Chapter 1

Sequences and series

Definition 1.0.1. A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement

and formed according to a definite rule.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The sequence
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is written briefly as {un }, e.g., {un } = 2n, where u1 = 2, u2 = 4, u3 = 6 and so
on. The sequence is called finite or infinite according as there are or are not a finite number of
terms.

Recursion Formula or Recurrence Relations

So far we have seen that a sequence {Un } may be defined by giving a formula for {Un } in terms of
n. For example
2n2 − 5n + 4
Un = √ .
n2 + 1
We can also define sequences by giving a relation or formula that connect successive terms of a
sequence and specifying the value or values of the first term or the first and second terms etc. The
formula or relation linking the terms is called a recursion formula or recurrence relation.

Example:
Find the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un

Solution:
2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = =2
u0 1
2 2
u2 = u1+1 = = =1
u1 2
2 2
u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u2 1

1
You Try It: Define recursively

a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.

Find a6 recursively.

1.0.1 Limits of Sequences

1
Lets consider the sequence un = . The sequence has the terms 1, 21 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 1.0.2. A number L is called the limit of a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if for any
positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε for all
integers n > N . We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for
n sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
Example: If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 27 , 10
3
, . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3.
n→∞

If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.

2
1.0.2 Properties of Limits

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then

n→∞ n→∞

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an A
4. lim = n→∞ = iff lim bn = B 6= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞

5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

1.0.3 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and
the sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.

We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M ) such that an > M for all n > N .

Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N .

Example: Can you see that (a) lim 32n−1 = ∞ (b) lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

1.0.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A
sequence may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.

If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence {un } is bounded

above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b).

If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The largest lower bound
is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

3
If m ≤ un ≤ M , the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P . (Every convergent sequence
is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true)

If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is called strictly
increasing. If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it is
strictly decreasing.

Examples: 1. The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing.
2. The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or decreasing.
1
Definition 1.0.3. A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

Examples: un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n.

1.0.5 Evaluating limits of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2− + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2

 
1 3 1 1
Example: lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2.
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − n5 3+0 3
Example: lim = lim = = .
n→∞ 5n2 + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + 2 − 6
5+0+0 5
n n2

√ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1
Example: lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n n→∞ n+1+ n

1.1 Infinite Series

One important application of infinite sequences is in representing infinite summations. If {an } is

an infinite sequence, then
X∞
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
n=1

4
is called an infinite series (or simply a series). The numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . are called the terms of
the series. To find the sum of an infinite series, consider the following sequence of partial sums.
S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2
S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.. . .. ..
. = .. . .
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an .
If this sequence of partial sums converges, then the series is said to converge and has the sum
indicated in the following definition.

1.1.1 Definition of Convergent and Divergent Series

X
For the infinite series an , the nth partial sum is given by
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an .
X
If the sequence of partial sums {Sn } converges to S, then the series an converges. The limit S
is called the sum of the series. If {Sn } diverges, then the series diverges.

∞
X 1 1 1 1 1
For example, the series n
= + + + + · · · has the following partial sums.
n=1
2 2 4 8 16
1
S1 =
2
1 1 3
S2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
s3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
.. .. .. .. ..
. = . . . .
1 1 1 1 2n − 1
sn = + + + ··· + n = .
2 4 8 2 2n
2n − 1
Because lim = 1, it follows that the series converges and its sum is 1.
n→∞ 2n

Another example, the nth partial sum of the series

∞        
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = 1− + − + − + ···
n=1
n n+1 2 2 3 3 4
1
is given by Sn = 1 − . Because the limit of Sn is 1, the series converges and its sum is 1.
n+1

5
 ∞
X
Example: The series 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + · · · diverges, because Sn = n and the sequence of partial
n=1
sums diverges.

∞  
X 1 1
The series − is a telescoping series. That is, it is of the form
n=1
n n+1

(b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) + (b4 − b5 ) + · · ·

note that b2 is canceled by the second term, b3 is canceled by the third term and so on. Because the
nth partial sum of the series is Sn = b1 − bn+1 , it follows that a telescoping series will only converge
if and only if bn approaches a finite number as n → ∞. Moreover, if the series converges, then its
sum is
S = b1 − lim bn+1 .
n→∞

∞
X 2
Homework: Find the sum of the series .
n=1
4n2−1

Solution: Using partial fractions, we can write

2 2 1 1
an = = = − .
4n2 −1 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n − 1 2n + 1

From the telescoping form, we can see that the nth partial sum is
     
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = − + − + ··· + − =1− .
1 3 3 5 2n − 1 2n + 1 2n + 1

