antidepressant - Self-Instruction
- Lithium Training
Suicide Attempts - CBT (Mindfulness- - Hormone Treatments
Based) Gender Dysphoria - hormone administration
- Dialectal Behavior - gender-confirmation
Therapy (DBT) surgery/gender-
Conversion and Somatic - Education reassignment surgery
Symptom Disorders - Reinforcement Schizophrenia - Milieu Therapy
- Cognitive Restructuring - Token Economy
- CBT program
Physical Disorders - Relaxation Training - Antipsychotic Drugs
- Biofeedback - CBT (Cognitive
- Meditation Remediation,
- Hypnosis Hallucination
- Self-Instruction Reinterpretation and
Training Acceptance)
- Support Groups - Family Therapy
- Social Therapy
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Paranoid PD - CBT Evaluate the Efficacy of Psychological Interventions
- Anxiety-Reduction o Psychodynamic therapy seems to help most in cases
Techniques of depression that are modest or moderate in severity
- Antipsychotic drugs and that involve clear history of childhood loss or
Schizoid PD - Social Skills Program trauma
- Group Therapy o Short-term psychodynamic therapies have
- CBT performed better than long-term approaches,
Schizotypal PD - CBT
especially when they are combined with
- Speech Lessons
psychotropic medications
- Social Skills training
- Antipsychotic Drugs o Most patients have fewer new episodes of manic
Antisocial PD - Antipsychotic Drugs episodes by taking lithium and other mood stabilizers
- CBT o Antipsychotic drugs reduced positive symptoms in
Borderline PD - Relational around 70% of patients diagnosed with
Psychoanalytic Therapy schizophrenia
- DBT o Exposure therapies are effective with phobias
- antidepressant o Benzodiazepines can be effective in many cases of
- antibipolar panic disorder, although they are used less often than
- antianxiety depressants
- antipsychotic o CBT are equally effective as antidepressant drugs in
Histrionic PD - CBT the treatment of panic disorders
- Psychodynamic o Antidepressant drugs bring improvement to between
Therapy 50 and 60 percent of those with obsessive-
- Group Therapy
compulsive disorder
Avoidant PD - CBT
o Structures in the circuit do indeed seem to
- Psychodynamic
Therapy interconnect more appropriately after individuals
- Exposure treatments with OCD respond successfully to antidepressant
- Antianxiety treatment
- Antidepressant o Long-term psychodynamic therapy is only
Obsessive-Compulsive - SSRIs occasionally helpful in cases of unipolar depression
PD (short-term >>>>)
Conduct Disorder - Parent Management o Culture-Sensitive approaches increasingly are being
Training combined with traditional forms of psychotherapy to
Encopresis, Enuresis - dry-bed training help minority clients overcome their disorders
(reinforcement) o ECT has apparent effectiveness with severe
- biofeedback training depression, especially when patients follow up the
- family therapy initial cluster of sessions with continuation or
ADHD - Methylphenidate maintenance therapy, either ongoing antidepressant
(Stimulant)
medications or periodic ECT sessions
- CBT
- Parent Management o CBT, Interpersonal, and Biological Therapies are all
Training effective treatment for unipolar depression
Autism Spectrum - CBT o However, drug therapy reduced depressive
Disorder - Communication symptoms more quickly that CB and Interpersonal
Training therapies, but these psychotherapies had matched the
- Parent training drugs in effectiveness by the final 4 weeks of
- Community Integration treatment
- Psychotropic Drugs o CBT and Interpersonal Therapies lower the
Intellectual Disability - special education likelihood of relapse
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o Token Economies help reduce psychotic and related ▪ Cause: induvial believes that he or she has
behaviors, however, its uncontrolled become the subject of black magic
o Drugs appear more effective treatment for ▪ Similar to Maladi Moun
schizophrenia than any other approaches used alone, o Taijin Kyufusho - an intense fear that one's body
such as psychotherapy, milieu therapy, or parts or functions displease, embarrass or are
electroconvulsive therapy offensive to others
o Amok - syndrome or pattern of behavior
o Psychotherapy is successful in many more cases of
acknowledged in Southeast Asia (Malaysia,
schizophrenia these days (CBT, Family Therapy,
Philippines, Indonesia) characterized by sudden
Social Therapy) outbursts and frenzied violent behaviors after a
o For people with schizophrenia, cognitive period of brooding and quiet
remediation brings about moderate improvements in o The likelihood of having a particular phobia is
attention, planning, memory, and problem-solving powerfully influenced by gender
o CBTs often help people with schizophrenia feel more o Males are more likely than females to self-medicate
control over their hallucinations and reduce their their fear and panic with alcohol and in so doing start
delusional ideas down the slippery slope to addiction
Socio-Cultural Factors and Ethics (5) o BN, AN, and BDD is common to females
Identifying Socio-Cultural factors o Well-established ability of women to recall
o Stigma – a strong lack of respect for a person or a emotional memories somewhat better than men may
facilitate emotional processing and long-term
group or a bad opinion of them because they have
treatment gains
doen something society does not approve off
o Dissociative Trance – counterpart of DID in eastern
o Ataque de Nervous – syndrome among individuals countries; sapi
of Latino Descent, characterized by symptoms of o Experiences during different periods of development
intense emotional upset, including acute anxiety, may influence our vulnerability to other types of
anger, or grief; screaming; attacks of crying; stress or to differing psychological disorders
trembling; heat in the chest rising into the head; and Ethics
becoming verbally and physically aggressive
o If mistakes was made, they should do something to
o Dhat Syndrome – coined in South Asia (India)
correct or minimize the mistakes
characterized by young male patients who attributed
o If an ethical violation made by another psychologist
their symptoms to semen loss
was witnessed, they should resolve the issue with
o Koro - acute anxiety and a deep-seated fear of
informal resolution, as long as it does not violate any
shrinkage of the penis and its ultimate retraction into
confidentiality rights that may be involved
the abdomen, which will cause death
o When they are tasked to provide services to clients
o Khyal Cap – syndrome found among Cambodians
who are deprived with mental health services (e.g.,
characterized by panic attacks
communities far from the urban cities), however,
o Kufungisisa – overthinking; idiom of distress and
they were still not able to obtain the needed
cultural explanation among the Shona of Zimbabwe
competence for the job, they could still provide
o Maladi Moun – Haiti; sent sickness; interpersonal
services AS LONG AS they make reasonable effort
envy and malice cause people to harm their enemies
to obtain the competence required, just to ensure that
by “sending illness”
the services were not denied to those communities
o Nervios – among Latinos; general state of
o During emergencies, psychologists provide services
vulnerability to stressful life experiences and to
to individuals, even though they are yet to complete
difficult life circumstances
the competency/training needed just to ensure that
o Shenjing Shuairuo – syndrome composed of
services were not denied. However, the services are
weakness, emotions, excitement, nervous pain, and
discontinued once the appropriate services are
sleep
available
o Susto – distress and misfortune prevalent among
o Informed Consent:
some Latinos in US, attributed to a frightening event
✓ When conducting research, providing
that causes the soul to leave the body and results to
assessment, therapy, counseling, or consultation
unhappiness and sickness, as well as functioning in
✓ For legally INCAPABLE, they must provide
key social roles
appropriate explanation, assent, consider the
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client’s preferences and best interests, and obtain o Psychological assessment techniques done by
permission from a legally authorized person unqualified persons, except during training purposes,
✓ If COURT ORDERED, they must inform the given it is supervised
nature of the services, whether it is court order or o When conducting or providing services to several
mandated, as well as, its limits of confidentiality persons who have a relationship, they should clarify
before proceeding which of them is the clients and the relationship
✓ Must document written or oral consent, he/she will have with each person
permission, and assent ▪ If conflicting roles would arise, he/she must
o In case of interruption of services (such as death, clarify, modify, or withdraw from roles
relocation, illness, retirement), psychologists must appropriately
make reasonable efforts to plan for continuing o Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies
services with former clients/patients for AT LEAST TWO
▪ Unless stated in the contract YEARS after termination of therapy
o Psychologists should discuss the limits of o Terminate therapy when the client no longer needs
confidentiality, uses of the information that would be the service, is not likely to benefit, or is being harmed
generated from the services to the persons and by continued service
organizations with whom they establish a scientific ▪ Also, when threatened or endangered by the
or professional relationships client
o Before recording voices or images, they must obtain ▪ Must provide pretermination counseling and
permission first from all persons involved or their suggest alternative service providers as
legal rep appropriate
o Only discuss confidential information with persons o Telepsychology – provision of psychological
clearly concerned/involved with the matters services using telecommunication technologies
o Disclosure is allowed with appropriate consent ▪ Must ensure competence with both the
▪ No consent is not allowed UNLESS mandated by technologies used and the potential impact of
the law technologies on clients/patients, supervisees or
o No disclosure of confidential information that could other professionals
lead to the identification of a client unless they have ▪ Ensure ethical and professional standards of care
obtained prior consent or the disclosure cannot be and practice
avoided ▪ Informed consent must still be obtained, which
▪ Only disclose necessary information specifically addresses the unique concerns related
o Exemptions to disclosure: to the telepsychology services they provide
✓ If the client is disguised/identity is protected ▪ Should include the manner of
✓ Has consent telecommunication, the boundaries they will
✓ Legally mandated establish, and the procedures for responding to
o Opinions written on recommendations, reports, and electronic communications
diagnostic or evaluative statements must be based ▪ When necessary, psychologists obtain the
and sufficient to their findings appropriate consultation with technology experts
o Only provide statements after conducting to augment their knowledge of
examinations to support their statements telecommunication technologies in order to apply
o Informed Consent, except: security measures in their practices that will
✓ Mandated by law protect and maintain the confidentiality of data
✓ Routine and information related to their clients/patients.
✓ Evaluating decisional capacity ▪ Some of the potential risks to confidentiality
▪ If the person has a questionable capacity to include considerations related to uses of search
consent, it must be obtained using the language engines and participation in social networking
that is reasonably understandable to the person sites.
being assessed ▪ Psychologists are encouraged to weigh the risks
o In the absence of client/patient release, psychologists and benefits of dual relationships that may
must provide test data only as required by law develop with their clients/patients, due to the use
of telecommunication technologies, before
engaging in such relationships
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▪ Psychologists who use social networking sites for learning, especially during the early days of the
both professional and personal purposes are pandemic (Chen et.al., 2022)
encouraged to review and educate themselves o Learning in the new normal has been a challenge to
about the potential risks to privacy and institutions, more particularly to students and
confidentiality and consider utilizing all available educators (Ignacio, 2021)
privacy settings to reduce these risks ▪ Not all institutions have the capability to deliver
▪ Psychologists are encouraged to create policies
online classes due lack of equipment, technical
and procedures for the secure destruction of data
know-how
and information and the technologies used to
create, store and transmit the data and o In the Philippines, children in vulnerable groups
information. have no access to quality education. They also
▪ Psychologists are thus encouraged to be struggle to find distance learning opportunities.
knowledgeable about, and account for, the unique According to UNESCO, about 28 million learners
impacts, suitability for diverse populations, and are affected by school closures. Unfortunately, the
limitations on test administration and on test and COVID-19 pandemic will severely affect their
other data interpretations when these learning quality without the help of government and
psychological tests and other assessment nongovernment organizations.
procedures are considered for and conducted via o The findings revealed that the online learning
telepsychology challenges of college students varied in terms of type
Global Health Crisis and Mental Health Law (10) and extent. Their greatest challenge was linked to
Different Issues and Concerns on the Impact of their learning environment at home, while their least
COVID-19 on the Mental Health of people challenge was technological literacy and
o After acquiring COVID-19 (or even prior), a person competency. The findings further revealed that the
may experience cognitive and attention deficits COVID-19 pandemic had the greatest impact on the
(brain fog), anxiety and depression, psychosis, quality of the learning experience and students’
seizures, and even suicidal behavior mental health (Barrot, Llenares, & del Rosario,
o Data suggests that people are more likely to develop 2021)
mental illness or disorders in the months following Frontliners
infection, including symptoms of PTSD o Insomnia was found to be the most common mental
o People who are more likely to experience the health problem, followed by anxiety, PTSD,
symptoms of mental illnesses or disorders during the depression and stress in healthcare workers in the
pandemic: face of the COVID-19 pandemic (Hayati et.al., 2023)
a) People from racial and ethnic minority o Post-traumatic stress disorder was the most common
b) Mothers and pregnant people mental health disorder reported by healthcare
c) People experiencing poverty workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, followed
d) Children by anxiety, depression, and distress (Advani et.al.,
e) PWDs 2021)
f) People with pre-existing mental illnesses o Besides the lack of personal protective equipment,
g) Health Care Workers our frontliners are underpaid and do not get the
Online Classes respect they deserve. They answer “to the call of duty
o Online learning in nursing education is not while battling fear and anxiety”.7 Aside from this,
significantly different from blended or face-to-face they also experience pressure, stress, insomnia,
learning in terms of its impact on knowledge denial, anger, and fear (Biana & Joaquin, 2020)
acquisition and attitudes toward learning (Kim & o According to WHO, Exposure to excessive stress,
Kim, 2022) for prolonged periods can have many harmful
o Online Learning caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic consequences on the emotional and mental well-
brought negative learning attitudes and poorer being of frontline workers. It can:
learning performance compared to classroom ✓ lead to burnout.
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✓ trigger the onset of common mental disorders worsening of their behavioral symptoms (Gupta et.
such as depression and anxiety or post-traumatic Al., 2020)
stress disorder (PTSD). o The review highlights the need for mental health
✓ result in unhealthy behaviours like using tobacco, services to address the increased mental health
alcohol or other substances, which may lead to symptoms in people with pre-existing mental
substance use disorders. illnesses during a pandemic (Duddu et. Al., 2020)
✓ result in frequent absence from work or reduced o Students and unemployed respondents are highly
productivity while at work. vulnerable to COVID stress and its mental health
✓ increase the risk of suicide among frontline implications. Men and women did not significantly
workers, particularly health care workers differ in distress (Acebes & Montano, 2020)
o Cluster analysis revealed two age clusters—those
between 16 and 35 years and those 36 years and
Vaccination above. The younger group reported greater
o COVID-19 vaccination is associated with larger depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms and poorer
reductions in anxiety or depression symptoms among psychological well-being compared to the older
individuals with lower education levels, who rent group. The younger group also reported less
their housing, who are not able to telework, and who resilience, nonreactivity, and use of spiritual coping
have children in their household (Agrawal et.al., compared to the older group. The results suggest that
2021) the young are most vulnerable during the pandemic,
o The results of the present study showed that the and findings suggest what might be done to provide
mental health of young people did not significantly them mental health psychosocial support. (Alampay,
improve in the time period after vaccinations became Hechanova & Valentin, 2022)
widely available and promoted in Austria and Turkey Teleconsultation
(Chen et. Al., 2023) o Telephone-delivered psychotherapy has increased
▪ The impact of age may be related to more utility as a method of service delivery in the current
pronounced uncertainty and anxiety among world, where several barriers, including economic
younger groups, as unpredictable pandemic hardships and limited access to care, may prevent
circumstances make it even more difficult for people from receiving the treatment they need
them to plan their future, as they cross the (Arafat, Hawlader & Zaman, 2021)
threshold to adulthood and independence. ▪ telemedicine is perfectly suitable to treat the
▪ a number of recent studies have confirmed that mental health problems of the people in this
younger adults and females in particular suffered pandemic situation without increasing the risk of
from the adverse outcomes associated with the infection, promoting health and prolonging life as
COVID-19 pandemic well.
o An overwhelming majority of Filipinos surveyed Work From Home
(over 15,600 participants) currently distrust available o The top factors that contribute to people’s stress,
vaccines, their efficacy against the original and anxiety, and depression are financial considerations,
emerging strains, the cost of being vaccinated, and health concerns, and inconsistencies in the
the authenticity of vaccine samples available in the workplace setup (Del Mundo, 2022)
country (CNN Philippines, 2021; Sabillo 2021). ▪ When experienced with frequency, these result in
Lockdown burnout, loss of drive and focus, and struggles
o Anxiety, depression, irritability, boredom, with work-life balance
inattention and fear of COVID-19 are predominant o The switch to a work from home status has
new-onset psychological problems in children during contributed to the higher critical levels in our
the COVID-19 pandemic. Children with pre-existing workforce’s mental health. Those who are working
behavioral problems like autism and attention deficit from home are 3.7 times more likely to have critical
hyperactivity disorder have a high probability of anxiety levels and 6 times more likely to have critical
depression levels.
Abnormal Psychology
#BLEPP2023
o Another survey by Lenovo Philippines as early as child marriage – will be felt by many children,
April reported that up to 87% employees were ready especially the youngest learners in critical
to shift to WFH when required. "Our survey suggests development stages,” UNICEF Philippines
that the employee experience was already changing Representative Oyunsaikhan Dendevnorov says.
before the pandemic hit," said Michael Ngan, o While children are more vulnerable to these
president and general manager of Lenovo detriments, there remains the absence of unified and
Philippines, reported Business Mirror. comprehensive strategies in mitigating the
o On top of the mental health issues that WFH deterioration of the mental health of Filipino children
employees are now facing are logistical concerns (Biag, 2021)
surrounding the adjustment to the telecommuting Evaluating the Impact of Global Health Crisis and
scheme. A BPO Industry Employees Network survey other mental health conditions on the implementation
revealed common issues faced by WFH employees, of RA 11036
including: "lack of logistical assistance (such as o Dr. Razel Nikka Hao, DOH Disease Prevention and
delivery of equipment)," "longer working hours," Control Bureau director, reported to the committee
"unpaid wages due to poor or no Internet that since RA 11036 was passed, 62 of their
connection," "unjust sanctions due to technical personnel were trained on Basic Institutional Review
problems," and "shouldering of Internet and utility Board (IRB); 51 as future trainers for IRB; 1,556
expenses by employees." Up to 77% of respondents completed the World Health Organization Quality
say that they've been shouldering their own Internet Rights e-training; 28 with Lived Experiences
costs while 54% did not receive Internet allowance completed the course on mental health advocacy and
and 20% did not receive work laptops. leadership (pilot implementation); and over about 40
o Dr. Agnes Casiño of the National Center for Mental media practitioners were trained on responsible and
Health (NCMH) said maintaining work-life balance ethical reporting and portrayal of suicide (pilot
in a work from home setup is hard especially when implementation).
one has to take on different roles at different times in o DepEd officials noted that after the pandemic
the same place. lockdowns, the transition from blended learning to
o Employees pointed out that with the new work in-person classes also created new pressures on
arrangement, they still find satisfaction, enjoyment, students. But there are no programs specifically
and fulfilment given the necessary condition at designed to promote mental health for any age group.
home. However, detrimental factors like balancing Bullying has been a serious problem in schools even
work and family, difficulty focusing on work tasks before the pandemic, with social media facilitating
and collaborating with colleagues, poor working the abuse, and DepEd officials believe bullying cases
environment, and slow internet connectivity lead to are also underreported.
isolation, stress, and anxiety. o Despite passing the Philippine Mental Health Act
▪ women experienced higher stress and exhaustion (RA 11036), access to mental health care remains
with working from home compared to men due to limited. Most pediatricians, adolescent medicine
familial and domestic responsibilities. specialists, and psychiatrists practice in urban areas
Children in the country. Moreover, payment for mental health
o Learning deficits are particularly large among consultation remains an out-of-pocket expense for
children from low socio-economic backgrounds Filipinos (Malaluan et. Al., 2022)
(Betthäuser, Bach-Mortensen & Engzell, 2022) o Rep. Florida Robes said that aside from minimum
o “In 2020, schools globally were fully closed for an health standards and protocols aimed at halting the
average of 79 teaching days, while the Philippines spread of COVID-19 in communities, local
has been closed for more than a year, forcing students government units (LGUs) should also establish
to enroll in distance learning modalities. The mental help desks in every barangay to address those
associated consequences of school closures – suffering from anxiety or depression as a result of the
learning loss, mental distress, missed vaccinations, pandemic (Quismorio, 2020)
and heightened risk of drop out, child labour, and
Abnormal Psychology
#BLEPP2023
o In a statement on Monday, Deputy Speaker Loren
Legarda said that the government must work to
address the mental health issues of Filipinos, who
have struggled to cope with the demands and the
problems brought by the COVID-19 pandemic.
o Legarda, who was co-author of Republic Act No.
11036, was referring to a Philippine Statistics
Authority (PSA) data that showed suicide incidents
increasing by 57 percent for 2020, compared to 2019.
o She said she is seeking a policy measure dedicated to
“enhancing the delivery of mental health services to
the people,” especially since recent studies showed
that only around five percent of the whole health
budget was allocated to mental health concerns.
o The DOH has launched a multi-sectoral approach for
mental health with programs and interventions
across a variety of settings (e.g. workplaces, schools,
communities) aimed at high-risk groups. The
commemoration of World Suicide Prevention Day
also calls attention to the plight of those who are
undergoing severe forms of depression.
o Another project is the development of a multi-
sectoral National Suicide Prevention Strategy, which
includes psychosocial services such as the NCMH’s
Crisis Hotline “Kamusta Ka? Tara Usap Tayo,”
launched on 2 May 2019. The hotline is available
24/7 for prompt psychological first aid. The UP
Diliman Psychosocial Services (UPD PsychServ)
has also provided free counseling via telephone for
front liners. RA 11036 or the (“Mental Health Act”)
mandates the provision of comprehensive suicide
prevention services encompassing crisis
intervention, and a response strategy on a nationwide
scale.
end
congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer!! i

