SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Important Definitions, Results and Theorems for Sequences and Series

Definition. A sequence {an } has a limit L and we write

lim an = L
n→∞

if for every  > 0, there is a corresponding integer N such that if n > N then |an − L| < .

Theorem 1. If lim f (x) = L and f (n) = an , when n is an integer, then lim an = L.

x→∞ n→∞

Theorem 2. If lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.

n→∞ n→∞

Result. The sequence {rn } is convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and divergent for all other values of r.

0 if − 1 < r < 1
lim rn =
n→∞ 1 if r = 1

Theorem 3. Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent

Definition. Given a series

∞
X
an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · · ,
n=1

let sn denote the finite its nth partial sum

n
X
sn = an
n=1

If the sequence {sn } is convergent and lim sn = s exists as a real number, then the series
P∞ n→∞
n=1 an is called convergent and we write

∞
X
an = s
n=1
The number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence {sn } is divergent, then the
series is called divergent.

Result (Geometric Series). The geometric series

∞
X
arn−1 = a + ar + ar2 + · · ·
n=1
1
2 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

is convergent if |r| < 1 and its sum is

∞
X a
arn−1 = |r| < 1
1−r
n=1

If |r| ≥ 1, then the geometric series is divergent.

P∞
Theorem 4. If the series n=1 an is convergent, then lim an = 0.
n→∞

Theorem 5 (The Test for Divergence). If lim an does not exist of if lim an 6= 0, then
n→∞ n→∞
the series ∞
P
n=1 an is divergent.

P P P P
Result. If an and bn are convergent series, then so are the series c an , (an + bn ) and
P
(an − bn ), ( c is a constant) and

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(1) can = c an (2) (an ± bn ) = an ± bn
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

Result (The Integral Test). Suppose f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function on [1, ∞)
and let an = f (n). Then
Z ∞ ∞
X
(1) If f (x) dx is convergent, then an is convergent.
1 n=1
Z ∞ ∞
X
(2) If f (x) dx is divergent, then an is divergent.
1 n=1

∞
X 1
Result (p-series test). The p-series is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.
np
n=1
∞
X 1
The series is called the Harmonic Series.
n
n=1

P P
Result (The Comparison Test). Suppose that an and bn are series with positive terms.

P P
(1) If bn is convergent and an ≤ bn for all n, then an is also convergent.

P P
(2) If bn is divergent and an ≥ bn for all n, then an is also divergent.

P P
Result (The Limit Comparison Test). Suppose that an and bn are series with positive
terms. If

an
lim =c
n→∞ bn

where c is a finite numnber and c > 0, then either both series converge or both diverge.
 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES 3

Definition. An alternating series is a series whose terms are altenatively positive and negative.

Result (The Alternating Series Test). An alternating series

∞
X
(−1)n−1 bn = b1 − b2 + b3 + · · · bn > 0
n=1
is convergent if it satisfies the following conditions

(1) bn+1 ≤ bn for all n (2) lim bn = 0.

n→∞

P
Definition (Absolutely Convergence). A series an is called absolutely convergent if the series
P
of the absolute values |an | is convergent.

P
Definition. A series an is called conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely
convergent.

P
Theorem 6. If a series an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.

P
Result (The Ratio Test). Given a series an ,
 
 an+1 
(1) If lim   = L < 1, then the series P an is absolutely convergent.
n→∞ an 
   
 an+1   an+1  P
(2) If lim 
  = L > 1 or lim   = ∞, then the seriest an is divergent.
n→∞ an  n→∞ an 
 
 an+1 
(3) If lim   = L = 1, the ratio Test is inconclusive.
n→∞ an 

P
Result (The Root Test). Given a series an ,
p P
(1) If lim n |an | = L < 1, then the series an is absolutely convergent.
n→∞
p
n
p P
(2) If lim |an | = L > 1 or lim n |an | = ∞, then the seriest an is divergent.
n→∞ n→∞
p
n
(3) If lim |an | = L = 1, the root Test is inconclusive.
n→∞

Definition (Power Series). A power series, centered at a, is of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · ,
n=0
where a is a fixed number, x is a variable. cn ’s are constants, called the coefficients of the series.
∞
X
Theorem 0.1. For a given series cn (x − a)n , there are only three posssibilities:
n=0
4 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

(1) The series only converges for x = a.

(2) The series converges for all values of x.
(3) There is a positive number R such that the seies converges when |x − a| < R and diverges
if |x − a| > R.

The number R in (3) is called the radius of convergence of the power series. In (1), R = 0,
while in (2), R = ∞.

Remark. Note that the series may or may not converge if |x − a| = R . What happens at these
points will not change the radius of convergence.

Definition. The interval of all x’s, including the endpoints if need be, for which the power
series converges is called the interval of convergence of the series.
• For (1), the interval of convergence is {a}.
• For (2), the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).
• For (3), the interval of convergence is either ( a−R, a+R ), ( a−R, a+R ], [ a−R, a+R )
or [ a−R, a+R ], depending whether the series converges for the endpoints of the interval.

Theorem 0.2. If f has a power series representation at a, that is, if

∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n |x − a| < R
n=0
then it’s coefficients are given by the formula
f (n) (a)
cn =
n!
In other words, if f has a power series expansion at a, then it must be of the form
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n
n!
n=0
This series is called the Taylor series of function about a (or centered at a).

Definition (Maclaurin Series). In the special case that a = 0, the series

∞
X
f (x) = cn xn
n=0
f (n) (0)
where cn = , is called the Maclaurin series of the function f (x).
n!
Important Maclaurin Series

The following Maclaurin series are very important and you are expected to remember them:
∞
1 X
(1) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn , −1 < x < 1.
1−x
n=0
∞
1 X
(2) = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · = (−1)n xn , −1 < x < 1.
1+x
n=0
 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES 5

∞
x2 x3 X xn
(3) ex =1+x+ + + ··· = , x in (−∞, ∞).
2! 3! n!
n=0
∞
x2 x4 x6 X (−1)n · x2n
(4) cos(x) = 1 − + − + ··· = , x in (−∞, ∞).
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 X (−1)n · x2n+1
(5) sin(x) = x − + − + ··· = , x in (−∞, ∞)
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
n=0

Remark. To avoid confusion between the series for sin x and cos x, remember that:
• sin x is an odd function, that is, sin(−x) = − sin x, so the series for sin x has only odd
exponents.
• cos x is an even function, that is cos(−x) = cos x, so the series for cos x has only even
exponents.