Thus, the series converges and its sum is 1. That is,

∞  
X 2 1
= lim Sn = lim 1 − = 1.
n=1
4n2 − 1 n→∞ n→∞ 2n + 1

1.2 Types of series

1. Geometric Series

A geometric series with ratio r is given by

∞
X
arn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn + · · · , a 6= 0.
n=0

6
 A geometric series with ratio r diverges if |r| ≥ 1. If 0 < |r| < 1, then the series converges to
∞
X a
the sum arn = , 0 < |r| < 1.
n=0
1 − r

Example
The geometric series
∞ ∞  n    2
X 3 X 1 1 1
n
= 3 = 3(1) + 3 +3 + ···
n=0
2 n=0
2 2 2

has a ratio of r = 21 with a = 3. Because 0 < |r| < 1, the series converges and its sum is
a 3
S= = = 6.
1−r 1 − 12

1.2.1 Properties of Infinite Series

X X
If an = A and bn = B and c is a real number, then the following series converge to the
X X X X X
indicated sums. (i) can = cA (ii) (an ± bn ) = an ± bn = A ± B. If the series an
converges, then the sequence {an } converges to 0.
X
If the sequence {an } does not converge to 0, then the series an diverges.

2. p− Series and Harmonic Series

A series of the form ∞

X 1 1 1 1
p
= p + p + p + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
is a p−series, where p is a positive constant. For p = 1, the series
∞
X 1 1 1
= 1 + + + ···
n=1
n 2 3

is the harmonic series.

The p−series
∞
X 1 1 1 1
p
= p
+ p
+ p
+ ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
(i) converges if p > 1 and (ii) diverges if 0 < p ≤ 1.

7
 From the Theorem it follows that the harmonic series
∞
X 1 1 1
= 1 + + + ···
n=1
n 2 3

diverges.

1.2.2 3. Alternating Series

So far, most series we have dealt with have had positive terms. In this section, we will study series
that contain both positive and negative terms. The simplest such series is an alternating series,
whose terms alternate in sign. For example, the geometric series
∞  n X ∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = (−1)n n = 1 − + − + − ···
n=0
2 n=0
2 2 4 8 16

is an alternating geometric series with r = − 12 . Alternating series occur in two ways, either the odd
terms are negative or the even terms are negative.

1.2.3 4. Power Series

If x is a variable, then the infinite series of the form

∞
X
an xx = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · + an xn + · · ·
n=0

is called a power series. More generally, a series of the form

∞
X
an (x − c)n = a0 + a1 (x − c) + a2 (x − c)2 + · · · + an (x − c)n + · · ·
n=0

is called a power series centered at c, where c is a constant.

(a) The following power series is centered at 0.

∞
X xn x2 x3
=1+x+ + + ···
n=0
n! 2 3!

(b) The following power series is centered at −1.

∞
X
(−1)n (x + 1)n = 1 − (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 − (x + 1)3 + · · ·
n=0

8
(c) The following power series is centered at 1.
∞
X 1 1 1
(x − 1)n = (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + · · ·
n=1
n 2 3

A power series in x can be viewed as a function of x

∞
X
f (x) = an (x − c)n
n=0

where the domain of f is the set of all x for which the power series converges.

Convergence of a Power Series

For a power series centered at c, precisely one of the following is true.

1. The series converges only at c.

2. There exists a real number R > 0 such that the series converges absolutely for |x − c| < R,
and diverges for |x − c| > R.
3. The series converges absolutely for all x.

The number R is the radius of convergence of the power series. In the series converges only at
c, then the radius of convergence is R = 0, and if the series converges for all x, then the radius
of convergence is R = ∞. The set of all values of x for which the power series converges is the
interval of convergence of the power series.
∞
X
Example 1.2.1. Find the radius of convergence of n!xn .
n=0

Solution: For x = 0, we obtain

∞
X
f (0) = n!0n = 1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1.
n=0

For any fixed value of x such that |x| > 0, let un = n!xn . Then
un+1 (n + 1)!xn+1
lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ n!xn
= |x| lim (n + 1)
n→∞
= ∞.
Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the series diverges for |x| > 0, and converges only at its center, 0.
Hence, the radius of convergence is R = 0.

9
 ∞
X
Example 1.2.2. Find the radius of convergence of 3(x − 2)n .
n=0

Solution: For x 6= 2, let un = 3(x − 2)n . Then

un+1 3(x − 2)n+1

lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ 3(x − 2)n
= lim |x − 2|
n→∞
= |x − 2|.

By the Ratio Test, the series converges if |x − 2| < 1 and diverges if |x − 2| > 1. Therefore, the
radius of convergence of the series is R = 1.

Finding the Interval of Convergence

∞
X xn
Example 1.2.3. Find the interval of convergence of .
n=1
n

xn
Solution: Letting un = produces
n
xn+1
un+1 n+1
lim = lim xn
n→∞ un n→∞
n
nx
= lim
n→∞ n+1
= |x|.