hope u learned something!! :D
one day, we will be remembered.
- aly <3
Developmental Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018), Sigelman-Rider (2012)
Perspectives on Nature and Nurture o Genes turn on and off in patterned ways throughout
o Human Development – focuses on the scientific the lifespan (Epigenetics)
study of the systematic processes of change and o Gene-Environment Interaction – the effects of
stability in people genes depend on what kind of environment we
o Life-Span Development – concept of human experiences, and how we respond to the environment
development as lifelong process, which can be depends on what genes we gave
studied scientifically o In an instance, Intelligence is strongly influenced by
o Life-Span Perspective – views development as heredity. However, it is also affected by parental
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, stimulation, education, peer influence, and others
multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process o 3 factors that contribute to individual differences
that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of in emotionality:
loss 1. Genes
Domains of Development 2. Shared Environmental Influences – common
Physical Development – growth of the body and brain, experiences that work to make them similar (e.g.,
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health parenting style)
Cognitive Development – learning, attention, 3. Nonshared Environmental Influences – unique
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity experiences to the individual – those who are not
Psychosocial Development – emotions, personality, shared with the other members of the family (e.g.,
and social relationships parental favoritism)
o Social Construction – a concept or practice that is 3 kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations
an invention of a particular culture or society Passive Gene-Environment – parent provide for their
o Stability-Change Issue – which involves the degree children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes
to which early traits and characteristics persists Evocative Gene-Environment – child’s genotype
through life or change evokes certain kind of reactions from other people
o Continuity-Discontinuity – focuses on the degree to - Genetic makeup may affect the reactions of other
which development involves either gradual, people to a child and, hence, the kind of social
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages environment that the child will experience
(discontinuity) Active Gene-Environment – children’s genotype
o Maturation – the unfolding of natural sequence of influence the kinds of environment they seek
physical change and behavior patterns o Heredity – consists of inborn traits and
o Behavioral Genetics – scientific study of the extent characteristics provided by the child’s parents
to which genetic and environmental differences (Nature)
among people and animals are responsible for o Environment – influences stems from the outside
differences in their traits body, starting from conception throughout life
o Heritability – proportion of all the variability in the (Nurture)
trait within a large sample of people that can be o Individual Differences – people differ in gender,
linked to genetic differences among those height, weight, and body build; in health and energy
individuals level, etc.
o Gregor Mendel – studied the heredity in plants o Heredity – consists of inborn traits provided by the
o Selective Breeding – involves attempting to breed parents
animals for a particular trait to determine whether the o Context of Development:
trait is heritable 1. Family – Nuclear and Extended Family
▪ Genes contribute to such attributes as activity 2. Socioeconomic Status – combination of economic
level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive and social factors describing an individual or family,
in rats mice, and chickens including income, education, and occupation
1. Twin Studies 3. Culture – society’s or group’s total way of life
2. Adoption Studies ▪ Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that obscures
3. Family Studies or blurs variations
o Concordance Rate – the percentage of pairs of ▪ Race – identifiable biological category, is more
people studied in which if one member of a pair accurately defined social construct
displays the trait, the other does too 4. Gender
5. History
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o Normative Influences – biological or environmental Research Methods in Developmental Psychology and
events that affect many or most people in a society in Ethics
a similar ways and events that touch only certain Ethics
individuals o APA General Principles:
a. Normative Age-Graded Influences General Principles
b. Normative History-Graded Influences A. Beneficence and Take care to do no harm;
▪ Historical Generation – group of people who Nonmaleficence minimize harm
experience the event at a formative time in their B. Fidelity and Establish relationships of
lives Responsibility trusts, upholding
▪ Age Cohort – group of people born at about the professional standards of
same time conduct, cooperate with
o Nonnormative – unusual events that have major other professionals if
impact on individual lives because they disturb the needed to serve the best
expected sequence of the life cycle interests of the client, and
o Imprinting – instinctively follow the first moving strive to contribute their
object they see professional time,
o Critical Period – specific time when a given event, compensated or not.
or its absence, has a specific impact on development C. Integrity Promote accuracy,
o Sensitive Periods – when developing person is honesty, and truthfulness
especially responsive to certain kind of experience D. Justice Fairness and justice to all
o Plasticity – modifiability of performance person to access and
o Theory – set of logically related concepts or benefit from the
statements that seek to describe and explain contributions of
development and to predict the kinds of behavior that psychology
might occur under certain conditions E. Respect for People’s Respect the dignity and
o Hypothesis – explanations or predications that can Rights and Dignity worth of all people by
be tested by further research exercising their rights to
o John Locke – Tabula Rasa privacy, confidentiality,
o Jean Jacques Rousseau – children are born “noble and self-determination
savages” who develop according to their own o PAP General Principles:
positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by General Principles
society I. Respect for Dignity of - Respect for all human
o Mechanistic Model – people are like machines that Persons and Peoples beings, diversity, culture,
react to environmental input beliefs
o Organismic Model – people as active, growing - free and informed
organisms that set their own development in motion; consent
initiate events, and do not just react - privacy, fairness, and
o Continuous – gradual and incremental justice
o Discontinuous – abrupt or uneven II. Competent Caring - working for their benefit
o Quantitative Change – change in number or for the Well-being of and do no harm
amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size Persons and Peoples
o Qualitative Change – emergence of new
III. Integrity - honesty, truthfulness,
phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the open and accurate
basis of the past basic functioning communication
o Evolutionary Psychology – emphasized the - appropriate professional
importance of adaptation, reproduction, and boundaries, multiple
“survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior relationships, and
conflicts of interest
IV. Professional and - contributing knowledge
Scientific about human behavior
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Responsibilities to - conducting affairs within ▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
Society society with highest minimize the pain
ethical standards o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
o Must provide accurate information and obtain as their own
approval prior to conducting the research ▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
o Informed consent is required, which include: authorship credit, only for work they have
✓ Purpose of the research actually performed or to which they have
✓ Duration and procedures substantially contributed
✓ Right to decline and withdraw ▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing students as early as possible
✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
✓ Benefits other competent professionals who intends to
✓ Limits of confidentiality reanalyze the data
✓ Incentives for participation ▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
✓ Researcher’s contact information purpose
o Researchers who study vulnerable population should o Researchers who study cultural influences on
obtain informed consent both from the individual and development or racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic
guardian differences in development must work hard to keep
▪ Seek individual’s assent, provide an explanation, their own cultural values from biasing their
consider their best interest, and obtain permission perceptions of other groups
from their guardians ▪ Ethnocentrism: one’s group is superior than the
▪ Must appropriately document written or oral other groups
consent, permission or assent o Do not conduct studies that involves deception
o Permission for recording images or vices are needed unless deceptive techniques are justified
unless the research consists of solely naturalistic ▪ If ever, deception must be explained as early as
observations in public places, or research designed feasible during the conclusion of the participation
includes deception and participants have the right to withdraw if they
▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing want to do so
o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when: Basic Research Designs
1. Research would not create distress or harm Descriptive – aims to observe and record behavior
▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted Case Study – study of a certain individual or group
in an educational settings - Useful in rare cases
▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic - Offers useful, in-depth information
observation, archival research - Can explore sources of behavior, test treatments, and
▪ Confidentiality is protected suggest directions for further research
2. Permitted by law - Cannot be easily generalized to other population
o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research - Cannot make strong causal statements
participation that could coerce participation Ethnographic Studies – seek to describe the pattern of
o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and
they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in traditions that make up a society’s way of life
the study - Case study of the culture
▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not - Open to observer bias
during the conclusion of data collection - Help overcome cultural biases in theory and research
o They must give opportunity to the participants about - Debunks the logic of western developed theories can
the nature, results, and conclusions of the research be universally applied
and make sure that there are no misconceptions about Correlational Study – determine whether a correlation
the research exist between variables, phenomena that change or
o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort, vary among people or can be varied for purposes of
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects research
▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as - Study of the relationship between one variable and
minimal as possible another without manipulation
- No random assignment
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- Lack of control over extraneous variables - Cohort Effects: important because they can
- Cannot establish causation powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study
- Used to study many important issues that cannot be ostensibly concerned with age
studies experimentally for ethical reasons Developmental Theories (25)
- Can study multiple influences operating in natural Psychosexual Theory by Freud (3)
settings o humans were born with a series of innate,
Experiment – controlled procedure which the biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and
experiment manipulated variables to learn how one aggression early experiences shaped later
affects another functioning
- Establish cause-and-effect o people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts
- Permit replication of which they are largely unaware that they are
- Manipulation shaped by their earliest experiences with the family
- Could encounter ethical issues o viewed newborn as “seething cauldron”, an
- Can be artificial inherently selfish creature driven by Instincts
Quasi-Experiment – natural experiment; compares (inborn biological forces that motivate behavior)
people who have been accidentally assigned to separate o strongly believed in unconscious motivation – the
groups by circumstances of life power of instincts and other inner forces to influence
- Actually, a correlational study our behavior without out awareness
Differentiating Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal o biological instincts provide unconscious motivation
Studies for actions
Developmental Research Designs o selfish and aggressive = negative view of human
Cross-Sectional nature
- children of different ages are assessed at ONE point o Id, Ego, Superego
of time 1. Id – pleasure principle, impulsive, irrational, selfish,
- more economical seeks immediate gratification
- no cases of attrition (dropping out of the study) or 2. Ego – reality principle, rational, finds realistic way
repeated testing (practice effect) to gratify instincts
- individual differences and trajectories may be ▪ Emerge during infancy when psychic energy is
obscured diverted from the id to energize cognitive
- results can be affected by differing experiences of processes
people born at different times 3. Superego – morality principle, individual’s
Longitudinal internalized moral standards
- study the SAME GROUP or PERSON more than ▪ develops from the ego as 3-6 years old internalize
once, or even years apart the moral standards and values of their parents
- can track individual patterns of continuity and change o Health Personality = balance of the id, ego, superego
- time-consuming and expensive o Psychological problems arise when the individual’s
- repeated testing could result to practice effect supply of psychic energy is unevenly distributed
- attrition could be a problem among the id, ego, and superego
- turnover of research personnel, loss of funding, or the o Fixation – arrest in development that can show up in
development of new measures or methodologies adult personality; libido remains tied to an earlier
Sequential stage of development
- data are collected on successive cross-sectional or ▪ Oral Fixation: may grow up to become nail-biters
longitudinal samples or smokers
- track people of different ages over time ▪ Anal Fixation: may be obsessively clean, rigidly
- allows researchers to separate age-related change tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy
from cohort effects and provides more complete picture Oral
of development - Mouth
- drawbacks: time, effort and complexity - experience anxiety and the need to defend against it
- requires large number of participants and collection if denied oral gratification by not being fed on
and analysis of huge amounts of data over a period of demand or being weaned too early
years - Oral Fixation manifested in adults: alcoholic,
smoking, overeating, Pica, nail biting, thumb sucking
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Anal - a swimming athlete who lost her competition took her
- anus loss as something she expected anyways and she did
- toilet training era not want the trophy
- Anal-Retentive: perfectionist, orderly, tidy Denial – people refuse to accept or acknowledge an
- Anal-Expulsive: lack of self-control, messy, careless anxiety-producing piece of information
Phallic - a widow never accepted that her husband died in an
- genitals accident
- youngsters develop an incestuous desire for the parent Projection – people attribute unwanted impulses and
of the other sex and must defend against it feelings to someone else
- Oedipus Complex: loves his mother, fears that his - A woman fat-shamed another woman because she is
father will retaliate by castrating him, and resolves the insecure about her body
conflicts through identification with his father Sublimation – people divert unwanted impulses into
- Electra Complex: a girl having desire with her father, socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
seeing her mother as a rival - An angry man jogged instead to cool down his anger
- Castration Anxiety: son believes his father knows Reaction-Formation – unconscious impulses are
about his desire for his mother and fears that his father expressed as their opposite in consciousness
will castrate him - A mother who unconsciously resent her child, acts
- Penis Envy: a girl wants a penis as she desires her lovingly consciously
father o stage-oriented
Latency o reactive
- sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies Psychosocial Theory by Erikson
Genitals Period Crisis Virtue
- genitals Infancy Trust Vs. Mistrust Hope
- physical sexual urges reawaken repressed needs Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Will
- direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual Shame and Doubt
gratification Early Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose
- may have difficulty accepting their new sexuality, Middle and late Industry vs. Competence
therefore, reexperiencing conflict towards their Childhood Inferiority
parents and distance themselves to defend against Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity
anxiety-producing feelings Identity
o personality formed from unconscious childhood Confusion
conflicts between the inborn urges of the id and the Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Love
requirements of civilized life Isolation
o Defense Mechanisms – ego adapts unconscious Middle Generativity vs. Care
coping devices Adulthood Stagnation
Repression – unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Wisdom
pushed back into the unconscious Despair
- a woman who experienced sexual harassment cannot o emphasized the influence of society on the
recall what happened to her developing personality
Regression – behaving as if they were at an earlier o Crisis: major psychosocial challenge that is
stage of development particularly important at that time and will remain an
- your father throws a tantrum when he was left alone issue to some degree throughout the rest of life
at home o each stage requires balancing positive and negative
Displacement – the expression of an unwanted feeling tendency
or mere thought is redirected from a more threatening, o successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in
powerful person to a weaker one a particularly good position to address the next crisis,
- an employee shouted at his child after being scolded a process that occurs iteratively across the life span
by his boss o social and cultural influences mattered
Rationalization – people distort reality in order to o Social Clock: conventional, culturally preferred
justify something that has happened timing of important life events
o development is a lifelong process
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o stage-oriented o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of
o active thought to the next
Cognitive Development by Piaget Substages
o viewed intelligence as a process that helps an 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
organism adapt to its environment Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
o children are not born with innate ideas of reality over them
o Constructivism – children actively construct new Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking
understandings of the world based on their whenever they want to)
experiences 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
o development as the product of children’s attempts to Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
understand and act upon their world Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
o begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the objects
environment They turn towards the sounds
o Cognitive Growth occurs through 3 related 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
processes: Organization, Adaptation, and Repeat actions that brings interesting results
Equilibration Learns about causality
o Organization: tendency to create categories
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
o Schemes: ways of organizing information about the
months)
world that govern the way the child thinks and
Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
behaves in a particular situation
previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
o Adaptation: how children handle new information in
Can anticipate events
light of what they already know
o Assimilation: incorporating it into existing cognitive 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
structures Purposefully vary their actions to see results
o Accommodation: adjusting one’s cognitive structures Actively explore the world
to fit the new info Trial and error in solving problems
o Equilibration: children want what they understand of 6. Mental Combinations
the world to match what they observe around them Can think about events and anticipate consequences
o provided rough benchmarks for what to expect of without always resorting action
children at various ages and has helped educators Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
design curricula appropriate to varying levels of pretend
development Transition to Pre-operational stage
o stage-oriented Learns about numbers
o active o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally
Sensorimotor represent objects and actions in memory, largely
o The first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental
development is Sensorimotor Stage picture
o Approx. from birth to 2 years old o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember
o Circular Reactions – an infant learns to reproduce o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can
events originally discovered by chance see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation
o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can (involves with parts of the body that babies cannot
be performed on objects see)
o Assimilation – occurs when children use their o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could
existing schemes to deal with new information not engage in Deferred Imitation
o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their ▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the
schemes to take new information and experiences passage of time
into account ▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental
o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and representations
thoughts into higher-order system o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an
o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict object no longer exists once it is out other line of
o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as sight
they seek equilibrium
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o Object Permanence – the realization that something o Identities – the concept that people and many things
continues to exist when out of sight are basically the same even if they change in outward
o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to form, size, or appearance
explore pictures as if they were objects o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that
o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture are not alive
of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of
understanding that a picture is a symbol of something a situation and neglect others
else ▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several
o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that aspects of a situation at one time)
children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping ▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while
spatial relationships because of the need to keep ignoring the other
more than one mental representation in mind at the ▪ Irreversibility: failure to understand that an action
same time can go in two or more directions
Pre-operational o Egocentrism – young children center so much on
o Jean Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development their own point of view that they cannot take in
o Lasting from ages 2 to 7, characterized by the another’s
expansion in the use of symbolic thought o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal
o Children begin to represent the world with words, remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as
images, and drawings nothing is added or taken away
o Dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range
o Does not yet perform Operations (which are of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires,
reversible mental actions that allow children to do dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that
mentally what before they could do only physically) others have their own
o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability ▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior
to reconstruct in thought what has been established of others and makes the social world
in behavior understandable
o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive Concrete Operational
Thought o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of
1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget
something in the absence of sensory or motor cues o Children can now think logically because they can
▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such take multiple aspects of situations into account
as words, numbers, or images to which a person o However, their thinking is still limited to real
has attached meaning situations in the here and now
▪ Deferred Imitation: children imitate an action at o Better understanding of:
some point after observing it ✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and
▪ Pretend Play: fantasy play, dramatic play, or navigate environment
imaginary play; children use an object to ✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects
represent something else ✓ Categorization
▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is ▪ Seriation: arranging objects in a series according
language to one or more dimensions
▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 ▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity: e.g. A < B < C
2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning ▪ Class Inclusion: ability to see the relationship
and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions between a whole and its parts, and to understand
▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age categories within a whole
o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols ✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning
that describe physical spaces ▪ Inductive Reasoning: involves making
o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason observations about particular members of a class
logically about causality of people, animals, objects, or events, and then
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, drawing conclusions about the class as a whole
especially events close in time, whether or not here ▪ Deductive Reasoning: starts with a general
is logically a causal relationship statement about a class and applies it to particular
members of the class
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▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete o Adolescents also become more skilled in social
operations stage only used inductive reasoning perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech
✓ Conservation to another person’s POV
▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho it o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model –
has different appearance decision making is influenced by two cognitive
▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what would systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional,
happen if he tried to roll back the clay of snake which operate in parallel
▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect Moral Development by Kohlberg
of the two objects at once Level I: Preconventional Morality (3-7 yrs old)
✓ Numbers Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Formal Operational The child/individual is good to AVOID
o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest PUNISHMENT because punishment equates, they
level of cognitive development – Formal must have done something wrong
Operations
o Adolescents move away from their reliance on “What will happen to me if I do this?”
concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
capacity for abstract thought Children recognize that there is not just one right view
o Usually around 11 yrs old that is handed down by authorities. They conform to
o They can now use symbols to represent other rules out of self-interest and consideration what others
symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, can do for them.
create hypotheses
o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical, “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”
scientific approach to problem solving, and it Level II: Conventional Morality (Morality of
characterizes formal operations thinking Conventional Role Conformity) (8-13 yrs old)
▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationship
hypotheses The child is good in order to be seen as a good person
▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain by others. Approval of others is important.
maturation and expanding environmental
opportunities e.g., Donating to the victims of the recent typhoon and
o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking posting it on social media so everyone knows they did
of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and something good.
their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its The child becomes aware of the rules of the society, so
use judgement concern obeying the rules to uphold the law
o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at and avoid guilt.
the same time yet may lack effective strategies for
choosing them e.g., Crossing the pedestrian crossing or going on a full
o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about stop when the traffic light turned red.
thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts Level III: Postconventional Morality (Morality of
o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer” Autonomous Moral Principles) (14-older yrs old)
who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
behavior as he or she is
Child becomes aware that while rules might exist for
o Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking about
the betterment of everyone, there are times you have to
the same thing they are thinking about: themselves
bend the law for self-interests.
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the
e.g., Some lawyers study the law so in case they need
rules that govern the rest of the world
it, they can find a loophole and they won’t be convicted.
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior
Some laws are unfair and unjust.
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky
Stage 6: Universal Principles
decision making
People developed their own set of moral guidelines,
which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply
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to everyone. They do what they think is right regardless o Macrosystem: overarching cultural patterns such as
of legal restrictions or opinion of others. dominants beliefs, ideologies, and economic and
political systems
e.g., LGBTQIA++ community are still being o Chronosystem: dimension of time
discriminated and just tolerated by the society, but o Exosystem: family composition, place of residence,
certain someone thinks that they deserve better. Thus, or parents’ employment, and larger events
they do everything to recognize the rights of the people o active
of the minority. Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky
o Kohlberg placed too much emphasis on moral o cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural
thought and not enough for moral behaviors context in which it occurs and grows out of
o Cosmic Stage – people consider the effect of their children’s interactions with the member of the
actions not only on other people but on the universe culture
as a whole o cognitive growth as collaborative process
o Just because a person is capable of moral reasoning o people learn through social interaction
does not necessarily mean the person actually o placed emphasis on Language
o adults or more advanced peers must help direct and
engages in moral reasoning
organize a child’s learning before the child can
o Kohlberg’s System is biased against non-western master and internalize it
cultures o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the gap
Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner between what they are already able to do by
themselves and what they can accomplish with
assistance
o Scaffolding: supportive assistance with a task that
parents, teachers, or others give a child
o Allow testers to offer hints to children who were
having trouble answering a question, thereby
focusing on that child’s potential learning
o active
Attachment by Ainsworth and Mahler
Ainsworth – Attachment Theory
o Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional tie
between an infant and a caregiver, each of whom
contributes to the quality of the relationship
o Strange Situation – by Mary Ainsworth; designed
to assess attachment patterns between infant and
adult
Secure Attachment – flexible, resilient
- Secure attachment in early development becomes a
foundation for psychological development later
- Parenting Style: Sensitive and Responsive
o child is not seen as just an outcome of development;
the child is an active shaper of development Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment – outwardly
o to understand development, we must see the child unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning
within the context of multiple environments - Not distressed if caregiver leaves, do not reestablish
surrounding contact when they return
- Parenting Style: Inconsistent, often unresponsive
o Microsystem: everyday environment; interactions
with family, friends, etc. Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – generally
o Mesosystem: linkages between home and school or anxious even before the caregiver leaves
between the family or peer groups (events that links - Cling to the caregiver then push them away when
the microsystems) comforted
- Parenting Style: rejecting-unresponsive or intrusive-
overly stimulating
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Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – lack a - Primary Goal: achieve a state of equilibrium, while
cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the strange lacking the understanding that the satisfaction needs
situation; they show contradictory, repetitive, or may come from an external source
misdirected behaviors; confused and afraid - as if they are inside their own egg shell
- Strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display Normal Symbiotic Phase (1-5 month)
certain specified behaviors such as extreme fearfulness - first 6 months of life, occurs when the child gains
- Parenting Style: frightened and frightening awareness of caregivers but has no sense of
o According to Bowlby, attachment styles resulted individuality
from repeated interactions with a caregiver - acknowledges the mother’s existence as the main
o Stranger Anxiety – wariness of a person she does source of need-satisfaction
not know - egg extends to include the mother
o Separation Anxiety – distress when a familiar Separation-Individuation (5-24 months)
caregiver leaves her - 4 or 5 months
o Separation Protest – crying when caregiver leaves - child develop a sense of self, separated from the
mother
o Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 months
- In separation, the infant develops an understanding
o Mutual Regulation – the ability of both infant and
of boundaries of the self
caregiver to respond appropriately and sensitively to - Individuation marks the development of a sense of
each other’s mental and emotional states self
o Social Referencing – seeking emotional information - Differentiation: occurs when the child first gains
to guide behavior awareness that he or she is separate from the mother
Mahler - Separation-Individuation Theory (5-10 months)
o Focused on independence, how the child grows - hatching
entirely dependent being to one who is relatively - Practicing: occurs when child becomes toddler,
independent, both physically and psychologically gaining motor skills that enable the child to explore
o Successful completion of the developmental stages the world independently from his or her caregivers
in first few years of life results in separation and (10-16/18 months)
individuation - hastens the physical development and separation
anxiety decreases
o Separation – internal process of mental separation
- Rapprochement: “backing off” from separation, the
from the mother
child becomes anxious about separation from his
o Individuation – developing self-concept mother and regains closeness (18-24 months)
o the child’s developing capacity to represent the - Object Constancy: development of an internalized
mother, allows his/her independence from the mother mental model of the mother, which unconsciously
o Children exist in a symbiotic phase until they reach accompanies and supports the child even when they
about 6 months of age are physically separated (24+ months)
o They are unaware of their surroundings and others Identity Formation by Marcia
and only are cognizant of themselves as one with o James Marcia distinguished four categories that
their mothers differ according to the presence or absence or crisis
o As the child matures, perception of his or her mother and commitment
begins to evolve and the child internalizes the images o Crisis – period of conscious decision making
of her o Commitment – personal investment in an
o Disruptions in normal developmental trajectory occupation or ideology
could lead to maladaptive behavior o Represent the status of identity development at a
Normal Autistic Phase (0-1 month) particular time, and they may change in any direction
- first weeks of life and shows little social as young people continue to develop
engagement 4 types of Identity status
- infant is focused on himself/herself Identity Achievement: crisis leading to commitment
- uninterested in external stimuli Foreclosure: commitment without crisis
- Result of exploring choices but accepting someone
else’s plans for her life
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- Uncritically accepted others’ opinions o evolutionary explanation of animal behavior could
Moratorium: crisis with no commitment yet be applied to the study of human behavior
- Actively grappling with his identity and trying to o human nature and culture is a product of genetic
decide the path he wants his life to take evolution
- Exploration o influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory, whereas the
Identity Diffusion: no commitment, no crisis organisms vary and individual differences can be
- Not seriously considered options and has avoided inherited
commitments o some organisms, because of their particular
Learning Theories based on Behaviorism and Social characteristics, will survive and hence reproduce at
Learning higher rates than others
o Behaviorism – observed behavior as a predictable o Natural Selection: the differential survival and
response to experience reproduction of different variants of members of a
o reacting to conditions or aspects of their environment species and is the tool the natural world uses to shape
that find pleasing, painful, or threatening evolutionary processes
o Classical Conditioning: response to a stimulus is o Ethology: study of the adaptive behaviors of animal
evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that species in natural contexts
normally elicits response o Evolutionary Psychology: apply Darwinian
o Watson’s “Little Albert Experiment” principles to human behavior
o Operant Conditioning: consequences of o active and reactive
“operating” on the environment; reinforcements and Developmental Principles
punishments Development is lifelong. Each period is affected by
o Reinforcement: increasing the likelihood that the what happened before and will affect what is to come.
behavior will be repeated Development is Multidimensional. Development is
o Punishment: decreasing the likelihood of repetition affected by multiple interacting dimensions such as
o reinforcement is most effective when it immediately biological, psychological, and social dimensions.
follows a behavior Development is Multidirectional. As people gain in
o Extinguished: behavior returns to its original level one area, they may lose some aspects as well.
when a response is no longer reinforced Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary.
o Social Learning Theory Psychologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers
▪ Reciprocal Determinism: behaviorist sees the all shares the same interest in unlocking the mysteries
environment as the chief impetus for of development.
development and Bandura suggested that the Relative Influences of Biology and Culture shift
impetus for development is bidirectional over the life span (Contextual). Biological Abilities
▪ Behaviorism = stimulus > response weaken with age, but cultural supports could help
▪ Social Cognitive Theory = stimulus > response > compensate with the loss.
stimulus Development Involves changing resource
▪ Observational Learning: people learn allocations (involves Growth, Maintenance, and
appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing regulation of loss). Resources may be used for growth,
and imitating models – that is, by watching other for maintenance or recovery, or for dealing with loss
people (usually whose behavior is perceived as when maintenance and recovery is not possible. In an
valued in their culture) instance, during childhood, all resources are used for
▪ Social Cognitive Theory: cognitive processes are growth and nurture. During Midlife, resources are used
at work as people observe models, learn chunks for maintenance and preparation for loss.
of behavior, and mentally put the chunks together Development shows plasticity. Many abilities can be
into complex new behavior patterns improved with training and practice.
▪ Self-Efficacy: confidence in one’s ability Development is influenced by historical and cultural
Evolutionary Theory by Wilson context. Each person develops with multiple contexts.
o draws findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, Developmental Issues and Tasks (30)
ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the Critical Issues during Prenatal Development
adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an Chromosomal Abnormalities
individual or species Name Description Treatment
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Down Syndrome Extra copy of Surgery, (Cooley’s adolescence or
(Trisomy 21) chromosome 21 SPED Anemia) Young adulthood
Extra X Duchenne Males with No treatment
Klinefelter Hormone
Chromosome Muscular muscle
Syndrome Therapy
(XXY) Dystrophy weakness, minor
Abnormality in X SPED, mental
Fragile X
chromosome Speech retardation
Syndrome
causes ID Therapy o Anoxia – oxygen shortage
Missing X ▪ Could be umbilical cord becomes pinched or
Turner Hormone
chromosome for tangled at birth
Syndrome Therapy
females ▪ Could also be the position during birth (breech
Extra Y position)
XYY Syndrome No treatment
chromosome ▪ Can initially cause poor reflexes, seizures, heart
Gene-Linked Abnormalities rate irregularities, and breathing difficulties
Cystic Fibrosis Overproduction Physical ▪ Can also lead so Cerebral Palsy – difficulty
of mucus in the Therapy
controlling muscle movements
lungs and
digestive tract ▪ Increases the risk of learning or intellectual
Diabetes Does not produce Insulin disabilities and speech difficulties
enough insulin o Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh less than 5
Hemophilia Delayed blood Blood pounds and 8 ounces at birth
clotting transfusions ▪ Very Low birth Weight – less than 3 pounds 4
Huntington’s CNS deteriorates ounces
producing ▪ Extremely Low Birth – less than 2 pounds
problem in o Pre-term Infants – born three weeks or more before
muscles and pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of
mental decline 37 weeks of gestation)
Phenylketonuria Build up of Special Diet o Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age
Phenylalanine in Infants) – those whose birth weight is below normal
the body when the length of pregnancy is considered
Sickle-Cell Limits body Penicillin, o Progestin – might help in reducing preterm birth
Anemia oxygen supply Antibiotics,
o Extremely Preterm – born less than 28 weeks
Pain Reliever
gestation
Spina Bifida Incompletely Surgery
closed spinal o Very Preterm – less than 33 weeks
canal o Kangaroo Care – involves skin-to-skin contact in
Tay-Sachs Accumulation of Medication, which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright
Disease lipids in the NS Special Diet against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the
Anencephaly Absence of brain No treatment preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing
tissue o One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is
Polycystic Enlarged Kidney Respiratory Distress Syndrome wherein there is a
Kidney Disease Kidneys Transplant lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps
Alpha Cirrhosis of the No treatment air sacs from collapsing
antitrypsin liver in early o Postmature Babies – tend to be long and this
Deficiency infancy because they have kept growing in the womb but
Alpha Severe Anemia; Frequent have had an insufficient blood supply toward the end
Thalassemia nearly all die Blood of gestation
soon after birth Transfusion o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death;
Beta Severe Anemia; Blood
sudden death of an infant under age 1 which cause of
Thalassemia fatal in Transfusions
death remains unexplained
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Critical Issues related to physical, cognitive, socio- ▪ caused stunted limbs, facial deformities, and
emotional development during Prenatal Development defective organs
o Miscarriages – short-lived pregnancies ▪ treatment for AIDS, tuberculosis, and cancer
▪ Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) – o Tobacco – higher risks of miscarriage, prematurity,
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is low birth weight, cleft lips, and cleft palates
unable to survive outside the womb ▪ Restricts blood flow to the fetus which reduces
o Stillbirth – miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks of the levels of growth factors, oxygen, and nutrients
gestation (approx. 5 months) that reach the fetus
▪ CNS impairment
o Males are more likely to be spontaneously aborted or
▪ Infants are more irritable and score lover on
to be stillborn standard assessments of behavioral functioning
o Teratogen – environmental agent that can interfere ▪ Higher risks of respiratory infections and
with normal prenatal development breathing difficulties
▪ Effects are worst during the critical period, when ▪ Higher risk for SIDS
the organs are developing rapidly ▪ Mild cognitive difficulties and to conduct and
▪ The greater the level of exposure and the longer behavior problems
the exposure to teratogen, the more likely it is that ▪ Maternal smoking was identified to be the most
serious damage will occur important factor for low-birth weight babies
▪ Susceptibility to harm is influenced by unborn ▪ Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage,
child’s and mother’s genetic makeup growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc.
▪ The effects of teratogen depend on the quality of o Alcohol – disrupt hormone functions of the placenta
both the prenatal and the postnatal environment ▪ Disrupts the normal process of neuronal
o Teratology – field of study that investigates the migration, leading to several outcomes depending
causes of birth defects on the severity of the effects
o Critical Period – a time during which the ▪ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – characterized by a
developing organism is specially sensitive to combination of retarded growth, face and body
environmental influences, positive or negative malformations, and disorders of the central
o Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth nervous system
complications ▪ FAS children are smaller and lighter than normal
o Overweight women have risk of having longer and their physical growth lags behind
▪ High risks in CNS damage
deliveries, need more health care services,
▪ Children who were exposed prentally with
gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects alcohol but do not have FAS experience Fetal
etc. Alcohol Effects or Alcohol-Related
o Omega-E, DHA, Folic Acid for the development of Neurodevelopmental Disorder
nervous system o Cocaine – causes spontaneous abortion and
o Results to fetal growth restriction and low birth premature detachment of the placenta
weight (5 pounds, 8 ounces = 2.5kg) ▪ Contributes to fetal malnourishment, retarded
o Moderate exercise is recommended to reduce back growth, and low birth weight
pain, risks for gestational diabetes and etc. ▪ Deficits on several measures of information-
o Spina Bifida – neural tube fails to close, part of the processing and sensory motor skills
spinal cord is not fully encased in the protective ▪ Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal
covering of the spinal column death, preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium
▪ Neurological problems ▪ Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to
o Anencephaly – lethal defect in which main portion experience withdrawal once they are born and no
of the brain above the brain stem failed to develop longer receive drugs
o Neural tube defects occur 25-29 days after ▪ Neonate Abstinence Syndrome – sleep
conception and more common due to deficient in disturbance, tremors, difficulty regulating the
folic acid body, irritability, crying and etc.
o Thalidomide – used to relieve morning sickness
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▪ Caffeine has slightly increased risk for Developmental Issues during Childhood, Adolescence,
miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and Adulthood
babies Infancy and Toddlerhood
o Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart o For infants, delayed speech due to lack of interaction
defects to babies with the caregiver and delayed cognition due to lack
o Toxoplasmosis – caused by parasite in the bodies of of stimulation
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of o According Erik Erikson, as babies, our first
cats that causes fetal brain damage, severely challenge involves forming basic sense of Trust
impaired eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. versus Mistrust
o Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that o Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust and
have heart and neural tube defects mistrust
o Stress and anxiety has been associated with more o If trust predominates, as it should, children develop
irritable and active temperament in newborns Hope and the belief that they can fulfill their needs
o Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery and obtain their desires
o Depression may cause premature birth or Approximate Crisis Virtue
developmental delays Age Developed
o Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with Infancy (0-18 Trust vs. Hope
maternal age months) Mistrust
Toddler (18 Autonomy vs. Will
o Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or
months – 36 Shame/Doubt
underweight babies
months)
o Includes air pollution, radiation, chemicals o Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy: Sensory
o Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins
Maladjustment – overly trusting and gullible,
may result to asthma, allergies, lupus
unrealistic, spoiled
o X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low-
o Malignant Tendency: Withdrawal – never trust
birth weight babies
anyone, paranoid, neurotic, depressive
o Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation,
o Significant Person: Mother
pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor quality
o Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler:
sperm
Impulsiveness – shameless willfulness that leads to
o Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the
jump into things without proper consideration,
year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure
reckless, inconsiderate
at work tends to have low birth weight and slowed
o Malignant Tendency: Compulsiveness –
fetal growth
perfectionism, rule follower, anal, constrained
o Older fathers may be significant source of birth
o Significant person: Parents
defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
o Successful in this stage = hopeful child
dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
o Failed = withdrawn child
o Prenatal cell-free DNA Scans – fetal DNA is
o Self-Concept – our image of ourselves; it describes
extracted from the mother’s blood and tested for
what we know and feel about ourselves and guides
early detection of genetic problems
our actions
o Infertility – not being able to get pregnant even after
o By at least 3 months, infants pay attention to their
a year of trying
mirror image
o Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant
o Pretend Play – an early indication of the ability to
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates,
understand other’s mental states and their own
Acutane
o Usage of person pronouns (me, mine) usually at 20-
24 months
o Socialization – process by which children develop
habits, skills, values, and motives that make them
responsible and productive members of the society
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o Children obey societal or parental dictates because o According to Kohlberg, Children actively search for
they believe them to be right and true cues about gender in their social world
o The eventual goal is the development of conscience o Gender Constancy – a child’s realization that his or
o Situational Compliance – extra assistance provided her gender will always be the same
by their parents’ reminder and prompts to complete Gender Identity – awareness of one’s own gender and
the task that of others, which typically occurs ages 2 and 3
o Committed Compliance – they were committed to Gender Stability – awareness that gender does not
following request and could do so without their change
parents direct intervention Gender Consistency – the realization that a girl
o Receptive Cooperation – eager willingness to remains a girl even if she has a short haircut and plays
cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in with trucks, typically occurs between ages 3 and 7
disciplinary actions, but in variety of daily o Gender-Schema Theory – it views children as
interactions actively extracting knowledge about gender from
o (Freud) In Freud’s second psychosexual their environment before engaging in gender-typed
development stage, Anal Stage, it stated how the behavior
development of children on this stage is focused on ▪ Place more emphasis on the influence of culture
controlling bowel movements. ▪ Children match their behavior to their culture’s
▪ Fixations of this stage leads to Anal-Retentive view of what boys and girls are supposed to be
and Anal-Expulsive Individuals and do
▪ Anal Retentive: obsessed with orderliness and o According to Walter Mischel, children acquire
tidiness due to strict potty training gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded
▪ Anal-Expulsive: very messy and disorganized for gender-appropriate behavior
adults due to lax potty training o Other issues: Sleeping problems, bedwetting,
Early childhood malnutrition/obesity, food allergies, oral health,
o Preschool children can do-and want to do-more and accidents
more. At the same time, they are learning that some o Other cognitive issues: centration, egocentrism,
of the things they want to do meet social approval, conservation, usage of media, parenting styles,
whereas others do not relationships with other family members, aggression,
Approximate Crisis Virtue prosocial behavior, fearfulness
Age Developed Middle and Late Childhood
Play Age (3-5 Initiative versus Purpose o Representational Systems: broad, inclusive self-
yrs) Guilt concepts that integrate various aspects of the self
o Purpose – the courage to envision and pursue goals o She can compare her real self with her ideal self and
without being unduly inhibited by guilt or fear of can judge how well she measures up to social
punishment standards in comparison with others
o Maladaptive Tendency: Ruthlessness – don’t care o According to Erikson, in the event that children are
who they step in just to achieve their goals unable to obtain the praise of adults or peers in their
o Malignant Tendency: Inhibition – too much guilt lives, or lack motivation and self-esteem, they may
to do anything so nothing would happen develop a feeling of low self-worth, thus develop a
o Significant Persons: Family sense of inferiority
o Theory of Sexual Selection – the selection of sexual Approximate Crisis Virtue
partners is a response to differing reproductive Age Developed
pressures early men and women confronted in the School Age Age Industry vs. Competency
study for survival (5-13 yrs) Inferiority
o Identification – adoption of characteristics, beliefs, o Developing a sense of industry involves learning
attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the how to work hard to achieve goals
same sex o Maladaptive Tendency: Narrow Virtuosity –
children that aren’t allowed to “be children” and push
into one area of competence
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o Malignant Tendency: Inertia – suffer from o Children whose parents later divorce show more
inferiority complexes anxiety, depression, or antisocial behavior prior to
o Significant Persons: Neighborhood and School the divorce than those parents who stay married
o As children grow, they are more aware of their own o Children do better with joint custody
and other people’s feelings o Co-parenting has been consistently linked to positive
o Children are typically aware of feeling shame and child outcomes
pride and a clearer idea of the difference between o Most adopted children fall within the normal range
guilt and shame of development
o Emotional Self-Regulation – voluntary control of o Children adopted after the age 1 were more likely to
emotions, attention, and behavior show lower school achievement
o Children tends to become more empathetic and more o Having a warm and supportive sibling relationship is
inclined to prosocial behaviors associated with better adjustment and better emotion
o Gender Stereotypes – broad categories that reflect regulation
general impressions and beliefs about males and o Sisters are higher in sibling intimacy than brothers or
females mixed-sex dyads
o Coregulation – children and parents share power o Peer groups helps children learn how to adjust their
o The amount of autonomy parents provide affects needs and desires to those of others, when to yield,
how their children feel about them and when to stand firm
o Children are more apt to follow their parents’ wishes o Children can gauge their abilities and gain a clearer
when they believe the parents are fair and concerned sense of self-efficacy
about the child’s welfare o Prejudice – unfavorable attitudes towards outsiders
o Parents of school-age children tends to use inductive o Children can be negatively affected by
techniques as a form of discipline discrimination
o Children exposed to high levels of family conflict are o Girls are more likely to engage in cross-gender
more likely to show a variety of responses that can activities
include internalizing or externalizing behaviors Positive Nomination – asking children who they like
Internalizing behaviors – anxiety, fear, depression- to play with, they like the most, or who they think other
anger turned inward kids like the most
Externalizing behaviors – aggression, fighting, Negative Nomination – opposite of positive
disobedience, hostility nomination
o If family conflict is constructive, it can help children o Sociometric Popularity – measures that is
see the need for rules and standards and learn what composed of positive nominations, negative
issues are worth arguing about and what strategies nominations or no nominations
can be effective Average children – receive an average no of both
o The more satisfied a mother is with her employment positive and negative nominations
status, the more effective she is likely to be a parent Neglected Children – infrequently nominated as bestie
o Tho poverty can harm children’s development, high- but not really disliked
quality parenting can buffer children from potential Rejected Children – disliked by peers
consequences of poverty Controversial Children – frequently nominated both
o Children tend to do better in families with two bestie and most disliked
Popular Children – frequently nominated as bestie
continuously married parents than in cohabiting,
and rarely disliked by peers
divorced, single-parent, or step-families
o Unpopular children can make friends but they tend
o Parent’s relationship, the quality of their parenting,
to have fewer friends and they prefer younger ones
and their ability to create a favorable family
o Instrumental Aggression – aimed at achieving an
atmosphere affect children’s adjustment more than
objective
their marital status does
▪ Proactive
▪ View force and coercion as effective ways to get
what they want
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o Hostile Aggression – intended to hurt another person o Sexual Orientation – whether the person is attracted
▪ Reactive to person of other sex (Heterosexual), same sex
o Hostile Attributional Bias – quickly conclude, in (Bisexual), or of both sexes (Bisexual)
ambiguous situations that others were acting with ill o Brains of gay men and straight women are more
intent and are likely to strike out in retaliation or self- symmetrical, whereas lesbians and straight men, the
defense right hemisphere is slightly larger
Adolescence o Transgender – biological sex at birth and gender
o Identity – coherent conception of the self, made up identity are not the same
of goals, values, and beliefs to which the person is o Transsexual – people who seek medical assistance
solidly committed to permanently transition to their preferred gender
▪ Forms as young people resolve three major o Two major concerns about adolescent sexual activity
issues: the choice of an occupation, the adoption are the risks of contracting STIs and pregnancy
of values to live by, and the development of a o Juvenile Delinquency – adolescent who breaks the
satisfying sexual identity law or engages in behavior considered as illegal
Approximate Crisis Virtue o Antisocial behaviors tends to run in families
Age Developed o Individuals who have low arousal levels may be
Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity prone to antisocial behaviors as a form of sensation
(14-20 yrs) Identity/Role seeking to achieve arousal levels a normal person
Confusion experiences
o Adolescence is a time-out period (Psychosocial o An early onset type (beginning by age 11) tends to
Moratorium), which is the ideal for the lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence
development of identity, allowing young people the o Milder late onset type, tends to arise temporarily in
opportunity to search for commitments to which they adolescence
could be faithful o Parents of children who become chronically
o Fidelity – sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of antisocial may have failed to reinforce good
belonging to a loved one, friends or companions behaviors in early childhood and may have been
▪ Identification with a set of values, an ideology, a harsh or inconsistent with their discipline
religion, a political movement, or an ethnic group Young Adulthood
▪ Inability to develop fidelity may have an unstable o Emerging adulthood offers Moratorium – time out
sense of self, insecure, and fail to plan for from developmental pressures and allow young
themselves and the future people the freedom to experiment various roles and
o A man is not capable of real intimacy until he has lifestyles
achieved a stable identity, whereas women define o Recentering – name for the process that underlies
themselves through marriage and motherhood the shift to an adult identity
o Crisis – a period of conscious decision-making Stage 1: Beginning
▪ Process of grappling with what to believe and Individual is still embedded in the family of origin, but
who to be (Erikson) expectations for self-reliance and self-directedness
o Commitment – a personal investment in an begin to increase
occupation or ideology Stage 2: During
o Maladaptive Tendency: Fanaticism – believes that Individual remains connected to but no longer
his “ways” are the only ways embedded within the family of origin
o Malignant Tendency: Repudiation – repudiate Stage 3: Usually by Age 30
their membership in the world of adults and, even Marked independence from the family of origin and
more, they repudiate their need for an identity commitment to a career, a partner, and possibly
o Sexual Identity – seeing oneself as a sexual being, children
recognizing one’s sexual orientation, and forming o Moratorium – self-conscious crisis that ideally
romantic or sexual attachments leads to a resolution and identity achievement status
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o Many young adults seem to do little active, conscious
deliberation, instead of taking passive approach or
taking the lead from the parents
o Positive parent-child relationships during early
adolescence predict warmer and less conflicted o Typological Approach – seeks to complement and
relationships with both parents when children reach expand trait research by looking at personality
age 26 functioning whole
o The view that these young adults who “fail to o Ego-Resilient – well-adjusted, self-confident,
launch” and do not move out of their parents’ homes articulate, attentive, helpful, Cooperative, task-
are selfish slackers who refuse to grow up is largely focused
inaccurate o Overcontrolled – shy, quiet, anxious, dependable,
o Normative-Stage Models – theoretical approaches tend to keep thoughts to themselves and withdraw
that hold that adults follow a basic sequence of age- from conflict, subject to depression
related psychosocial changes o Undercontrolled – active, energetic, impulsive,
Approximate Crisis Virtue stubborn, and easily distracted
Age Developed Three Attachment Styles
Young Intimacy vs. Love Secure – have positive views in relationships, find it
Adulthood (21- Isolation easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned
39 yrs) about romantic relationships
o According to Erikson, if adults cannot make deep Avoidant – hesitant about getting involved in romantic
personal commitments to others, they risk becoming relationships and once they do, they distance
overly isolated and self-absorbed themselves to their partners
o As young adults work to resolve conflicting demands Anxious – demand closeness, less trusting, more
for intimacy and competitiveness, they develop an emotional, jealous, and possessive
ethical sense, which Erikson considered a marker of Middle Adulthood
adulthood o 6 Emotional Stages of Retirement:
o Love – a mutual devotion between partners who have Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement
chosen to share their lives and have children - Critical time for setting up for success in retirement
o Maladaptive Tendency: Promiscuity – tendency to - Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health,
assess finances, building support network, decide when
become intimate too freely, too easily
to retire
o Malignant Tendency: Exclusion – tendency to
- begin to think seriously about the life they want for
isolate oneself from everyone themselves in retirement and whether they are
o Timing-of-Events Model – holds that the course of financially on track to achieve it
development depends on when certain events occur Retirement – makes the transition from full-time work
in people’s lives to retirement they’ve planned
o Normative Life Events (Normative Age-Graded Honeymoon Phase: Freedom
Events) – those typically happen at certain times of - Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement
life - positive phase when retirees get to enjoy the fruits of
o Social Clock – society’s norms for appropriate a lifetime of labor
timing of life events - Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty because
o Trait Models – psychological models that focus on they feel purposeless
the measurement and examination of different traits Disenchantment Phase: What to do next?
o McCrae’s Five-Factor Model – Openness, - Feel restless, aimless, and bored
- Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to fill
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
time with anything
Neuroticism
- Find clarity and do introspection work to connect with
o People’s personalities remain similar does not mean self and discover retirement purpose
no change occurs - Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set life
goals
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- they may experience some of the emotional o According to Levinson, the transition to middle
downsides of retirements such as loneliness, adulthood lasts about five years and requires the
disillusionment, and a feeling of uselessness adult male to come to grips with the four major
Reorientation: The New You conflicts: (1) being young vs old; (2) being
- Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in destructive versus being constructive; (3) being
retirement masculine vs. feminine; (4) being attached to others
- Reassessing priorities vs. separated from them
- Great opportunity for self-discovery
o Midlife as a crisis, arguing that middle-aged adults is
people try to figure who they are and map their place in
the world as a retiree suspended between past and the future, trying to cope
Stability Phase: Retirement Routine with this gap that threatens life’s continuity
- Growth and contentment with new identity in o Midlife Crisis – changes in personality and lifestyle
retirement, and finding equilibrium during middle forties
- Settling into a new normal ▪ Many people realize that they will not be able to
- Accepted retirement identity and created a daily fulfill the dreams of their youth, or that
routine that works for them fulfillment of their own mortality
o In middle adulthood, conscientiousness is the highest ▪ People who do have crisis at midlife generally
maybe due to result of work experiences also have crises at other times in their lives as well
o However, unemployed ones will show decrease in ▪ Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather
agreeableness and conscientiousness than developmental phase
o Middle-aged men who remarry tend to become less o Turning Point – psychological transition that
neurotic, those who divorce decrease in extraversion involves significant change or transformation in the
o Generativity – involved finding meaning through perceived meaning, purpose, or direction of a
contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future person’s life
generations ▪ Triggered by major life events, normative
▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity, changes, or a new understanding of past
self-generation or self-development experience
▪ “Maintenance of the work” o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the
▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
o Care – widening commitment to take care of discovering new insights about the self, and spurring
persons, products, and the ideas one has learned to midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of
take care for one’s life
Approximate Crisis Virtue o Developmental Deadlines – time constraints on
Age Developed o Ego Resiliency – the ability to adapt flexibly and
Middle Generativity vs. Care resourcefully to potential source of stress
Adulthood (40- Stagnation o Identity Process Theory (IPT) – physical
65 yrs) characteristics, cognitive abilities, and personality
o People who do not find generativity run the risk of traits are incorporation into identity schemas (Susan
becoming self-absorbed, self-indulgent, and stagnant Krauss Whitbourne)
o Stagnation – disconnected from the communities ▪ Assimilation: interpretation of new information
because of their failure to contribute via existing cognitive structure
o Women report higher generativity than men ▪ Accommodation: involves changing cognitive
o For men, having a child early is associated with structures to more closely align with what is
greater generativity encountered
o Maladaptive Tendency: Overextension – they no ▪ Identity Assimilation: involves holding onto a
longer allow themselves to relax and rest consistent sense of self in the face of new
o Malignant Tendency: Rejectivity – no longer experiences that do not fit the current
participating or contributing in the society understanding of the self
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▪ Identity Accommodation: involves adjusting the need to evaluate and accept their lives so as to accept
identity schema to fit new experiences death
▪ Identity Balance: stable sense of self while Approximate Crisis Virtue
adjusting their self-schemas to incorporate new Age Developed
information Old Age (65- Ego Integrity vs. Wisdom
o Narrative Psychology – views the development of older) Despair
self as a continuous process of constructing one’s life o Wisdom – informed and detached concern with life
story itself in the face of death itself
o Generativity Scripts – feature redemption and ▪ Accepting one has lived, without major regrets
associated with psychological well-being o Maladaptive Tendency: Presumption – presumes
o Increase in positive emotions through early ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties
adulthood to old age of old age
o Empty Nest – occurs when the youngest child leaves o Malignant Tendency: Disdain – contempt of life,
home one’s own or anyone’s
o In a good marriage, departure of children generally o Stability declines in late adulthood
increases marital satisfaction o Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth,
o Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang emotional stability, and conscientiousness and
Phenomenon – returning to parent’s home, declines in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness
sometimes with their own families to experience
o Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational o Why do people show normative changes in
tension when it contradicts parent’s normative personality characteristics? Some researchers argue
expectations that these processes are driven primarily by intrinsic
▪ Positive relationships with parents contribute to a genetic differences between people that unfold over
strong sense of self and to emotional well-being time
at midlife o Personality traits influence behavior, and behavior
▪ Filial Crisis: adults learn to balance love and duty influences health
to their parents with autonomy in a two-way o In general, older adults have fewer mental disorders
relationship and are happier and more satisfied with life than
▪ Sandwich Generation: caught in squeeze between younger adults
the competing needs of their own children and the o Happiness tends to be high in early adulthood,
emerging needs of their parents declines until people reach 50 years of age, and then
▪ Caregiver Burnout: a physical, mental, and tends to rise again until 85
emotional exhaustion that can affect adults who o As people get older, they tend to seek out activities
care for aged relatives and people that give them emotional gratification
▪ Respite Care: giving caregivers some time off o They are also better at regulating emotions
▪ Relationships with siblings who remain in contact Critical Issues concerning death and bereavement
can be central to psychological well-being in o Hospice Care – personal, patient- and family-
midlife centered, compassionate care for the terminally ill
o Grandmothers have closer, warmer, more o Palliative Care – includes relief of pain and
affectionate relationships with their suffering, controlling of symptoms, alleviation of
grandchildren stress, and attempts to maintain a satisfactory quality
o Kinship Care: grandparents that provides care but of life
don’t become foster parents or gain custody, have o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
no legal status and few rights to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
Late Adulthood shortly before death
o For Erik Erikson, the crowning achievement of late o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
adulthood is Ego Integrity or integrity of the self – being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
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▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain ▪ Seeking comfort from loved ones is a common
areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and response in human undergoing threat and is a
occipital areas regulatory strategy to reduce anxiety
▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of o Brain Death – neurological condition which states
the release of endorphins the person is brain dead when all electrical activity
o Grief – emotional response that generally follows of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time
closely on the heels of death ▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom lower parts which facilitates breathing and
a person feels close heartbeat
o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues ▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still
connected with grief often takes the following path: have heartbeat for the mean time
1. Shock and Disbelief o Suicide – growing number of people consider a
2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead mature adult’s deliberate choice of a time to end his
person or her life a rational decision and a right to be
3. Resolution defended
o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering
distress or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity
o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief, ▪ Passive – involves withholding or discontinuing
and symptoms worsen over time treatment that might extend the life of a
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time terminally ill patient such as life support
o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually ▪ Active – “mercy killing” involves action taken
diminishing level of grief in response to the death of directly or deliberate to shorten life
a loved one o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when
o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of and how to discontinue futile medical care
the biological nature of death ▪ Living will or a more formal legal document
o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a called a durable power of attorney
troubled relationship with the person who died ▪ Durable Power of Attorney – appoints another
o They do not understand death, but they understand person if the maker of the document becomes
loss incompetent to do so
o Often, teens turn to peers for support o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps
o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing a person bring about a self-inflicted death
at once when they knew they are dying instead of o Life Review – a process of reminisce that enables a
dealing with other issues person to see the significance of his or her life
o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared Expected Developmental Tasks during Childhood,
with death Adolescence, and Adulthood
o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique Infancy and Toddlerhood
understanding of death, in concern with self- o Reflex Behavior – automatic, innate response to
preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in stimulation which are controlled by the lower brain
common emotional and psychological responses centers that govern involuntary processes
when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient o Primitive reflexes – includes sucking, rooting, and
▪ One common response to thoughts of death is to the Moro reflex are related to instinctive needs for
become more committed to a cultural worldview survival and protection or may support the early
▪ High self-esteem should buffer people against connection to the caregiver
anxiety and fear over death o Postural Reflexes – reactions to changes in position
▪ High self-esteem = reduced anxiety regarding or balance
death o Locomotor Reflex – resemble voluntary movements
that do not appear until months after the reflexes
have disappeared
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o Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12 o At 4 months, infant’s brain responds preferentially to
months speech
Early Human Reflexes o Touch is the first sense to develop, the most mature
Moro Extend sensory system for the first several months
legs, arms, o Sense of smell and taste begin to develop in the
and fingers, womb
arches o Motor and Talking Development:
back, draws First Month
back head Infants can turn their Head from side to side
Darwinian Make Grasping Reflex
(Grasping) strong first Starts to coo and play with speech sounds
Second-Third Month
Babies can lift their heads
Can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able
to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to
their left hand
Tonic Fencer
Neck Position Babies can now hold their head still to find out whether
the object is moving
They can already match the voice to faces
Distinguish female and male
Babkin Mouth Discriminate between faces of their own ethnic group
opens, eyes and those of other groups
close, neck Size constancy
flexes, head Infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
tilts objects are whole
forward Fourth Month
Babinski Toes fan Babies can keep their heads erect while being held or
out; foot supported in a sitting position
twist in Can now roll-over, accidentally
Begin to reach objects
Sixth Month
Babies cannot sit without support
Rooting Head turns, Can start creeping or crawling
mouth Could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
opens, than they could in the light
sucking They can now localize or detect sounds from their
begins origins, recognizes sound patterns and phonemes
Walking Steplike Seventh Month
motions Pincer Grasps could already manifest
Can start standing
Can now sit independently
Start babbling
Eighth Month
Swimming Swimming Babies can assume sitting position without help
movements Infants can now learn to pull themselves up and hold
on to a chair
Tenth Month
They can now stand alone
First word
Eleventh Month
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Babies can let go and stand alone well o Sensorimotor Stage:
Single words Substages
Thirteenth Month 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
Toddlers can now pull a toy attached to a string and use Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
their hands and legs to climb stairs over them
Use a lot of social gestures Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking
Eighteenth to Twenty-Fourth Month whenever they want to)
Toddlers can now walk quickly, run, and balance on 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
their feet in a squatting position Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
Can now talk in two words continuously learning new Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
words everyday objects
o Perceptual Constancy – sensory stimulation is They turn towards the sounds
changing but perception of the physical world 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
remains constant Repeat actions that brings interesting results
▪ Allows infants to perceive that their world as Learns about causality
stable 4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
▪ Size Constancy: recognition that an object months)
remains the same even though the retinal image Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
of the object changes as you move toward or previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
away from the object Can anticipate events
▪ Shape Constancy: an object remains the same 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
Purposefully vary their actions to see results