Therefore, by the Ratio Test, the radius of convergence is R = 1. Moreover, because the series is
centered at 0, it converges in the interval (−1, 1). This interval, however, is not necessarily the
interval of convergence. To determine this, we must test for convergence at each endpoint. When
x = 1, we obtain the divergent harmonic series
∞
X 1 1 1
= 1 + + + ···
n=1
n 2 3

When x = −1, we obtain the convergent alternating harmonic series

∞
X (−1)n 1 1 1
= −1 + − + − ···
n=1
n 2 3 4

Therefore, the interval of convergence for the series is [−1, 1).

∞
X (−1)n (x + 1)n
Example 1.2.4. Find the interval of convergence of .
n=0
2n

10
 (−1)n (x + 1)n
Solution: Letting un = produces
2n
(−1)n+1 (x+1)n+1
un+1 2n+1
lim = lim (−1)n (x+1)n
n→∞ un n→∞
2n
n
2 (x + 1)
= lim
n→∞ 2n+1
x+1
= .
2

x+1
By the Ratio test, the series converges if < 1 or |x+1| < 2. Hence, the radius of convergence
2
is R = 2. Because the series is centered at x = −1, it will converge in the interval (−3, 1).
Furthermore, at the endpoints we have
∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)n (−2)n X 2n X
= = 1 (Diverges when x=-3)
n=0
2n n=0
2n n=0

and ∞ ∞
X (−1)n (2)n X
= (−1)n (Diverges when x=1)
n=0
2n n=0

both of which diverge. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−3, 1).

∞
X xn
Example 1.2.5. Find the interval of convergence of .
n=1
n2

xn
Solution: Letting un = produces
n2
xn+1
un+1 (n+1)2 n2 x
lim = lim xn = lim = |x|.
n→∞ un n→∞
n2
n→∞ (n + 1)2

Thus, the radius of convergence is R = 1. Because the series is centered at x = 0, it converges in

the interval (−1, 1). When x = 1, we obtain the convergent p−series
∞
X 1 1 1 1
2
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ··· (Converges when x=1)
n=1
n 2 3 4

When x = −1, we obtain the convergent alternating series

∞
X (−1)n 1 1 1
= −1 + − 2 + 2 − ··· (Converges when x=-1)
n=1
n2 22 3 4

Therefore, the interval of convergence for the given series is [−1, 1].
∞
X
Example 1.2.6. Find the interval of convergence of nxn .
n=1

11
Solution: The series is a power series with an = n and c = 0. Let un = nxn , so un+1 = (n+1)xn+1 .
Then
un+1 (n + 1)|x|n+1 n+1
= n
= |x| =⇒ |x| as n → ∞.
un n|x| n
X ∞
The limit is less than one whenever |x| < 1. The Ratio Test then shows un is convergent for
n=1
|x| < 1, and the series diverges for |x| > 1. This means the radius of convergence is R = 1. We
know that the series is convergent for −1 < x < 1. We need to check convergence at the endpoints
X∞
of this interval. When x = 1, we have n. This series does not approach zero as n → ∞, we
n=1
know this series must diverge. Similarly, the series is divergent when x = −1. The interval of
convergence is (−1, 1).
∞
X (−1)n (x − 2)n
Example 1.2.7. Find the interval of convergence of .
n=1
n4n

|x − 2|n |x − 2|n+1
Solution: Let un = , so u n+1 = . Then
n4n (n + 1)4n+1
un+1 |x − 2|n+1 n4n n|x − 2| |x − 2|
= n+1 n
= =⇒ as n → ∞.
un (n + 1)4 |x − 2| (n + 1)4 4
|x − 2| |x − 2|
The Ratio Test gives convergence for < 1 and divergence for > 1. Solving the first
4 4
inequality, we have
|x − 2| < 4 =⇒ −4 < x − 2 < 4 =⇒ −2 < x < 6.
When x = −2, the series is
∞ ∞
X (−1)n (−2 − 2)n X 1
= ,
n=1
n4n n=1
n
which is a divergent p−series. When x = 6, we have
∞ ∞
X (−1)n (6 − 2)n X (−1)n
= .
n=1
n4n n=1
n

The Alternating Series Test shows that the series is convergent. The interval of convergence is
−2 < x ≤ 6.
∞
X xn
Example 1.2.8. Find the interval of convergence of the series .
n=1
n3n

xn
Solution: With un = , we find that
n3n
xn+1
un+1 (n + 1)3n+1 n|x| |x|
lim = = lim = .
n→∞ un xn n→∞ 3(n + 1) 3
n3n

12
 |x|
Now < 1 provided |x| < 3, so the Ratio Test implies that the given series converges absolutely if
3 X1
|x| < 3 and diverges if |x| > 3. When x = 3, we have the divergent harmonic series and when
n
n
X (−1)
x = −3, we have the convergent alternating series . Thus the interval of convergence of
n
the given power series is [−3, 3).
∞
X 2n xn
Example 1.2.9. Find the interval of convergence of .
n=0
n!

2n xn
Solution: With un = , we find that
n!
2n+1 xn+1
(n + 1)! 2|x|
lim = lim =0
n→∞ 2n xn n→∞ n + 1
n!

for all x. Hence the Ratio Test implies that the power series converges for all x, and its interval of
convergence is (−∞, ∞).

H/W : Test for Convergence or Divergence of Series

In this assignment, you are required to define what a Taylor series is and its link with a Power
series.

13
Chapter 2

Functions

What is a Function?

Definition
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each element x in X a unique element
y in Y .

The set X is called the domain of the function f and the range is the set of all elements of Y
assigned to an element of X. The element of Y assigned to an element x of X is called the image
of x under f and is denoted by f (x). We write f : X → Y for saying f is a function from X to Y .

In this course, both X and Y are sets of real numbers. Thus, the functions are called real functions.
We usually specify a function f by giving the expression for f (x). Below are a few examples of
functions:

f (x) = 5x4 + 9, g(t) = 1 − t3 , h(s) = 9s2 + 2.

Note that in the above examples, the letters f, g, h are used to denote functions whereas the let-
ters x, t, s are used to denote the variables. A variable is an arbitrary element of a set. In the
above examples, the letters x, t, s denote the independent variables and f (x), g(t), h(s) denote
the dependent variables since their values depend on the values of x, t, s respectively.

The domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule makes sense.

14
 1 1
Example: Let f (x) = , we cannot compute f (0), since is not defined. Then the domain of
x 0
1
f (x) = is the set of all real numbers except 0.
x

Function Domain x ∈ X Range y ∈ Y

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
1
y= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x
√
y = √x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
y = 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

Table 2.1: Examples of functions

You Try It: Let

x
g(x) = .
x2 + 4x + 3
What is the domain and range of this function?

2.0.1 Graphs of Functions

It is useful to draw pictures which represent functions. These pictures, or graphs, are a device
for helping us to think about functions. We graph functions in the x − y plane. The elements of
the domain of the function are thought of as points of the x−axis. The values of a function are
measured on the y−axis. The graph of f associates to x a unique y value that the function f assigns
to x. The graph of a function f is the set of points {(x, y)|y = f (x) in the domain of f } in the
Cartesian plane.

As a consequence, a function is characterized geometrically by the fact that any vertical line inter-
secting its graph does so in exactly one point.

15
2.0.2 Monotone and Bounded Functions

A real function f is increasing (strictly increasing) on an interval I if for all points x1 and x2
in I with x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) < f (x2 )).

A real function f is decreasing (strictly decreasing) on an interval I if for all points x1 and x2
in I with x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) > f (x2 )).

A real function f is monotone on interval I if f is either increasing or decreasing.

Example: Consider the function f (x) = (2x − 1)(x + 5). We observe that f is increasing on
the interval (−9/4, ∞) and is decreasing on the interval (−∞, −9/4).

Bounded Functions

A function f is bounded above if there is a real number M such that f (x) ≤ M for all points x
in its domain. The number M is then called an upper bound of f .

A function f is bounded below if there is a real number m such that f (x) ≥ m for all points x
in its domain. The number m is then called a lower bound of f .

A function f is bounded if f is bounded above and below, that is, there exist real numbers
M and m such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all points x in its domain.

Examples: f (x) = x + 3 is bounded in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. An upper bound is 4 (or any number greater

than 4). A lower bound is 2 (or any number less than 2).

16
2.1 Types of Functions

2.1.1 Elementary Functions

1. Polynomial Function

Have the form f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants and n is
a positive integer called the degree of the polynomial provided a0 6= 0.

Examples: x5 + 10x3 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

2. Rational Functions

P (x)
A function f (x) = where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions.
Q(x)

x3 + x + 5
Example: f (x) = is a rational function. Since (x + 1)(x − 4) = 0 for x = −1 and
x2 − 3x − 4
x = 4, the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except −1 and 4.

3. Power Function

f (x) = kxn , n a real number and k a constant.

1 1 2
Examples: y = , y = x2 , y = x3 .
x

17
4. Piecewise Defined Functions

A function need not be defined by a single formula. A piecewise defined function is a function
described by using different formula on different parts of its domain.
 