shape even though its orientation changes
Actively explore the world
o Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development
Trial and error in solving problems
– developmental test designed to assess children
6. Mental Combinations
from 1 month to 3 ½ years
Can think about events and anticipate consequences
▪ Cognitive, Language, Motor, Social-Emotional, without always resorting action
and Adaptive Behavior Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
▪ Accompanied by Behavior Rating Scale taken pretend
from the caregiver Transition to Pre-operational stage
o Home Observation for Measurement of the Learns about numbers
Environment (HOME) – trained observers o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can
interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes-or- be performed on objects
no checklist the intellectual stimulation and support o Assimilation – occurs when children use their
observed in a child’s home existing schemes to deal with new information
▪ Number of books and toys, parents involvement o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their
with the child, parental emotional and verbal schemes to take new information and experiences
responsiveness, acceptance of the child’s into account
behavior, organization of the environment, and o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and
opportunities for daily and varied stimulation thoughts into higher-order system
o Early Intervention – systematic process of planning o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict
and providing therapeutic and educational services o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as
for families that need help in meeting infants’, they seek equilibrium
toddlers’, and pre-school children’s developmental o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of
needs thought to the next
o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally
represent objects and actions in memory, largely
through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental
picture
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o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember o During the second half of the first year, the prefrontal
o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can cortex and associated circuitry develop the capacity
see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation of working memory (short-term storage of
(involves with parts of the body that babies cannot information the brain is actively processing)
see) o Working memory may be responsible for the slow
o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could development of object permanence
not engage in Deferred Imitation o Between 6-3 months, babies start cooing
▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the o By 6-10 months, they start babbling
passage of time o Infants start using gestures at about 7-15 months
▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental o As early as 5 months, infants recognize their name
representations o Receptive Vocabulary – words that the child
o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an understand
object no longer exists once it is out other line of o Spoken Vocabulary – words the child
sight expresses/uses
o Object Permanence – the realization that something o Overextension – tendency to apply a word to objects
continues to exist when out of sight that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning by
o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to going beyond the set of referents an adult would use
explore pictures as if they were objects (e.g. “Dada” not only for her Dad but also to other
o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture male strangers)
of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an o Underextension – tendency to apply the word too
understanding that a picture is a symbol of something narrowly; occurs when children fail to use a word to
else name a relevant event or object
o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that o Children between 18 to 24 months, speak in two-
children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping word utterances
spatial relationships because of the need to keep o Telegraphic Speech – the use of short and precise
more than one mental representation in mind at the words without grammatical markers such as articles,
same time etc. (“Momi give water”)
o Habituation – a type of learning in which repeated o Child-Directed Speech – language spoken with a
or continuous exposure to a stimulus, reduces higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and
attention to that stimulus exaggerated intonation, with simple words and
▪ Familiarity breeds loss of interest sentences
o Dishabituation – if a new sight or sound is o Recasting – rephrasing something the child has said
presented, the baby’s attention is generally captured that might lack appropriate morphology
once again, and the baby will reorient toward the o Expanding – adding information to a child’s
interesting stimulus and once again sucking slows incomplete sentence
o Visual Preference – tendency to spend more time o Labeling – name objects that children
looking at one sight rather than another o Storybook reading especially benefits children
o Visual Recognition Memory – ability that depends Four Patterns of Crying of Infants
on the capacity to form and refer to mental Basic Hunger Cry – rhythmic pattern that usually
representations consist of cry, followed by a briefer silence
o Babies like to look at new things Angry Cry – more excess air is forced through vocal
o Senses are unconnected at birth and are only cords
gradually integrated through experience Pain Cry – sudden long, initial loud cry followed by
o Cross-Modal Transfer – the ability to use breath holding
information gained from one sense to guide another Frustration Cry – higher pitch an a more monotonic
vocalization is associated with autonomic system
– as when a person negotiates a dark room by feeling
activity during stressful procedures in infants
for the location of familiar objects
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o Social Smiling – newborn infants gaze and smile at Can descend a long stairway alternating feet if
their parents; smile that occurs in response to supported
external stimulus (2 months) Able to categorize objects to identify similarities and
o Reflexive Smile – a smile that does not occur in differences
response to external stimuli and appear during the Can tell the differences in size
first month after birth They conversate in sentences and may be declarative,
o Anticipatory Smiling – infants smile at an object negative, interrogative, or imperative
then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile Can recognize facial expressions, recognize emotions
o Self-Conscious emotions arise only after children thru vocal cues and body postures
5 years old
have developed self-awareness
Can start, turn, and stop effectively in games
o Altruistic Behavior – acting out of concern with no
Can descend a long stairway, unaided
expectation of reward
Run hard and enjoy races with each other
o Mirror Neurons – underlie empathy and altruism Hand, arm, and body move together under better
o Temperament – An early-appearing, biologically command of the eye
based tendency to respond to the environment in Can now count to 20 or more and know the relative
predictable ways sizes of the numbers 1 through 10
Easy Children – generally happy, rhythmic in Speech is quite adultlike
biological functioning, and accepting of new Children understand the public aspects of emotions
experiences (understand the things that causes others to be sad or
Difficult Children – more irritable and harder to please happy)
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children – mild but slow to adapt 6 years old
to new people and situations Brain is 90% of its peak volume
o Strong links between infant temperament and Permanent teeth begins to appear
childhood personality at age of 7 Has an expressive vocabulary of 2,600 words and
o Goodness of Fit – the match between a child’s understands more than 20,000
temperament and the environmental demands and 7 years old
constraints the child must deal with Children start to understand that mental states can drive
Early Childhood emotions
3 years old o Handedness – the preference of using one hand over
Children begin to lose their babyish roundness and take the other
on the slender, athletic appearance of childhood ▪ Left-handedness run in families
Brain is approximately 90% of adult weight o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability
Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly to reconstruct in thought what has been established
Can jump a distance of 15-24 inches in behavior
Can ascend a stairway unaided, alternating feet o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive
Can hop Thought
Handedness is evident 1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about
All primary teeth are evident something in the absence of sensory or motor cues
Can now pick up tiny objects between their thumb and ▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such
forefingers (tho still clumsy) as words, numbers, or images to which a person
Know the difference between reality and imagination has attached meaning
Can use 900 to 1000 words
▪ Deferred Imitation – children imitate an action
Typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and past
at some point after observing it
tense
▪ Pretend Play – fantasy play, dramatic play, or
4 years old
Peak of the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex imaginary play; children use an object to
More effective control of stopping, starting, and turning represent something else
Can jump a distance of 24-33 inches ▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is
language
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▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 o Social Speech – speech intended to be understood by
2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning a listener
and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions o Private Speech – talking aloud to oneself with no
▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age intent to communicate with others (Egocentric
o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols Speech)
that describe physical spaces ▪ Immature (Piaget)
o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason ▪ Learning Process (Vygotsky)
logically about causality o Emergent Literacy – development of fundamental
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, skills that eventually lead to being able to read
especially events close in time, whether or not here ▪ Social interaction promotes emergent literacy
is logically a causal relationship o Self-Concept – our total picture of our abilities and
o Identities – the concept that people and many things traits
are basically the same even if they change in outward o Children’s self-definition typically change between
form, size, or appearance ages 5 and 7
o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that o At about 7, children will be able to describe
are not alive themselves in terms of generalized traits
o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of o Self-Esteem – self-evaluative part of the self-
a situation and neglect others concept, the judgement children make about their
▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several overall worth
aspects of a situation at one time) ▪ Children’s self-esteem tends to be unidimensional
▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while (either good or bad)
ignoring the other ▪ Children whose self-esteem is contingent on
▪ Irreversibility – failure to understand that an success tend to become demoralized when they
action can go in two or more directions fail
o Egocentrism – young children center so much on ▪ Children with noncontingent self-esteem tend to
their own point of view that they cannot take in attribute failure or disappointment to factors
another’s outside themselves or to the need to try harder
o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal o Emotional self-regulation helps children guide their
remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as behavior and adjust their responses to meet societal
nothing is added or taken away expectations
o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range o Play is vitally important to development and has
of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires, significant current and long-term functions
dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that o Enables children to engage with the world around
others have their own them, use imagination, to discover flexible ways to
▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior use objects and solve problems, and to prepare for
of others and makes the social world adult roles
understandable o Social Cognitive Theory – observation enables
o 3-5 yr old children are more proficient with language children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors
than younger children before performing them
o Fast Mapping – allows a child to pick up Cognitive Levels of Play
approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it Functional Play (Locomotor Play or Sensorimotor
only once or twice in conversation Play)– simplest level; begins during infancy, consisting
▪ Nouns are easier to fast map than verbs of repeated practice in large muscular movements
o Syntax – a concept and involves the rules for putting Constructive Play (Object Play or Practice Play) –
together sentences in a particular language use of objects or materials to make something
o Pragmatics – practical knowledge of how to use Dramatic Play (Pretend Play, Fantasy Play,
language to communicate Imaginative Play) – involves imaginary objects,
actions, or roles
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Formal Games – organized games with rules, behavior by settling limits, demonstrating logical
procedures, and penalties consequences of the action, explaining, discussing,
6 Types of Play by Parten (1932) etc.
Unoccupied Behavior – child does not seem to be ▪ To consider how her actions would affect others
playing but watches anything of momentary interest o Power Assertion – intended to stop or discourage
Onlooker Behavior – child spends most time watching undesirable behavior through physical or verbal
others play enforcement
Solitary Independent Play – child plays alone o Withdrawal of Love – include ignoring, isolating,
Parallel Play – plays beside the other children or showing dislike for a child
independently
o Self-concept, self-esteem, emotion regulation
Associative Play – children talk, borrow, and lend toys,
o Social emptions are usually attached to their parents
follow each other around and play similarly
Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play – Middle and Late Childhood
child plays in a group organized for some goal – to o Faster and more efficient information processing and
make something, play formal game, or dramatize a an increased ability to ignore distractions
situation o The overall volume of gray matter (linked with IQ)
o Reticent Play – combination of Unoccupied and increases pre-puberty and declines post-puberty
Onlooker categories is often a manifestation of ▪ Decline is due to loss in the density of gray matter
shyness ▪ Gray matter volume peaks 1 to 2 years earlier in
o Social Play – involves interaction with peers girls than boys
o Constructive play – combines ▪ The loss in density of gray matter with age is
sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic balanced by another change – a steady increase in
representation white matter
o Games – activities that children engage in for o Motor Skills continue to improve in middle
pleasure and that have rules childhood
o Sex Segregation is common among preschoolers and ▪ Children play games during recess which usually
becomes more prevalent in middle childhood involves socialization
o Gender Segregation – a phenomenon wherein girls ▪ Boys typically play physically (running), whereas
tend to select other girls as playmates, and so boys girls loves games that involves verbal expression
o Discipline – refers to methods of molding character or counting out loud (jump rope, hopscotch)
and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior ▪ Rough-And-Tumble Play – wrestling, kicking,
o External Reinforcements – may be tangible or tumbling, grappling, and chasing, accompanied
intangible; it must be seen as rewarding and received by laughing and screaming
fairly consistently after showing desired behavior ▪ 6-9 year olds need more flexible rules, shorter
o Internal Reinforcements – a sense of pleasure or instruction time, and more free time to practice
accomplishment than older children
o Punishment, if consistent, immediate, and clearly ▪ Older children are able to process instruction and
tied to the offense, may be effective learn team strategies
▪ Administered calmly, in private, and aimed at o Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes
eliciting compliance not guilt important early in middle childhood, especially for
▪ Effective when accompanied with short girls, which could lead to eating disorders during
explanation adolescence (may be influenced by playing
▪ The desired behavior should be clear unrealistic dolls such as barbie)
▪ Corporal Punishment – the use of physical force o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of
with the intention of causing a child to experience Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget
pain but not injury for the purpose of correction o Children can now think logically because they can
or control of the child’s behavior take multiple aspects of situations into account
o Inductive Techniques – designed to encourage o However, their thinking is still limited to real
desirable behavior or discourage undesirable situations in the here and now
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o Better understanding of: o Children who are disliked by their peers tend to do
✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and poorly in school
navigate environment o Many educators argue that smaller classes benefit
✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects students
✓ Categorization Adolescence
▪ Seriation – arranging objects in a series o A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that
according to one or more dimensions connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster
▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity – e.g. A < B < information and better communication across
C hemispheres
▪ Class Inclusion – ability to see the relationship o Increase in white matter occurs early in women than
between a whole and its parts, and to understand men
categories within a whole o By mid- to late adolescence, young people have
✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning fewer but stronger, smoother, and more effective
▪ Inductive Reasoning – involves making neuronal connections, making cognitive processing
observations about particular members of a class more efficient
of people, animals, objects, or events, and then o Development of the brain starts are the back and
drawing conclusions about the class as a whole moves forward
▪ Deductive Reasoning – starts with a general o The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by
statement about a class and applies it to particular comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to
members of the class seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find
▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete it hard to focus on long-term goals
operations stage only used inductive reasoning o Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in
✓ Conservation adolescence in part because of a heightened
▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho neurobehavioral susceptibility to social reward cues
it has different appearance and concurrent immaturity in the cognitive control
▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what system
would happen if he tried to roll back the clay of o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest
snake level of cognitive development – Formal
▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect Operations
of the two objects at once o Adolescents move away from their reliance on
✓ Numbers concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the
o Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and capacity for abstract thought
metaphor o Usually around 11 yrs old
o Rarely use passive voice o They can now use symbols to represent other
o Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities,
sophisticated with age create hypotheses
o Sentence structure continue to become more o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical,
elaborate scientific approach to problem solving, and it
o Boys tend to use more controlling statements, characterizes formal operations thinking
negative interruptions, and competitive statements ▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test
o Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative, hypotheses
conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative ▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain
o Self-Efficacy – an individuals belief that they can maturation and expanding environmental
execute behaviors necessary to attain specific opportunities
performance o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking
o Doing well in school increases self-efficacy of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and
o Girls tend to do better in school than boys their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped
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bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its ✓ Low teacher expectations
use ✓ Differential treatment
o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at ✓ Less teacher support
the same time yet may lack effective strategies for ✓ Perceived irrelevance of the curriculum to
choosing them culturally under-represented groups
o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about o Self-Efficacy beliefs help shape the occupational
thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts options students consider and the way they prepare
o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer” for careers
who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and o Service Learning – form of education that promotes
behavior as he or she is social responsibility and service to the community
o Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking about Young Adulthood
the same thing they are thinking about: themselves o Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep,
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the etc.
rules that govern the rest of the world o Emotion-Focused Coping – manage emotions by
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior refusing to think about an issue or reframing the
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky event in the positive light
decision making o Problem-Focused Coping – involves addressing an
o Adolescents also become more skilled in social issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways
perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech of managing and changing a bad situation
to another person’s POV o Premenstrual Syndrome – disorder that produces
o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model – physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to
decision making is influenced by two cognitive 2 weeks before menstrual period
systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional, ▪ Response to monthly surges of female hormones
which operate in parallel ▪ More typical in women in their 30s or older
o School – offers opportunities to learn info, master ▪ Dysmenorrhea – caused by contractions of the
new skills, and sharpen old skills uterus which are set in motion by prostaglandin
o Educational Practices are based on the assumption o Infertility – inability to conceive a baby
that students are, or can be motivated to learn ▪ Common causes in women: failure to produce
o Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of ova, mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine
proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science lining
o Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing o Reflective Thinking – active, persistent, and careful
and language usage consideration of information or beliefs
o Boys do better in activities that involve visual and ▪ Continually question facts, draw inferences, and
spatial functions helpful in math and science make connections
o Spillover – experiences in different contexts ▪ Frequently engage in critical thinking
influence each other ▪ At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms
o A good middle or high school has an orderly, safe new neurons, synapses, and dendritic
environment, an adequate material resources, a connections, and the cortical regions that handle
stable teaching staff, and a positive sense of higher-level thinking become fully myelinated
community o Postformal Thought – characterized by the ability
o Adolescents are more satisfied with school if allowed to deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and
to participate in making rules, if they feel supported compromise
from teachers and other students, and if the ▪ Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic
curriculum and instruction are meaningful and to help people cope with situations such as social
appropriately challenging and fit their interests, skill dilemmas
level, and needs
o Dropout reasons:
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▪ Acknowledges that there may be more than one o Culture affects the understanding of morality
valid way of viewing an issue and that the world o As students gain more experience and think more
is made up of shades of gray deeply, they begin to realize that much knowledge
o Schaie: A lifespan Model of Cognitive and many values are somewhat relative
Development o Commitment within Relativism – students decide
Acquisitive Stage (Childhood and Adolescence) for themselves, ideally, what they want to believe
Children acquire info and skills mainly for their own o Whether a person completes college may depend not
sake or as preparation in society only on motivation, academic aptitude, and
Achieving Stage (Late teens or early twenties to preparation, and ability to work independently, but
thirties) also on social integration and social support
They use what they know to pursue goals o People seem to grow in challenging jobs
Responsible Stage (Late 30s to early 60s) o Substantive Complexity – the degree of thought and
Use their minds to solve practical problems associated independent judgement it requires – and a person’s
with responsibilities to others flexibility in coping with cognitive demands
Executive Stage (30s or 40s through middle age)
o Spillover Hypothesis – cognitive gains from work
Responsible for societal systems or social movements
carry over to nonworking hours
Reorganizational Stage (end of middle age,
o Intimate relationship requires self-awareness,
beginning of late adulthood)
Enter retirement reorganize their lives and intellectual empathy, the ability to communicate emotions,
energies around meaningful pursuits that take place of resolve conflict, and sustain commitments
paid work o Friendships during young adulthood are much less
Reintegrative Stage (Late Adulthood) stable because people relocate more frequently
Focus on the purpose of what they do and concentrate o They tend to center on work, sharing confidence and
on tasks that have most meaning for them advice
Legacy-Creating Stage (advanced old age) o Women have more intimate friendships than men
Older people may create instructions for the disposition o Men are more likely to share information and
of prized possessions, make funeral arrangements, activities
provide oral histories, or write their life stories as o Fictive Kin – treated as family members despite a
legacy for their loved ones lack of blood relationship
o Componential Knowledge – analytical abilities o Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love – the way
o Experiential Intelligence – original thinking, love develops is a story. The loves are its authors, and
experience-based the story they create reflects their personalities and
o Contextual Intelligence – knowing your way their conceptions of love.
around o Three elements of love:
o Tacit Knowledge – inside information, know-how, a. Intimacy – emotional element, involves self-
“hacks”, not formally taught or openly expressed; disclosure, which leads to connection, warmth,
commonsense knowledge of how to get aged and trust
▪ Includes self-management, management of tasks, b. Passion – motivational element, based on inner
and management of others drives that translate physiological arousal into
o Emotional Intelligence – refers to four related sexual desire
skills: the abilities to perceive, use, understand, and c. Commitment – cognitive element, the decision
manage or regulate emotions to achieve goals to love and make the relationship work (exclusive
(Salovey & Mayer, 1990) or marry)
▪ Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Nonlove
Test) No intimacy, passion, nor commitment
o In Kohlberg’s Postconventional Morality, people Casual Interactions
became more capable of fully principled moral e.g., friends, acquaintances
reasoning, and that they made moral decisions on the Liking
basis of universal principles of justice Intimacy present
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There is closeness, understanding, emotional support, o Sex impacts relationship quality
affection, bondedness, and warmth o Women tend to place more importance on emotional
e.g., ka-talking stage mo na ayaw makipag-meet up at expressiveness than men do
walang label Middle Adulthood
Infatuation o Middle-Aged people are in their prime
Passion present o Individuals who scored the highest in the study of
Strong physical attraction Schaie tended to have high educational levels,
e.g., crushes, someone na naka-salubong mo sa kanto flexible personalities, intact families, pursue
tapos crush mo agad cognitively complex occupations and other
Empty Love
activities, to be married to someone more cognitively
Commitment only
advanced, to be satisfied with their accomplishments
Found in long-term relationship that have lost both
o Fluid Intelligence – ability to solve novel problems,
intimacy and passion
e.g., arranged marriage (justin-hailey charot) such as problems that require little or no previous
Companionate Love knowledge
Intimacy and Commitment present ▪ Peak in young adulthood
Long-term, committed friendship, no physical ▪ Many older adults perform in the real world at
attraction high levels despite declines in fluid intelligence
e.g., Couple with no sex life charot, BESTIEEEEES o Crystallized Intelligence – ability to remember and
Fatuous Love use information acquired over a lifetime, such as
Passion and Commitment only academics
Couple makes commitment without allowing ▪ Increase through middle age and often until the
themselves to develop intimacy end of life
e.g., Fuck Buddies o Mature adults show increasing competence in
Consummate Love solving problems in their chosen field
All three components completed ▪ Specialized Knowledge or Expertise – form of
e.g., SANA ALL crystallized intelligence that is related to the
o Some young adults stay single because they have not process of encapsulation
found the right mate, some are single by choice ▪ Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s
o Friends With Benefits – relationships of friendships information-processing-machinery because some
blended with physical intimacy, but little adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated
commitment (dedicated in handling specific kinds of
o Gay and Lesbian relationships mirror heterosexual knowledge)
relationships ▪ Expert thinking often seems automatic and
▪ More likely to negotiate household chores on a intuitive
more egalitarian basis ▪ Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also
▪ Resolve conflicts in more positive ways a characteristic of Postformal Thought
▪ Less stable o An important feature of postformal thought is its
▪ Lesbian couples are more likely to divorce than integrative nature – adults interpret what they read,
gay couples (AAAAWWW see, or hear in terms of its meaning for them
CALZONAAAAAAAA) o Phased Retirement – people reduce works hours or
o Cohabitation – unmarried couple involved in sexual days, gradually moving into retirement over a
relationship live together number of years
o Most young adults plan to marry, but only when they o Bridge Employment – switching to another
feel ready, and they see getting on their feet company or new line of work
financially and establishing themselves in a stable o If work, both on job and home, could be made
jobs or careers meaningful and challenging, more adults might
o Married people tend to be happier than unmarried retain or improve cognitive abilities
people
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o Employers see benefits of workplace education in o Viktor Frankl said that the three most distinct human
improved morale, increased quality of work, better qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
teamwork and problem solving, and greater ability to ▪ Spirituality, in his view, refers to a human being’s
cope with new technology and other changes in uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
workplace ▪ Having a sense of meaning in life can lead to
o Literacy – fundamental requisite for participation clearer guidelines for living one’s life and
not only in the workplace but in all facets of a enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and
modern, information-driven society reach goals
o 5 Emotional Stages of Retirement: ▪ Four main needs for meaning that guide how
1. Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement people try to make sense of their lives:
▪ Critical time for setting up for success in i. Need for Purpose – goals and fulfillments
retirement ii. Need for Values – enable people to decide
▪ Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health, whether certain acts are right or wrong
assess finances, building support network, decide iii. Need for a sense of efficacy – belief that they can
when to retire control their environment
2. Honeymoon Phase: Freedom iv. Need for Self-Worth
▪ Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement o Generativity – involved finding meaning through
▪ Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future
because they feel purposeless generations
3. Disenchantment Phase: What to do next? ▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity,
▪ Feel restless, aimless, and bored self-generation or self-development
▪ Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to ▪ “Maintenance of the work”
fill time with anything ▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors
▪ Find clarity and do introspection work to connect o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the
with self and discover retirement purpose finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
▪ Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set discovering new insights about the self, and spurring
life goals midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of
4. Reorientation: The New You one’s life
▪ Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in Old Age
retirement o Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
▪ Reassessing priorities physical changes once associated with normal aging
▪ Great opportunity for self-discovery o Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes,
5. Stability Phase: Retirement Routine colon cancer, and high blood pressure
▪ Growth and contentment with new identity in o Wisdom – exceptional breadth and depth of
retirement, and finding equilibrium knowledge about the conditions of life and human
▪ Settling into a new normal affects and reflective judgement about the
▪ Accepted retirement identity and created a daily application of knowledge
routine that works for them ▪ May involve the lead to transcendence,
o Religion – organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, detachment from preoccupation with the self
and symbols that increases an individual’s ▪ The ability to navigate the messiness of life
connection to a sacred or transcendent other ▪ Older adults tend to make the most of their
o Religiousness – degree of affiliation with an abilities, often exploiting gains in one area to
organized religion, participation in its rituals and offset declines in another
practices Developmental Challenges and Milestones
o Spirituality – involves experiencing something Challenges during Prenatal and Childhood
beyond oneself in transcendent manner Prenatal
o Women have consistently shown stronger interest in - Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth
religion and spirituality than men complications
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- Overweight women have risk of having longer - Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the
deliveries, need more health care services, gestational year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure at
diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects etc. work tends to have low birth weight and slowed fetal
- Malnutrition results to fetal growth restriction and low growth
birth weight - Older fathers may be significant source of birth
- Thalidomide: caused stunted limbs, facial defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
deformities, and defective organs dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
- Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant - Breech Position: baby’s buttocks are the first part to
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates, emerge from the vagina which can cause respiratory
Acutane problems
- Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal death, - Complications: bleeding, infection, damage to pelvic
preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium organs, post-operative pains, riskier future pregnancies
- Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to - APGAR Scale: widely used to assess the health of
experience withdrawal once they are born and no newborns at 1-5 mins after birth
longer receive drugs ▪ 7-10, condition is good
- Neonate Abstinence Syndrome: sleep disturbance, ▪ 5, developmental difficulties
tremors, difficulty regulating the body, irritability, ▪ 3 or below, emergency and the baby might not
crying and etc. survive
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: characterized by a ▪ 9-10 score, risk of developing ADHD in
combination of retarded growth, face and body childhood
malformations, and disorders of the central nervous - Anoxia: lack of oxygen
system - Hypoxia: reduced oxygen supply
- Maternal smoking was identified to be the most - Anoxia or Hypoxia may occur during delivery as a
important factor for low-birth weight babies result of repeated compression of the placenta and
- Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage, umbilical cord that could leave permanent brain
growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc. damage, mental retardation, behavior problems or even
- Caffeine has slightly increased risk for miscarriage, death
stillbirth, and low birth weight babies - Meconium: stringy, greenish-black waste matter
- Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart formed in the fetal intestinal tract
defects to babies - Neonatal Jaundice: skin and eyeballs look yellow
- Toxoplasmosis: caused by parasite in the bodies of caused by immaturity of the liver
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of cats - Low Birth Weight Infants: weigh less than 5 pounds
that causes fetal brain damage, severely impaired and 8 ounces at birth
eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. ▪ Very Low birth Weight: less than 3 pounds 4
- Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that ounces
have heart and neural tube defects ▪ Extremely Low Birth: less than 2 pounds
- Stress and anxiety has been associated with more - Pre-term Infants: born three weeks or more before
irritable and active temperament in newborns pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of 37
- Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery weeks of gestation)
- Depression may cause premature birth or - Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age
developmental delays Infants): those whose birth weight is below normal
- Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal when the length of pregnancy is considered
age - Progestin: might help in reducing preterm birth
- Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or - Extremely Preterm: born less than 28 weeks gestation
underweight babies - Very Preterm: less than 33 weeks
- Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins - Kangaroo Care: involves skin-to-skin contact in
may result to asthma, allergies, lupus which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright
- X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low- against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the
birth weight babies preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing
- Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation, Infancy & Toddlerhood
pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor quality - Nonorganic Failure to thrive: slowed or arrested
sperm physical growth with no known medical cause,
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accompanied by poor developmental and emotional 1. Physical Abuse – infliction of physical injury
functioning 2. Child Neglect – failure to provide child’s basic
- Shaken Baby Syndrome: baby has a weak neck needs
muscles, and a large, heavy head, shaking makes the 3. Sexual Abuse
brain bounce back and forth inside the skull 4. Emotional Abuse – acts or omissions by parents or
- One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is other caregivers that have caused or could cause,
Respiratory Distress Syndrome – wherein there is a serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps Middle and Late Childhood
air sacs from collapsing - Tooth decay remains one of the most common chronic
- Postmature Babies: tend to be long and this because untreated conditions
they have kept growing in the womb but have had an - Access to proper dental care is important for young
insufficient blood supply toward the end of gestation children
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: crib death; sudden - Recommended calories per day for schoolchildren 9
death of an infant under age 1 which cause of death to 13 years of range from 1,400 to 2,600 depending on
remains unexplained gender and activity level
Early Childhood - Sleep: average of 10 hrs a day
- Sleep problems are occasional and usually outgrown - Factors that affect children’s sleep:
- Many of sleep problems issues are the result of ▪ Exposure to media screens
ineffective parenting ▪ Physical inactivity
- Persistent sleep problems may indicate emotional, ▪ Secondhand smoke
physiological, or neurological condition that needs to ▪ Poor housing
be examines ▪ Vandalism
- Night terrors generally peach at about 1 ½ years and ▪ Lack of parks and playgrounds
are common between 2 ½ and 4 years of age - Persistent snoring, at least 3x a week, may indicate a
- Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors are child has sleep-disordered breathing, which is linked to
common when children are sleep deprived, have fever behavioral and learning difficulties
or on medications, or when conditions are noisy - Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes
- Nightmares are common during early childhood important early in middle childhood, especially for
- Enuresis: repeated involuntary urination at night by girls, which could lead to eating disorders during
children old enough to have bladder control adolescence (may be influenced by playing unrealistic
- Motor coordination in childhood tends to be relatively dolls such as barbie)
stable over time - Causes of obesity:
- Handedness: the preference of using one hand over ▪ Overweight parents or other relatives
the other ▪ Poor nutrition
- 41 million children under age 5 were obese in 2016 ▪ Eating fast food
- Stunted Children: normal weight but shorter than they ▪ Sugar
should for their age and may have cognitive and ▪ Inactivity
physical deficiencies, visible in developing countries - Acute Medical Conditions: occasional, short-term
- Food Allergies are more prevalent in children than in conditions, such as infections and warts
adults and most of them outgrow their allergies - Chronic Medical Conditions: physical,
- Car accidents are the most commonly reported cause developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions
of accidental death for children over the age of 4 that persists 3 months or more such as asthma and
- Children exposed to tobacco smoke are more likely to diabetes
develop wheezing symptoms and asthma, and have a - Asthma: chronic, allergy-based respiratory disease
higher risk for high-blood pressure characterized by sudden attacks of coughing,
- Other common causes of death in early childhood: wheezing, and difficulty breathing
cancer, congenital abnormalities, and chromosomal - Caused by genetics, smoke exposure, low levels of
disorders, assault, heart disease, respiratory disease and vitamin D
septicemia - Diabetes: one of the most common diseases in school-
- Contextual factors such as poverty and parenting aged children
quality are linked to the development of the brain
Types of Child Maltreatment
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- Characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood - Relational Aggression: more subtle; indirect social
as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective aggression
insulin action, or both Challenges during Adolescence and Adulthood
- Hypertension: high blood pressure; children with Adolescence
hypertension are more likely to have learning - Secular Trend: children may be starting puberty
disabilities and may have problems with executive earlier but spending more time to reach full sexual
functioning maturity
- Accidental Injuries are the leading cause of accidental - May be due to higher standard of living,
death among school-age US Children undernutrition, health, exposure to endocrine-
- Intellectual Disability: significantly subnormal disrupting chemicals
cognitive functioning - May also because they were firstborn, being born to a
- Intervention programs have helped many of those single mother and harsh maternal parenting practices
mildly or moderately disabled and those considered - However, it was concluded that children who are
borderline to hold jobs, live in the community, and exposed to high stress when young tend to reach
function in society pubertal milestone earlier than those who are not
- Learning Disabilities: difficulty in learning that - Early maturation has been liked to adult health issues
involves understanding or using spoken or written such as cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, - Early puberty can be a predictor of adult obesity and
thinking, reading, writing, and spelling polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) – disorder
▪ Dyslexia: most commonly diagnosed LD; causing acne, irregular periods, excess hair growth, and
severe impairment in their ability to read and the growth of cysts on ovaries
spell - Effects of early or late maturation are most likely to
▪ Dysgraphia: difficulty in handwriting be negative when adolescents are much more or less
▪ Dyscalculia: developmental arithmetic developed than peers
disorder - The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by
- ADHD: most common mental disorder in childhood comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to
- Autism Spectrum Disorder: Pervasive Developmental seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find it
Disorder hard to focus on long-term goals
▪ Autistic Disorder: severe developmental ASD - Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in adolescence
that has onset during the first 3 yrs of life in part because of a heightened neurobehavioral
▪ Asperger Syndrome: mild ASD susceptibility to social reward cues and concurrent
- Bullying: aggression that is deliberately, persistently immaturity in the cognitive control system
directed against a particular target - A sedentary lifestyle may result in increased risk of
Parenting Styles poor mental health, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and an
1.Authoritarian – emphasizes control and increased likelihood of heart disease and cancer in
unquestioning obedience, high control, low adulthood
responsiveness - Children generally go to sleep later and sleep less on
2. Permissive/Indulgent – make few demands, warm, school days the older they get
noncontrolling, low control, high responsiveness - Sleep deprivation can sap motivation and cause
3. Authoritative – emphasizes child’s individuality but irritability, and concentration and school performance
also stress limits, high control, high responsiveness can suffer
4. Neglectful or Uninvolved – parents neglect - After puberty, the secretion of melatonin takes place
children; low control, low responsiveness later at night, making it difficult for adolescent to go to
- Altruism: motivation to help another person with no bed early
expectation of reward - Overweight teenagers tend to be in poorer health than
- Prosocial Behavior: voluntary, positive actions to their peers and are more likely have difficulty attending
help others school or engaging in strenuous activity
- Instrumental Aggression: used aggression as a tool to - Body Image: one’s perception, thoughts, and feelings
gain access to a wanted object about one’s body
- Overt (Direct) Aggression: boys; tend to openly direct - Girls tend to express the highest level of body
aggressive acts at a target satisfaction when underweight, some dissatisfaction
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when average weight, and the most dissatisfaction high-fat diets, and sedentary recreational pursuits
when overweight explains obesity epidemic
- Anorexia Nervosa: distorted body image, severely - Bariatric Surgery: any surgery that is carried out to
underweight, may be withdrawn or depressed, and induce weight loss, and it generally involves rerouting
afraid of losing control and becoming overweight or removing parts of the stomach or small intestine
- Bulimia Nervosa: short-lived binge eating and then - The most common eating disorders in Young
purging by self-induced vomiting, strict dieting, Adulthood are Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
excessive exercise, etc. - People who are physically active maintain healthy
- Binge-eating disorder: binging without purging of body weight, builds muscles, strengthen heart and
food lungs, lowers blood pressure, protects against heart
- A recent trend is the abuse of nonprescription cough disease, etc.
and cold meds (dextromethorphan) - High levels of chronic stress are related to a host of
- Binge Drinking: consuming five or more drinks on physical and immunological impairments
one occasion - Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky
- When the brain is undergoing significant structural behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep,
and functional change, might be a period of the life etc.
span during which teens should be particularly - Emotion-Focused Coping: manage emotions by
sensitive to environmental influences refusing to think about an issue or reframing the event
- Alcohol interacts with inhibitory and excitatory in the positive light
receptor systems that are developing in adolescence, - Problem-Focused Coping: involves addressing an
making them more sensitive to rewarding effects of issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways of
alcohol and less sensitive to its negative features managing and changing a bad situation
- Those who drink show changes in key prefrontal - College-age women more likely to use emotion-
areas, including middle frontal gyrus, superior frontal focused strategies
gyrus, left frontal cortex, frontal pole, and left frontal - Among college students, family stress, academic
gyrus – all areas involved in executive control stress, is associated with high levels of insomnia
- Being female is a risk factor for depression - Sleep Deprivation affects not only the physical health
- This may be due to biological changes associated with but also cognitive, emotional, and social functioning as
puberty well
- Motor Vehicle collisions are the leading cause of - Primary cognitive consequence is impaired attention
accidental deaths among US teenagers and vigilance
- Homicides are the third leading cause - Chronic sleep deprivation can seriously worsen
- Suicide is the second cause of death cognitive performance
- Young people who consider or attempt suicide tend to - Sleep deprivation has been linked to depression and
have histories of emotional illness insomnia and sleep disturbances also are related to the
Young Adulthood risk of postpartum depression
- The habits that young adults develop during this time - Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death,
in the life span tend to become ingrained over time and illness and impoverishment worldwide
are highly predictive of the likelihood they will - A tendency to addiction may be genetic
experience good health at older ages - College students tend to drink more frequently and
- Genes affect the action of the hormone receptors, more heavily than their noncollegiate peers
stress response systems, and synaptic plasticity may - Risky Drinking: consuming more than 14 drinks a
influence a person’s ability to respond adaptively to week or 4 drinks on any single day for men and more
stressful events than 7 drinks a week or 3 days on any single day for
- Poor diets and lack of physical activity are among the women
leading causes of preventable diseases, overweight, and - Social Integration: active engagement in a broad
obesity range of social relationships, activities, and roles
- WHO recommends Mediterranean-style diet rich in - Social Support: refers to material information, and
fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and unsaturated fats psychological resources derived from the social
- Increase snacking, availability of inexpensive fast network on which a person can rely for help in coping
foods, supersized portions, labor-saving technologies, with stress
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- Alcoholism: long term physical condition - Combining work and family roles is good for both
characterized by compulsive drinking that a person is men’s and women’s mental and physical health and has
unable to control positive effects on the strength of their relationship
- The most common habit-forming drugs include - The most cited reasons are incompatibility, lack of
marijuana and prescription painkillers, followed by emotional support, lack of career support, abuse,
cocaine and heroin premarital cohabitation, and infidelity
- Adolescence and emerging adulthood appear to be - Couples are more likely to stay married if they have
sensitive periods for the onset of depressive disorders children. However, it can create more conflict and does
- Adolescents who are depressed and who depression greater damage
carries over into adulthood, tend to have had significant - Adults with divorced parents are more likely to expect
childhood risk factors, such as neurological or that their marriage will not last (commitment issues)
developmental disorders, dysfunctional or unstable - Divorce tends to reduce long-term well-being
families, and childhood behavioral disorders - People who were thought they were happily married
- Adult-onset group tend to have had low levels of tend to react more negatively and adapt more slowly to
childhood risk factors and to possess more resources to divorce
deal with the challenges of emerging adulthood - Remarriage is the triumph of hope over experience
- Pre-marital sex has been increasing for adults over 18 - Families in which both parents bring children into
- Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing, marriage are marked by higher levels of conflict
especially in younger cohorts and in women - Remarriages are more likely to end in divorce than
- Sexual Script: stereotyped pattern of role second marriage
prescriptions for how individuals should behave Middle Adulthood
sexually - Age-related visual problems occur mainly in five
- Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners areas: near vision, dynamic vision, sensitivity to light,
than in older age groups, but they have sex less visual search, and speed of processing visual
frequently information
- The most common contraceptive are the birth control - Presbyopia: – difficulty focusing on near objects
pills, female sterilization, and condoms - Myopia: nearsightedness
- Casual Sex is fairly common - Presbycusis: gradual hearing loss
- However, Sexual assaults are problem - Men experience hearing loss quickly than women
- Rape: forcible sexual intercourse - Noise experienced at the work site
- Date or Acquaintance Rape: coercive sexual activity - Sensitivity to taste and smell also declines in midlife
directed at someone with whom the perpetrator is at - Some loss of muscle strength is usually noticeable by
least casually acquainted age of 45
- Most lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons - Basal Metabolism: minimum amount of energy that
are clear about their sexual identity your body needs to maintain vital functions while
- Premenstrual Syndrome: disorder that produces resting
physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to 2 - Manual Dexterity generally becomes less efficient
weeks before menstrual period with age
- Response to monthly surges of female hormones - Aging brain works more slowly and have difficulty
- More typical in women in their 30s or older juggling multiple tasks
- Dysmenorrhea: caused by contractions of the uterus - The ability to ignore distractions declines with age
which are set in motion by prostaglandin - Decrease in the volume of gray matter and myelin
- Infertility: inability to conceive a baby begins to break down with age
- Common causes in women: failure to produce ova, - Physical activity and fitness are associated with
mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine lining higher white and gray matter volume
- Marital satisfaction typically declines during the - Meditation affords cognitive benefits to middle aged
child-raising years, and the more children, the greater adults and may help offset declines
decline - Skin may become less taut and smooth as the layer of
- Many couples find their relationship becoming more fat below the surface becomes thinner, collagen
traditional following the birth of a child, with the molecules more rigid, and elastin fibers more brittle
woman often engaging in the bulk of caregiving and
housekeeping
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- Middle-aged people tend to gain weight as a result of - Good lifestyle habits can reduce risk, if started early
accumulation of body fat and lose height due to in life
shrinkage of the intervertebral disks - Breast cancer is responsible for the largest number of
- Vital Capacity: the maximum volume of air the lungs cancer-related deaths among women
can draw in and expel – may begin to diminish at about - Risks: overweight, alcoholism, early menarche and
age of 40 late menopause, history of breast cancer in the family,
- Middle-aged adults are less likely to fall asleep at no children, did not breast-feed, or late pregnancy
daytime, need less sleep to maintain alertness, and slow - Treated by removal of part or all breast and
reductions in slow wave sleeps at night chemotherapy
- Menopause: when a woman permanently stop - Mammography: diagnostic x-ray of the breasts
ovulating and menstruating and can no longer conceive - The most troublesome physical effects of menopause
a child are linked to reduce levels of estrogen and hormone
- One year after the last menstrual period therapy
- Perimenopause (Climacteric): beginning of - Hormone Therapy: treatment with artificial estrogen
menopause; woman’s production of mature ova begins - Stress: the damage that occurs when perceived
to decline, and the ovaries produce less estrogen environmental demands or stressors exceed a person’s
- Hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, sleep capacity to cope with them
disturbances, mood disturbances, urinary incontinence, - Stress in midlife may come from role changes, career
cognitive disturbances, somatic symptoms, sexual transitions, grown children leaving home, and the
dysfunction renegotiation of family relationships
- Menopause Hormone Therapy and SSRIs - Women experience more stress than men and to be
- At age 30, men’s testosterone levels, sperm count, more concerned about stress
genetic quality declines - The classic stress response – fight or flight – may be
- Men at this age also experiences sexual dysfunction more characteristic of men, activated in part by
due to diabetes, obesity, hypertension, depression, etc. testosterone
- Hypertension: high blood pressure, increasing - The brain interacts with all of the body’s biological
important concern from midlife and the world’s leading systems, feelings and beliefs affect bodily functions,
preventable cause of early death including the functioning of the immune system
- Cancer has replaced heath disease as the leading cause - Midlife Crisis: changes in personality and lifestyle
of death between ages 45 and 64 during middle forties
- Type 2 Diabetes: mature onset, the most common - Many people realize that they will not be able to fulfill
type; develops after age 30; glucose levels rise because the dreams of their youth, or that fulfillment of their
the cells lose their ability to use insulin own mortality
- Type 1 Diabetes: juvenile-onset, or insulin-dependent, - People who do have crisis at midlife generally also
in which the levels of blood sugar rises because the have crises at other times in their lives as well
body does not produce enough insulin - Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather than
- Excess weight in middle age increases the risk of developmental phase
impaired health and death - Turning Point: psychological transition that involves
- People with low socioeconomic status tend to have significant change or transformation in the perceived
poorer health, shorter life expectancy, more activity meaning, purpose, or direction of a person’s life
limitations due to chronic disease, and lower well- - Triggered by major life events, normative changes, or
being than people with higher SES a new understanding of past experience
- Women have a higher life expectancy than men and - The most common pattern for marriages was for
lower death rates, may be due to genetic protection marriages to be broken by death and for survivors to
given by the second X chromosome and before remarry
menopause, to beneficial effects of estrogen on both - Marriages generally follow a developmental
cardiovascular and cognitive health sequence, with initial sharp declines in marriage
- However, women report being in fair or poor health satisfaction followed by a plateau, then further, slower
than men declines over the longer term
- Osteoporosis: bones become thin and brittle as a - One of the negative impact of marital satisfaction is
result of calcium depletion (due to falling of estrogen the birth of a child
levels)
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- Couples who are sexually satisfied are generally - Wear-and-Tear Theory: cells and tissues have vital
satisfied with their marriages parts that wear out
- When older adults cohabitate, their relationships are - Free-Radical Theory: Accumulated damage from
more stable than those of younger cohabiting adults oxygen radicals causes cells and eventually organs to
- Higher divorce rates at middle age stop functioning
- Divorce is associated with elevated chance of chronic - Rate-of-Living Theory: the greater an organism’s rate
health conditions and mortality in both sexes, but of metabolism, the shorter its life span
specially in men - Autoimmune Theory: Immune system becomes
- Long-standing marriages may be less likely to break confused and attacks its own body cells
up than more recent ones - Survival Curve: represents the percentage of people
- Marital Capital: the longer a couple is married, the or animals alive at various age
more likely they are to have built up joint financial - The most fruitful area for longevity interventions
assets, to share the same friends, to go through should be focused on risk reduction and living a healthy
important experiences together, and to get used to the lifestyle
emotional benefits that marriage can provide - Older skin tends to become paler and less elastic,
- Marriage is associated with encouragement of health- varicose veins appears in legs
promoting behaviors - They become shorter due to disks between spinal
- One factor that seems to affect relationship quality in vertebrae atrophy
gays and lesbians is whether or one they have - Lungs become less effective because of reductions in
internalized society’s negative views on homosexuality Lung volume, atrophy in muscles involve in breathing,
- The quality of midlife friendships often makes up for and reductions in the ability of cilia
what they lack in quantity of time spent - Elderly adults are more likely to suffer from
- Empty Nest: occurs when the youngest child leaves Arrythmia (irregular heartbeat), the muscle walls
home thicken, and the valves that control the flow of blood in
- In a good marriage, departure of children generally and out of the heart may no longer open completely
increases marital satisfaction - Reserve Capacity: backup capacity that helps body
- Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang system function to their utmost limits in times of stress
Phenomenon: returning to parent’s home, sometimes - In late adulthood, the brain gradually diminishes in
with their own families volume and weight, particularly in the frontal and
- Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational temporal regions
tension when it contradicts parent’s normative - Hippocampus (memory area) also shrinks
expectations - Decrease in the number of dopamine
Old Age neurotransmitters due to losses of synapses
- Women live longer and have lower mortality rates at - Older eyes need more light to see, are more sensitive
all ages than men to glare, and may have trouble locating and reading
- Women’s longer lives also have been attributed to signs
their greater tendency to take care of themselves and to - Cataracts: cloudy or opaque areas in the lends of the
seek medical care, the higher level of social support eyes, are common in older adults
they enjoy, and the rise in women’s socioeconomic - Age-Related Macular Degeneration: leading cause of
status in recent decades visual impairment in older adults; the retinal cells in the
- Endocrine Theory: biological clocks act through macula degenerate over time, and the center of the
hormones to control the pace of aging retina gradually loses the ability to sharply distinguish
- Immunological Theory: programmed decline in fine details
immune system functions leads to increased - Glaucoma: irreversible damage to the optic nerve
vulnerability to infectious disease and thus to aging and caused by increased pressure in the eye
death - Loss of strength is greater for lower than for upper
- Evolutionary Theory: Aging is an evolved trait thus limbs
genes that promote reproduction are selected at higher - Falls, the most common cause of fracturs, become
rates than genes that extend lives increasingly common with age
- Variable-Rate Theories: aging is the results of random - Functional Fitness: exercises or activities that
processes that vary from person to person (Error improve daily activity
theories)
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- Older people tend to sleep and dream less than before Identifying the challenges with Death
driven by the normative changes in circadian rhythms o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
- Men typically take longer to develop erection and to to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
ejaculate, may need more manual stimulation, may shortly before death
experience longer intervals between erections or may o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
have difficulty doing it being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
- Women have difficulty in arousal, orgasm, etc.
visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
- Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain
physical changes once associated with normal aging
- Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes, colon areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and
cancer, and high blood pressure occipital areas
- Dementia: the general term for physiologically ▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of
caused cognitive and behavioral decline sufficient to the release of endorphins
interfere with daily activities o Five Stages of Death
- Alzheimer’s: most common type, caused by specific 1. Denial
changes in the brain (abnormal build up of 2. Anger
neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaque in the brain) 3. Bargain
(Amnesia, Aphasia, Agnosia, Apraxia, Anomia) 4. Depression
- Vascular: caused by strokes or other issues of blood 5. Acceptance
flow in the brain; may be due to diabetes and high o Grief – emotional response that generally follows
cholesterol; have strokes like episodes
closely on the heels of death
- Lewy Bodies: have movement or balance (stiffness or
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom
trembling); daytime sleepiness, confusion, or staring;
trouble sleeping at night and visual hallucinations a person feels close
- Frontotemporal: leads to personality and behavior o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues
changes and problems in language skills connected with grief often takes the following path:
- Huntington’s: resulted from gene mutation which 4. Shock and Disbelief
impacts movement, behavior, and cognition; 5. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead
personality also changes, loss of coordination, person
difficulty in swallowing and speaking 6. Resolution
- Parkinson’s: uncontrollable movements, tremor, o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low
stiffness, slow movement, prevalent in men than distress
women; nerve cells in basal ganglia become impaired; o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief,
L-Dopa as treatment and symptoms worsen over time
- Language problems are probably results of the
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time
problems accessing and retrieving information from the
memory o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually
- Dysfunction in frontal lobes and hippocampus may diminishing level of grief in response to the death of
cause false memories a loved one
- Older adults seems to have difficulty encoding new o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of
episodic memories because of difficulties in forming the biological nature of death
and later recalling a coherent and cohesive episode o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a
- Storage also deteriorate to the point retrieval becomes troubled relationship with the person who died
difficult o They do not understand death, but they understand
- Terminal Drop: rapid decline in well-being and life loss
satisfaction approx. 3-5 yrs before death o Often, teens turn to peers for support
- Close marital relationship can moderate the negative o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing
psychological effects of functional disabilities by
at once when they knew they are dying instead of
reducing psychological distress
dealing with other issues
- Widowhood has been increasingly associated with
increased mortality, with sharpest declines seen in the o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared
first 6 months following the death of a spouse with death
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o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique - can now learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a
understanding of death, in concern with self- chair
preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in 10th month:
common emotional and psychological responses - can now stand alone
when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient - babbling
Expected Developmental Milestones during 11th month:
- babies can let go and stand alone well
Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
- can now anticipate events
Infancy
Toddlerhood
1st Month:
- early reflexes disappears
- infants can turn their head from side to side
- potty training
- grasping reflex
- can now pull a toy attached to a string and use their
- practice reflexes and control them
hands and legs to climb stairs
- cries when they are unhappy and become quiet at the
- can now walk quickly, run, and balance on their feet
sound of human voice or when they are picked up
in a squatting position
2nd – 3rd Month:
- purposefully vary their actions to see results
- babies can now lift their heads
- explores the world and trial and errors
- can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able
- can now think about events and anticipate
to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to
consequences without always resorting to action
their left hand
- learns numbers
- can now hold their head still to find out whether the
- can now use symbols such as gestures of words
object is moving
- can now point at a picture of an object while saying
- can already match the voice to faces
its name, demonstrating an understanding that a picture
- distinguish male and female
is a symbol of something else
- size constancy
- speak in two-word utterances (telegraphic speech)
- infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
- social emotions towards self and others
objects are whole
(embarrassment, pride, guilt, empathy etc.)
- social smiling
Early Childhood
4th Month:
- babies can keep their heads erect while being - can now engage to deferred imitation
supported in a sitting position - primary teeth is evident
- can now roll-over, accidentally - can now pick up tiny objects using thumb and
- begin to reach objects forefingers
- know the difference between reality and imagination
- begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
objects - begin to use plurals, possessives, and past tense
- turn toward sounds - can now control movements such as stopping, turning,
6th Month: jumping
- babies cannot sit without support - can categorize objects and identify similarities and
- can start creeping or crawling differences
- can now conversate in sentences and may be
- could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
than they could in the light declarative, negative, interrogative, or imperative
- they can now localize or detect sounds from their - can recognize facial expressions
origins - speech is quite adultlike
- repeat actions that brings interesting results - can understand the public aspects of emotions
- permanent teeth begins to appear
- cooing
- they can now recognize their name Middle and Late Childhood
7th Month: - gains skills for team sports
- pincer grasps could already manifest - loses baby teeth
- can start standing - motor skills improved: they play which usually have
- can now sit independently socialization involved
8th Month: - rough-and-tumble play
- babies can now sit without help
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- need more flexible rules, shorter instruction time, and - Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of
more free time to practice those older children proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science
- better understanding of spatial concepts, causality, - Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing and
categorization, inductive and deductive reasoning, language usage
conservation, numbers - Boys do better in activities that involve visual and
- starts to develop the ability to mentally juggle more spatial functions helpful in math and science
concepts at the same time Young Adulthood
- development of the ability to regulate attention and - Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing,
can now concentrate longer especially in younger cohorts and in women
- can now use selective attention and inhibitory control - Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners
- Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and than in older age groups, but they have sex less
metaphor frequently
- Rarely use passive voice - Reflective Thinking: active, persistent, and careful
- Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more consideration of information or beliefs
sophisticated with age - Continually question facts, draw inferences, and make
- Sentence structure continue to become more elaborate connections
- Boys tend to use more controlling statements, - Frequently engage in critical thinking
negative interruptions, and competitive statements - At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms new
- Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative, neurons, synapses, and dendritic connections, and the
conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative cortical regions that handle higher-level thinking
Adolescence become fully myelinated
- Adult height, weight, and sexual maturity - Postformal Thought: characterized by the ability to
- growth of secondary sexual characteristics deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and
- menstrual period for women compromise
- peer acceptance - Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic to
- understanding of abstract concepts help people cope with situations such as social
- growth spurt dilemmas
- A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that - Acknowledges that there may be more than one valid
connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster way of viewing an issue and that the world is made up
information and better communication across of shades of gray
hemispheres - Traditionally, adulthood was defined by markers such
- Adolescents move away from their reliance on as moving out of the family home, marriage, children,
concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the capacity full-time employment, or establishment of career
for abstract thought - Early marriage and family formation are associated
- They can now use symbols to represent other with poverty and substance use
symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, create - Emerging adults with the highest well-being were
hypotheses those who were not yet married, had no children, attend
- Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: methodical, college, and lived away from their childhood home
scientific approach to problem solving, and it Middle Adulthood
characterizes formal operations thinking - Middle-Aged people are in their prime
- Involves ability to develop, consider, and test - Individuals who scored the highest in the study of
hypotheses Schaie tended to have high educational levels, flexible
- Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain personalities, intact families, pursue cognitively
maturation and expanding environmental opportunities complex occupations and other activities, to be married
- According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking to someone more cognitively advanced, to be satisfied
of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and with their accomplishments
their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped - Crystallized Intelligence increase through middle age
bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its use and often until the end of life
- Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at the - Mature adults show increasing competence in solving
same time yet may lack effective strategies for problems in their chosen field
choosing them
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- Specialized Knowledge or Expertise: form of ▪ Living will or a more formal legal document
crystallized intelligence that is related to the process of called a durable power of attorney
encapsulation ▪ Durable Power of Attorney: – appoints another
- Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s person if the maker of the document becomes
information-processing-machinery because some incompetent to do so
adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps
(dedicated in handling specific kinds of knowledge)
a person bring about a self-inflicted death
- Expert thinking often seems automatic and intuitive
o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person
- Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also a
acts intentionally, directly, and consciously
characteristic of Postformal Thought
o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at
- An important feature of postformal thought is its
the time they attempt suicide
integrative nature – adults interpret what they read, see,
▪ May last only a short time
or hear in terms of its meaning for them
o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives,
- conscientiousness is the highest maybe due to result
but they act out of a belief that the process is already
of work experiences
under the way and that they are simply hastening the
Old Age
process
- Older adults tend to make the most of their abilities, o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their self-
often exploiting gains in one area to offset declines in
inflicted death will mean the end of their existence
another o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or
- Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth, ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the
emotional stability, and conscientiousness and declines moment of their attempt, and they show this
in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness to ambivalence in the act itself
experience ▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
- they tend to seek out activities and people that give death
them emotional gratification o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
- Older adults tend to use more emotion-focused coping plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role
than younger people o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
- Older adults are more religious than younger adults
o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
- Older adults conserve resources by selecting o Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method
meaningful goals, optimizing the resources they have for killing oneself
to achieve it, and compensating for the losses by using o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from
resources in alternative ways to achieve their goals attempts
Issues involved in decisions about Death o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types:
o Brain Death – neurological condition which states Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self,
the person is brain dead when all electrical activity family, or society
of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important
▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than provocation for suicide
lower parts which facilitates breathing and Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as sudden
heartbeat loss of job
▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny
have heartbeat for the mean time o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious
o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering hostility directed inward to the self rather than
or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity outward to the person or situation causing the anger
▪ Passive: involves withholding or discontinuing o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an
treatment that might extend the life of a increased risk that someone else will also
o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide
terminally ill patient such as life support
and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of
▪ Active: “mercy killing” involves action taken
serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and
directly or deliberate to shorten life the tendency to overreact to situation)
o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major
and how to discontinue futile medical care stress may affect several individuals who are
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vulnerable because of existing psychological
disorders
o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present
circumstances, problems, or mood will not change
o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and
solutions in rigid either/or terms
o Common triggering factors:
✓ Stressful events
✓ Mood and thought changes
✓ Alcohol and other drug use
✓ Mental disorders
✓ Modeling
end
congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer!! i