 −1, x<0  −x, x<0
Examples: (a) f (x) = 0, x=0 (b) f (x) = x2 , 0≤x≤1
x + 2, x>0 1, x > 1.
 

5. Transcendental Functions

The following are sometimes called elementary transcendental functions.

1. Exponential function, f (x) = ax , a 6= 0, 1.

2. Logarithmic function, f (x) = loga x, a 6= 0, 1.

3. Trigonometric functions (also called circular functions because of their geometric interpreta-
sin x
tion with respect to the unit circle), e.g., sin x, cos x, tan x = , csc x, cot x, sec x.
cos x
4. Inverse trigonometric functions, e.g., y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x.

5. Hyperbolic Functions, e.g., sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, coth x.

18
6. Even and Odd Functions

Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is even if f (x) = f (−x). (Symmetric
with respect to the y−axis)

Examples: |x|, x2 , x4 , cos x, cosh x.

Let f (x) be a real-valued function of a real variable. Then f is odd if −f (x) = f (−x) or
f (x) + f (−x) = 0. (Symmetric with respect to the origin)

Examples: x, x3 , sin x, sinh x.

3x
Example: Determine whether the following function is odd or even f (x) = .
x2 + 1

Solution:
3(−x) 3x
f (−x) = 2
=− 2 = −f (x).
(−x) + 1 x +1
The function is odd.

2.2 Combining Functions

A function f can be combined with another function g by means of arithmetic operations to form
f
other functions, the sum f + g, difference f − g, product f g and quotient are defined as :
g
Let f and g denote functions, then

1. Sum : (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

2. Difference : (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

3. Product : (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

 
f f (x)
4. Quotient : (x) = .
g g(x)

f
Example: If f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g(x) = 3x + 4. Find f + g, f − g, f g, .
g

19
Solution:

(f + g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) + (3x + 4) = 2x2 + 3x − 1.

(f − g)(x) = (2x2 − 5) − (3x + 4) = 2x2 − 3x − 9.
(f g)(x) = (2x2 − 5)(3x + 4) = 6x3 + 8x2 − 15x − 20
2x2 − 5
 
f
(x) = .
g 3x + 4

2.3 Composition of Functions

Let f and g denote functions. The composition of f and g, written f ◦ g is the function
(f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) and the composition of g and f , written g◦f , is the function (g◦f )(x) = g(f (x)).

Example: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x2 + 1, find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = (x2 + 1)2 = x4 + 2x2 + 1.
and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = (x2 )2 + 1 = x4 + 1.
In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .

2.4 Bijection, Injection and Surjection

Classes of functions may be distinguished by the manner in which arguments and images are related
or mapped to each other.

A function f : X → Y is injective (one-to-one, 1 − 1) if every element of the range corresponds

to exactly one element in its domain X.

For all x, y ∈ X, f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y or equivalently

For all x, y ∈ X, x 6= y =⇒ f (x) 6= f (y). An injective function is an injection.

20
Example: Show that the functions f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x3 − 2 are injective.

Solution: Need to show that f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y.

2x + 3 = 2y + 3
2x = 2y =⇒ x = y.

Hence f (x) = 2x + 3 is injective.

Need to show that g(x) = g(y) =⇒ x = y.

x3 − 2 = y 3 − 2
x3 = y 3 taking cube roots
x = y.
Hence g(x) = x3 − 2 is injective.

A function f : X → y is called onto if for all y in Y there is an x in X such that f (x) = y. All
elements in Y are used. Such functions are referred to as surjective.

Example: Show that f (x) = 3x − 5 is onto.

21
 y+5
Solution: For onto f (x) = y, i.e., 3x − 5 = y. Solve for x, =⇒ x = .
    3
y+5 y+5
So f =3 − 5 = y. Therefore f is onto.
3 3

Let X and Y be sets. A function f : X → Y that is one-to-one and onto is called a bijection
or bijective function from X to Y . If f is both one-to-one and onto, then we call f a 1 − 1
correspondence.

2.5 Operations on Functions

1. Equality of Functions

Equality of functions does not mean the same as equality of two numbers (numbers have a fixed
value but values of functions vary). Each function is a relationship between x and y, the two
relationships are the same if for every value of x we get the same value of y.

Example: The functions (x − 1)(x + 2) and x2 + x − 2 are equal.

Example: Equal functions for positive values of x,

√
|x| = x2 .

2. Identity Function

Generally, an identity function is one which does not change the domain values at all. Its the
function f (x) = x. Denoted by IX .

22
3. Inverse of a Function.

Suppose f is a 1 − 1 function that has domain X and range Y . Since every element y ∈ Y
corresponds with precisely one element x of X, the function f must actually determine a reverse
function g whose domain is Y and range is X, where f and g must satisfy f (x) = y and g(y) = x.
The function g is given the formal name inverse of f and usually written f −1 and read f inverse.
Not all functions have inverses, those that do are called invertible functions.

Example: Find the inverse of the function f (x) = (2x + 8)3 .

Solution: We must solve the equation y = (2x + 8)3 for x.

y = (2x + 8)3
√
3
y = 2x + 8
√3
y − 8 = 2x
√
3 y − 8
x = .
2
√
3
x−8
Hence the inverse function f −1 −1
is given by f (x) = .
2

A 1−1 function f can have only one inverse, i.e., f −1 is unique. A function f : X → Y is invertible
if and only if f is one-to-one and maps X onto Y .

23
Chapter 3

Limits and Continuity

The single most important idea in calculus is the idea of limit. More than 2000 years ago, the
ancient Greeks wrestled with the limit concept, and they did not succeed. It is only in the past 200
years that we have finally come up with a firm understanding of limits. The study of calculus went
through several periods of increased mathematical rigour beginning with the French mathematician
Augustin-Loius Cauchy (1789-1857) and later continued by the German mathematician, and former
high school teacher, Karl Wilhelm Weierstrass (1815-1897).

3.1 Limit of a Function

If f is a function, then we say lim f (x) = A, if the value of f (x) gets arbitrarily closer to A as x gets
x→a
closer and closer to a. For example, lim x2 = 9, since x2 gets arbitrarily close to 9 as x approaches
x→3
as close as one wishes to 3.

The definition can be stated more precisely as follows : lim f (x) = A if and only if, for any
x→a
chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that, whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

lim f (x) = A means that f (x) can be made as close as desired to A by making x close enough, but
x→a
not equal to a. How close is “close enough to a” depends on how close one wants to make f (x) to
A. It also of course depends on which function f is and on which number a is. The positive number
ε is how close one wants to make f (x) to A ; one wants the distance to be no more then ε. The
positive number δ is how close one will make x to a ; if the distance from x to a is less than δ (but
not zero), then the distance from f (x) to A will be less than ε. Thus δ depends on ε. The limit
statement means that no matter how small ε is made, δ can be made smaller enough. The letters
ε and δ can be understood as “error” and “distance”. In these terms the error (ε) can be made as
small as desired by reducing the distance (δ).

24
The ε − δ definition of lim f (x) = A
x→a

For any chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that,
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 1) = 2.

n→1

Solution: Need to find δ so that, for a given ε, |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε for |x − 1| < δ.

Now
x 2 + 1 − 2 = x2 − 1
= (x + 1)(x − 1).
Choose |x − 1| < 1 so that −1 < x − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0 < x < 2 ⇒ 1 < x + 1 < 3. You have |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε
ε
if 3|x − 1| < ε or |x − 1| < . You have now two conditions on x :
3
ε
|x − 1| < 1 and |x − 1| < .
3
ε ε
Choose δ = min{1, 3 }. For a given ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, 3 }, then we have |x − 1| < δ, it would
be true that |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 3x) = 10.

x→2

Solution: Let ε > 0. We must produce a δ > 0 such that, whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ then
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < ε. First we note that
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| = |(x − 2)2 + 7(x − 2)| ≤ |x − 2|2 + 7|x − 2|.
ε
Also, if 0 < δ ≤ 1, then δ 2 ≤ δ. Hence, if we take δ to be the minimum of 1 and , then, whenever
8
0 < |x − 2| < δ,
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < δ 2 + 7δ ≤ δ + 7δ = 8δ ≤ ε.
 
1
You Try It: Prove that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x

Right and Left Limits

Considering x and a as points on the real axis where a is fixed and x is moving, then x can approach
a from the right or from the left. We indicate these respective approaches by writing x → a+ and
x → a− .

If lim+ f (x) = A1 and lim− f (x) = A2 , we call A1 and A2 respectively the right and left hand limits
x→a x→a
of f (x) at a.

25
We have lim f (x) = A if and only if lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = A. The existence of the limit from the
x→a x→a x→a
left does not imply the existence of the limit from the right and conversely. When a function f is
defined on only one side of a point a, then lim f (x) is identical to the one-sided limit, if it exists. For
√ x→a √ √
example, if f (x) = x, then f is only defined to the right of zero. Hence, lim x = lim+ x = 0.
x→0
√ √ x→0
Of course, lim− x does not exist, since x is not defined when x < 0. On the other hand, consider
x→0 r
1
the function g(x) = , which is defined only for x > 0. In this case, lim+ g(x) does not exist and,
x x→0
therefore lim g(x) does not exist.
x→0

3.2 Theorems on Limits

1. If f (x) = c, a constant, then lim f (x) = c.
x→a

2. If lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B, then

x→a x→a

(a) lim kf (x) = kA, k being any constant.

x→a

(b) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = A ± B.

x→a x→a x→a

(c) lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB.