hope u learned something!! :D
one day, we will be remembered.
- aly <3
Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Organizational Theory (20) o Scalar Principle – deals with the organization’s
Organizational Theories, Models, and Concepts vertical growth and refers to the chain of command
Organizational Theory that grows with levels added to the organization
o Organization – collectivities of parts that cannot ▪ Each subordinate should be accountable to only
accomplish their goals effectively if they operated one superior (unity of command)
separately o Line/Staff Principle
▪ a tool people use to coordinate their actions to Line Functions: have primary responsibilities for
obtain something they desire or value to achieve meeting the major goals of the organization, like the
a goal production department
▪ org creates value, or else the “die” Staff Function: support the line’s activities but are
▪ How do org create value? Environment regarded as subsidiary in overall importance to line
(Customers, Suppliers) > Input (Raw Materials, functions
IT, HR) > Process (Machines, Computers, o Span-Of-Control Principle – refers to the number
KSAOs) > Output (Products, Services) of subordinates a manager is responsible for
o Organizational Theory – set of propositions that supervising
explains or predicts how group and individuals ▪ Large Span-of-Control produce flat
behave in varying organizational structures and organizations, whilst, smaller Span-of-Control
circumstances produce taller organizations
Classical Theory/Classical Organizational Theory A. Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor
o Classical Organizational Theory – organizations ▪ The organization is a machine, a pragmatic
exists for economic reasons and to accomplish machine whose focus is to simply run more
productivity goals effectively
o The basic ingredient of any organization and then ▪ Taylor believed that scientific principles could
addresses how organizations should best structured be applied to the study of work behavior to help
to accomplish its objectives increase worker efficiency and productivity
✓ System of differentiated activities – activities ▪ Based on the concept of planning of work to
that are linked to each other achieve efficiency, standardization,
✓ People – perform tasks and exercise authority specialization, and simplification
✓ Cooperation toward a goal – unity of purpose in ▪ The advantages of productivity improvement
pursuit of their common goals should go to workers
✓ Authority – ensures cooperation among people ▪ Physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated
pursuing their goals ▪ Capabilities of workers should be developed
o There is a “right” structure for an organization through training
o Assumes there is one best configuration to ▪ Traditional boss concept should be elimated
accomplish goals ▪ Mainly associated with high levels of job
o Scientific Analysis will identify the one best way to specialization and standardization
organize for production ▪ conducted time and motion studies and analyzed
o Deal with the formal organization and concepts to temperature, illumination, and other conditions
increase management efficiency of work, all while looking at the effects of these
o Both people and organizations act in accordance conditions on productivity and efficiency
with rational economic principles ▪ Taylorism: has a premise that there is one best
o To be successful in this new economy, industrial way to get the job done
and mechanical engineers are needed to organize ▪ Management gathers data from the workers, who
production systems to keep the machines busy and are in the best position to understand the job
work flowing duties and tasks
o Functional Principle – concept behind division of ▪ Workers are selected carefully or scientifically
labor, that is, organizations should be divided into and trained so that they become more efficient
units that perform similar functions into areas of than ever
specialization ▪ Scientific selection, data collection, and training
are combined to enhance efficiency
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▪ The work itself is redistributed, with C. Administrative Management by Henri Fayol
management taking over tasks previously left to ▪ Aims to improve organizational productivity by
subordinated focusing on methods that managers can use to
▪ The most effective companies have detailed synchronize internal processes
procedures and work practices developed by ▪ Managerial practices are the key to driving
engineers, enforced by supervisors, and executed efficiency in organizations
by employees ▪ Seeks to heighten managerial performance
▪ Taylor, along with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth instead on individual worker efficiency
implemented the principles of scientific ▪ Proposed the creation of work groups and
management functional departments wherein distinct
▪ Worker efficiency would lead to greater activities are performed which contribute to the
managerial efficiency accomplishment of greater tasks
B. Bureaucracy by Max Weber ▪ Five functions of Managers: Planning,
▪ Described the structure, organization, and Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, and
operation of many efficient organization Controlling
▪ ideal form of organization Structural Theory
▪ includes formal hierarchy, division of labor, and o Harry Mintzberg proposed how organizations
a clear set of operating procedures evolve to reach a certain form and shape (structure)
▪ Well-defined authority hierarchy with strict rules which permits the organization to function in its
for governing behavior, with few members with surroundings
highest status on the top o The structure of an organization is an adaptive
▪ Increase productivity by reducing inefficiencies mechanism that permits the organization to function
in organizational operations in its surroundings
Characteristics of a Bureaucratic Organization Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
Specialization of labor Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
Well-defined Authority Hierarchy work duties that give the organization its defining
Formal Rules and Procedures purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
Impersonality – behavior is based on logical reasoning Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
rather than emotional thinking of the entire organization; associated with executive
Employment decisions based on merit leadership
Emphasis on written records Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by
▪ Division of Labor: each job is a specialized strategic apex are being carried out by the operating
position with its own set of responsibilities and core
duties; division of tasks performed in an Technostructure – possess specific technical
organization expertise that facilitates overall operation of the
▪ One potential difficulty involves the organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments
coordination of various tasks handled by various Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the
employees organization and typically includes the mailroom,
▪ Tend to be top-down pyramidal organization security, and janitorial services
▪ Delegation of Authority: approach whereby Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to
supervisors assign particular tasks to separate a particular value; organizations should have
employees and hold them responsible for singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its
completing these tasks (Micromanagers); actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees
information about which lower-level employees behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in
report to higher-level employees the ideology of the organization, and can perform their
▪ Structure: formal way an org is designed in work relatively independent of each other
terms of division of labor, delegation of Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness
authority, and span of control and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is
▪ Characterized by Span of Control (number of neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the
subordinates who report to a given supervisor organization
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Neoclassical Theory o Growth was a natural and health experience for an
o Neoclassical Theory – recognizes the importance individual
of individual or group behavior and emphasized o Organizations that acknowledged and aided this
human relations growth would be more likely to prosper than those
o also known as Behavioral Theory of Organization, that are ignored or actively inhibited this growth
Human Relations, or New Classical Theory of o Passive to active organisms
Management Humanistic Theory
o Based on Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, and Herbert o Humanistic Theory – organizational success in
Simon’s Theories terms of employee motivation and the interpersonal
o Adds a personal or human element to the study of relationships that emerge within the organization
organization, considering the interrelationship ▪ Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor) –
between an organization’s requirements and the managers’ beliefs and assumptions about their
characteristics of its members employees determine how they behave towards
o Productivity was achieved as a result of high those employees
morale, which was influenced by the amount of ▪ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – employees, over
individual, personal, and intimate attention workers time, learn to act and believe in ways consistent
received with how managers think they act and believe
o Introduced informal organization and emphasized Theory X
the: individual, work group, and participative - employees are viewed to be lazy, selfish,
management uninterested in work, lack in ambition, and not very
1. Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Experiment intelligent
▪ Conducted in Western Electric Company - managers control and direct employees in order to
Hawthorne, Chicago make outputs
▪ Study if the workers would be more productive - employees is passive and unresponsive to
depending on the levels of illumination in the organization needs
factory - most prevalent set of beliefs about employees from
▪ Increased productivity when lighting conditions the birth of industry
improved - lack of focus would lead to apathy and resistance
▪ Workers motivation increased due to interest Theory Y
shown by the company in them and their well- - much more humanistic and developmental
being orientation, emphasizing not only the inherent
2. Chester Barnard’s Comprehensive Theory of goodness, capacity, and potential of employees but
Behavior in Formal Organizations also their readiness to develop those inherent
▪ People in executive roles must foster a sense of characteristics
purpose, moral codes, ethical visions, and create - emphasizes management’s responsibility for
formal and informal communication systems nurturing those qualities and providing employees
▪ People should cooperate, thus making no place with opportunities to develop their inherently positive
for conflicts among workers characteristics in the workplace
3. Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories - without unduly constraining organizational or
to current situations of his time managerial controls
▪ Contradicted Henri Fayol’s Administrative o Motivation – the internal force that drives a worker
Management to action as well as the external factors that
o Human Relations Movement – social and encourage that action
psychological factors are important in determining ▪ Ability and skill determines whether the worker
worker productivity and satisfaction can do the job, but motivation determines
▪ Efficient leaders are employee-centric, whether a worker can do it properly
democratic, and follow a participative style Three Individual differences traits that are most
o Behavioral Movement – proposes ideas how related to work motivation
managers should behave to motivate the employees 1. Self-Esteem – the extent to which a person views
4. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y himself as valuable and worthy
5. Argyris’ Growth Perspective
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- Employees high in self-esteem are more motivated satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have a
and will perform better than employees low in self- high probability of success
esteem - Employees who have a strong need for affiliation are
- Consistency Theory: employees who feel good about motivated by jobs in which they can work with and
themselves are motivated to perform better at work help other people
than employees who do not feel that they are valuable - Employees who have strong need for power are
and worthy people motivated by a desire to influence others rather than
- Employees try to perform at levels consistent with simply to be successful
self-esteem is compounded by the fact that employees o Other Humanistic/Motivational Theories:
with low self-esteem tend to underestimate their 1. Job Expectations Theory – a discrepancy between
actual ability and performance what an employee expected a job to be like and the
- Chronic Self-Esteem: person’s overall feeling about reality of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction
himself ▪ When expectations from the job was not met,
- Situational Self-Esteem: person’s feeling about ▪ the employee might feel unmotivated
himself in a particular situation ▪ Realistic Job Preview is really important
- Socially Influenced Self-Esteem: how a person feels 2. Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics
about himself on the basis of the expectations of Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are
others meaningful, provide them opportunity to be personally
- To increase self-esteem, employees can attend responsible for the outcome of their work, and provide
workshops in which they are given insights into their them with feedback of the results of their efforts
strengths ▪ Jobs will have motivation potential if they allow
- Experience-with-Success: employee is given a task employees to use a variety of skills and to
so easy that he will almost certainly succeed connect their efforts to an outcome which has
- Galatea Effect: the relationship between self- meaning, is useful, or is appreciated by
expectations and performance coworkers as well as by others in society
- Train supervisors to communicate a feeling of ▪ Job Diagnostic Survey
confidence in an employee ▪ Job Enrichment: redesigning jobs to give
- Pygmalion Effect/Rosenthal Effect: if an employee workers greater responsibility in the planning,
feels that the manager has confidence in him, his self- execution, and evaluation of their work, raises
esteem will increase the level of responsibility
- Golem Effect: occurs when negative expectations of Core Job Characteristics
an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to
actual performance complete a variety of work activities
2. Intrinsic Motivation – they will seek to perform Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires
well because they either enjoy performing the actual completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work
tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects
completing the task the organization and/or larger society
- Extrinsic Motivation – they don’t particularly enjoy Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and
the tasks but are motivated to perform well to receive discretion in scheduling the work and determining the
some type of reward or to avoid negative procedures to be used to complete the work
consequences Feedback: employees can tell how well they are
- Work Preference Inventory – measures the doing from direct sensory information from the job
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation itself
3. Needs for Achievement and Power – employees 3. Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - employees
differ in the extent to which they are motivated by the would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at
need for achievement, affiliation, and power any given point in time if certain needs were met
- Employees who have strong need for achievement ▪ This model condenses a long list of previously
are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over studied drives into five basic categories (primary
which they have some control, whereas employees needs)
who have minimal achievement needs are more
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▪ Proposed that human beings are motivated by 5. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – some
several primary needs (drives) at the same time, factors seemed to cause job satisfaction and
but the strongest source of motivation is the dissatisfaction
lowest unsatisfied need a. Motivators – related to the work itself, the type
▪ As the person satisfies the a lower-level need, of work, level of responsibility, and the chances
the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes for recognition, advancement, and personal
the next strongest motivator and remains so even achievement
if never satisfied b. Hygiene – related to the context in which people
▪ Motivation can be shaped by human thoughts perform the job, e.g., benefits, working
a. Physiological Needs – food, air, water, shelter conditions, type of supervision, salary, company
b. Safety Needs – physical, psychological, and policies
financial needs ▪ Eliminate job dissatisfaction by providing basic
c. Belongingness/Social needs – interaction with hygiene factors (compensated properly, treated
others well, and provided with job security)
d. Ego Needs – recognition and success 6. David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
e. Self-Actualization – highest potential Theory – three needs are central to work motivation:
needs for achievement, power, and affiliation
Need for Achievement – drive to success and get the
job done; love the challenges of work, task-oriented,
preferring situations offering moderate levels of risk
or difficulty
Need for Power – need to direct and control the
activity of others and to be influential
- Personal Power: used toward personal ends
- Institutional Power: power that is oriented toward
organizational objectives
Need for Affiliation – desire to be liked and accepted
by others
7. Four-Drive Theory – emotions are the source of
4. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory – states that human motivation and that these emotions are generated
individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need through four innate and universal drives
at the same time, and that the level which is most 1) Drive to acquire – seek out, take, control, and
important to them can change over time retain objects and personal experiences
▪ Individual’s priorities and motivations may be 2) Drive to bond – variation of the need for
fluid and can move between existence, belonging and affiliation, motivates the people
relatedness, and growth to cooperate and, essentially, for organizations
and societies
3) Drive to Comprehend – need to know, discover
answers to unknown
4) Drive to defend – protect ourselves physically,
psychologically, and socially
8. Self-Regulation Theory - employee monitor their
own progress toward attaining goals and then make
the necessary adjustments: that is to self-regulate
9. Reinforcement Theory – draws principles of operant
conditioning and states simply that behavior is motivated
by consequences
▪ Operant Conditioning – employees will engage
in behaviors for which they are rewarded and
avoid behaviors for which they are punished
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Factors the must be considered in determining the - Gainsharing: ties groupwide financial incentives to
effectiveness of incentive programs improvements in organizational performance
Timing of incentive – reinforcer or punisher is most - Stock Options: employees are given the opportunity
effective if it occurs soon after the performance of the to purchase stock in the future
behavior Use of positive incentives versus negative incentives
Contingency of the consequences – if it is not – instead of rewarding employees, punish
possible to immediately reward or punish a behavior, those who did wrong
it should at least be clear that the employee - For punishment to be effective, the employee must
understands the behaviors that brought reward or understand why he is being punished and be shown
punishment alternative ways of behaving that will result in some
- Reward and punishment must be made contingent type of desired reinforcement
upon performance, and this contingency of Fairness of the reward system
consequence must be clear to employees if we want ▪ Reinforcement – increases behavior
them to be motivated a. Positive – addition of something to increase
Type of incentive used – supervisors should have behavior
access to and be trained to administer different types b. Negative – removing something to increase
of reinforcers behavior
- Premack Principle: reinforcement is relative and that ▪ Punishment – decreases behavior
a supervisor can reinforce an employee with 4 types of Schedules
something that on the surface does not appear to be a Fixed Interval
reinforcer Fixed Ratio
- Financial Rewards: can be used to motivate better Variable Interval
worker performance either by making variable pay an Variable Ratio
integral part of an employee’s compensation package * ratio – responses
or by using financial rewards as a bonus for * interval – time
accomplishing certain goals ▪ Organizational Behavior Modification –
- Recognition: reward through recognition program certain target behaviors are specified, measured,
- Social Recognition: consists or personal attention, and rewarded
signs of approval, and expressions of appreciations; 7. Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory – emphasized
informal recognitions the role of specific, challenging performance goals and
- Travel: offer travel rewards rather than financial worker’s commitment to those goals as key determinants
rewards of motivation
Use of individual-based versus group-based ▪ Difficult or challenging goals will also result in
Incentive greater levels of motivation, if the goals have
1. Individual Incentive Plans – designed to make high been accepted by the workers
levels of individual performance financially ▪ Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant,
worthwhile and the research is clear monetary Time-Bound
incentive increase performance over the use of a 8. J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory – based on the
guaranteed hourly salary premise that our levels of motivation and job
- Pay For Performance: also called as earnings-at-risk satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are
(EAR) plans, pay employees according to how much treated in comparison with others
they individually produced ▪ Inputs – those elements that we put into our
- Merit Pay: base their incentives on performance jobs
appraisal scores rather than on such objective ▪ Outputs – elements we receive from our jobs
performance measures as sales and productivity ▪ Employees subconsciously list all their outputs
2. Group Incentive Plans – get employees participate and inputs and then compute an input/output
in the success or failure of the organization ratio by dividing the output value by input value
- Profit Sharing: provide employee with percentage of ▪ When an employee’s ratio is lower than those of
profits above a certain amount others, he will become dissatisfied and be
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motivated to make the ratios equal in one or Motivation – represents the forces within a person
more ways that affect his or her direction, intensity, and
▪ Our motivation decreases when our input/output persistence of voluntary behavior
ratios are lower than others - Direction: path along which people steer their effort
9. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory – also known as VIE - Motivation is goal-oriented
Theory - Intensity: amount of effort allocated to the goal
Valence – desirability of a particular outcome to an - Persistence: refers to the length of time that the
individual individual continues to exert effort toward an
- extent to which an employee value a particular objective
consequence Ability – includes both the natural aptitudes and the
- “gusto ko yumaman” learned capabilities
- gaano mo ka-gusto yung outcome Role Perceptions – how clearly people understand
Instrumentality – relationship between the their job duties
performance of a particular behavior and the Situational Factors – any context beyond the
likelihood that a certain outcome will result employee’s immediate control
- link between one outcome and another outcome 12. Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of
- outcome of a worker’s performance, if noticed, Personality – the most researched and respected
results in a particular consequence clustering of personality traits
- the extent to which the performance will result to the Conscientiousness – organized, dependable, goal-
desired outcome focused, thorough, disciplined, methodical, and
- “kapag bae to yung ginawa ko, yayaman ako?” industrious
Expectancy Agreeableness – trusting, helpful, good-natured,
- perceived relationship between the amount of effort considerate, tolerate, selfless, generous, and flexible
an employee puts in and the resulting outcome Neuroticism – people who tend to be anxious,
- the extent to which the effort an employee exerted insecure, self-conscious, depressed, and
resulted to the outcome she wanted temperamental
- “nag-aral ako ng mabuti, nag-trabaho ako ng maayos Openness to Experience – imaginative, creative,
kaya eto mayaman na ako” unconventional, curious, nonconforming,
10. Organization Justice Theory – if employees are autonomous, and aesthetically perceptive
treated fairly, they will be more satisfied and motivated Extraversion – outgoing, talkative, energetic,
▪ Focused on fairness of many aspects such as the sociable and assertive
process of decision making, outcome of ▪ Conscientiousness stands out as the best overall
decisions, and how it is communicated to predictor of proficient task performance for most
employees job, followed by Extraversion
▪ Distributive Justice – fairness of the decision 13. IMPACT Theory - each leader has one of six
itself behavior styles: informational, magnetic, position,
▪ Procedural Justice – fairness of the procedures affiliation, coercive, or tactical
used to arrive with the decision Informational (Ignorance) provides info in a climate
11. MARS Model of Individual Behavior and of ignorance, where important information is missing
Performance – Performance is predicted by the from the group
Motivation, Ability, Role Perception, and Situational Magnetic (Despair) leads through energy and
Factors optimism but characterized by low morale
▪ All 4 factors are critical influences on an Position (Instability) leads through energy and
individual’s voluntary behavior and optimism but characterized by low morale
performance, if one is low in a given situation, Affiliation (Anxiety) leads by liking and caring about
then, the employee will perform poorly others
▪ Motivation, ability and role perception is
Coercive (Crisis) leads by controlling and
clustered together as they are located within the
punishment
person
Tactical (Disorganization) leads through strategy
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14. Path-Goal Theory – a leader can adopt one of four Systems Approach – considers organization as
behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation systems – a system is an organized or complex whole
Instrumental – calls for planning, organizing, and – an assemblage or combination of things or parts
controlling the activities of employees which form a complex unitary whole
Supportive – shows concern for employees - Subsystems: different parts of the system, which are
Participative – shares information with employees interrelated
and lets them participate in the decision making - Open: interact with the environment
Achievement-Oriented – challenging goals and - Closed: no interaction with the environment
rewards increases in performance - offer an open-system view of an organization and
15. Situational Leadership Theory – a leader typically recognizes its environmental interface
uses one of the 4 behavioral styles: - adopts multi-level and multi-dimensional approach,
1. Delegating – willing and able which considers both macro and micro aspects
2. Directing – unwilling and unable - 3 basic elements: Components, Linking Processes,
3. Coaching – willing but unable Goals of Organization
4. Supporting – unwilling but able - focuses on the internal dynamics of an
16. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Vertical Dyad organization’s structure and behavior
Linkage Theory) – concentrates on the interactions - applicable to all situations
between leader and subordinates Socio-Technical Approach – based on the premise
▪ Leaders develop different roles and relationships that every organization consists of the people, the
with other people under them and thus act technical system, and the environment
differently with different subordinates - people use tools, techniques, and knowledge to
▪ In-Group: HQ relationship with the leader, produce goods or services valued by consumers or
developed trusting and friendly relationship users
▪ Out-Group: LQ relationship with the leader, - equilibrium among the social system, technical
developed system, and the environment is necessary to make the
17. Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory – org more effective
defined as the person’s ability to make choices and - Joint Optimization: the idea that the social and
manage their own life technological systems should be designed to fit one
▪ You feel in greater control, as opposed to being another as well as possible
non-self-determined, which can leave you - Unit Control of Variance: concerns who handles
feeling that your life is controlled by others work problems when they arise
▪ People are motivated to grow and change by - enhances the motivation, self-efficacy, and skills of
three innate psychological needs the employee, and it saves the time of the specialist
▪ The tendency to be either proactive or passive is and supervisor
largely influenced by the social condition which - very useful because of the trend of downsizing in
we are raised favor of advanced equipment/machinery/gadgets
▪ Intrinsic motivation plays an important role - reduces lag time associated with topo many moving
Autonomy – people need to feel in control of their parts
own behaviors and goals Contingency or Situational Approach – based on
Competence – people need to gain mastery of tasks the belief that there cannot be universal guidelines
and learn different skills suitable for all situations, thus, different environment
Connection or Relatedness – people need to requires different organizational relationships for
experience a sense of belonging and attachment to optimum effectiveness, taking into consideration
people various social, legal, political, technical, and
Modern Organization Theory economic factors
o Modern Organization Theory – based on the - focuses on external determinants of the
concept that the organization is a system which has organization’s behavior and structure
to adapt to changes in its environment’ - works on the prescription which says that “it all
o Organization is defined as a designed and structured depends,”
process in which individuals interact for objectives
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Open System Theory by Katz & Kahn ▪ Mass Production, large span of control and long
o Open System Theory – organization develop and chain of command
change over time as a result of both external and ▪ Continuous process, largest span of control
internal forces ▪ Deals only with manufacturing organizations
3 Key Elements of Open System Theory B. Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model – asserted that two
Inputs – raw materials, human resources, energy, processes determine the company’s ability to keep up
machinery with external changes: differentiation and integration
Throughputs – production processes, service, ▪ Proposed that the stability of the environment
training dictates the most effective form of organization
Outputs – products, services, knowledge ▪ Depends on the environment of the company
o The interplay between internal reality of an ▪ Mechanistic Organization: an organization that
organization and the external reality of its depends on formal rules and regulations, makes
environment and history decisions at higher levels of the organization and
o Organization must be open to its environment to be has smaller spans of control (for stable
effective environments)
o Organizations thrive only as long as there is a ▪ Organic Organization: organization with a large
continuous flow of energy from the external span of control, less formalized procedures, and
environment into the system and continuous export decision-making at middle levels (for unstable
of products out of the system environments)
o Too much Negative Entropy (all forms of ▪ Differentiation: complexity of the org structure –
organization move towards disorganization or number of units, various orientations and
death, so orgs must avoid this movement) philosophies of the managers, and the goals and
o The negative feedback loop provides information interests of the organization’s members
about where and how the organization is getting off- ▪ Integration: amount and quality of collaboration
course; therefore, they could correct or adjust the C. Fiedler’s Contingency Model – any individual’s
course leadership style is effective only in certain situations
o Equifinality – a system can reach the same end D. Mintzberg’s Contingency Model – argued that one
state in different ways (there isn’t just one way to could describe an organization by looking at several
achieve a particular outcome) categories of characteristics
o Surviving open systems are characterized by a ▪ the key mechanism used by the organization for
balance in energy exchange coordinating its efforts
o Open systems move toward more specialized ▪ functions and roles of people in the organization
functions ▪ the context in which the organization operates
o Bringing the system together as a unified process is ▪ the priority level depends on the goals
necessary for the system to continue ▪ Operating Core:
Contingency Theory Basic Forms of Coordination
o The “it depends” theory Mutual Adjustments based on Informal Comms
o Behavior must be selected to fit the particular Direct Supervision
circumstance Standardization of Work Process
o This answers the problem of both classical and Standardization of KSAOs
neoclassical theories Standardization of Outputs
A. Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model – for Standardization of norms (Culture)
maximal performance, org structure needed to match the Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
type of production technology Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
▪ 3 types of manufacturers: Small-batch, mass work duties that give the organization its defining
production, and continuous production purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
▪ Producers of small batches of specialty products Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
required a span of control that was moderate in of the entire organization; associated with executive
size and a short chain of command leadership
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Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by - forces that maintains the status quo are broken down,
strategic apex are being carried out by the operating and the system is opened up for change
core; mid-levels managers - started by pointing out behaviors and outcomes
Technostructure – possess specific technical prevalent in the organization that are not consistent
expertise that facilitates overall operation of the with its goals and objectives
organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments Moving
Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the - real org change begins to happen
organization and typically includes the mailroom, Refreezing
security, and janitorial services - changes become stabilized, and the organization
Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to reaches a new level of equilibrium
a particular value; organizations should have B. Action Research Model – social problems that
singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its needed to be addressed from both methodological and
actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees social perspective
behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in ▪ Cyclical nature
the ideology of the organization, and can perform their ▪ Initial research about the organization
work relatively independent of each other ▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness further activities
and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is ▪ Sensemaking: what employees do to gain a
neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the better understanding of their workplace
organization C. Perrow’s Model – examined information
Organizational Models technology, which refers to all aspects of jobs
A. Lewin’s Change Model – change as a matter of ▪ The structure of the organization adjusts to the
modifying those forces that are acting to keep things technology
stable ▪ among the various units of the organization
o Any behavioral situation is characterized both by D. Kotter’s Change Model – proposed an eight-stage
forces operating to maintain stability or equilibrium model that essentially broke down Lewin’s 3 steps into
and by forces pushing for change subcomponents based on common mistakes he saw
o Intervention: the program or initiative suggested or organizations make when trying to change
implemented by the change agent 1) Increase Urgency
o Evolutionary Change: continual process of 2) Build Guiding Team
upgrading or improving processes 3) Develop the Vision
o Revolutionary Change: drastic changes 4) Communicate the Vision
o Change Agent: initiates the change, usually external 5) Empower Action, Remove Obstacles
to the organization, people who enjoy change and 6) Create Short-Term Wins
often make changes just for the sake of it 7) Build on Wins
o Client: recipient of the change effort 8) Embed changes into culture
o Change Resistant: individuals who prefer to keep E. Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand Theory – individuals
things the way they are are driven by self-interest and rationality will make
o Change Analysts: not afraid to change or make decisions that lead to positive benefits for the whole
changes but want to make changes only if the economy
changes will improve the organization ▪ Rational Choice Theory: individuals use rational
o Receptive Changers: people who probably will not calculations to make rational choices and
instigate change but are willing to change achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own
o Reluctant Changers: not instigate or welcome personal objectives
change, but they will change if necessary F. Peter and Waterman’s Well-Managed Model –
o Planned for change to occur in organizations with aims at formulating a descriptive model of choice which
the least amount of tension and resistance focuses on the expressive character of decision making
3 Steps of Change Process in the organization
Unfreezing ▪ Based on empirical perception of how successful
organizations are being run
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G. Vroom-Yetton Model – provide a flowchart that can ▪ Establish the behavior expected of everyone in
tell a leader process to go through when making a the group
decision ▪ Descriptive norms – developed through a
process of observation
▪ Injunctive norms - developed through a process
of conforming to gain social approval
▪ There is “oughtness” or “shouldness”
▪ Usually more obvious for behavior judged to be
important for the group
▪ Norm must be first defined and communicated,
either explicitly or implicitly
▪ The group must be able to monitor behavior and
judge whether the norm is being followed
▪ Group must be able to reward conformity and
punish nonconformity
3. Organizational Climate and Culture
Organizational Climate – shared meaning
organizational members attach to the events, policies,
Organizational Concepts practices, and procedures they experience and the
Components of Social Systems behaviors they see being rewarded, supported, and
o Social System – structuring events or happenings, it expected
has no formal structure, apart from its functioning - how things are done within an organization
▪ Sometimes referred to as informal component of Organizational Culture – languages, values,
an organization attitudes, beliefs, and customs of an organization
1. Roles – expectations of others about appropriate - complex pattern of variables that, when taken
behavior in a specific position collectively, gives each organization its unique
▪ Impersonal “flavor”
▪ related to task behaviors - three layers: Observable Artifacts (symbols,
▪ difficult to pin down, some people might define language, narratives, and practices), Espoused Values
your role differently as how you define it or the (values endorsed by the management), and Basic
other way around Assumptions (unobservable and are at the core of the
▪ learned quickly and can produce major behavior org)
changes - Organizational Culture Profile – organizational reps
▪ roles and jobs are not the same, some people sort 54 “value statements” describing such things as
have several roles in one job (e.g., Head organizational attitudes toward quality, risk taking,
Manager, also specifically watches the and the respect the organization gives to workers into
production department, a mother) meaningful categories to provide a descriptive profile
▪ Role Conflict – when an individual is faced with of the organization
incompatible or competing demands - Organizational Practices Scale – designed
▪ Role Ambiguity – uncertainty about the specifically to measure organizational structure
behaviors to be exhibited in a role, or boundaries assesses the company’s culture in terms of dimensions
that define a role such as whether the organization is “process versus
▪ Role Overload – when an individual feels result oriented,” etc.
overwhelmed from having too many Person-Organization Fit
responsibilities o Person-Organization Fit (Person-Organization
▪ Role Differentiation – the extent to which Congruence) – process of gauging the degree of fit
different roles are performed by employees in between the two parties is mutual
the same subgroup ▪ People populating the organization who most
2. Norms – shared group expectations about appropriate define its culture
behavior
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Downsizing, Outsourcing, Offshoring ▪ An organization’s ability to divide work among
Downsizing – decision to cut jobs, one of the most people depends on how well those people can
radical and tumultuous ways an organization can coordinate with each other
change in response to pressures Coordinating Mechanisms in Organizations
- reducing cost Informal Communication – sharing information on
- reduction-in-force mutual tasks; forming common mental models to
- greatest losses come from middle line, synchronize work activities
technostructure, and support staff Formal Hierarchy – assigning legitimate power to
- Horizontal Cut: involves the loss of jobs within a individual, who then use this power to direct work
department, but the department remains within the processes and allocate resources
organization Standardization – creating routine patterns of
- Vertical Cut: involves elimination of all jobs in the behavior or output
department o Elements of Organizational Structure:
Outsourcing – company use external employees to 1. Chain of Command
perform internal functions which known to be less 2. Span of Control
costly than hiring its own employees to perform these 3. Centralization and Decentralization
services 4. Formalization
Offshoring – work performed domestically is 5. Mechanistic vs. Organic Structure
exported to cheaper labor markets in overseas o Traditional – have formally defined roles for their
countries members, very rule driven, and are stable and
Mergers and Acquisition resistant to change
Organizational Merger – marriage of two a. Bureaucracy
organizations of equal status and power b. Line-Staff Organizational Structure
Acquisition – procurement of property by another (Principle)
organization o Nontraditional – less formalized work roles and
- Hostile Takeover: dominant organization thus procedures (organic)
acquires an unwilling partner to enhance its financial ▪ Generally, have fewer employees and may also
status occur as a small organization that is a subunit of
- Parent: acquiring organization a larger, more traditionally structured
- target: organization being acquired organization
- 3 Phases: Precombination (emphasis on financial Team Organization – workers have defined jobs, not
issues), Combination (clash between people as they narrowly specialized positions common to
focus on differences between partners), traditionally structured organizations, collaborate
Postcombination (integrating two cultures) among workers, and share skills and resources (e.g.,
Organizational Structure group of psychologists working on a single case)
o Organizational Structure – arrangement of Project Task Force – temporary, nontraditional
positions in an organization and the authority and organization of members from different departments
responsibility relationships among them or positions within a traditional structure who are
o Arrangement of positions in an organization and the assembled to complete a specific job or project (e.g.,
authority and responsibility relationships among Avengers)
them Matrix Organization – structured of both product
o The division of labor as well as patterns of and function simultaneously
coordination, communication, workflow, and o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
formal power that direct organizational activities longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
o Division of Labor – subdivision of work into layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
separate jobs assigned to different people control and a clear promotion structure
▪ Leads to job specialization to increase work o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
efficiency levels, focused on empowering employing rather
than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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when the task is repetitive and requires minimal Organizational Development
supervision o Organizational Development – planned,
o Functional – divides the organization into organization-wide effort to increase organizational
departments based on the functions or tasks effectiveness through behavioral science knowledge
performed and technology
▪ Creates job specialists but overly focused on ✓ Involve the total organization
their own department and area of specialization ✓ Be supported (and initiated) by top management
o Divisional – based on type of products or clients ✓ Entail diagnosis of the organization, as well as
▪ Can easily expand products or services merely implementation plan
by adding new division but there is a duplication ✓ Be long-term processes
of areas of expertise ✓ Focus on changing attitudes, behaviors, and
o Centralization – the degree to which decision- performance of groups/team
making authority is concentrated at the top of the ✓ Emphasize the importance of goals, objectives,
organizational hierarchy and planning
o Decentralization – process of taking the decision- o Change process through which employees
making power out of the hands of the top level and formulate the change that’s required and implement
distributing it to lower levels it, often with the assistance of trained consultants
o Formalization – the degree to which organizations o When OD fails, it is often because the
standardize behavior through rules, procedures, characteristics mentioned above has been ignored in
formal training, and related mechanisms favor of superficial changes that have very little
o Mechanistic – characterized by narrow span of impact on the organization’s effectiveness and
control and high degree of formalization and result in greater stress and lower morale at the
centralization company
▪ Have many rules and procedures, limited o “is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and
decision making at lower levels, tall hierarchies (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase
of people in specialized roles, and vertical rather organization effectiveness and health through (5)
than horizontal communication planned interventions in the organization’s
▪ Operate better in rapidly changing environments processes, using behavioral science knowledge,”
o Organic – operate with a wide span of control, (Beckhard, 1969)
decentralized decision-making, and little o Planned ahead of time (Revolutionary (abrupt) and
formalization Evolutionary (gradual))
▪ Tasks are fluid, adjusting to new situations and o Often involves altering the organization’s works
organizational needs structure or influencing workers’ attitudes or
o Departmentalization – specifies how employees behaviors to help the organization to adapt to
and their activities are grouped together fluctuating external and internal conditions
▪ Establishes chain of command 1. identify significant problems
▪ Focus people around common mental models or 2. appropriate interventions are chosen to deal with
ways of thinking the problems
▪ Encourages specific people and work units to 3. implementation
coordinate through informal communication 4. evaluation
a) Simple – few people minimal hierarchy o Change Agent = OD practitioner
b) Functional – organizes employees around o Action Research Model – social problems that
specific knowledge or other resources needed to be addressed from both methodological
c) Divisional – group employees around and social perspective
geographic areas, outputs, or clients ▪ Cyclical nature
d) Team Based – built around self-directed teams ▪ Initial research about the organization
that complete an entire piece of work ▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
e) Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the further activities
benefits of both ▪ Sensemaking – what employees do to gain a
f) Network – design and build a product or serve a better understanding of their workplace
client though an alliance of several organizations o Effective Interventions:
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✓ Fit the needs of the organization create job specialist and overly focused on their
✓ Based on the causal knowledge of intended own department and are of specialization
outcomes; and,
✓ Transfer change-management competence to
organization members
1. Survey Feedback – involves systematic collection
data, widely used intervention strategy
2. Team Building – develop teams or to enhance the
effectiveness of the existing teams
▪ In order to be successful, the members must
collaborate and be interdependent
▪ Must be initiated to correct existing problems
▪ Combined with other interventions
▪ Strongly supported by the members
▪ Implemented in a participative management ▪ Product-Based Organizational Design
climate (Divisional Structure) – organized based on
▪ Performance was measured at the group level their product output, allows the managers of a
▪ Outdoor Experiential Training – makes use of particular division to focus exclusively on that
outdoors and entails various physical and mental division, creating greater commitment and
exercises cohesion within the division; operates as a
3. Total Quality Management – also known as separate entity
continuous improvement or quality management ▪ Matrix Structure – combined function and
▪ Focuses on employee involvement in the control products structures
of quality in organizations ▪ Reengineering (business process redesign) –
1) Senior management must receive training on involves fundamental rethinking and redesign of
what TQM is, how it operates, and what their business processes to improve critical
responsibilities are performance as measures by cost, quality,
2) Employees are trained in quality methods such service, and speed
as statistical process control (identifying Fundamental
problems reflective of a low-quality product or Examination of what the company does and why
service) Radical
3) Employees identify not only the areas in which Willingness to make crucial and far-reaching
their department or division excels but also organizational changes rather than superficial ones
deviations (output variation) from quality Dramatic
standards Making striking performance improvements rather
4) Self-Comparison analysis, whereby the org that slight ones
compares its effectiveness to that competitors Processes
that set the benchmark for the industry ▪ Information Technology – science of
5) Rewards are linked to achievement of collecting, storing, processing, and transmitting
intervention goals information
4. Gainsharing – involves paying employees a bonus 6. Positive Organizational Development
based on improvements in productivity ▪ Positive Psychology – scientific study of the
▪ Link between pay and performance lead to strengths and virtues of individuals and
increased employee involvement and job institutions rather than their weaknesses and
satisfaction impairments
5. Technostructural Interventions – focus on the ▪ Appreciative Inquiry – engages employees by
technology and structure of organizations focusing on positive messages, the best of what
▪ Functional Organizational Design – most employees have to offer, and the affirmation of
basic, structured according to the various past and present strengths and successes
functions of the employees, groups employees to 1) Discovery – determine the strengths
various departments based on their expertise;
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2) Dream – information gathered from discovery is o Individual Power – derived from personal
analyzed and elaborated upon to arrive at a characteristics that are of value to the organization
vision statement or focused intent and its members
3) Design – designing innovative ways to identify Power Bases
where the organization should be going Coercive Power – ability to punish or threaten to
4) Destiny – the design is maintained or sustained punish others
in this stage Reward Power – ability to give something positive
7. Organizational Transformation – any Legitimate Power – formal rights or authority that an
intervention primarily directed toward creating a individual possesses by virtue of a position in an
new vision for an organization and changing its organization
beliefs, purpose, and mission Expert Power – possession of some special, work-
▪ Culture Change – alteration of a pattern of related knowledge, skill, or expertise
beliefs, values, norms, and expectations shared Referent Power – an individual is respected, admired,
by organizational members and liked by others
▪ Knowledge Management – organizations Communication in the Organization
enhance their operations through attempts to o Horizontal Communication – aims at linking
generate, transform, disseminate, and use their related tasks, work units and divisions in the
knowledge organization; among co-workers with the same level
▪ Organizational Change – process of altering or similar hierarchical positions
organizations to be more adaptive and congruent o Downward Communication – provides
with their business environment information from the higher levels to lower levels
8. T-groups – sensitivity training, use of unstructured o Upward Communication – serve as a control
group interaction to help workers gain insight into system for the organization wherein subordinates
their motivations and their behavior patterns in communicate to the higher levels
dealing with others Organizational Decision Making
Power in the Organization 1. Setting Organization Goals
o Power – refers to the ability to get an individual or 2. Establish Performance Criteria
group to do something or change in some way 3. Classifying and defining the problem
o Politics – process to achieve power 4. Developing criteria for a successful solution
o Organizational Politics – involves any action taken 5. Generating Alternatives
to influence the behavior of others to reach personal 6. Comparing Alternatives to criteria
goals 7. Choosing an alternative
o Ingratiation – increasing one’s personal appeal 8. Implementation
through such tactics as doing favors, praising, or 9. Evaluation
flattering another (#sipsip) Types of Individual Behavior
o Assertiveness – making orders or demands Task Performance – individual’s voluntary goal-
o Rationality – using logic to convince someone directed behaviors that contribute to organizational
o Sanction – withholding salary, threaten firing objectives
someone - Proficient Task Performance: refers to performing
o Exchanges – offering something in exchange for the work efficiently and accurately
another - Adaptive Task Performance: refers to how well
o Upward Appeals – obtaining the support of employee modify their thoughts and behaviors to
superiors align with and support a new or changing environment
o Blocking – threatening to stop working with the - Proactive Task Performance: refers to how well
other person employees take the initiative to anticipate and
o Coalition – obtaining co-workers’ support of a introduce new work patterns that benefit the
request organization
o Organization Power – comes from an individual’s Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – various
position in the organization and from the control forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that
over important organizational resources conveyed
by that position
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support the organization’s social and psychological Leadership
context o Leadership – influencing, motivating, and enabling
Counterproductive Behavior – voluntary behaviors others to contribute toward the effectiveness and
that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm success of the organizations of which they are
the organization or its stakeholders members
Joining/Staying with the Organization ▪ Motivate others through persuasion and other
Maintaining Attendance influences tactics
Perceptual Effects o High Openness, Conscientiousness, and
o Halo Effect – occurs when our general impression Extraversion = great leaders
of a person, usually based on prominent o High Self-Monitors = leaders
characteristic, distorts our perception of other Motivation to Lead
characteristic of that person Affective Identity Motivation – become leaders
▪ Most likely to occur when important information because they enjoy being in charge and leading others
about the perceived target it missing or we are Noncalculative Motivation – seeking leadership
not sufficiently motivated to search for it position that will result to personal gain
o False-Consensus Effect (Similar-to-Me Effect) – Social-Normative Conditions – becomes leaders out
occurs when people overestimate the extent to of a sense of duty
which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to o Leadership Motive Pattern – high need for power
our own and a low need for affiliation
▪ We are comforted by the thought of other people o Person-Oriented leaders – acts in warm and
are similar to us supportive manner and show concern for their
▪ We interact more with people who have similar subordinates
views and behaviors ▪ Believe that employees are intrinsically
▪ We are more likely to remember information motivated, seek responsibility, are self-
consistent to our own views and selectively controlled, and do not necessarily dislike work
screen out information that is contrary to our ▪ Consult their subordinates before making
beliefs decisions, praise their work, ask about their
o Primacy Effect – tendency to rely on the first families, and etc.
information we receive about people to quick form ▪ Socially withdrawn
an opinion of people of them ▪ Appreciate humor
o Recency Effect – occurs when the most recent ▪ Have satisfied employees
information dominates our perception o Task-Oriented Leaders – define and structure their
Organizational Commitment own roles and those of their subordinates to attain
o Organizational Commitment – the extent to which the group’s formal goals
an employee identifies with and is involved with an ▪ See their employees as lazy, extrinsically
organization motivated, wanting security, undisciplined
Affective Commitment – the extent to which an ▪ Manage or lead by giving directives, setting
employee wants to remain with the organization, cares goals, and making decisions without consulting
about the organization, and is willing to exert effort on their subordinates
its behalf ▪ Under pressure, they become anxious, defensive,
Continuance Commitment – the extent to which an and dominant
employee believes she must remain with the ▪ Produce humor
organization due to the time, expense, and effort that ▪ Productive employees
she has already put into it or the difficulty she would Team – both task- and person-oriented
have in finding another job Middle-Of-The-Road – moderate amounts of both
Normative Commitment – the extent to which an orientations
employee feels obligated to the organization and, as a Impoverished – neither task- nor person-oriented
result of this obligation, must remain with the o Transactional Leadership – consists of many task-
organization oriented behaviors
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o Transformational Leadership – focus on - humans are the focus of the theory and social
changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, relationships and interactions are instrumental to
standards, and performance of others organizational efficiency
▪ Visionary, charismatic, and inspirational - introduced an informal organization structure
▪ Confident, have need to influence others, and - the most irrational behavior is when they seek
hold a strong attitude that their beliefs and ideas rewards from work
are correct - human beings are interdependent, one can predict
▪ Charisma, intellectual stimulation, individual their behavior by looking at the social and
consideration psychological factors
o Shared Leadership – exists when employee - integrates the classical model with behavioral
champion the introduction of new technologies and science and even considers the environment it’s in
produces - small groups and human behavior
▪ when employee engage in organizational - resulted to more satisfied and efficient employees
citizenship behaviors to assist the performance - democratic and participative
and well-being of co-workers and the overall Modern Org Theory
team - tend to be based on the concept that the organization
▪ flourishes in organizations where formal leaders is a system which must adapt to changes in its
are willing to delegate power and encourage environment
employees to take initiative and risks without - an organization is defined as designed and structured
fear of failure process in which individuals interact for objectives
o Managerial Leadership – daily activities that Contingency Theory
support and guide the performance and well-being - no particular managerial action or organizational
of individual employees and the work unit toward design that is appropriate for all situations
current objectives and practices - also known as situational theory
▪ Assumes the organization’s objectives are stable - situational variables
and aligned with the external environment - result to dynamic management style – since it adapts
▪ Micro-focused to what is needed
o Servant Leadership – an extension or variation of Motivation Theory
people-oriented leadership because it defines - what drives an employee towards a particular goal or
leadership as serving others outcome
Determine the focus and differences of Organization - motivated employee = more productive = more
Theories profitable
Classical Org Theory Open Systems Theory
- views an organization as a machine with centralized - organizations are strongly influenced by their
authority, labor specialization, and incentives to environment (whether political, economic, or social in
optimize productivity in an organization, and in turn, nature)
drive profits - environment provides key resources that sustain the
- each employee must be efficient to increase organization and lead to change and survival
efficiency Importance of Organizational Theories
- rigid and static view of organization o Help study an organization, its corporate designs,
- no interaction with the environment structures and behaviors of individual or groups
- more on structural and technical aspects of o Aim to provide an overview of how an organization
organizations functions and the things needed to improve
- oversimplified and mechanistic assumptions efficiency and profitability
- work as well as the economic needs of the workers
- more mechanical and impersonal
- results to work alienation and dissatisfaction
- authoritarian and bureaucratic
Neo-Classical Org Theory
- emphasized human relations
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Organizational Structures and Systems (20) authority and - impedes specialists’
Pros and Cons of different types of Organizational responsibility exposure to others within
Structures - heightens departmental the same specialties
Pros Cons cohesion and - puts multiple-role
Functional involvement in work demands on people and
- promotes skill - emphasizes routine so creates stress
specialization tasks, which encourages - may promote
- reduces duplication of short-time horizons departmental objectives,
scarce resources and uses - fosters parochial as opposed to overall
resources full time perspectives by organizational objectives
- enhances career managers, which limit Simple
development t for their capabilities for top- - minimal hierarchy - insufficient economies
specialists within large management positions - highly flexible and of scale to assign them to
departments - reduces communication minimizes the walls that specialized jobs
- facilitates and cooperation between form between employees - difficult to operate as
communication and departments the company grows and
performance because - multiplies the become more complex
superiors share expertise interdepartmental Flat/Process Structure
with their subordinates dependencies, which can - greater interaction - offer few promotional
- exposes specialists to make coordination and between top and bottom opportunities
others within the same sched of the organization - supervision may not
specialty - focuses resources on always be adequate since
Multidimensional/Divisional customer satisfaction many workers report to
- easily expand products - duplication of areas of - improves speed and the same supervisor
or services merely by expertise efficiency - can threaten middle
adding new division - workers with similar - adapts to environmental managers and staff
- each division operates skills and expertise may change rapidly specialists
as a separate entity, thus not be able to benefit - increases ability to see - requires changes in
greater accountability from professional total workflow command-and-control
- growth relatively easily interaction with each - enhances employee mindsets
- outcome-focused other because they are involvement - duplicate scarce
- direct employee housed in different - lower costs because of resources
attention to customers divisions less overhead structure - requires new skills and
and products rather than - expertise is spread knowledge to manage
to their own specialized across several lateral relationships and
knowledge autonomous business teams
- recognizes sources of units, which reduces the - may take longer to
interdepartmental ability and perhaps make decisions in teams
dependencies motivation of the people - can be ineffective if
- foster an orientation in one division to share wrong processes are
toward overall outcomes their knowledge with identified
and clients other counterparts in Tall
- allows diversification other divisions - may offer lower-level - workers at the bottom
and expansion of skills - may use skills and employees many different level may feel cut-off
and training resources inefficiently promotional opportunities from those who are above
- ensures accountability - limits career throughout their careers because they are
by departmental advancement by - adequate supervision separated by many levels
managers and so specialists to movements since each supervisor is - can become “top heavy”
promotes delegation of out of their departments only responsible for a few with administrators and
employees managers, because the
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ratio of line workers to Team Organization/Team-Based
supervisors is very low - collab with other - intragroup conflict
- executives tend to workers to get the job arises but it could turn
receive lower-quality and done into productive,
less-timely information - each worker is viewed functional outcome
- high overhead costs – as knowledgeable and - costly to maintain due
necessarily have more skilled to the need for ongoing
people administering the - team members have interpersonal skills
company considerable input into training
- employees feel less organizational decision
empowered and engaged making
in their work - less emphasis on
Matrix organizational status
- highly flexible and - do not work well with - more flexible and
adaptable all types of tasks or responsive in turbulent
- high levels of workers environments
performance in dealing - best suited for projects - reduce costs
with complex, creative and products that requires - allows quicker and more
work products creativity and innovation informed decision-
- greater work but less suited for routine making
communication and job tasks Project Task Force/Network
satisfaction - report to two bosses - offer flexibility to - they expose the core
- makes very good use of simultaneously can cause realign their structure firm to market forces
resources and expertise confusion and conflict with changing - information technology
- improves - increases conflict environmental makes worldwide
communication among managers who requirements communication much
efficiency, project share equal power - enable flexible and easier, but it will never
flexibility, and innovation - can be very difficult to adaptive response to replace the degree of
- makes specialized, introduce without a dynamic environments control organizations
functional knowledge preexisting supportive - creates best of the best have when
available to all projects management climate organization to focus manufacturing,
- uses people flexibly, - increases role resources on customer marketing, and other
because departments ambiguity, stress, and and market needs functions are in-house
maintain reservoirs of anxiety by assigning - enables each - managing lateral
specialists people to more than one organization to leverage a relations across
- maintains consistency department distinctive competency autonomous
between different - without power - permits rapid global organizations is difficult
departments and projects balancing between expansion - motivating members to
by forcing product and functional - can produce synergistic relinquish autonomy to
communication between forms, lowers overall results join the network is
managers performance troublesome
- recognizes and provides - makes inconsistent - sustaining membership
mechanisms for dealing demands, which may and benefits can be
with legitimate, multiple result in unproductive problematic
sources of power in the conflicts and short-term - may give partners
organization crisis management access to proprietary
- can adapt to - may reward political knowledge/technology
environmental changes skills as opposed to Centralized
by shifting emphasis technical skills
between project and
functional aspects
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- uniformity, each - may limit individuals to Describe the elements that create organizational
department should adjust to special structure and their distinct relationships: Job Design,
operate with some circumstances Departmentation, Delegation, Span of Control, and
average level of quality - inefficiencies in Chain of Command
and efficiency decision-making Job Design
- more efficient o Job Design – developing new jobs or adding
operations responsibilities to existing jobs
Decentralized ▪ Interview questions, training plans, development
- can make their own - poor decision making plans, career implications, performance reviews,
decisions could backfire and compensation, tie into the job design
- decision making and ▪ Process of assigning tasks to a job, including
problems are solved at interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
lower levels, more ▪ Allows a company to more easily reach its goals
authority to lower-level by having more employees perform more tasks
employees (sense of within the organization
empowerment) ▪ May involve developing a new position or
- quicker decisions, simply adjusting set of tasks that a current
greater level of position encompasses
procedural fairness ▪ Creates clear and effecting communication
Mechanistic process throughout the company since it clearly
- more flexible and - limited decision making define tasks and form them into natural work
responsive to the changes at lower levels units to organize duties
- formal comms channel - tasks are rigidly defined ▪ Structuring the content and size of jobs for
and are altered only by efficient task performance, flexibility, and
higher authorities worker satisfaction and defining their
- limited autonomy and component tasks, conditions, and competency
self-determination which requirements for recruitment, appraisal, reward,
could lower intrinsic and a number of other HR Processes
motivation of workers o Job Specialization – occurs when the work
Organic required is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to
- emphasize information - may lower productivity different people to improve work efficiency
sharing and an - too many ideas o Job Enrichment – an employee assumes more
empowered workforce - slower decision-making responsibility over the tasks
rather than hierarchy and - less-regulated work ▪ Help improve motivation and morale for
status - slower adaptation for employees who remain following organizational
- communication new employees downsizing
decentralized down to ▪ Combining highly interdependent tasks into one
teams and individuals job (Natural Grouping)
- opportunities for ▪ Feel sense of ownership, therefore, increase job
creativity quality
- more open comms ▪ Putting employees in direct contact with their
- better employee clients rather than using another group or the
satisfaction supervisor as the liaison between employee and
- fewer formal procedures the customer (Establishing Client Relationships)
- deeper employee o Job Rotation – workers are rotated among variety
relationships of jobs, spending certain length of time at each
▪ Exposing workers to as many areas of
organization as possible so they can gain a good
knowledge of its workings and how the various
jobs and departments fit together
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▪ Increases worker flexibility, eliminates boredom, Departmentation/Departmentalization
and increases worker satisfaction o Departmentalization – specifies how employees
o Job Enlargement – adding tasks to an existing job and their activities are grouped together
▪ Might involve combining two or more complete Simple – few people minimal hierarchy
jobs into one or just adding one or two more Functional – organizes employees around specific
tasks to an existing job knowledge or other resources
▪ Significantly improve work efficiency and Divisional – group employees around geographic
flexibility areas, outputs, or clients
▪ Employees are motivated when they perform a Team Based – built around self-directed teams that
variety of tasks and have the freedom and complete an entire piece of work
knowledge to structure their work to achieve the Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the
highest satisfaction and performance benefits of both
o Re-engineering – fundamental rethinking and Network – design and build a product or serve a
radical redesign of business processes to achieve client though an alliance of several organizations
dramatic improvements in critical contemporary Delegation
measures of performance, such as costs, quality, o Delegation (of Authority) – supervisors, rather
service, and speed than doing everything by themselves, assign
▪ Rethinking and redesigning its business system particular tasks to separate employees and hold
to become more competitive them responsible for completing tasks
▪ Focuses on the overall aspects of job designs, ▪ Strategic, focuses on outcomes, provides
org structures, and management systems learning opportunities
o Duty Allocation – company creates a team or group o Micromanagers – try to take charge of everything
of departments, with each having a specific role that goes on in the organization rather than holding
o Job Crafting – informal changes that an employee employees responsible for individual tasks
makes in their jobs Span of Control
▪ Obtain additional responsibilities in their role o Span of Control – number of subordinates who
over time report to a given supervisor
▪ Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – o Also known as Span of Management
motivated to help the org and colleagues by o Narrow span of control exists when very few people
doing little things they are not required to do report directly to a manager, whereas a wide span
o Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics exists when a manager has many direct reports
Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are o Widen span of control is possible when employees
meaningful, provide them opportunity to be perform routine jobs because they require less
personally responsible for the outcome of their direction or advice from supervisor
work, and provide them with feedback of the results o Narrow span of control is necessary when
of their efforts employees perform novel or complex tasks, because
Core Job Characteristics these employees require supervisory decisions and
Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to coaching
complete a variety of work activities o Narrow span of control is necessary highly
Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires interdependent jobs became employees tend to
completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work experience more conflict with each other, which
Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects requires more of a manager’s time to resolve
the organization and/or larger society o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
discretion in scheduling the work and determining the layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
procedures to be used to complete the work control and a clear promotion structure
Feedback: employees can tell how well they are o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
doing from direct sensory information from the job levels, focused on empowering employing rather
itself than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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when the task is repetitive and requires minimal opportunities to learn
supervision new skills etc.
Chain of Command - Employees develop
o Chain of Command – number of authority levels their personal and
in a particular organization organizational skills,
o Follows the lines of authority and status vertically knowledge, and abilities
through the organization - focused on the future
Importance of Aligning the Org Structures with needs of the organization
Business strategy and its members
o Organizational Structure improves operational - both are beneficial for the organization and the
efficiency by providing clarity to employees at all employees for the productivity
levels of a company - some activities overlap: appraisal/training
o In a flat structure, front-line employees are Human Resource Development vs. Organizational
empowered to make a range of decisions on their Development
own and information flows quickly from bottom- HRD Org Dev
level employees to top-level employees - mainly concerned with - planned, organization-
o In tall structure, information generally flows one- the training and overall wide effort to increase
way from top to bottom-level employees development of organizational
o Organizational Structures provide a clear employees effectiveness through
organization chart that helps business keep track of - this also includes behavioral science
their human resources performance appraisal of knowledge and
4 Business Elements each employee technology
Product – offerings that solve specific problems or
services of doing things Human Resource Development vs. Employee
Market – who will be the potential clients Training
Money – funds HRD Employee Training
People – make the business work - refers to various - provides learners with
Human Resource Development and Human Resource activities that helps knowledge and skills
Management (25) people to adjust to the needed for their present
Differentiating Human Resource Development and organization/workplace job
Human Resource Management, Human Resource and its culture - training only
Development and Organizational Development, HRD - deals, not only with the
and Employee Training training, but also the
Human Resource Development vs. Human Resource development of their
Management employees overall
HRM HRD - Includes training a
- process of acquiring, - refers to an assortment person after he/she is first
training, appraising, and of training programs that hired, providing
compensating employees, help people adjust to their opportunities to learn
and of attending to their new roles and learn more new skills etc.
labor relations, health and about the organization - focused on the future
safety, and fairness and its culture needs of the organization
concerns - specifically deals with and its members
- focused on the present training and development Activities involved in HR Development
needs of the organization of the employees in the o Training and Development (T&D) – heart of a
and its members organization continuous effort designed to improve employee
- Includes training a competency and organizational performance
person after he/she is first ▪ Includes training, career development,
hired, providing organizational development, and organizational
learning
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o Training – provides learners with knowledge and Training Methods
skills needed for their present job Classroom Method – instructor physically stands in
o Development – involves learning that goes beyond front of students
today’s job and has a more long-term focus - instructors may convey a great deal of information in
▪ Prepares employees to keep pace with the a relatively short time
organization as it changes and grows - common training method
o Some possible strategic benefits of T&D: employee - seminar, lecture, workshop
satisfaction, improved morale, higher retention, E-Learning – online instruction using technology-
lower turnover, improved hiring etc. based methods such as DVDs, company intranets, and
1. Determining Specific Training and Development the internet
needs – Analyzing training needs Case Study – trainees study the information provided
Organizational Analysis – determine those in the case and make decisions based on it
organization factors that either facilitate or inhibit - provide trainees with the opportunity to sharpen
training effectiveness critical thinking skills
- focus on the goals the org want to achieve, the extent Behavior Modeling and Tweeting – permits a person
to which training will achieve those goals, the to learn by copying or replicating the behavior of
organization’s ability to conduct training, and the others
extent to which employees are willing and able to be - tweeting = twitter
trained - ideal behavior rather than the behavior they might
- training will only be effective if the org is willing to normally performed
provide supportive climate for training, it can afford Simulation – allow the trainee to practice newly
an effective program, employees want to learn, and learned skills and work with equipment under actual
the goals of a program are consistent with those of the working conditions
organization Role Playing – participants are required to respond to
Task Analysis – use of the job analysis to identify the specific problems they may encounter in their jobs by
tasks performed by each employee, the condition acting out real-world situations
under which these tasks are performed, and the - learning by doing the task
competencies needed to perform the tasks under - perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out
identified conditions simulated roles
- interviews, observations, task inventories - practice what is being taught
Person Analysis – determining which employees Training Games – games are cost effect means to
needs training and which areas encourage learner involvement and stimulate interest
- not every employee needs further training for every in the topic, thereby enhancing employees’ knowledge
task performed and performance
- based on performance appraisal scores, surveys, - Business Games: permits participants to assume
interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and critical roles such as president, controller, or marketing vice
incidents president of two or more hypothetical orgs and
2. Establish Specific T&D Objectives – must have compete against each other
clear and concise objectives and be developed to In-Basket Training – asked to establish priorities for
achieved organizational goals, designing the overall and then handle a number of business papers, e-mails,
training program tests, memoranda, reports, and telephone messages,
▪ Includes designing the training program by that would typically cross a manager’s desk
setting learning objectives, creating a On-The-Job Training – informal T&D that permits
motivational learning environment, making the an employee to learn job tasks by actually performing
learning meaningful, making skill transfer them
obvious and easy, reinforcement, and ensure the - to transfer knowledge from highly skills experienced
transfer of learning worker to a new employee, while maintaining the
3. Select T&D Methods and Delivery Systems – productivity of both workers
developing the course Apprenticeship – combines classroom method with
OJT
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Team Training – focuses on imparting knowledge - Transfer of Training: the extent to which an
and skills on individuals who are expected to work employee generalizes knowledge and skill learned in
collectively toward meeting common objective training to the workplace, as well as maintains the
- Team Coordination Training: educates team level of skill proficiency or knowledge learned in
members how to orchestrate the work they do to training
complete the tasks Organizational Results – refer to such outcomes as
- Cross-Training: educates team members about the enhanced productivity, lower costs, and higher
other members’ jobs so that they may perform them product or service quality
when a team member is absent, which could raise - ROI is an important results criterion
flexibility, communication, morale, and - Benchmarking: process of monitoring and measuring
interdepartmental relations a firm’s internal processes, such as operations, and
Coaching – takes in two forms: experienced then compare the data with information from
employees and professional coaches companies that excel in those areas
Mentoring – a veteran in the organization takes o Factors influencing T&D:
special interest in a new employee and helps him not 1. Top Management Support
only to adjust to the job but also in the organization 2. Shortage of Skilled Workers
Delivery Systems 3. Technological Advances
Corporate University – provided under the umbrella 4. Global Complexity
of the organization 5. Leaning Styles
College and Universities – primary delivery system Orientation (On-Boarding) – inform new employees
for training professional, technical, and management about the company, the job, and the work group
employees - it also familiarizes them with the corporate culture
Online Higher Education – formal educational and helps them to quickly become productive
opportunities including degree and training programs - Employee Handbook
that are delivered, either entirely or partially, saves o Career – general course that a person chooses to
employees time because it reduces their need to pursue throughout his working life
commute to school ▪ Career Path: a flexible line of movement
Vestibule System – takes place away from the through which a person may travel during his or
production area on equipment that closely resembles her work life
equipment actually used on the job Traditional Career Path – employee progresses
Video Media – cds, DVDs vertically upward in the organization
Simulators – comprised of devices or programs that Network Career Path – contains both vertical
replicate actual job demands sequence of jobs and series of horizontal opportunities
Social Networking - recognizes the interchangeability of experience at
4. Implement T&D Programs – a perfectly conceived certain levels and the need to broaden experience at
program will fail if management cannot convince one level before promotion to a higher level
participants of its merits Lateral Skill Path – allows for lateral moves within
o Thus, participants must believe that the program has the firm, taken to permit an employee to become
value and will help them achieve their personal and revitalized and find new challenges
professional goals - learning a different job, an employee can increase
5. Evaluate T&D Programs his or her value to the organization and also become
Reactions – the extent to which the trainees liked the rejuvenated and re-energized
training program related to its usefulness, and quality - job enlargement, job enrichment
of conduct Dual-Career Path – recognizes that technical
Learning – the extent to which the principles, facts specialists can and should be allowed to contribute
and techniques were understood and retained in their expertise to a company without having to
memory by the employee become managers
Behavior Change – changes in job-related behaviors - advises without entering the management due to
or performance that can be attributed to training specialization to a certain knowledge
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Adding Value to Your Career – an individual’s ▪ any attempt to improve managerial performance
knowledge must be ever expanding, and continual by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or
personal development is a necessity increasing skills
Demotion – process of moving a worker to a lower ▪ Succession Planning: involves developing
level of duties and responsibilities, typically involves workforce plans for the company’s top positions
a reduction in pay ▪ Mentoring: approach to advising, coaching, and
Free Agents – people who take change of all or part nurturing for creating a practical relationship to
of their careers by being their own bosses or by enhance individual career, personal, and
working for others in ways that fit their particular professional growth and development
needs or wants ▪ Coaching: responsibility of the immediate boss,
o Career Management – process of enabling who provides assistance, but the primary focus is
employees to better understand and develop their about performance
career skills and interests, and to use these skills and ▪ Reverse Mentoring: process in which older
interests more effectively employees learn from younger ones
o Career Development – formal approach used by o Performance Appraisal – means evaluating an
the organization to ensure that people with proper employee’s current and/or past performance relative
qualifications and experiences are available when to his or her performance standards
needed ▪ For base pay, promotion, and retention decisions
▪ Lifelong series of activities that contribute to a and continuously ensure that each employee’s
person’s career exploration, establishment, performance makes sense in terms of the
success, and fulfillment company’s overall goals
▪ Must be closely parallel individual career ▪ Provide an opportunity to review the employee's
planning if a firm is to retain its best and career plans in light of his or her exhibited
brightest workers strengths and weakness
▪ Formal: includes short-term training programs, ▪ (1) Setting Work Standards; (2) Assessing the
education, certifications, workshops, or seminars Employee’s actual performance relative to those
that can help build skills sets for a particular job standards; (3) Providing feedback to eliminate
or industry performance deficiencies or to continue to
▪ Informal: includes mentorship opportunities, perform above par
networking events, online courses, internships, Who will Evaluate the Performance?
and volunteering experiences Supervisors – most common type of performance
Manager/Employee Self-Service – providing appraisal
managers with the online ability to assist employees in Peers – often see the actual behavior since they work
planning their career paths and developing required directly with the employee
competencies - employees tends to react worst to negative peer
Discussions with Knowledgeable Individuals – such evaluation
as HR, psychologists, counselors etc. Subordinates – also called upward feedback
Company Material – tailors to the firm’s special - Difficult because of the fear of backlash if they
needs unfavorable rate their supervisor
Workshops – employees define and match their - Correlate highly with upper-management ratings of
specific career objectives with the needs of the supervisors’ performance
company Customers/Clients – provide feedback on employee
o Career Planning – on-going process whereby an performance by filling complaints or complimenting
individual sets career goals and identifies the means the manager about one of her employees
to achieve them - Secret Shoppers: current customers who have been
▪ Self-Assessment, Formal Assessment enlisted by a company to periodically evaluate the
o Management Development – consists of all service their receive
learning experiences provided by an organization Self-Appraisal – allowing an employee to
resulting in upgrading skills and knowledge evaluate her own behavior and performance
required in current and future managers
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- Suffer from leniency and correlate moderately to - requires manager to set specific, measurable,
actual performance organizationally relevant goals with each employee,
- Most accurate when the self-appraisal will not be and then periodically discuss the latter’s progress
used for such administrative purposes as raises or toward these goals
promotions Computerized and Web-Based Performance
- Accurate when employees understand the Appraisal – compiles computerized notes on
performance appraisal system and when employees subordinates during the year, and then merge these
believe that an objective record of their performance with ratings for the employee on several performance
is available with which supervisor can compare the traits
self-appraisal Electronic Performance Monitoring – systems use
Rating Committees – consists of employee’s computer network technology to allow manager to
immediate supervisor and three or four other monitor their employee’s computers
supervisors Conversation Days – no explicit performance ratings,
- help cancel out problems such as biases and provide just manager-employee conversations about
a way to include in the appraisal the different facets of improvement and growth
an employee’s performance observed by different Rating Errors
appraisers Unclear standards – might result in unfair appraisals,
360-Degree Feedback – employer collects because the traits and degrees of merits are ambiguous
performance information all around an employee – Halo Effect – influence of a rater’s general
from his or her supervisors, subordinates, peers, and impression on ratings of specific ratee qualities
internal or external customers Central Tendency Error – rating all employee
Techniques for Appraising Performance average
Graphic Rating Scale – simplest and the most Leniency Error – rater is very lenient and gave the
popular method employees higher scores, rates at the higher end of the
- list several job dimensions and range of performance scale
values for each trait, then supervisors rate each Strictness Error – rater is very strict and gave the
subordinate by circling or checking the score that best employees lower scores, rates at the lower end of the
describes the subordinate’s performance scale
Alternation Ranking Method – ranking employees Recency Effects – rating the employee based on their
from best to worst on a trait or traits is another option recent performance rather than their overall
Paired Comparison – for every trait, you compare performance over the year
every employee with every other employee o Raters who scored higher on conscientiousness,
- n(n-1)/2 tend to have stricter scoring
Forced Distribution – manager places pre- o Raters who scored higher on agreeableness are
determined percentages of ratees into performance more lenient
categories o Performance Management – continuous process
Critical Incident Method – supervisor keeps a log of of identifying, measuring, and developing the
positive and negative examples of a subordinate’s performance of individuals and teams, and aligning
work-related behaviors their performance with the organization’s goals
Narrative Forms/Report – helps the employee o Turnover – the rate at which employees leave the
understand where his or her performance was good or firm
bad, and how to improve that performance ▪ Voluntary Turnover: employees voluntarily leave
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales – anchors the organizations, maybe due to dissatisfaction
numerical rating scale with specific illustrative etc.
examples of good and bad performance ▪ Effectively conduct exit interviews to provide
- based on critical incidents useful insights into turnover problem areas
Management by Objectives – usually refers to a ▪ To boost employee retention the org must raise
multistep company wide goal-setting and appraisal pay, hire smartly, discuss careers, provide
program direction, offer flexibility, use high-performance
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HR Practices, counteroffer (if another company law or with contractual arrangement stated or
offered their employees) implied by the employer
o Job Withdrawal – actions intended to place o Termination Interview – for employee dismissal
physical or psychological distance between o Human Resource Development Manager –
employees and their work environment empower their employees so that they can become a
▪ Absences and voluntary turnover major asset of the company
▪ Job Withdrawal Process: tends to be ▪ Give employees training and opportunities for
incremental, often evolving from daydreaming career growth with the hope that they will use
to absences to quiting what they learned for the organization
o Promotions – traditionally refer to advancement to ▪ In charge of retaining talent
positions of increased responsibility Scope, Coverage, and Processes across the different
▪ Usually mean more pay, responsibility, and job areas of HRD
satisfaction Training - provides learners with knowledge and
▪ Glass Ceiling: a metaphorical invisible barrier skills needed for their present job
that prevents certain individuals from being Career Development – formal approach used by the
promoted to higher positions organization to ensure that people with proper
▪ Glass Cliff: women being likelier than men to qualifications and experiences are available when
achieve leadership roles during periods of crisis needed
or downturn, when the risk of failure is highest Talent Management – the system or strategy used by
o Turnover – describes the number of workers that an organization to effectively recruit, hire, develop,
leave an organization, whether by the termination of and retain employees
the contract, resignation, or any other reason - strategic endeavor to optimize the use of human
o Transfer – move from one job to another, usually capital, which enables an organization to drive short-
with no change in salary or grade and long-term results by building culture,
o Dismissal – involuntary termination of employee’s engagement, capability, and capacity, through
employment with the firm integrated talent acquisition, development, and
Unsatisfactory Performance deployment processes that are aligned to business
Misconduct goals
Lack of Qualification for the Job - refers to the attraction, selection, and retention of
Changed requirements of the Job employees
Insubordination – unwillingness to carry out - management of turnovers
manager’s orders and disrespectful behavior Performance Appraisal – means evaluating an
1) Allow the employee to explain why he or she employee’s current and/or past performance relative to
did what he did his or her performance standards
2) Have formal multistep procedure and appeal Employee Engagement and Empowerment
process - Employee Engagement – an individual’s emotional
3) The person who does the dismissing is important and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused,
4) Dismissed employees who feel they’ve been intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-
treated unfairly are more likely to sue related goals
▪ Statutory Exceptions: include federal and state - High level of absorption in the work, the experience
equal employment and workplace laws that of focusing intensely on the task with limited
prohibit certain dismissals awareness of an events beyond that work
▪ Common Law Exceptions: employee handbooks - Building an engage workforce calls on MARS
promising termination only “for just cause” may model, building affective commitment, motivation
create an exception practices, organizational-level communication, and
▪ Public Policy Exception: against a well- leadership
established public policy - Empowerment – psychological experience
▪ Wrongful Discharge: occurs when an represented by four dimensions: self-determination,
employee’s dismissal does not comply with the meaning, competence, and the impact of the
individual’s role in the organization
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Org Activities involved in HRM Predictive Workforce Monitoring – paying
o Manager – someone who is responsible for continuous attention to workforce planning issues
accomplishing the organization’s goals, and who Matching Projected Labor Supply and Labor
does so by managing the efforts of the Demand
organization’s people Succession Planning – ongoing process of
Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce systematically identifying, assessing, and developing
Planning organization leadership to enhance performance
o Strategic Planning – the process by which top Staffing/Workforce Planning
management determines overall organizational o Staffing – determining what type of people should
purposes and objectives and how they are achieved be hired, recruiting prospective employees,
o Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce selecting employees, setting performance standards,
Planning – primary source for any company, compensating employees, evaluating performance,
process of estimating the optimum number of counselling, training, and developing employees
people required for completing a project, task or ▪ Execution of the plans from Manpower
goal within time Planning
▪ systematic process of matching the internal and ▪ Deciding what positions the firm will have to
external supple of people with job openings fill and how to fill them
anticipated in the organization over a specific ▪ Identify and address the gaps between the
period of time employer’s workforce today, and its projected
▪ process of deciding what positions the firm will workforce needs
have to fill, and how to fill them o Trend Analysis – studying variations in the firm’s
▪ Organizing: giving each subordinate a specific employment levels over the past few years
tasks, establishing departments, delegating o Ratio Analysis – means making forecasts based on
authority to subordinates, establishing channels the historical ratio between (1) some causal factor
of authority and communication, coordinating and; (2) the number of employees required
the work of subordinates ▪ Assumes that things like productivity remains
Strategy and Workforce Planning – about the same
workforce/employment planning is best understood as o Scatter Plot – shows graphically how two
an outgrowth of the firm’s strategic and business variables, such as sales and your firm’s staffing
planning levels, are related
- personnel needs (demands), supply of the inside o Managerial Judgment – to adjust the forecast
candidates, and one for the supple of outside o Forecasting starts within the organization (Internal
candidates Recruitment)
Forecasting Personnel Needs (Labor Demands) – ▪ Personnel Replacement Charts: show the
how many people with what skills will we need? present performance and promotability for each
- Trend Analysis: studying variations in the firm’s position’s potential replacement
employment levels over the past few years ▪ Markov Analysis: mathematical process to
- Ration Analysis: making forecast based on historical forecast availability of internal job candidates
ratio between (1) some causal factor and (2) the o Job Analysis is the cornerstone of personnel
number of employees required selection
- Scatter Plot: shows graphically how two variables o Every essential knowledge, skill, and ability
are related identified in the job analysis that is needed on the
Forecasting the Supply of Inside Candidates – first day of the job should be tested, and every test
determining which current employees are qualified or must somehow relate to the job analysis
trainable for the projected openings o Recruitment – attracting people with right
- Markov Analysis: forecast availability of internal job qualifications to apply for the job
candidates ▪ Internal: within the org, enhance employee
Forecasting the Supply of Outside Candidates – morale and motivation
turning to outside candidates when there is no enough ▪ Done thru Job Postings or rehiring a employee
inside candidates to fill the anticipated openings who already left the organization
▪ External: outside the org
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▪ Recruiting Yield Pyramid: gauge the staffing Structure
issues it needs to address Structured – source is job analysis, all participants
Media Advertisements – Newspaper Ads, Blind Box, are asked with the same questions and there is a
Electronic Media, Situation-Wanted Ads, Point-of- standardized scoring key
Purchase Methods, Recruiters - more reliable and valid
Employee Agencies and Search Firms Unstructured – freely asking anything they want
- Employee Agencies: outsourced agencies that helps - Primacy Effects: first impression affected the
the company for recruitment evaluation
- Executing Search Firms: the jobs they represent tend - Contrast Effects: the interview performance of one
to be higher-paying, non-entry level positions applicant may affect the interview score given to the
- Public Employment Agencies: designed primarily to next applicant
help the unemployed find work, but they often offer - Negative-Information Bias: negative information
services such as career advisement and resume apparently weighs more heavily that positive
preparation information
Employee Referrals – current employees recommend - Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity: interviewee will
someone for hiring receive a higher score if she is similar to the
- most effective but at risk for possible discrimination interviewer in terms of personality, attitude, gender, or
Direct Mail – an employer obtains a mailing list and race
send help-wanted letters or brochures to people Style
through the mail One-on-One – one interviewer, one applicant
Internet – employer-based websites, internet Serial - series of single interviews
recruiters - e.g., first interview with recruitment manager, then
Job Fairs – designed to provide information in a HR head, to immediate supervisor, then CEO
personal fashion to as many applicants as possible Return – similar to serial interviews with difference
Nontraditional Population – developing recruitment being a passing of time between the first and
strategies for minorities, inmates, PWDS etc. subsequent interviews
Passive Applicants – recruiters try to find ways to - e.g., returning the next day for another interview
identify hidden talent and convince them to apply for Panel – multiple interviewers, one applicant
a job with their company Group – multiple applicants were interviewed at the
o Interviews – most commonly used method to select same time
employees Serial-Panel-Group – series of panel and group
▪ Clarifiers: allow the interviewer to clarify interviews
information in the resume, cover letter, and Medium
application, fill in gaps, and obtain necessary Face-to-Face - both the applicant and interviewer are
information at the same room
▪ Disqualifiers: questions that must be answered a Telephone – often used to screen applicants but do
particular way or the applicant is disqualified not allow the use of visual cues
▪ Skill-Level Determiners: tap an interviewee’s Videoconference – the applicant and the interviewer
level of expertise can hear and see each other, but the interview is
▪ Future-Focused Questions/Situational remote
Questions: ask what they would do in a Written – involve the applicant answering a series of
particular situation written questions
▪ Past-Focused Questions/Patterned Behavior o Resume – summaries of an applicant’s professional
Description Interviews/Behavioral Questions: and educational background
focused on previous behavior ▪ Views as a history of your life or an
▪ Organizational-Fit Questions: tap the extent to advertisement of your skills
which the applicant will fit into the culture of an Chronological – lists previous jobs in order from the
organization or with the leadership of a most to least recent
particular supervisor
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Functional – organizes jobs based on skills required (2) assessing the employee’s performance relative to
to perform them rather than the order they were those standards
worked (3) providing feedback
Psychological – contains the strengths of both o Criteria – ways of describing employee success
chronological and functional styles ▪ Trait-Focused: concentrates on such employee
▪ Averaging versus Adding Model of Impression attributes such as dependability, honest, and
Formation: implies that activity quality is more courtesy
important than quantity ▪ Competency-Focused: concentrate on
o Taylor-Russell Tables – designed to estimate the employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities
percentage of future employees who will be ▪ Task-Focused: organized by the similarity of
successful in the job if an organization uses a tasks that are performed
particular test ▪ Goal-Focused: based on the goals accomplished
o Proportion of Correct Decisions – the only info by the employee
needed is employee test scores and scores on ▪ Contextual Performance: the effort an employe
criterion makes to get along with peers, improve the
▪ Type 1 Error: False Positive (Q3) organization, and perform tasks that are needed
▪ Type II Error: false negative (Q1) but are not necessarily an official part of the
▪ True Positive (Q2) employee’s job description
▪ True Negative (Q4) Compare the role of HRM and HRD in an Org
o Lawshe Tables – probability that a particular o Human Resource MANAGEMENT is about
applicant will be successful WHOM and HOW to employ for the best outcome
o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula – o Human Resource DEVELOPMENT is about
computing the amount of money an organization making the employee BEST ASSET for the best
would save if it used the test to select employees outcome
Top-Down Selection – applicants are rank-ordered on Team Dynamics (15)
the basis of their test scores Team Dynamics
Rule of Three – the names of top three scorers are o Group – two or more people who perceive
given to the person making the hiring decision themselves as a group and interacts with each other
Passing Scores – determines the lowest score on a ▪ Must involve some degree of structure and
test that is associated with acceptable performance on permanency
the job ▪ Collection of people to be called group, the
Multiple-Cutoff Approach – the applicants would be following criteria must be met: (a) the members
administered all of the test at one time of the group must see themselves as a unit; (b)
Multiple-Hurdle Approach – applicant is the group must provide rewards to its members;
administered one test at a time (c) anything that happens to one member of the
Banding – attempts to hire the top scorers while group affects every other members; and (d) the
allowing some flexibility for affirmative action members of the group must share a common
Developing, Monitoring, Maintaining, Managing goal. (Gordon, 2001)
Relationships ▪ Groups must have multiple members
o Leading – getting others to get the job done, ▪ 2 (Dyad), 3 (Triad), 4 to 20 people (Small
maintaining morale, and motivate subordinates Group)
o Controlling – setting standards such as sales quota, ▪ an event that affects one group member should
quality standards, or production levels, checking to affect all group members (Corresponding
see how actual performance compared with the Effects)
standards, taking corrective action as needed o Formal Groups – subunits that the organization
Evaluation has established
o Performance Appraisal – evaluating an o Informal Group – no to little interdependence and
employee’s current and/or past performance relative no organizationally mandated purpose
to his or her performance standards ▪ They exist due to the fact that humans are social
(1) setting work standards animals and have a drive to bond with others,
they define themselves by their group
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affiliations, and to accomplish personal Task Force (Project) Teams (Cross-Functional) –
objectives members are usually drawn from different disciplines
▪ Develop apart from the official structure of the to solve a specific problem, realize an opportunity, or
organization and exist relatively independent of design a product or service
it Production Teams – frontline employees producing
o Work Group – interdependent collection of tangible outputs
individuals who share responsibility for specific Management Teams – corporate executive teams,
outcomes for their organization coordinate other work units under their direction
o Team – consists of interdependent workers with Service Teams – attend the needs of the clients
complimentary skills working toward a shared goal Advisory Teams (Parallel Teams)– solve problems
or outcome and recommend solutions
▪ Groups of two or more people who interact with o Process Losses – teams have additional costs and
and influence each other, that is: (1) to fulfill resources expended on the team development and
some purpose; (2) held together by their maintenance rather than on performing the task
interdependence and need for collaboration; (3) ▪ Refers to any nonmotivational element of a
influence each other; and, (3) perceive group situation that detracts from the group
themselves to be a team performance
▪ Team Permanence: how long that team exists ▪ Amplified when more people are added or
▪ Skill Diversity: each member possesses different replace others on the team
skills and knowledge ▪ Brooks’ Law – adding more people on a project
▪ Authority Dispersion: the degree that decision- team when the project is already on-going, the
making responsibility is distributed throughout project will more likely finished longer than in
the team shorter span of time
▪ Identification: extent to which group members o Social Facilitation – involves positive effect of
identify with the team rather than in other groups presence of others on individual’s behavior
▪ Interdependence: one member does greatly ▪ Social Inhibition – involves the negative effects
influence what another member does of other’s presence
▪ Power Differentiation: overstepping roles, ▪ Audience Effects – takes place when a group of
challenge opinions, interrupt each other, gives people passively watch an individual
orders, and use sarcasm ▪ Audience size, proximity, and status affects the
▪ Social Distance: an imaginary space that performance of the group
separates two colleagues such as treating them ▪ Coaction – the effect on behavior when two or
formally and very politely rather than being more people are performing the same task in the
casual presence of one another
▪ Team members respond to conflict by ▪ Mere presence of others naturally produces
collaborating, try to understand the other’s views, arousal
makes attempt to compromise, and use o Social Loafing – considers the effect on individual
nonthreatening tones performance when people work together on a task;
▪ Members negotiate in a win-win style in which exerting less effort in group work than individual
the goal is for every person to come out ahead work (Max Ringelmann)
Departmental Teams – consists of employees who ▪ Occurs on tasks with low in attractiveness
have similar or complimentary skills and are located ▪ Less likely to occur in cohesive groups
in the same unit of a functional structure ▪ Social Enhancement – occurred among group
- usually minimal task interdependence because each members who were working on a task that was
person works with clients or with employees in other high in attractiveness
departments ▪ Free-Rider Theory – when things are going
Self-Directed Teams – teams whose members are well, a group member realizes that his effort is not
organized around work processes that complete an necessary, and this does not work hard as he
entire piece of work requiring several interdependent would if he were alone
tasks and have substantial autonomy over the
execution of those tasks
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▪ Sucker Effect – social loafing occurs when a ▪ Disjunctive Tasks – group performance is based
group member notices that other group members on the most talented group member
are not working hard and does are “playing him ▪ Social Impact Theory – If the group is already
for a sucker”, then decide that they will no longer stable and cohesive, adding another member
be played for a sucker and thus reduce their effort might be disruptive
▪ Social Compensation – when individual increase o The higher group status, the greater cohesiveness
their efforts on collective tasks because they don’t o It’s important to believe that a group has higher status
anticipate much help from their group members o Groups with high-ability members outperform those
▪ To minimize social loafing: with low-ability members
✓ Form smaller groups so each member’s o Confidence is the key to success
performance is noticeable and important and it o Groups whose members have task-related experience
increases individual commitment and identity and score high in the personality dimensions of
with the team openness to experience and emotional stability will
✓ Specialize tasks to easier observe when each perform better than groups with no such
member performs differently characteristics
✓ Measure individual performance o Good Communication is also the key
✓ Increase Job Enrichment so it could have high o Mental Model – organized knowledge structure that
motivation potential enhance the interaction of an individual with his or
✓ Select motivated, team-oriented employees, who her environment
are also known to have at least moderately high ▪ Shared Mental Models – organized structures
conscientiousness and agreeableness combining the knowledge, beliefs, and
o If the leader or group member has an accurate understandings of two or more individuals that
solution to a problem the group is trying to solve, the help coordinate their efforts
group will probably perform at a high level o Group Roles – extent to which its members assume
o Groupthink – members become cohesive and like- different roles
minded that they make poor decisions despite ▪ Task-Oriented Roles – involves behaviors such
contrary information that might reasonably lead as offering new ideas, coordinating activities, and
them to other options finding new information
o Mindguard – a member of a cohesive group whose ▪ Social-Oriented Roles – involve encouraging
job it is to protect the group from the outside cohesiveness and participation
information that is inconsistent with the group’s ▪ Individual Role – blocking group activities,
views calling attention to oneself, and avoiding group
o Team members tend to work together more interaction
effectively when they receive some team-based 5 C’s of Effective Team Member Behavior
rewards, when the organization’s structure assigns Cooperating – share resources, accommodate others
discrete clusters of work activity to teams Coordinating – align work with others, keep the team
o External competition also increases motivation for on track
teams to work together Communicating – share info freely, efficiently,
▪ Groups that are pressured by outside forces also respectfully, and listen actively
tend to become highly cohesive Comforting – show empathy, provide emotional
▪ Psychological Reactance – when we believe that comfort, build confidence in others
someone is trying to intentionally influence us to Conflict Handling – diagnose conflict sources, use
take some particular action, we often react by best conflict-handling style
doing the opposite o Group Homogeneity – extent to which its members
o Smaller size of group, more cohesive are similar
▪ Additive Tasks – those for which the group’s ▪ Homogenous Group – members are similar in
performance is equal to the sum of the some or most ways
performances by each group member; each ▪ Heterogenous Group – members are more
contribution is important different than alike
▪ Conjunctive Tasks – group performance
depends on the least effective group member
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▪ The best working groups consist primarily of ▪ Members that are similar with each other have
similar people but have dissimilar person adding higher cohesion
tension and a different vantage point ▪ More cohesive the group is, the greater:
▪ Main advantage of diverse teams is that they performance, decision quality, member
make better decisions in some situations because satisfaction, member interaction, employee
they see a problem from different angles courtesy
▪ Diverse teams also have broader pool of technical ▪ Cohesiveness also lose the sight of organization
abilities and provide better representation of the goals (e.g. putting their colleagues first before
team’s constituents their client)
o Role – set of behaviors that people are expected to ▪ The greater stability, the greater cohesiveness
perform because they hold formal or informal ▪ Groups in which members remain for long
positions in a team and organization periods of time are more cohesive and perform
▪ Role Differentiation – process by which group better than groups that have high turnover
or organization establishes distinct roles for ▪ Groups that are isolated or located away from
various members of the group, accomplished other groups tend to be highly cohesive
through formal job descriptions, rules, task ▪ Smaller groups are more cohesive and when they
requirements, etc. interact regularly
o Conflict – friction that emerges in the team ▪ The more elite a team is, the more prestige it
▪ Relationship Conflict – tension in interpersonal confers to the members, and the more they tend
relationships to value their membership = higher cohesion
▪ Task Conflict – results when team members have ▪ Teams with higher cohesion tend to perform
different ideas, beliefs, viewpoints better than those with lower cohesion
▪ Process Conflict – when group members have o Team Trust – refers to positive expectations one
incompatible ideas about how the work should be person has toward another person in situations
completed involving risk
o Team Building – consists of formal activities to ▪ Calculus-Based Trust: logical calculation that
improve the development and functioning of a work other team members will act appropriately
team because they face sanctions if their actions violate
a) Team Volunteering events reasonable expectations
b) Team Scavenger Hunt/Treasure Hunt ▪ Knowledge-Based Trust: based on the
c) Team Sports/Exercise Competitions predictability of another team member’s
d) Team Music Ensemble Events behavior; you would not trust someone who tends
o Norms – informal rules and shared expectations that to engage in harmful or dysfunctional behavior
groups establish to regulate the behavior of their ▪ Identification-Based Trust: based on mutual
members understanding and an emotional bond among
▪ Descriptive Norms – define what most people team members; occurs when team members
tend to do, feel, or think in a particular situation think, feel, and act like each other
▪ Prescriptive Norms – what people should do, Self-Directed Teams – cross-functional groups
feel, or think in a particular situation organized around work processes that complete an
o Team Cohesion – refers to the degree of attraction entire piece of work requiring several interdependent
people feel toward the team and their motivation to tasks and have substantial autonomy over the execution
remain members of those tasks
▪ Attracted to the team, committed to the team’s - closed knit group of employees who depend on each
goals, tasks, and feel a collective sense of team other to accomplish individual tasks
pride - substantial autonomy over the execution of tasks with
▪ the extent to which group members like and trust little to no direct involvement of a higher-status
one another, are committed to accomplishing a supervisor
team goal, and share a feeling of group pride Virtual Teams – teams whose members operate across
▪ Similarity-Attraction Effect: occurs when people space, time, and organizational boundaries and are
assume that people are more trustworthy and linked through information technologies to achieve
more acceptable if they are similar to them organizational tasks
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- members are not usually co-located demographic
- depend on information technology rather than face- characteristics
to-face interaction to communicate Group Work Design Member task
Stages of Team Development interdependence
o Teams typically go through 5 developmental phases, Member goal
according to Tuckman: interdependence
1. Forming – team members get to know each other Intragroup Processes Group Cohesion
and decide roles, discover expectations, test Group Efficacy or
boundaries of behavior communication processes
2. Storming – begins to disagree with each other; External Group Communication outside
frustration starts individually Processes the group
3. Norming – easing the tension from the previous External Interaction
stage, developing cohesion, agree on team Patterns
objectives Norms
4. Performing – begins to accomplish the goals, o Norms directly reinforced through praise from high-
high cooperation and trust, conflicts resolved status members, more access to valued resources, or
quickly other rewards available to the team
5. Adjourning – when the team is about to disband o The more closely the person’s social identity is
o Punctuated Equilibrium – rather than forming in connected with the group, the more the individual is
stages, teams develop direction and strategy in the motivated to avoid negative sanctions from that
first meeting, follow this direction for a period of group
time, and then drastically revise their strategy about
halfway through Cohesion
Group Processes that affect Team Effectiveness o Members of highly cohesive team spend more time
3 Major Dimensions of Work-Team Effectiveness together, share information more frequently, and are
Team Performance – concerns how well the team is more satisfied with each other
performing and includes such variables such as o When conflict arises, they tend to resolve their
productivity, quality of output, and the degree to differences swiftly and effectively
which costs are controlled in this process o Team cohesion has less effect on team performance
Attitudes – reflect such variables as quality of work when the team has low task interdependence (the
life, trust in management, organizational commitment, need to cooperate or interact)
and job satisfaction o Teams with high cohesion perform better when their
Withdrawal Behaviors – turnover, absence and norms are aligned with the organization’s
tardiness objectives, whereas higher cohesion can potentially
Diversity – members differ on one or more attributes reduce team performance when norms are
o Taskwork – involves the task-oriented aspects of counterproductive
work; entails specific individual behaviors required Trust
for success o Trust tends to decrease rather than increase over
o Teamwork – involves the process-oriented aspects time
of work; includes wide range of activities aimed at o Employees become less forgiving and less
maintaining and enhancing team performance cooperative toward others as their level of trust
▪ Revolves around communication and decreases and this undermines team and
coordination among team members, feedback, organizational effectiveness
team cohesion, and norms Common problems that occur in teams
Predictors of Work-Team Effectiveness Constraints on Team Decision Making
Organizational Context Rewards, goals and o Production Blocking – teams take longer than
feedback, training individuals to decide because they require time to
Group Composition and Cognitive Ability of build rapport, agree on rules and norms, and
Size group members, understand each other’s ideas
personality traits, and
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o Evaluation Apprehension – based on individual’s 4. Communication Barriers
desire to create a favorable self-presentation and 5. Beliefs
need to protect self-esteem 6. Personalities
▪ Team members are often reluctant to mention Conflict Styles
ideas that seem silly because they believe that A. Avoiding Style – ignore conflict and hope it will
other team members are silently evaluating them resolve itself
o Team cohesion leads employees to conform to the ▪ Triangling: occurs when an employee discusses
team’s norms, thus, depending on the opinions that the conflict with a third party
others hold to validate an individual’s views B. Accommodating Style – a person is so intent on
▪ If coworkers disagree, they begin to question settling a conflict that he gives in and risks hurting
their opinions even with overt peer pressure himself
o Team Efficacy – collective confidence on how well C. Forcing Style – handles conflict in a win-lose
they work together and the likely success of their fashion and does what it takes to win, with little
team effort regard for the other person
▪ Although high efficacy teams set more D. Collaborating Style – wants to win but also wants
challenging goals and are more motivated to the other person win as well
achieve them, teams could make worse decisions E. Compromising Style – adopts give-and-take tactics
if they are overconfident that enable each side to get some of what it wants
▪ They become less vigilant when making Resolving Conflicts
decisions and engage in less constructive debate o When conflict first occurs, two parties should be
Why Teams Don’t Always Work encouraged to resolve the conflict on their own
1. The team is not a team o Dispute – when they can’t agree to resolve the
2. Excessive meeting requirements conflict
3. Lack of Empowerment o Cooperative Problem Solving – all department reps
4. Lack of Skill come over to solve the problem
5. Distrust of the Team Process o Third-Party Intervention
6. Unclear Objectives a. Mediation – neutral third party is asked to help
Group Conflict both parties reach agreeable solution to the
o Conflict – psychological and behavioral reaction to conflict
a perception that another person is keeping you from b. Arbitration – neutral third party listens to both
reaching a goal sides and make decision
o Dysfunctional Conflict – keeps people from Individual versus Group Performance
working together, lessens productivity, spreads to o Nominal Group – when several people individually
other areas, and increases turnover work on a problem but do not interact
o Functional Conflict – moderate levels of conflict o Interacting Group – when individuals interact to
can stimulate new ideas, increase friendly solve a problem
competition, and increase team effectiveness o Brainstorming – group members are encouraged to
Types of Conflicts speak out their ideas
A. Interpersonal Conflicts – occurs between two o Brainwriting – removing conversations during idea
individuals generation
B. Individual-Group Conflicts – usually occurs when o Group Polarization – group members will shift
the individual’s needs are different from the group’s their beliefs to a more extreme version of what they
needs, goals, or norms already believe individually
C. Group-Group Conflict – occurs between two or Organizational Change and Development (20)
more groups Differentiate: Org Change vs. Org Dev, Org Dev. vs.
Causes of Conflict Org Transition
1. Competition for Resources Organizational Change – refers to the actions in
2. Task interdependence – group members depends on which a company or business alters a major
the performance of other group members component of its organization, such as culture,
3. Jurisdictional Ambiguity – geographical boundaries technology, infrastructure, etc.
or lines of authority are unclear
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- process of guiding organizational change to a Incremental Change – introduces small, but
successful resolution meaningful changes to an organization’s systems,
- Evolutionary Change: continual process of processes, and structures
upgrading or improving processes - can help businesses increase their efficiency and
- Revolutionary Change: drastic changes effectiveness
- process of altering organizations to be more adaptive - focused on small, targeted adjustments
and congruent with their business environment Developmental Change – seeks to build on existing
- an organization achieving a desired future state from processes, structures, and capabilities of an
its current state with minimal disruption or negative organization in order to bring about meaningful
impact to the organization improvements
Organizational Development – change process - involves introducing new systems, technologies, and
through which employees formulate the change that’s tools that enable greater efficiency and effectiveness
required and implement it in the workplace
- planned, organization-wide effort to increase - focuses on building upon existing systems,
organizational effectiveness through behavioral processes, and structures to bring about meaningful
science knowledge and technology improvements
- how an organization achieve its purpose/change Remedial Change – involves making corrections or
through design, function, structure, and processes improvements to existing systems, processes and
- addresses change and how it affects organizations structures in order to bring about more efficient and
and the individuals within those organizations effective operations
Organizational Transition – implementation of - troubleshooting and problem-solving
change through systematic planning, organizing and Process and System Change – making adjustment to
implementation of change to reach desirable future existing processes and systems in order to improve
state without affecting continuity of business efficiency and effectiveness
Different factors driving Org Change - introduction of new technologies, systems, and tools
1. Technology – adoption and diffusion of computers People and Culture Change – focuses on
into work life transforming organization’s culture, values, and
2. Cultural Diversity behaviors in order to drive greater efficiency and
3. Emergence of advanced communication effectiveness
technologies - introducing new corporate policies, procedures, and
4. Globalization, Global Competition systems that help create an environment where
5. Redistribution of economic power employees feel supported, valued, and empowered
6. Consumer needs Structural Change – alters the way an organization is
7. Government deregulation structured in order to improve efficiency and
8. Environmental Standards effectiveness
12 different types of Large-Scale Organizational - involves introducing new policies, procedures, and
changes systems that help to streamline operations and
Transformational Change – seeks to create eliminate areas of waste
significant, fundamental shifts in how an organization - re-organizing departments and teams in order to
operates and organizes itself better align the organization’s goals, objectives, and
- involves introducing new strategies, processes, strategies
systems, and structures that shift the way the company Merger and Acquisition Change – involves merging
operates or acquisition of two or more business
- more radical – it can involve overhauling existing - combining resources, personnel, and operation from
operations or introducing larger, systemic solutions multiple organizations into one
that may span across multiple departments De-merger Change – involves splitting of an
- requires deep level of commitment from leaders and organization into two or more separate entities
employees alike as it often requires them to let go of - when an organization has grown too large, and there
traditional ways of doing things in order to embrace is a need to streamline operations and simplify
new systems and procedures structures in order to improve efficiency
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Downsizing – reducing the size of an organization accomplish tasks, help members enhance their
- involves cutting costs and reducing personnel in interpersonal and problem-solving skills, and increase
order to achieve greater efficiency and productivity team performance
Relocation Change – moving of an organization or - Confrontation Meeting: intervention designed to
parts of it to a new location mobilize the resources of the entire organization to
- take advantage of new opportunities in different identify problems
geographic regions, cultures, and countries - Microcosm Groups: consists of small number of
Rebranding Change – making modifications to individuals who reflect the issue being addressed (e.g.,
organization’s brand or public image, in order to minorities, marginalized groups)
create a more compelling and attractive image - Large-Group Interventions: referred to variously as
Different types of Org Interventions used to enhance “Search conferences,” “open-space meetings,” “open-
org effectiveness, well-being, and productivity systems planning” etc.; focuses on issues that affect
Human Process Interventions – related to the who organization or large segments of it
interpersonal relations, group, and organization Technocultural Interventions – targeted toward
dynamics structural and technological issues such as
- Process Consultation: creation of a relationship that organization design, work redesign, and employee
permits the client to perceive, understand, and act on engagement
the process events that occur in [his or her] internal - structural design, re-engineering, downsizing
and external environment in order to improve the
situation as defined by the client Employee Involvement Applications
- works to help managers, employees, and group 1. Parallel Structures – involve members in
assess and improve human processes, such as resolving ill-defined, complex problems, and build
communication, interpersonal relations, decision- adaptability into bureaucratic organizations
making, and task performance 2. Total Quality Management – emphasizing quality
Group Process control and represents a long-term effort to orient all
1. Communication of an organization’s activities around the concept of
2. Functional Roles of Group Members quality
3. Group Problem Solving and Decision-Making 3. High Involvement Organizations – members
4. Group Norms receive extensive training in problem-solving
5. The Use of Leadership and Authority techniques, plant operation, and organizational
policies
Basic Process Interventions Human Resource Management Interventions –
1. Individual Intervention – help people be more impact areas such as performance management, talent
effective in their communication with others development, DEIB, and well-being in the workplace
2. Group Interventions - Performance Management: process of defining,
a. Process interventions: sensitize the group to its assessing, and reinforcing employee work behaviors
own internal processes and generate interest in and outcomes
analyzing them; relationships among group members, - Goal Setting: managers and subordinates in jointly
problem-solving and decision-making, and identity establishing and clarifying employee goals
and purpose of the group - Performance Appraisal: feedback system that
b. Content Interventions: comments, questions, or involves direct evaluation of individual or work-group
observations about group memberships, agenda performance by supervisor, manager, or peers
setting, review, and testing procedures, interpersonal - Reward Systems: incentives for improving employee
issues, and conceptual inputs on task-related topics and work-group performance
c. Structural Interventions: help the group examine - Coaching, Mentoring, Training, etc.
the stable and recurring methods it uses to accomplish Strategic Change Interventions – revolves around
tasks and deal with external issues transformational change, restructuring, and uniting
two or more organizations together during a merger
- Team Building: refers to a broad range of planned
activities that help groups improve the way they
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Different strategies and techniques org use to manage end
change, and/or cope with change to achieve org
efficiency congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer! we
Motivating Change will all pass #BLEPP2023!! see u in PICC this year!! i’ll
1. Creating Readiness for Change – creating a felt be in Filipiniana
need for a change by making people so dissatisfied
with the status quo one day, we will be remembered. -aly <3
2. Overcoming Resistance to Change
- Technical Resistance: comes from the habit of
following common procedures and the consideration
of sunk costs invested in the status quo
- Political Resistance: org changes threatens powerful
stakeholders
- Cultural Resistance: takes the form of systems and
procedures that reinforce the status quo, promoting
conformity to existing values, norms, and assumptions
3 Major Strategies for Dealing with Resistance to