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x) A

x→a
(d) lim = = , provided B 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) B
x→a

Example: If lim f (x) exists, prove that it must be unique.

x→a

Solution: Must show that if lim f (x) = A1 and lim f (x) = A2 , then A1 = A2 .
x→a x→a

By hypothesis, given any ε > 0 we can find δ > 0 such that

ε
|f (x) − A1 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ
2
ε
|f (x) − A2 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ.
2
Then
ε ε
|A1 − A2 | = |A1 − f (x) + f (x) − A2 | ≤ |A1 − f (x)| + |f (x) − A2 | < + = ε.
2 2
i.e., |A1 −A2 | is less than any positive number ε (however small) and so must be zero. Thus A1 = A2 .

Example: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that

x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = A + B

x→a x→a x→a

26
.

Solution: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0 such that |(f (x)+g(x))−(A+B)| < ε
when 0 < |x − a| < δ.

By hypothesis, given ε > 0, we can find δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 such that
ε
|f (x) − A| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ1
2
ε
|g(x) − B| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ2 .
2
Then
ε ε
|(f (x) + g(x)) − (A + B)| ≤ |f (x) − A| + |g(x) − B| < + = ε,
2 2
when 0 < |x − a| < δ where δ is chosen as the smaller of δ1 and δ2 .

You Try It: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that
x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB

x→a x→a x→a

3.3 Special Limits

sin x 1 − cos x
1. lim = 1, lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
 x
1 1
2. lim 1 + = e, lim+ (1 + x) x = e.
x→∞ x x→0

ex − 1 x−1
3. lim = 1, lim = 1.
x→0 x x→1 ln x

3.4 Methods of Calculating lim f (x)

x→a

1. If f (a) is defined

If x = a is in the domain of f (x) and a is not an endpoint of the domain, and f (x) is defined by a
single expression, then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Example: Find lim (x + 3).

x→1

27
Solution: lim (x + 3) = 1 + 3 = 4.
x→1

1
Example: Find lim .
x→1 x + 2

1 1 1
Solution: lim = = .
x→1 x + 2 1+2 3

Example: Find lim (x2 − 7x + 5).

x→8

Solution: lim (x2 − 7x + 5) = 82 − 7(8) + 5 = 13.

x→8

x2 − 4
Example: Find lim .
x→2 x − 2

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
Solution: lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

2. Functions Defined By More Than One Expression

Suppose that f (x) is defined by one expression for x < a and by a different expression for x > a.

|x|
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

Solution: Notice that  x

|x|  x = 1, if x ≥ 0
=
x  − x = −1, if x < 0.
x
i.e., you seek a limit at x = 0 of a function that is defined differently on either side of x = 0.

|x|
lim− = lim (−1) = −1.
x→0 x x→0−
|x|
lim+ = lim (1) = 1.
x→0 x x→0+

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim+ 6= lim− , then lim does not exist.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

sin 3x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 x

28
  
sin 3x sin 3x
Solution: Since =3 . Then
x 3x
 
sin 3x sin 3x sin 3x
lim = lim 3 = 3 lim = 3(1) = 3.
x→0 x x→0 3x x→0 3x

1 − cos 2x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 sin 3x
      
1 − cos 2x 1 − cos 2x 3x 1 2 1 − cos 2x 3x
Solution: Since = 2x = . Then
sin 3x 2x sin 3x 3x 3 2x sin 3x
   
1 − cos 2x 2 1 − cos 2x 3x 2
lim = lim lim = (0)(1) = 0.
x→0 sin 3x 3 x→0 2x x→0 sin 3x 3

sin x
Example: Find limπ .
x→ 4 cos x

π


sin x sin 4

Solution: limπ = π
= 1.
x→ 4 cos x cos 4

1 − cos θ
You Try It: Show that lim = 0.
θ→0 θ

3. Limits at Infinity

It sometimes happen that as x → a, f (x) increases or decreases without bound. We write

lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞. We say that, lim f (x) = +∞, if for each positive number
x→a x→a x→a
M we can find a positive number δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) > M whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.

Similarly, we say that lim f (x) = −∞, if for each positive number M we can find a positive number
x→a
δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) < −M whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

29
 1 1
Note that lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

4. Limits at Infinity of a Rational Function

pm (x)
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials, f (x) = , where m and n are the degrees
qn (x)
of the two polynomials.