change
1. Empathy and Support
2. Communication
3. Participation Involvement
Creating a Vision – to provide valued direction for
designing, implementing, and assessing organizational
changes
- can also energize commitment to change by
providing members with a common goal and a
compelling rationale for why change is necessary and
worth the effort
Developing Political Support – by assessing change
agent power, identifying key stakeholders, and
influencing them
Managing the Transition
1. Activity Planning – making a roadmap for change,
citing specific activities, and events that must occur if
the transition is to be successful
2. Commitment Planning – identifying key people
and groups whose commitment is needed for change
to occur and formulating a strategy for gaining their
support
3. Change-Management Structures – should include
people who have the power to mobilize resources to
promote change, the respect of the existing leadership
and change advocates, and the interpersonal and
political skills to guide the change process
4. Managing Learning Process
Sustaining Momentum – by building a support
system for change agents, developing new
competencies and skills, reinforcing new behaviors,
and staying in the course
Psychological Assessment
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Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Psych Pearls
Psychometric Properties and Principles (39) ▪ Item: a specific stimulus to which a person
Psychometric Properties essential in Constructing, responds overtly and this response is being
Selecting, Interpreting tests scored or evaluated
Psychological Testing - process of measuring ▪ Administration Procedures: one-to-one basis or
psychology-related variables by means of devices or group administration
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior ▪ Score: code or summary of statement, usually
- numerical in nature but not necessarily numerical in nature, but
- individual or by group reflects an evaluation of performance on a test
- administrators can be interchangeable without ▪ Scoring: the process of assigning scores to
affecting the evaluation performances
- requires technician-like skills in terms of ▪ Cut-Score: reference point derived by judgement
administration and scoring and used to divide a set of data into two or more
- yield a test score or series of test score classification
- minutes to few hours ▪ Psychometric Soundness: technical quality
Psychological Assessment - gathering and integration ▪ Psychometrics: science of psychological
of psychology-related data for the purpose of making measurement
psychological evaluation ▪ Psychometrist or Psychometrician: refer to
- answers referral question thru the use of different professional who uses, analyzes, and interprets
tools of evaluation psychological data
- individual Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what
- assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests a person can do
and/or other tools of evaluation 1. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous
- requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation, learning
skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and - used to measure general knowledge in a specific
integration of data period of time
- entails logical problem-solving that brings to bear - used to assess mastery
many sources of data assigned to answer the referral - rely mostly on content validity
question - fact-based or conceptual
- Educational: evaluate abilities and skills relevant in 2. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or
school context acquiring a specific skill
- Retrospective: draw conclusions about psychological - tends to focus on informal learning
aspects of a person as they existed at some point in time - rely mostly on predictive validity
prior to the assessment 3. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential
- Remote: subject is not in physical proximity to the to solve problems, adapt to changing environments,
person conducting the evaluation abstract thinking, and profit from experience
- Ecological Momentary: “in the moment” evaluation Human Ability – considerable overlap of
of specific problems and related cognitive and achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
behavioral variables at the very time and place that they Typical Performance Test – measure usual or habitual
occur thoughts, feelings, and behavior
- Collaborative: the assessor and assesee may work as - indicate how test takers think and act on a daily basis
“partners” from initial contact through final feedback - use interval scales
- Therapeutic: therapeutic self-discovery and new - no right and wrong answers
understanding are encouraged Personality Test – measures individual dispositions
- Dynamic: describe interactive approach to and preferences
psychological assessment that usually follows the - designed to identify characteristic
model: evaluation > intervention of some sort > - measured ideographically or nomothetically
evaluation 1. Structured Personality tests – provide statement,
o Psychological Test – device or procedure designed usually self-report, and require the subject to choose
to measure variables related to psychology between two or more alternative responses
▪ Content: subject matter 2. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and the
▪ Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement, stimulus or response are ambiguous
layout
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3. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions o Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of
4. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes others or oneself by visual or electronic means while
as well as one’s personality orientation towards the recording quantitative and/or qualitative information
world of work regarding those actions
Other Tests: ▪ Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in
1. Speed Tests – the interest is the number of times a natural setting
test taker can answer correctly in a specific period ▪ SORC Model: Stimulus, Organismic Valuables,
2. Power Tests – reflects the level of difficulty of items Actual Response, Consequence
the test takers answer correctly o Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or
3. Values Inventory partially improvised part in a stimulated situation
4. Trade Test ▪ Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if
5. Neuropsychological Test they are in a particular situation
6. Norm-Referenced test o Other tools include computer, physiological devices
7. Criterion-Referenced Tests (biofeedback devices)
o Interview – method of gathering information Psychological Assessment Process
through direct communication involving reciprocal 1. Determining the Referral Question
exchange 2. Acquiring Knowledge relating to the content of
Standardized/Structured – questions are prepared the problem
Non-standardized/Unstructured – pursue relevant 3. Data collection
ideas in depth 4. Data Interpretation
Semi-Standardized/Focused – may probe further on o Hit Rate – accurately predicts success or failure
specific number of questions o Profile – narrative description, graph, table. Or other
Non-Directive – subject is allowed to express his representations of the extent to which a person has
feelings without fear of disapproval demonstrated certain targeted characteristics as a
▪ Mental Status Examination: determines the result of the administration or application of tools of
mental status of the patient assessment
▪ Intake Interview: determine why the client came o Actuarial Assessment – an approach to evaluation
for assessment; chance to inform the client about characterized by the application of empirically
the policies, fees, and process involved demonstrated statistical rules as determining factor
▪ Social Case: biographical sketch of the client in assessors’ judgement and actions
▪ Employment Interview: determine whether the o Mechanical Prediction – application of computer
candidate is suitable for hiring algorithms together with statistical rules and
▪ Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than probabilities to generate findings and
one interviewer participates in the assessment recommendations
▪ Motivational Interview: used by counselors and o Extra-Test Behavior – observations made by an
clinicians to gather information about some examiner regarding what the examinee does and how
problematic behavior, while simultaneously the examinee reacts during the course of testing that
attempting to address it therapeutically are indirectly related to the test’s specific content but
o Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and of possible significance to interpretation
accomplishment Parties in Psychological Assessment
o Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts, 1. Test Author/Developer – creates the tests or other
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form methods of assessment
that preserve archival information, official and 2. Test Publishers – they publish, market, sell, and
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant control the distribution of tests
to an assessee 3. Test Reviewers – prepare evaluative critiques based
▪ Case study: a report or illustrative account on the technical and practical aspects of the tests
concerning a person or an event that was 4. Test Users – uses the test of assessment
compiled on the basis of case history data 5. Test Takers – those who take the tests
▪ Groupthink: result of the varied forces that drive 6. Test Sponsors – institutions or government who
decision-makers to reach a consensus contract test developers for various testing services
7. Society
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the types of item content that would provide
o Test Battery – selection of tests and assessment insight to it, to gauge the strength of that trait
procedures typically composed of tests designed to o Measuring traits and states means of a test entails
measure different variables but having a common developing not only appropriate tests items but
objective also appropriate ways to score the test and
Assumptions about Psychological Testing and interpret the results
Assessment o Cumulative Scoring – assumption that the more
Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist the testtaker responds in a particular direction
o Trait – any distinguishable, relatively enduring keyed by the test manual as correct or consistent
way in which one individual varies from another with a particular trait, the higher that testtaker is
- Permit people predict the present from the past presumed to be on the targeted ability or trait
- Characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and Assumption 3: Test-Rlated Behavior Predicts Non-
behaving that generalize across similar situations, Test-Related Behavior
differ systematically between individuals, and remain o The tasks in some tests mimics the actual
rather stable across time behaviors that the test user is attempting to
- Psychological Trait – intelligence, specific understand
intellectual abilities, cognitive style, adjustment, o Such tests only yield a sample of the behavior that
interests, attitudes, sexual orientation and preferences, can be expected to be emitted under nontest
psychopathology, etc. conditions
o States – distinguish one person from another but Assumption 4: Test and Other Measurement
are relatively less enduring Techniques have strengths and weaknesses
- Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and o Competent test users understand and appreciate
behaving in a concrete situation at a specific moment the limitations of the test they use as well as how
in time those limitations might be compensated for by
- Identify those behaviors that can be controlled by data from other sources
manipulating the situation Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are part of
o Psychological Traits exists as construct the Assessment Process
- Construct: an informed, scientific concept developed o Error – refers to something that is more than
or constructed to explain a behavior, inferred from expected; it is component of the measurement
overt behavior process
- Overt Behavior: an observable action or the product ▪ Refers to a long-standing assumption that
of an observable action factors other than what a test attempts to
o Trait is not expected to be manifested in behavior measure will influence performance on the test
100% of the time ▪ Error Variance – the component of a test
o Whether a trait manifests itself in observable score attributable to sources other than the trait
behavior, and to what degree it manifests, is or ability measured
presumed to depend not only on the strength of the o Potential Sources of error variance:
trait in the individual but also on the nature of the 1. Assessors
action (situation-dependent) 2. Measuring Instruments
o Context within which behavior occurs also plays a 3. Random errors such as luck
role in helping us select appropriate trait terms for o Classical Test Theory – each testtaker has true
observed behaviors score on a test that would be obtained but for the
o Definition of trait and state also refer to a way in action of measurement error
which one individual varies from another Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment can be
o Assessors may make comparisons among people conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner
who, because of their membership in some group o Despite best efforts of many professionals,
or for any number of other reasons, are decidedly fairness-related questions and problems do
not average occasionally rise
Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States can In al questions about tests with regards to fairness, it is
be Quantified and Measured important to keep in mind that tests are tools ꟷthey can
o Once the trait, state or other construct has been be used properly or improperly
defined to be measured, a test developer consider
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Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit ▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
Society characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
o Considering the many critical decisions that are which have nothing to do with the attribute being
based on testing and assessment procedures, we measured, but still affect the scores
can readily appreciate the need for tests o Goals of Reliability:
Reliability ✓ Estimate errors
o Reliability – dependability or consistency of the ✓ Devise techniques to improve testing and reduce
instrument or scores obtained by the same person errors
when re-examined with the same test on different o Variance – useful in describing sources of test score
occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items variability
▪ Test may be reliable in one context, but ▪ True Variance: variance from true differences
unreliable in another ▪ Error Variance: variance from irrelevant random
▪ Estimate the range of possible random sources
fluctuations that can be expected in an Measurement Error – all of the factors associated
individual’s score with the process of measuring some variable, other than
▪ Free from errors the variable being measured
▪ More number of items = higher reliability - difference between the observed score and the true
▪ Minimizing error score
▪ Using only representative sample to obtain an - Positive: can increase one’s score
observed score - Negative: decrease one’s score
▪ True score cannot be found - Sources of Error Variance:
▪ Reliability Coefficient: index of reliability, a a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling: refer to variation
proportion that indicates the ratio between the among items within a test as well as to variation among
true score variance on a test and the total items between tests
variance - The extent to which testtaker’s score is affected by the
o Classical Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score content sampled on a test and by the way the content is
on a ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the sampled is a source of error variance
testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured b. Test Administration- testtaker’s motivation or
but also the error attention, environment, etc.
▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed c. Test Scoring and Interpretation – may employ
test score that does not have to do with the objective-type items amenable to computer scoring of
testtaker’s ability well-documented reliability
▪ Errors of measurement are random Random Error – source of error in measuring a
targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations
and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement
process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather)
Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a
variable that is typically constant or proportionate to
what is presumed to be the true values of the variable
being measured
- has consistent effect on the true score
- SD does not change, the mean does
▪ Reliability refers to the proportion of total
variance attributed to true variance
▪ The greater the proportion of the total variance
▪ When you average all the observed scores attributed to true variance, the more reliable the
obtained over a period of time, then the result test
would be closest to the true score ▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test
▪ The greater number of items, the higher the score by varying amounts, consistency of test
reliability score, and thus, the reliability can be affected
▪ Factors the contribute to consistency: stable
attributes
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Test-Retest Reliability time
Error: Time Sampling - most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers
- time sampling reliability create two forms of the test
- an estimate of reliability obtained by correlating - main problem: difference between the two test
pairs of scores from the same people on two different - test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or
administrations of the test intervening events
- appropriate when evaluating the reliability of a test - means and the variances of the observed scores must
that purports to measure an enduring and stable be equal for two forms
attribute such as personality trait - Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho
- established by comparing the scores obtained from Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability)
two successive measurements of the same individuals Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity
and calculating a correlated between the two set of - used when tests are administered once
scores - consistency among items within the test
- the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that - measures the internal consistency of the test which is
the reliability coefficient would be insignificant the degree to which each item measures the same
- Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest construct
interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced - measurement for unstable traits
by the first test because they remember or practiced - if all items measure the same construct, then it has a
the previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation good internal consistency
of reliability - useful in assessing Homogeneity
- Practice Effect: scores on the second session are - Homogeneity: if a test contains items that measure a
higher due to their experience of the first session of single trait (unifactorial)
testing - Heterogeneity: degree to which a test measures
- test-retest with longer interval might be affected of different factors (more than one factor/trait)
other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low - more homogenous = higher inter-item consistency
correlation - KR-20: used for inter-item consistency of
- lower correlation = poor reliability dichotomous items (intelligence tests, personality tests
- Mortality: problems in absences in second session with yes or no options, multiple choice), unequal
(just remove the first tests of the absents) variances, dichotomous scored
- Coefficient of Stability - KR-21: if all the items have the same degree of
- statistical tool: Pearson R, Spearman Rho difficulty (speed tests), equal variances, dichotomous
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability scored
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling - Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha: used when two
changes over time (delaued) halves of the test have unequal variances and on tests
- established when at least two different versions of containing non-dichotomous items, unequal variances
the test yield almost the same scores - Average Proportional Distance: measure used to
- has the most universal applicability evaluate internal consistence of a test that focuses on
- Parallel Forms: each form of the test, the means, the degree of differences that exists between item
and the variances, are EQUAL; same items, different scores
positionings/numberings Split-Half Reliability
- Alternate Forms: simply different version of a test Error: Item sample: Nature of Split
that has been constructed so as to be parallel - Split Half Reliability: obtained by correlating two
- test should contain the same number of items and the pairs of scores obtained from equivalent halves of a
items should be expressed in the same form and single test administered ONCE
should cover the same type of content; range and - useful when it is impractical or undesirable to assess
difficulty must also be equal reliability with two tests or to administer a test twice
- if there is a test leakage, use the form that is not - cannot just divide the items in the middle because it
mostly administered might spuriously raise or lower the reliability
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover coefficient, so just randomly assign items or assign
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence odd-numbered items to one half and even-numbered
for groups items to the other half
- can be administered on the same day or different
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- Spearman-Brown Formula: allows a test developer o Criterion-Referenced Tests – designed to provide
of user to estimate internal consistency reliability an indication of where a testtaker stands with respect
from a correlation of two halves of a test, if each half to some variable or criterion
had been the length of the whole test and have the ▪ As individual differences decrease, a traditional
equal variances measure of reliability would also decrease,
- Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula: estimates how regardless of the stability of individual
many more items are needed in order to achieve the performance
target reliability o Classical Test Theory – everyone has a “true score”
- multiply the estimate to the original number of items on test
- Rulon’s Formula: counterpart of spearman-brown ▪ True Score: genuinely reflects an individual’s
formula, which is the ratio of the variance of ability level as measured by a particular test
difference between the odd and even splits and the ▪ Random Error
variance of the total, combined odd-even, score o Domain Sampling Theory – estimate the extent to
- if the reliability of the original test is relatively low, which specific sources of variation under defined
then developer could create new items, clarify test conditions are contributing to the test scores
instructions, or simplifying the scoring rules ▪ Considers problem created by using a limited
- equal variances, dichotomous scored number of items to represent a larger and more
- Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho complicated construct
Inter-Scorer Reliability ▪ Test reliability is conceived of as an objective
Error: Scorer Differences measure of how precisely the test score assesses
- the degree of agreement or consistency between two the domain from which the test draws a sample
or more scorers with regard to a particular measure ▪ Generalizability Theory: based on the idea that a
- used for coding nonbehavioral behavior person’s test scores vary from testing to testing
- observer differences because of the variables in the testing situations
- Fleiss Kappa: determine the level between TWO or ▪ Universe: test situation
MORE raters when the method of assessment is ▪ Facets: number of items in the test, amount of
measured on CATEGORICAL SCALE review, and the purpose of test administration
- Cohen’s Kappa: two raters only ▪ According to Generalizability Theory, given the
- Krippendorff’s Alpha: two or more rater, based on exact same conditions of all the facets in the
observed disagreement corrected for disagreement universe, the exact same test score should be
expected by chance obtained (Universe score)
o Tests designed to measure one factor (Homogenous) ▪ Decision Study: developers examine the
are expected to have high degree of internal usefulness of test scores in helping the test user
consistency and vice versa make decisions
o Dynamic – trait, state, or ability presumed to be ever- ▪ Systematic Error
changing as a function of situational and cognitive o Item Response Theory – the probability that a
experience person with X ability will be able to perform at a
o Static – barely changing or relatively unchanging level of Y in a test
o Restriction of range or Restriction of variance – if ▪ Focus: item difficulty
the variance of either variable in a correlational ▪ Latent-Trait Theory
analysis is restricted by the sampling procedure used, ▪ a system of assumption about measurement and
then the resulting correlation coefficient tends to be the extent to which item measures the trait
lower ▪ The computer is used to focus on the range of
o Power Tests – when time limit is long enough to item difficulty that helps assess an individual’s
allow test takers to attempt all times ability level
o Speed Tests – generally contains items of uniform ▪ If you got several easy items correct, the
level of difficulty with time limit computer will them move to more difficult items
▪ Reliability should be based on performance from ▪ Difficulty: attribute of not being easily
two independent testing periods using test-retest accomplished, solved, or comprehended
and alternate-forms or split-half-reliability ▪ Discrimination: degree to which an item
differentiates among people with higher or lower
levels of the trait, ability etc.
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▪ Dichotomous: can be answered with only one of 3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur
two alternative responses 4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but
▪ Polytomous: 3 or more alternative responses succeed
o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a
measure of the precision of an observed test score
▪ Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure
of error
▪ Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount
of the expected error in an individual’s score
▪ Allows to quantify the extent to which a test
provide accurate scores
▪ Provides an estimate of the amount of error
inherent in an observed score or measurement
▪ Higher reliability, lower SEM
▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an
Validity
observed score deviates from a true score
o Validity – a judgment or estimate of how well a test
▪ Standard Error of a Score
measures what it supposed to measure
▪ Confidence Interval: a range or band of test
▪ Evidence about the appropriateness of inferences
scores that is likely to contain true scores
drawn from test scores
o Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test
▪ Degree to which the measurement procedure
user in determining how large a difference should be
measures the variables to measure
before it is considered statistically significant
▪ Inferences – logical result or deduction
o Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard
▪ May diminish as the culture or times change
error of the difference between the predicted and
✓ Predicts future performance
observed values
✓ Measures appropriate domain
o Confidence Interval – a range of and of test score
✓ Measures appropriate characteristics
that is likely to contain true score
o Validation – the process of gathering and evaluating
▪ Tells us the relative ability of the true score within
evidence about validity
the specified range and confidence level
o Validation Studies – yield insights regarding a
▪ The larger the range, the higher the confidence
particular population of testtakers as compared to the
o If the reliability is low, you can increase the number
norming sample described in a test manual
of items or use factor analysis and item analysis to
o Internal Validity – degree of control among
increase internal consistency
variables in the study (increased through random
o Reliability Estimates – nature of the test will often
assignment)
determine the reliability metric
o External Validity – generalizability of the research
a) Homogenous (unifactor) or heterogeneous
results (increased through random selection)
(multifactor)
o Conceptual Validity – focuses on individual with
b) Dynamic (unstable) or static (stable)
their unique histories and behaviors
c) Range of scores is restricted or not
▪ Means of evaluating and integrating test data so
d) Speed Test or Power Test
that the clinician’s conclusions make accurate
e) Criterion or non-Criterion
statements about the examinee
o Test Sensitivity – detects true positive
o Face Validity – a test appears to measure to the
o Test Specificity – detects true negative
person being tested than to what the test actually
o Base Rate – proportion of the population that
measures
actually possess the characteristic of interest
o Selection ratio – no. of available positions compared Content Validity
to the no. of applicants - describes a judgement of how adequately a test
o Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes samples behavior representative of the universe of
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success behavior that the test was designed to sample
that does occur - when the proportion of the material covered by the
2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure test approximates the proportion of material covered in
that does occur the course
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- Test Blueprint: a plan regarding the types of - logical and statistical
information to be covered by the items, the no. of items - judgement about the appropriateness of inferences
tapping each area of coverage, the organization of the drawn from test scores regarding individual standing
items, and so forth on variable called construct
- more logical than statistical - Construct: an informed, scientific idea developed or
- concerned with the extent to which the test is hypothesized to describe or explain behavior;
representative of defined body of content consisting the unobservable, presupposed traits that may invoke to
topics and processes describe test behavior or criterion performance
- panel of experts can review the test items and rate - One way a test developer can improve the
them in terms of how closely they match the objective homogeneity of a test containing dichotomous items is
or domain specification by eliminating items that do not show significant
- examine if items are essential, useful and necessary correlation coefficients with total test scores
- construct underrepresentation: failure to capture - If it is an academic test and high scorers on the entire
important components of a construct test for some reason tended to get that particular item
- construct-irrelevant variance: happens when scores wrong while low scorers got it right, then the item is
are influenced by factors irrelevant to the construct obviously not a good one
- Lawshe: developed the formula of Content Validity - Some constructs lend themselves more readily than
Ratio others to predictions of change over time
- Zero CVR: exactly half of the experts rate the item as - Method of Contrasted Groups: demonstrate that
essential scores on the test vary in a predictable way as a
Criterion Validity function of membership in a group
- more statistical than logical - If a test is a valid measure of a particular construct,
- a judgement of how adequately a test score can be then the scores from the group of people who does not
used to infer an individual’s most probable standing on have that construct would have different test scores
some measure of interestꟷthe measure of interest being than those who really possesses that construct
criterion - Convergent Evidence: if scores on the test
- Criterion: standard on which a judgement or decision undergoing construct validation tend to highly
may be made correlated with another established, validated test that
- Characteristics: relevant, valid, uncontaminated measures the same construct
- Criterion Contamination: occurs when the criterion - Discriminant Evidence: a validity coefficient
measure includes aspects of performance that are not showing little relationship between test scores and/or
part of the job or when the measure is affected by other variables with which scores on the test being
“construct-irrelevant” (Messick, 1989) factors that are construct-validated should not be correlated
not part of the criterion construct - test is homogenous
1. Concurrent Validity: If the test scores obtained at - test score increases or decreases as a function of age,
about the same time as the criterion measures are passage of time, or experimental manipulation
obtained; economically efficient - pretest-posttest differences
2. Predictive Validity: measures of the relationship - scores differ from groups
between test scores and a criterion measure obtained at - scores correlated with scores on other test in
a future time accordance to what is predicted
- Incremental Validity: the degree to which an o Factor Analysis – designed to identify factors or
additional predictor explains something about the specific variables that are typically attributes,
criterion measure that is not explained by predictors characteristics, or dimensions on which people may
already in use; used to improve the domain differ
- related to predictive validity wherein it is defined as ▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
the degree to which an additional predictor explains ▪ Employed as data reduction method
something about the criterion measure that is not ▪ Used to study the interrelationships among set of
explained by predictors already in use variables
Construct Validity (Umbrella Validity) ▪ Identify the factor or factors in common between
- covers all types of validity test scores on subscales within a particular test
▪ Explanatory FA: estimating or extracting factors;
deciding how many factors must be retained
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▪ Confirmatory FA: researchers test the degree to o Cost – disadvantages, losses, or expenses both
which a hypothetical model fits the actual data economic and noneconomic terms
▪ Factor Loading: conveys info about the extent to o Benefit – profits, gains or advantages
which the factor determines the test score or o The cost of test administration can be well worth it if
scores the results is certain noneconomic benefits
▪ can be used to obtain both convergent and o Utility Analysis – family of techniques that entail a
discriminant validity cost-benefit analysis designed to yield information
o Cross-Validation – revalidation of the test to a relevant to a decision about the usefulness and/or
criterion based on another group different from the practical value of a tool of assessment
original group form which the test was validated o Expectancy table – provide an indication that a
▪ Validity Shrinkage: decrease in validity after testtaker will score within some interval of scores on
cross-validation a criterion measure – passing, acceptable, failing
▪ Co-Validation: validation of more than one test o Might indicate future behaviors, then if successful,
from the same group the test is working as it should
▪ Co-Norming: norming more than one test from o Taylor-Russel Tables – provide an estimate of the
the same group extent to which inclusion of a particular test in the
o Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically selection system will improve selection
prevents accurate, impartial measurement o Selection Ratio – numerical value that reflects the
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment relationship between the number of people to be
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure hired and the number of people available to be hired
called Estimated True Score Transformation
o Rating – numerical or verbal judgement that places
a person or an attribute along a continuum identified
by a scale of numerical or word descriptors known as o Base Rate – percentage of people hired under the
Rating Scale existing system for a particular position
▪ Rating Error: intentional or unintentional misuse o One limitation of Taylor-Russel Tables is that the
of the scale relationship between the predictor (test) and criterion
▪ Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring must be linear
(Generosity Error) o Naylor-Shine Tables – entails obtaining the
▪ Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring difference between the means of the selected and
▪ Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend unselected groups to derive an index of what the test
to cluster in the middle of the rating scale is adding to already established procedures
▪ One way to overcome rating errors is to use o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Formula – used to
rankings calculate the dollar amount of a utility gain resulting
▪ Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to from the use of a particular selection instrument
failure to discriminate among conceptually o Utility Gain – estimate of the benefit of using a
distinct and potentially independent aspects of a particular test
ratee’s behavior o Productivity Gains – an estimated increase in work
o Fairness – the extent to which a test is used in an output
impartial, just, and equitable way o High performing applicants may have been offered
o Attempting to define the validity of the test will be in other companies as well
futile if the test is NOT reliable o The more complex the job, the more people differ on
Utility how well or poorly they do that job
o Utility – usefulness or practical value of testing to o Cut Score – reference point derived as a result of a
improve efficiency judgement and used to divide a set of data into two
o Can tell us something about the practical value of the or more classifications
information derived from scores on the test Relative Cut Score – reference point based on norm-
o Helps us make better decisions related considerations (norm-referenced); e.g, NMAT
o Higher criterion-related validity = higher utility Fixed Cut Scores – set with reference to a judgement
o One of the most basic elements in utility analysis is concerning minimum level of proficiency required;
financial cost of the selection device e.g., Board Exams
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Multiple Cut Scores – refers to the use of two or more Validity
cut scores with reference to one predictor for the
purpose of categorization
Multiple Hurdle – multi-stage selection process, a cut
score is in place for each predictor
Compensatory Model of Selection – assumption that
high scores on one attribute can compensate for lower
scores
o Angoff Method – setting fixed cut scores
▪ low interrater reliability
o Known Groups Method – collection of data on the
predictor of interest from group known to possess
and not possess a trait of interest
▪ The determination of where to set cutoff score is
inherently affected by the composition of
contrasting groups Item Difficulty
o IRT-Based Methods – cut scores are typically set
based on testtaker’s performance across all the items
on the test
▪ Item-Mapping Method: arrangement of items in
histogram, with each column containing items
with deemed to be equivalent value
▪ Bookmark Method: expert places “bookmark”
between the two pages that are deemed to separate
testtakers who have acquired the minimal
knowledge, skills, and/or abilities from those who Item Discrimination
are not
o Method of Predictive Yield – took into account the
number of positions to be filled, projections
regarding the likelihood of offer acceptance, and the
distribution of applicant scores
o Discriminant Analysis – shed light on the
relationship between identified variables and two
naturally occurring groups
Reason for accepting or rejecting instruments and P-Value
tools based on Psychometric Properties o P-Value ≤ ∞, reject null hypothesis
Reliability o P-Value ≥ ∞, accept null hypothesis
o Basic Research = 0.70 to 0.90 Research Methods and Statistics (20)

o Clinical Setting = 0.90 to 0.95 Statistics Applied in Research Studies on tests and
Tests Development
Measures of Central Tendency - statistics that
indicates the average or midmost score between the
extreme scores in a distribution
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- Goal: Identify the most typical or representative of Measures of Spread or Variability – statistics that
entire group describe the amount of variation in a distribution
- Measures of Central Location - gives idea of how well the measure of central
Mean - the average of all the tendency represent the data
raw scores - large spread of values means large differences
- Equal to the sum of the between individual scores
observations divided by Range - equal to the difference
the number of between highest and the
observations lowest score
- Interval and ratio data - Provides a quick but
(when normal gross description of the
distribution) spread of scores
- Point of least squares - When its value is based
- Balance point for the on extreme scores of the
distribution distribution, the resulting
- susceptible to outliers description of variation
Median – the middle score of the may be understated or
distribution overstated
- Ordinal, Interval, Ratio Interquartile Range - difference between Q1
- for extreme scores, use and Q2
median Semi-Quartile Range - interquartile range
- Identical for sample and divided by 2
population Standard Deviation - approximation of the
- Also used when there average deviation around
has an unknown or the mean
undetermined score - gives detail of how
- Used in “open-ended” much above or below a
categories (e.g., 5 or score to the mean
more, more than 8, at - equal to the square root
least 10) of the average squared
- For ordinal data deviations about the
- if the distribution is mean
skewed for ratio/interval - Equal to the square root
data, use median of the variance
Mode - most frequently - Distance from the mean
occurring score in the Variance - equal to the arithmetic
distribution mean of the squares of
- Bimodal Distribution: if the differences between
there are two scores that the scores in a
occur with highest distribution and their
frequency mean
- Not commonly used - average squared
- Useful in analyses of deviation around the
qualitative or verbal mean
nature Measures of Location
- For nominal scales, Percentile or Percentile - not linearly
discrete variables Rank transformable, converged
- Value of the mode gives at the middle and the
an indication of the shape outer ends show large
of the distribution as well interval
as a measure of central
tendency
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- expressed in terms of and the differences of
the percentage of persons their salaries
in the standardization One-Way Repeated - 1 group, measured at
sample who fall below a Measures least 3 times
given score - e.g., measuring the
- indicates the focus level of board
individual’s relative reviewers during
position in the morning, afternoon, and
standardization sample night sessions of review
Quartile - dividing points between Two-Way ANOVA - 3 or more groups, tested
the four quarters in the for 2 variables
distribution - e.g., people in different
- Specific point socio-economic status
- Quarter: refers to an and the differences of
interval their salaries and their
Decile/STEN - divide into 10 equal eating habits
parts ANCOVA - used when you need to
- a measure of the control for an additional
asymmetry of the variable which may be
probability distribution of influencing the
a real-valued random relationship between your
about its mean independent and
Correlation dependent variable
Pearson R - interval/ratio + ANOVA Mixed Design - 2 or more groups,
interval/ratio measured more than 3
Spearman Rho - ordinal + ordinal times
Biserial - artificial Dichotomous + - e.g., Young Adults,
interval/ratio Middle Adults, and Old
Point Biserial - true dichotomous + Adults’ blood pressure is
interval/ratio measured during
Phi Coefficient - nominal (true dic) + breakfast, lunch, and
nominal (true/artificial dinner
dic.) Non-Parametric Tests
Tetrachoric - Art. Dichotomous + Art. Mann Whitney U Test - t-test independent
Dichotomos Wilcoxon Signed Rank - t-test dependent
Kendall’s - 3 or more ordinal/rank Test
Rank Biserial - nominal + ordinal Kruskal-Wallis H Test - one-way/two-way
Differences ANOVA
T-test Independent - two separate groups, Friedman Test - ANOVA repeated
random assignment measures
- e.g., blood pressure of Lambda - for 2 groups of nominal
male and female grad data
students Chi-Square
T-Test Dependent - one group, two scores Goodness of Fit - used to measure
- e.g., blood pressure differences and involves
before and after the nominal data and only
lecture of Grad students one variable with 2 or
One-Way ANOVA - 3 or more groups, tested more categories
once Test of Independence - used to measure
- e.g., people in different correlation and involves
socio-economic status nominal data and two
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variables with two or II. Test Construction – stage in the process that entails
more categories writing test items, revisions, formatting, setting scoring
Regression – used when one wants to provide rules
framework of prediction on the basis of one factor in - it is not good to create an item that contains numerous
order to predict the probable value of another factor ideas
Linear Regression of Y - Y = a + bX - Item Pool: reservoir or well from which the items will
on X - Used to predict the or will not be drawn for the final version of the test
unknown value of - Item Banks: relatively large and easily accessible
variable Y when value of collection of test questions
variable X is known - Computerized Adaptive Testing: refers to an
Linear Regression of X - X = c + dY interactive, computer administered test-taking process
on Y - Used to predict the wherein items presented to the testtaker are based in
unknown value of part on the testtaker’s performance on previous items
variable X using the - The test administered may be different for each
known variable Y testtaker, depending on the test performance on the
items presented
- Reduces floor and ceiling effects
- Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower limit
on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
respondents score near this lower limit (testtakers have
low scores)
- Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper limit
on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
respondents score near this upper limit (testtakers have
high scores)
- Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor the
o True Dichotomy – dichotomy in which there are content and order of presentation of items on the basis
only fixed possible categories of responses to previous items
o Artificial Dichotomy - dichotomy in which there are - Item Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement, and
other possibilities in a certain category layout of individual test items
Methods and Statistics used in Research Studies and - Dichotomous Format: offers two alternatives for each
Test Construction item
Test Development - Polychotomous Format: each item has more than two
o Test Development – an umbrella term for all that alternatives
goes into the process of creating a test - Category Format: a format where respondents are
I. Test Conceptualization – brainstorming of ideas asked to rate a construct
about what kind of test a developer wants to publish 1. Checklist – subject receives a longlist of adjectives
- stage wherein the ff. is determined: construct, goal, and indicates whether each one if characteristic of
user, taker, administration, format, response, benefits, himself or herself
costs, interpretation 2. Guttman Scale – items are arranged from weaker to
- determines whether the test would be norm- stronger expressions of attitude, belief, or feelings
referenced or criterion-referenced - Selected-Response Format: require testtakers to select
- Pilot Work/Pilot Study/Pilot Research – preliminary response from a set of alternative responses
research surrounding the creation of a prototype of the 1. Multiple Choice - Has three elements: stem
test (question), a correct option, and several incorrect
- Attempts to determine how best to measure a targeted alternatives (distractors or foils), Should’ve one
construct correct answer, has grammatically parallel alternatives,
- Entail lit reviews and experimentation, creation, similar length, alternatives that fit grammatically with
revision, and deletion of preliminary items the stem, avoid ridiculous distractors, not excessively
long, “all of the above”, “none of the above” (25%)
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- Effective Distractors: a distractor that was chosen 3. Constant Sum – respondents are asked to allocate a
equally by both high and low performing groups that constant sum of units, such as points, among set of
enhances the consistency of test results stimulus objects with respect to some criterion
- Ineffective Distractors: may hurt the reliability of the 4. Q-Sort Technique – sort object based on similarity
test because they are time consuming to read and can with respect to some criterion
limit the no. of good items Non-Comparative Scales of Measurement
- Cute Distractors: less likely to be chosen, may affect 1. Continuous Rating – rate the objects by placing a
the reliability of the test bec the testtakers may guess mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line
from the remaining options that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
2. Matching Item - Test taker is presented with two the other
columns: Premises and Responses - e.g., Rating Guardians of the Galaxy as the best
3. Binary Choice - Usually takes the form of a sentence Marvel Movie of Phase 4
that requires the testtaker to indicate whether the 2. Itemized Rating – having numbers or brief
statement is or is not a fact (50%) descriptions associated with each category
- Constructed-Response Format: requires testtakers to - e.g., 1 if your like the item the most, 2 if so-so, 3 if
supply or to create the correct answer, not merely you hate it
selecting it 3. Likert Scale – indicate their own attitudes by
1. Completion Item - Requires the examinee to checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
provide a word or phrase that completes a sentence carefully worded statements that range from very
2. Short-Answer - Should be written clearly enough positive to very negative towards attitudinal object
that the testtaker can respond succinctly, with short - principle of measuring attitudes by asking people to
answer respond to a series of statements about a topic, in terms
3. Essay – allows creative integration and expression of the extent to which they agree with them
of the material 4. Visual Analogue Scale – a 100-mm line that allows
- Scaling: process of setting rules for assigning subjects to express the magnitude of an experience or
numbers in measurement belief
Primary Scales of Measurement 5. Semantic Differential Scale – derive respondent’s
1. Nominal - involve classification or categorization attitude towards the given object by asking him to
based on one or more distinguishing characteristics select an appropriate position on a scale between two
- Label and categorize observations but do not make bipolar opposites
any quantitative distinctions between observations 6. Staple Scale – developed to measure the direction
- mode and intensity of an attitude simultaneously
2. Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is 7. Summative Scale – final score is obtained by
also permissible summing the ratings across all the items
- median 8. Thurstone Scale – involves the collection of a
3. Ratio - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero variety of different statements about a phenomenon
point (even negative values have interpretation to it) which are ranked by an expert panel in order to develop
- Zero value does not mean it represents none the questionnaire
4. Interval - - has true zero point (if the score is zero, - allows multiple answers
it means none/null) 9. Ipsative Scale – the respondent must choose
- Easiest to manipulate between two or more equally socially acceptable
Comparative Scales of Measurement options
1. Paired Comparison - produces ordinal data by III. Test Tryout - the test should be tried out on people
presenting with pairs of two stimuli which they are who are similar in critical respects to the people for
asked to compare whom the test was designed
- respondent is presented with two objects at a time and - An informal rule of thumb should be no fewer than 5
asked to select one object according to some criterion and preferably as many as 10 for each item (the more,
2. Rank Order – respondents are presented with the better)
several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in - Risk of using few subjects = phantom factors emerge
order or priority - Should be executed under conditions as identical as
possible
#BLEPP2023
- A good test item is one that answered correctly by high - The higher Item-Validity index, the greater the test’s
scorers as a whole criterion-related validity
- Empirical Criterion Keying: administering a large - Item-Discrimination Index: measure of item
pool of test items to a sample of individuals who are discrimination; measure of the difference between the
known to differ on the construct being measured proportion of high scorers answering an item correctly
- Item Analysis: statistical procedure used to analyze and the proportion of low scorers answering the item
items, evaluate test items correctly
- Discriminability Analysis: employed to examine - Extreme Group Method: compares people who have
correlation between each item and the total score of the done well with those who have done poorly
test - Discrimination Index: difference between these
- Item: suggest a sample of behavior of an individual proportion
- Table of Specification: a blueprint of the test in terms - Point-Biserial Method: correlation between a
of number of items per difficulty, topic importance, or dichotomous variable and continuous variable
taxonomy
- Guidelines for Item writing: Define clearly what to
measure, generate item pool, avoid long items, keep the
level of reading difficulty appropriate for those who
will complete the test, avoid double-barreled items,
consider making positive and negative worded items
- Double-Barreled Items: items that convey more than
one ideas at the same time
- Item Difficulty: defined by the number of people who - Item-Characteristic Curve: graphic representation of
get a particular item correct item difficulty and discrimination
- Item-Difficulty Index: calculating the proportion of - Guessing: one that eluded any universally accepted
the total number of testtakers who answered the item solutions
correctly; The larger, the easier the item - Item analyses taken under speed conditions yield
- Item-Endorsement Index for personality testing, misleading or uninterpretable results
percentage of individual who endorsed an item in a - Restrict item analysis on a speed test only to the items
personality test completed by the testtaker
- The optimal average item difficulty is approx. 50% - Test developer ideally should administer the test to be
with items on the testing ranging in difficulty from item-analyzed with generous time limits to complete
about 30% to 80% the test
Scoring Items/Scoring Models
1. Cumulative Model – testtaker obtains a measure of
the level of the trait; thus, high scorers may suggest
high level in the trait being measured
2. Class Scoring/Category Scoring – testtaker
response earn credit toward placement in a particular
class or category with other testtaker whose pattern of
responses is similar in some way
3. Ipsative Scoring – compares testtaker’s score on one
- Omnibus Spiral Format: items in an ability are scale within a test to another scale within that same test,
arranged into increasing difficulty two unrelated constructs
- Item-Reliability Index: provides an indication of the IV. Test Revision – characterize each item according to
internal consistency of a test its strength and weaknesses
- The higher Item-Reliability index, the greater the - As revision proceeds, the advantage of writing a large
test’s internal consistency item pool becomes more apparent because some items
- Item-Validity Index: designed to provide an indication were removed and must be replaced by the items in the
of the degree to which a test is measure what it purports item pool
to measure - Administer the revised test under standardized
conditions to a second appropriate sample of examinee
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- Cross-Validation: revalidation of a test on a sample of o Basal Level – the level of which a the minimum
testtakers other than those on who test performance was criterion number of correct responses is obtained
originally found to be a valid predictor of some o Computer Assisted Psychological Assessment –
criterion; often results to validity shrinkage standardized test administration is assured for
- Validity Shrinkage: decrease in item validities that testtakers and variation is kept to a minimum
inevitably occurs after cross-validation ▪ Test content and length is tailored according to
- Co-validation: conducted on two or more test using
the taker’s ability
the same sample of testtakers
Statistics
- Co-norming: creation of norms or the revision of
o Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or
existing norms
symbols to characteristics of things according to
- Anchor Protocol: test protocol scored by highly
rules
authoritative scorer that is designed as a model for
Descriptive Statistics – methods used to provide
scoring and a mechanism for resolving scoring
concise description of a collection of quantitative
discrepancies
information
- Scoring Drift: discrepancy between scoring in an
anchor protocol and the scoring of another protocol Inferential Statistics – method used to make
- Differential Item Functioning: item functions inferences from observations of a small group of people
differently in one group of testtakers known to have the known as sample to a larger group of individuals
same level of the underlying trait known as population
- DIF Analysis: test developers scrutinize group by o Magnitude – the property of “moreness”
group item response curves looking for DIF Items o Equal Intervals – the difference between two points
- DIF Items: items that respondents from different at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the
groups at the same level of underlying trait have difference between two other points that differ by the
different probabilities of endorsing a function of their same number of scale units
group membership o Absolute 0 – when nothing of the property being
o Computerized Adaptive Testing – refers to an measured exists
o Scale – a set of numbers who properties model
interactive, computer administered test-taking
empirical properties of the objects to which the
process wherein items presented to the testtaker are numbers are assigned
based in part on the testtaker’s performance on Continuous Scale – takes on any value within the
previous items range and the possible value within that range is infinite
▪ The test administered may be different for each - used to measure a variable which can theoretically be
testtaker, depending on the test performance on divided
the items presented Discrete Scale – can be counted; has distinct, countable
▪ Reduces floor and ceiling effects values
▪ Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower - used to measure a variable which cannot be
limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large theoretically be divided
percentage of respondents score near this lower o Error – refers to the collective influence of all the
limit (testtakers have low scores) factors on a test score or measurement beyond those
▪ Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper specifically measured by the test or measurement
limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large ▪ Degree to which the test score/measurement may
be wrong, considering other factors like state of
percentage of respondents score near this upper
the testtaker, venue, test itself etc.
limit (testtakers have high scores) ▪ Measurement with continuous scale always
▪ Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor involve with error
the content and order of presentation of items on Four Levels of Scales of Measurement
the basis of responses to previous items Nominal – involve classification or categorization
▪ Routing Test: subtest used to direct or route the based on one or more distinguishing characteristics
testtaker to a suitable level of items - Label and categorize observations but do not make
▪ Item-Mapping Method: setting cut scores that any quantitative distinctions between observations
entails a histographic representation of items and - mode
expert judgments regarding item effectiveness
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Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is also - Bimodal Distribution: if there are two scores that
permissible occur with highest frequency
- median - Not commonly used
Interval - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero - Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal nature
point (even negative values have interpretation to it) - For nominal scales, discrete variables
- Zero value does not mean it represents none - Value of the mode gives an indication of the shape of
Ratio - has true zero point (if the score is zero, it means the distribution as well as a measure of central tendency
none/null) o Variability – an indication how scores in a
- Easiest to manipulate distribution are scattered or dispersed
o Distribution – defined as a set of test scores arrayed o Measures of Variability – statistics that describe the
for recording or study amount of variation in a distribution
o Raw Scores – straightforward, unmodified o Range – equal to the difference between highest and
accounting of performance that is usually numerical the lowest score
o Frequency Distribution – all scores are listed ▪ Provides a quick but gross description of the
alongside the number of times each score occurred spread of scores
o Independent Variable – being manipulated in the ▪ When its value is based on extreme scores of the
study distribution, the resulting description of variation
o Quasi-Independent Variable – nonmanipulated may be understated or overstated
variable to designate groups o Quartile – dividing points between the four quarters
▪ Factor: for ANOVA in the distribution
Post-Hoc Tests – used in ANOVA to determine which ▪ Specific point
mean differences are significantly different ▪ Quarter: refers to an interval
Tukey’s HSD test – allows the compute a single value ▪ Interquartile Range: measure of variability equal
that determines the minimum difference between to the difference between Q3 and Q1
treatment means that is necessary for significance ▪ Semi-interquartile Range: equal to the
o Measures of Central Tendency – statistics that interquartile range divided by 2
indicates the average or midmost score between the o Standard Deviation – equal to the square root of the
extreme scores in a distribution average squared deviations about the mean
▪ Goal: Identify the most typical or representative ▪ Equal to the square root of the variance
of entire group ▪ Variance: equal to the arithmetic mean of the
Mean – the average of all the raw scores squares of the differences between the scores in a
- Equal to the sum of the observations divided by the distribution and their mean
number of observations ▪ Distance from the mean
- Interval and ratio data (when normal distribution) o Normal Curve – also known as Gaussian Curve
- Point of least squares o Bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve
- Balance point for the distribution that is highest at its center
Median – the middle score of the distribution o Asymptotically = approaches but never touches the
- Ordinal, Interval, Ratio axis
- Useful in cases where relatively few scores fall at the o Tail – 2 – 3 standard deviations above and below the
high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall mean
at the low end of the distribution
- In other words, for extreme scores, use median
(skewed)
- Identical for sample and population
- Also used when there has an unknown or
undetermined score
- Used in “open-ended” categories (e.g., 5 or more,
more than 8, at least 10)
- For ordinal data
Mode – most frequently occurring score in the
distribution
#BLEPP2023
▪ Mean < Median < Mode

o Skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps
because the skewed distribution deviates from the
symmetrical or so-called normal distribution
o Symmetrical Distribution – right side of the graph o Kurtosis – steepness if a distribution in its center
is mirror image of the left side Platykurtic – relatively flat
▪ Has only one mode and it is in the center of the Leptokurtic – relatively peaked
distribution Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle
▪ Mean = median = mode
o Skewness – nature and extent to which symmetry is
absent
o Positive Skewed – few scores fall the high end of the
distribution
▪ The exam is difficult
▪ More items that was easier would have been
desirable in order to better discriminate at the
lower end of the distribution of test scores
▪ High Kurtosis = high peak and fatter tails

▪ Lower Kurtosis = rounded peak and thinner tails
o Standard Score – raw score that has been converted
from one scale to another scale
o Z-Scores – results from the conversion of a raw score
into a number indicating how many SD units the raw
score is below or above the mean of the distribution
▪ Identify and describe the exact location of each
score in a distribution
▪ Standardize an entire distribution
▪ Mean > Median > Mode
▪ Zero plus or minus one scale
o Negative Skewed – when relatively few of the scores
▪ Have negative values
fall at the low end of the distribution
▪ Requires that we know the value of the variance
▪ The exam is easy
to compute the standard error
▪ More items of a higher level of difficulty would
o T-Scores – a scale with a mean set at 50 and a
make it possible to better discriminate between
standard deviation set at 10
scores at the upper end of the distribution
▪ Fifty plus or minus 10 scale
▪ 5 standard deviations below the mean would be
equal to a t-score of 0
▪ Raw score that fell in the mean has T of 50
▪ Raw score 5 standard deviations about the mean
would be equal to a T of 100
▪ No negative values
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▪ Used when the population or variance is unknown o Directional Hypothesis Test or One-Tailed Test –
o Stanine – a method of scaling test scores on a nine- statistical hypotheses specify either an increase or a
point standard scale with a mean of five (5) and a decrease in the population mean
standard deviation of two (2) o T-Test – used to test hypotheses about an unknown
o Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct population mean and variance
numerical relationship to the original raw score ▪ Can be used in “before and after” type of research
o Nonlinear Transformation – required when the ▪ Sample must consist of independent
data under consideration are not normally distributed observationsꟷthat is, if there is not consistent,
o Normalizing the distribution involves stretching the predictable relationship between the first
skewed curve into the shape of a normal curve and observation and the second
creating a corresponding scale of standard scores, a ▪ The population that is sampled must be normal
scale that is technically referred to as Normalized ▪ If not normal distribution, use a large sample
Standard Score Scale o Correlation Coefficient – number that provides us
o Generally preferrable to fine-tune the test according with an index of the strength of the relationship
to difficulty or other relevant variables so that the between two things
resulting distribution will approximate the normal o Correlation – an expression of the degree and
curve direction of correspondence between two things
o STEN – standard to ten; divides a scale into 10 units ▪ + & - = direction
▪ Number anywhere to -1 to 1 = magnitude
▪ Positive – same direction, either both going up
or both going down
▪ Negative – Inverse Direction, either DV is up
and IV goes down or IV goes up and DV goes
down
▪ 0 = no correlation
Mean SD
Z-Score 0 1
T-Score 50 10
Stanine 5 2
STEN 5.5 2
IQ 100 15
GRE or SAT 500 100
o Hypothesis Testing – statistical method that uses a o Pearson r/Pearson Correlation

sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a Coefficient/Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient
population of Correlation – used when two variables being
Alternative Hypothesis – states there is a change, correlated are continuous and linear
difference, or relationships ▪ Devised by Karl Pearson
Null Hypothesis – no change, no difference, or no ▪ Coefficient of Determination – an indication of
relationship how much variance is shared by the X- and Y-
o Alpha Level or Level of Significance – used to variables
define concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis test o Spearman Rho/Rank-Order Correlation
o Critical Region – composed of extreme values that Coefficient/Rank-Difference Correlation
are very unlikely to be obtained if the null hypothesis Coefficient – frequently used if the sample size is
is true small and when both sets of measurement are in
o If sample data fall in the critical region, the null ordinal
hypothesis is rejected ▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
o The alpha level for a hypothesis test is the probability o Outlier – extremely atypical point located at a
that the test will lead to a Type I error relatively long distance from the rest of the
coordinate points in a scatterplot
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o Regression Analysis – used for prediction b. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or
▪ Predict the values of a dependent or response acquiring a specific skill
variable based on values of at least one c. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential
independent or explanatory variable to solve problems, adapt to changing environments,
▪ Residual: the difference between an observed abstract thinking, and profit from experience
value of the response variable and the value of the Human Ability – considerable overlap of
response variable predicted from the regression achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
line Typical Performance Test – measure usual or habitual
▪ The Principle of Least Squares thoughts, feelings, and behavior
▪ Standard Error of Estimate: standard deviation of Personality Test – measures individual dispositions
the residuals in regression analysis and preferences
▪ Slope: determines how much the Y variable a. Structured Personality tests – provide statement,
changes when X is increased by 1 point usually self-report, and require the subject to choose
o T-Test (Independent) – comparison or determining between two or more alternative responses
differences b. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and the
▪ 2 different groups/independent samples + stimulus or response are ambiguous
interval/ratio scales (continuous variables) c. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions
Equal Variance – 2 groups are equal d. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes
Unequal Variance – groups are unequal as well as one’s personality orientation towards the
o T-test (Dependent)/Paired Test – one groups world of work
nominal (either matched or repeated measures) + 2 - Purpose: for evaluation, drawing conclusions of some
treatments aspects of the behavior of a person, therapy, decision-
o One-Way ANOVA – 3 or more IV, 1 DV comparison making
of differences - Settings: Industrial, Clinical, Educational,
o Two-Way ANOVA – 2 IV, 1 DV Counseling, Business, Courts, Research
o Critical Value – reject the null and accept the - Population: Test Developers, Test Publishers, Test
alternative if [ obtained value > critical value ] Reviewers, Test Users, Test Sponsors, Test Takers,
o P-Value (Probability Value) – reject null and accept Society
alternative if [ p-value < alpha level ] Levels of Tests
o Norms – refer to the performances by defined groups 1. Level A – anyone under a direction of a supervisor
on a particular test or consultant
o Age-Related Norms – certain tests have different 2. Level B – psychometricians and psychologists only
normative groups for age groups 3. Level C – psychologists only
o Tracking – tendency to stay at about the same level 2. Interview – method of gathering information
relative to one’s peers through direct communication involving reciprocal
Norm-Referenced Tests – compares each person with exchange
the norm - can be structured, unstructured, semi-structured, or
Criterion-Referenced Tests – describes specific types non-directive
of skills, tasks, or knowledge that the test taker can - Mental Status Examination: determines the mental
demonstrate status of the patient
Selection of Assessment Methods and Tools and Uses, - Intake Interview: determine why the client came for
Benefits, and Limitations of Assessment tools and assessment; chance to inform the client about the
instruments (32) policies, fees, and process involved
Identify appropriate assessment methods, tools (2) - Social Case: biographical sketch of the client
1. Test – measuring device or procedure - Employment Interview: determine whether the
- Psychological Test: device or procedure designed to candidate is suitable for hiring
measure variables related to psychology - Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than one
Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what interviewer participates in the assessment
a person can do - Motivational Interview: used by counselors and
a. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous clinicians to gather information about some
learning problematic behavior, while simultaneously attempting
to address it therapeutically
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3. Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and - provides behavioral observations during
accomplishment administration
- Purpose: Usually in industrial settings for evaluation Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV, WPPSI-IV,
of future performance WISC-V)
4. Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts, [C]
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form - WAIS (16-90 years old), WPPSI (2-6 years old),
that preserve archival information, official and WISC (6-11)
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to - individually administered
an assessee - norm-referenced
5. Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of - Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD)
others or oneself by visual or electronic means while - Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD)
recording quantitative and/or qualitative information - addresses the weakness in Stanford-Binet
regarding those actions - could also assess functioning in people with brain
- Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in natural injury
setting - evaluates patterns of brain dysfunction
6. Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or - yields FSIQ, Index Scores (Verbal Comprehension,
partially improvised part in a stimulated situation Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and
- Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if they Processing Speed), and subtest-level scaled scores
are in a particular situation Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
- Purpose: Assessment and Evaluation [B]
- Settings: Industrial, Clinical - 4 – 90 years old
- Population: Job Applicants, Children - nonverbal test
7. Computers – using technology to assess an client, - used to measure general intelligence & abstract
thus, can serve as test administrators and very efficient reasoning
test scorers - multiple choice of abstract reasoning
8. Others: videos, biofeedback devices - group test
Intelligence Tests - IRT-Based
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 5th Ed. (SB-5) Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)
[C] [ B]
- 2-85 years old - Nonverbal instrument to measure your analytical and
- individually administered reasoning ability in the abstract and novel situations
- norm-referenced - Measures individual intelligence in a manner
- Scales: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Full Scale (FSIQ) designed to reduced, as much as possible, the influence
- Nonverbal and Verbal Cognitive Factors: Fluid of culture
Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, - Individual or by group
Visual-Spatial Processing, Working Memory - Aids in the identification of learning problems and
- age scale and point-scale format helps in making more reliable and informed decisions
- originally created to identify mentally disabled in relation to the special education needs of children
children in Paris Purdue Non-Language Test
- 1908 Scale introduced Age Scale format and Mental [B]
Age - Designed to measure mental ability, since it consists
- 1916 scale significantly applied IQ concept entirely of geometric forms
- Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD) - Culture-fair
- Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD) - Self-Administering
- co-normed with Bender-Gestalt and Woodcock- Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino
Johnson Tests - Basis for screening, classifying, and identifying needs
- based on Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model of General that will enhance the learning process
Intellectual Ability - In business, it is utilized as predictors of occupational
- no accommodations for pwds achievement by gauging applicant’s ability and fitness
- 2 routing tests for a particular job
- w/ teaching items, floor level, and ceiling level
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- Essential for determining one’s capacity to handle the - K Scale = reveals a person’s defensiveness around
challenges associated with certain degree programs certain questions and traits; also faking good
- Subtests: Vocabulary, Analogy, Numerical Ability, - K scale sometimes used to correct scores on five
Nonverbal Ability clinical scales. The scores are statistically corrected for
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) an individual’s overwillingness or unwillingness to
- Assessing cognitive ability and problem-solving admit deviance
aptitude of prospective employees - “Cannot Say” (CNS) Scale: measures how a person
- Multiple choice, answered in 12 minutes doesn’t answer a test item
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery - High ? Scale: client might have difficulties with
- Most widely used aptitude test in US reading, psychomotor retardation, or extreme
- Multiple-aptitude battery that measures developed defensiveness
abilities and helps predict future academic and - True Response Inconsistency (TRIN): five true, then
occupational success in the military five false answers
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II - Varied Response Inconsistency (VRIN): random true
(KABC-II) or false
- Infrequency-Psychopathology Scale (Fp): reveal
- Alan & Nadeen Kaufman intentional or unintentional over-reporting
- for assessing cognitive development in children - FBS Scale: “symptom validity scale” designed to
- 13 to 18 years old detect intentional over-reporting of symptoms
Personality Tests - Back Page Infrequency (Fb): reflects significant
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory change in the testtaker’s approach to the latter part of
(MMPI-2) the test
[C] Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers
- Multiphasic personality inventory intended for used - Self-report inventory designed to identify a person’s
with both clinical and normal populations to identify personality type, strengths, and preferences
sources of maladjustment and personal strengths - Extraversion-Introversion Scale: where you prefer to
- Starke Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley focus your attention and energy, the outer world and
- Help in diagnosing mental health disorders, external events or your inner world of ideas and
distinguishing normal from abnormal experiences
- should be administered to someone with no guilt - Sensing-Intuition Scale: how do you take inform, you
feelings for creating a crime take in or focus on interpreting and adding meaning on
- individual or by groups the information
- Clinical Scales: Hypochondriasis, Depression, - Thinking-Feeling Scale: how do you make decisions,
Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, logical or following what your heart says
Masculinity/Femininity, Paranoia, Psychasthenia - Judging-Perceiving Scale: how do you orient the
(Anxiety, Depression, OCD), Schizophrenia, outer world? What is your style in dealing with the
Hypomania, Social Introversion outer world – get things decided or stay open to new
- Lie Scale (L Scale): items that are somewhat negative info and options?
but apply to most people; assess the likelihood of the Edward’s Preference Personality Schedule (EPPS)
test taker to approach the instrument with defensive [B]
mindset - designed primarily as an instrument for research and
- High in L scale = faking good counselling purposes to provide quick and convenient
- High in F scale = faking bad, severe distress or measures of a number of relatively normal personality
psychopathology variables
- Superlative Self Presentation Scale (S Scale): a - based of Murray’s Need Theory
measure of defensiveness; Superlative Self- - Objective, forced-choice inventory for assessing the
Presentation to see if you intentionally distort answers relative importance that an individual places on 15
to look better personality variables
- Correction Scale (K Scale): reflection of the frankness - Useful in personal counselling and with non-clinical
of the testtaker’s self-report adults
- Individual
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Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey - 5 years and older
(GZTS) - subjects look at 10 ambiguous inkblot images and
- items are stated affirmatively rather than in question describe what they see in each one
nd
form, using the 2 person pronoun - once used to diagnose mental illnesses like
- measures 10 personality traits: General Activity, schizophrenia
Restraint, Ascendance, Sociability, Emotional Stability, - Exner System: coding system used in this test
Objectivity, Friendliness, Thoughtfulness, Personal - Content: the name or class of objects used in the
Relations, Masculinity patient’s responses
NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)
- Standard questionnaire measure of the Five Factor Content:
Model, provides systematic assessment of emotional, 1. Nature
interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and 2. Animal Feature
motivational styles 3. Whole Human
- gold standard for personality assessment 4. Human Feature
- Self-Administered 5. Fictional/Mythical Human Detail
- Neuroticism: identifies individuals who are prone to 6. Sex
psychological distress
- Extraversion: quantity and intensity of energy Determinants:
directed 1. Form
- Openness To Experience: active seeking and 2. Movement
appreciation of experiences for their own sake 3. Color
- Agreeableness: the kind of interactions an individual 4. Shading
prefers from compassion to tough mindedness 5. Pairs and Reflections
- Conscientiousness: degree of organization,
persistence, control, and motivation in goal-directed Location:
behavior 1. W – the whole inkblot was used to depict an image
Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao/Panukat ng 2. D – commonly described part of the blot was used
Pagkataong Pilipino 3. Dd – an uncommonly described or unusual detail
- Indigenous personality test was used
- Tap specific values, traits and behavioral dimensions 4. S – the white space in the background was used
related or meaningful to the study of Filipinos Thematic Apperception Test
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire [C]
- Raymond Cattell - Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray
- constructed through factor analysis - 5 and above
- Evaluates a personality on two levels of traits - 31 picture cards serve as stimuli for stories and
- Primary Scales: Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional descriptions about relationships or social situations
Stability, Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, - popularly known as the picture interpretation
Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, technique because it uses a standard series of
Abstractedness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the
to change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension subject is asked to tell a story
- Global Scales: Extraversion, Anxiety, Tough- - also modified African American testtakers
Mindedness, Independence, Self-Control Children’s Apperception Test
Big Five Inventory-II (BFI-2)
- Bellak & Bellak
- Soto & John - 3-10 years old
- Assesses big 5 domains and 15 facets - based on the idea that animals engaged in various
- for commercial purposes to researches and students activities were useful in stimulating projective
Projective Tests storytelling by children
Rorshcach Inkblot Test Hand Test
[C]
- Hermann Rorschach - Edward Wagner
- 5 years old and above
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- used to measure action tendencies, particularly acting - can also be used to assess brain damage and general
out and aggressive behavior, in adults and children mental functioning
- 10 cards (1 blank) - measures the person’s psychological and emotional
Apperceptive Personality Test (APT) functioning
- The house reflects the person’s experience of their
- Holmstrom et. Al. immediate social world
- attempt to address the criticisms of TAT - The tree is a more direct expression of the person’s
- introduced objectivity in scoring system emotional and psychological sense of self
- 8 cards include male and female of different ages and - The person is a more direct reflection of the person’s
minority group members sense of self
- testtakers will respond to a series of multiple choice Draw-A-Person Test (DAP)
questions after storytelling
Word Association Test (WAT) - Florence Goodenough
- 4 to 10 years old
- Rapaport et. Al. - a projective drawing task that is often utilized in
- presentation of a list of stimulus words, assessee psychological assessments of children
responds verbally or in writing the first thing that - Aspects such as the size of the head, placement of the
comes into their minds arms, and even things such as if teeth were drawn or
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) not are thought to reveal a range of personality traits
-Helps people who have anxieties taking tests (no strict
- Julian Rotter & Janet Rafferty format)
- Grade 9 to Adulthood -Can assess people with communication problems
- most popular SCT -Relatively culture free
SACK’s Sentence Completion Test (SSCT) -Allow for self-administration
Kinetic Family Drawing
- Joseph Sacks and Sidney Levy
- 12 years old and older - Burns & Kaufman
- asks respondents to complete 60 questions with the - derived from Hulses’ FDT “doing something”
first thing that comes to mind across four areas: Family, Clinical & Counseling Tests
Sex, Interpersonal, Relationships and Self concept Millon Clinical Multiaxial Scale-IV (MCMI-IV)
Bender-Gestalt Visual Motor Test
[C] - Theodore Millon
- 18 years old and above
- Lauretta Bender - for diagnosing and treatment of personality disorders
- 4 years and older - exaggeration of polarities results to maladaptive
- consists of a series of durable template cards, each behavior
displaying a unique figure, then they are asked to draw - Pleasure-Pain: the fundamental evolutionary task
each figure as he or she observes it - Active-Passive: one adapts to the environment or
- provides interpretative information about an adapts the environment to one’s self
individual’s development and neuropsychological - Self-Others: invest to others versus invest to oneself
functioning Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II)
- reveals the maturation level of visuomotor
perceptions, which is associated with language ability - Aaron Beck
and various functions of intelligence - 13 to 80 years old
House-Tree-Person Test (HTP) - 21-item self-report that tapos Major Depressive
symptoms accdg. to the criteria in the DSM
- John Buck and Emmanuel Hammer MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale (MAC & MAC-R)
- 3 years and up
- measures aspects of a person’s personality through - from MMPI-II
interpretation of drawings and responses to questions - Personality & attitude variables thought to underlie
alcoholism
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California Psychological Inventory (CPI-III) - can take note of verbal - sometimes, due to
and nonverbal cues negligence of interviewer
- attempts to evaluate personality in normally adjusted - flexible and interviewee, it can
individuals - time and cost effective miss out important
- has validity scales that determines faking bad and - both structured and information
faking good unstructured allows - interviewer’s effect on
- interpersonal style and orientation, normative clinicians to place a wider, the interviewee
orientation and values, cognitive and intellectual more meaningful context - various error such as
function, and role and personal style - can also be used to help halo effect, primacy
- has special purpose scales, such as managerial predict future behaviors effect, etc.
potential, work orientation, creative temperament, interviews allow - interrater reliability
leadership potential, amicability, law enforcement - clinicians to establish - interviewer bias
orientation, tough-mindedness rapport and encourage
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale client self-exploration.
Portfolio
- measures global feelings of self-worth - provides comprehensive - can be very demanding
- 10-item, 4 point likert scale illustration of the client - time consuming
- used with addolescents which highlights the
Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS) strengths and weaknesses
Observation
- measures psychological hardiness defined as the - flexible - For private practitioners,
ability to view stressful situations as meaningful, - suitable for subjs that it is typically not practical
changeable, and challenging cannot be studied in lab or economically feasible
Ego Resiliency Scale-Revised setting to spend hours out of the
- measure ego resiliency or emotional intelligence - more realistic consulting room
HOPE Scale - affordable observing clients as they
- developed by Snyder - can detect patterns go about their daily lives
- Agency: cognitive model with goal driven energy - lack of scientific control,
- Pathway: capacity to contrast systems to meet goals ethical considerations,
- good measure of hope for traumatized people and potential for bias from
- positively correlated with health psychological observers and subjects
adjustment, high achievement, good problem solving - unable to draw cause-
skills, and positive health-related outcomes and-effect conclusions
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) - lack of control
- overall assessment of life satisfaction as a cognitive - lack of validity
judgmental process - observer bias
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Case History
- measure the level of positive and negative emotions a - can fully show the - cannot be used to
test taker has during the test administration experience of the observer generalize a phenomenon
Strengths and weaknesses of assessment tools (2) in the program
Pros Cons - shed light on an
Test individual’s past and
- can gather a sample of - In crisis situations when current adjustment as well
behavior objectively with relatively rapid decisions as on the events and
lesser bias need to be made, it can be circumstances that may
- flexible, can be verbal or impractical to take the have contributed to any
nonverbal time required to changes in adjustment
administer and interpret Role Play
tests - encourages individuals - may not be as useful as
Interview to come together to find the real thing in all
solutions and to get to situations
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know how their - time-consuming
colleagues think - expensive
- group can discuss ways - inconvenient to assess in
to potentially resolve the a real situation
situation and participants - While some employees
leave with as much will be comfortable role
information as possible, playing, they’re less adept
resulting in more efficient at getting into the required
handling of similar real- mood needed to actually
life scenarios replicate a situation
Test Administration, Scoring, Interpretation and ▪ The greater number of items, the higher the
reliability
Usage (20)
Detect Errors and impacts in Test ▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
Issues in Intelligence Testing characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
which have nothing to do with the attribute being
1. Flynn Effect – progressive rise in intelligence score
that is expected to occur on a normed intelligence test measured, but still affect the scores
from the date when the test was first normed o Error Variance – variance from irrelevant random
sources
▪ Gradual increase in the general intelligence
among newborns Measurement Error – all of the factors associated
▪ Frog Pond Effect: theory that individuals with the process of measuring some variable, other than
evaluate themselves as worse when in a group of the variable being measured
high-performing individuals - difference between the observed score and the true
2. Culture Bias of Testing score
▪ Culture-Free: attempt to eliminate culture so - Positive: can increase one’s score
nature can be isolated - Negative: decrease one’s score
▪ Impossible to develop bec culture is evident in its - Sources of Error Variance:
influence since birth or an individual and the a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling
interaction between nature and nurture is b. Test Administration
cumulative and not relative c. Test Scoring and Interpretation
▪ Culture Fair: minimize the influence of culture Random Error – source of error in measuring a
with regard to various aspects of the evaluation targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations
procedures and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement
▪ Fair to all, fair to some cultures, fair only to one process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather)
culture Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a
▪ Culture Loading: the extent to which a test variable that is typically constant or proportionate to
incorporates the vocabulary concepts traditions, what is presumed to be the true values of the variable
knowledge etc. with particular culture being measured
Errors: Reliability - has consistent effect on the true score
o Classical Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score - SD does not change, the mean does
on ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the ▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test
testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured score by varying amounts, consistency of test
but also the error score, and thus, the reliability can be affected
▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed Test-Retest Reliability
test score that does not have to do with the Error: Time Sampling
testtaker’s ability - the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that
▪ Errors of measurement are random the reliability coefficient would be insignificant
- Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest
interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced
by the first test because they remember or practiced the
previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation of
reliability
- Practice Effect: scores on the second session are
#BLEPP2023
higher due to their experience of the first session of 2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure
testing that does occur
- test-retest with longer interval might be affected of 3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur
other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low correlation 4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but
- target time for next administration: at least two weeks succeed
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling
changes over time (delayed)
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence
for groups
- most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers
create two forms of the test
- main problem: difference between the two tests
- test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or
intervening events
- create a large set of questions that address the same
construct then randomly divide the questions into two
Errors due to Behavioral Assessment
sets
1. Reactivity – when evaluated, the behavior increases
Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability)
- Hawthorne Effect
Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity
2. Drift – moving away from what one has learned
Split-Half Reliability
going to idiosyncratic definitions of behavior
Error: Item sample: Nature of Split - subjects should be retrained in a point of time
Inter-Scorer Reliability - Contrast Effect: cognitive bias that distorts our
Error: Scorer Differences perception of something when we compare it to
o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a something else, by enhancing the differences between
measure of the precision of an observed test score them
▪ Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure 3. Expectancies – tendency for results to be influenced
of error by what test administrators expect to find
▪ Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount - Rosenthal/Pygmalion Effect: Test administrator’s
of the expected error in an individual’s score expected results influences the result of the test
▪ Allows to quantify the extent to which a test - Golem Effect: negative expectations decreases one’s
provide accurate scores performance
▪ Provides an estimate of the amount of error 4. Rating Errors – intentional or unintentional misuse
inherent in an observed score or measurement of the scale
▪ Higher reliability, lower SEM - Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring (Generosity
▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an Error)
observed score deviates from a true score - Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring
▪ Standard Error of a Score - Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend to
▪ Confidence Interval: a range or band of test cluster in the middle of the rating scale
scores that is likely to contain true scores - Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to failure
o Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test to discriminate among conceptually distinct and
user in determining how large a difference should be potentially independent aspects of a ratee’s behavior
before it is considered statistically significant - snap judgement on the basis of positive trait
o Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard - Horn Effect: Opposite of Halo Effect
error of the difference between the predicted and - One way to overcome rating errors is to use rankings
observed values 5. Fundamental Attribution Error – tendency to
o Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes explain someone’s behavior based on internal factors
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success such as personality or disposition, and to underestimate
that does occur the influence the external factors have on another
person’s behavior, blaming it on the situation
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- Barnum Effect: people tend to accept vague to ensure that services were not denied. However,
personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of the services are discontinued once the appropriate
themselves (Aunt Fanny Effect) services are available
o Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically o Psychologists should discuss the limits of
prevents accurate, impartial measurement confidentiality, uses of the information that would be
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment generated from the services to the persons and
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure organizations with whom they establish a scientific
called Estimated True Score Transformation or professional relationships
Ethical Principles and Standards of Practice (19) o Before recording voices or images, they must obtain
o If mistakes was made, they should do something to permission first from all persons involved or their
correct or minimize the mistakes legal rep
o If an ethical violation made by another psychologist o Only discuss confidential information with persons
was witnessed, they should resolve the issue with clearly concerned/involved with the matters
informal resolution, as long as it does not violate any o Disclosure is allowed with appropriate consent
confidentiality rights that may be involved ▪ No consent is not allowed UNLESS mandated by
o If informal resolution is not enough or appropriate, the law
referral to state or national committees on o No disclosure of confidential information that could
professional ethics, state licensing boards, or the lead to the identification of a client unless they have
appropriate institutional authorities can be done. obtained prior consent or the disclosure cannot be
Still, confidentiality rights of the professional in avoided
question must be kept. ▪ Only disclose necessary information
o Failure to cooperate in ethics investigation itself, is o Exemptions to disclosure:
an ethics violation, unless they request for deferment ✓ If the client is disguised/identity is protected
of adjudication of an ethics complaint ✓ Has consent
o Psychologists must file complaints responsibly by ✓ Legally mandated
checking facts about the allegations o Psychologists can create public statements as long as
o Psychologists DO NOT deny persons employment, they would be responsible for it
advancement, admissions, tenure or promotion based ▪ They cannot compensate employees of the media
solely upon their having made or their being the in return for publicity in a news item
subject of an ethics complaint ▪ Paid Advertisement must be clearly recognizable
▪ Just because they are questioned by the ethics ▪ when they are commenting publicly via internet,
committee or involved in an on-going ethics media, etc., they must ensure that their statement
investigation, they would be discriminated or are based on their professional knowledge in
denied advancement accord with appropriate psych literature and
▪ Unless the outcome of the proceedings are practice, consistent with ethics, and do not
already considered indicate that a professional relationship has been
o Psychologists should do their services within the established with the recipient
boundaries of their competence, which is based on o Must provide accurate information and obtain
the amount of training, education, experience, or approval prior to conducting the research
consultation they had o Informed consent is required, which include:
o When they are tasked to provide services to ✓ Purpose of the research
clients who are deprived with mental health ✓ Duration and procedures
services (e.g., communities far from the urban ✓ Right to decline and withdraw
cities), however, they were still not able to obtain ✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing
the needed competence for the job, they could ✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects
still provide services AS LONG AS they make ✓ Benefits
reasonable effort to obtain the competence ✓ Limits of confidentiality
required, just to ensure that the services were not ✓ Incentives for participation
denied to those communities ✓ Researcher’s contact information
o During emergencies, psychologists provide o Permission for recording images or vices are needed
services to individuals, even though they are yet unless the research consists of solely naturalistic
to complete the competency/training needed just
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observations in public places, or research designed o Art. 12 of Revised Penal Code – Insanity Plea
includes deception end
▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing
o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when: congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer!! i
1. Research would not create distress or harm hope u learned something!! :D
▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted
in an educational settings one day, we will be remembered.
▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
observation, archival research - aly <3
▪ Confidentiality is protected
2. Permitted by law
o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research
participation that could coerce participation
o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless
they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in
the study
▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not
during the conclusion of data collection
o They must give opportunity to the participants about
the nature, results, and conclusions of the research
and make sure that there are no misconceptions about
the research
o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort,
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects
▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as
minimal as possible
▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
minimize the pain
o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
as their own
▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
authorship credit, only for work they have
actually performed or to which they have
substantially contributed
▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
students as early as possible
o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
other competent professionals who intends to
reanalyze the data
▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
purpose
o RA 9258 – Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004
o RA 9262 – Violence Against Women and Children
o RA 7610 – Child Abuse
o RA 9165 – Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of
2002
o RA 11469 – Bayanihan to Heal as One Act
o RA 7277 – Magna Carta for Disabled Persons
o RA 11210 – Expanded Maternity Leave Law
o RA 11650 – Inclusive Education Law
o RA 10173 – Data Privacy Act
o House Bill 4982 – SOGIE Bill

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Abnormal Psychology

congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer!! i

one day, we will be remembered.

congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer!! i

one day, we will be remembered.

3 Major Strategies for Dealing with Resistance to

o Basic Research = 0.70 to 0.90 Research Methods and Statistics (20)

▪ Mean < Median < Mode

▪ High Kurtosis = high peak and fatter tails

o Hypothesis Testing – statistical method that uses a o Pearson r/Pearson Correlation

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