1. If m < n, then lim f (x) = 0.

x→∞
x+1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ x2 + 4

Solution: The degree of the numerator is one, the degree of the denominator is two. Therefore
1
x+1 x
+ x12 0+0
lim 2 = 0, since lim 4 = = 0.
x→∞ x + 4 x→∞ 1 + 2 1+0
x

2. If m > n, then lim f (x) = ±∞ . (sign depends on the polynomials pm (x) and qn (x), if they
x→∞
are of the same sign as x gets larger, the quotient is positive, if they are of opposite signs, the
quotient is negative)
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x + 5
2
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4 1− x
+ x32 + x43 1
Solution: lim = lim 3 = = ∞.
x→∞ 3x + 5 x→∞
x2
+ x53 0
a
3. If m = n, then lim f (x) = , where a is the coefficient of xm in the numerator and b is the
x→∞ b
coefficient of xn in the denominator.
x3 − 4x + 1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x3 + 2x + 7

4 1
x3 − 4x + 1 1− x2
+ x3 1−0+0 1
Solution: lim 3
= lim 2 7 = = .
x→∞ 3x + 2x + 7 x→∞ 3 + + 3+0+0 3
x2 x3

a0 xm + a1 xm−1 + · · · + am
You Try It: What is lim , where a0 , b0 6= 0 and m and n are
x→∞ b0 xn + b1 xn−1 + · · · + bn
positive integers, when (a) m > n (b) m = n (c) m < n.
x−4
You Try It: Find lim √ .
x→4 x−2

3.5 Continuity

A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = a if

30
 1. f (a) is defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Notice that, for f (x) to be continuous at x = a, all three conditions must be satisfied. If at least
one condition fails, f is said to have a discontinuity at x = a. For example, f (x) = x2 + 1 is
continuous at x = 2 since lim f (x) = 5 = f (2). The first condition above implies that a function
x→2 √
can be continuous only at points of its domain. Thus, f (x) = 4 − x2 is not continuous at x = 3
because f (3) is imaginary, i.e., not defined.

A function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = a in its domain if

lim+ f (x) = f (a). It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at x = a if lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a x→a
A function is continuous at an interior point x = a of its domain if and only if it is both right-
continuous and left-continuous at x = a.

Example: Determine whether f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

Solution: lim x2 + 1 = f (1) = 12 + 1 = 2. Therefore f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

x→1

|x|
Example: Determine whether f (x) = is continuous at x = 0.
x

Solution: Since f (0) is not defined, f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Example: Determine whether

|x|
(
f (x) = , if x 6= 0
x
0, if x = 0,

is continuous at x = 0.

Solution: f (0) now defined. Then

Then lim f (x) must be considered in two steps,

x→0

lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1.

x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (1) = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

Sine the limits are not the same, lim f (x) does not exist and f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.
x→0

31
You Try It: Determine whether the function defined by
 2
 x, if x < 2
f (x) = 5, if x = 2
−x + 6, if x > 2,


is continuous at the point x = 2.

A function f (x) is discontinuous at x = a if one or more of the conditions for continuity fails
there.

1
Example: (a) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2, because f (2) is not defined (has a zero
x−2
denominator) and because lim f (x) does not exist (equals ∞). The function is, however, continuous
x→2
everywhere except at x = 2, where it is said to have an infinite discontinuity.

x2 − 4
(b) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2 because f (2) is not defined (both numerator and
x−2
denominator are zero) and because lim f (x) = 4. The discontinuity here is called removable since
x→2
x2 − 4
it may be removed by redefining the function as f (x) = for x 6= 2 and f (2) = 4. (Note the
x−2
discontinuity in (a) cannot be removed because the limit also does not exist.)

3.6 The ε − δ Definition of Continuity

f (x) is continuous at x = a, if for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that, |f (x) − f (a)| < ε
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

Example: Prove that f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 2.

Solution: Must show that, given any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that |f (x)−f (2)| = |x2 −4| < ε
when |x − 2| < δ.

Choose δ ≤ 1, so that |x − 2| < 1 or 1 < x < 3 (x 6= 2). Then |x2 − 4| = |(x − 2)(x + 2)| =
|x − 2||x + 2| < δ|x + 2| < 5δ. Taking δ = min{1, 5ε } whichever is smaller, then we have |x2 − 4| < ε
whenever |x − 2| < δ.

You Try It: (a) Prove that f (x) = x is continuous at any point x = x0 .
(b) Prove that f (x) = 2x3 + x is continuous at any point x = x0 .

32
Properties of Continuous functions

Theorem 1
f (x)
If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, so are the functions f (x) ± g(x), f (x)g(x) and if
g(x)
g(x) 6= 0.

Theorem 2
The following functions are continuous in every finite interval (a) all polynomials (b) sin x and
cos x (c) ax , a > 0.

Theorem 3
If y = f (x) is continuous at x = a and z = g(y) is continuous at y = b and if b = f (a), then the
function z = g[f (x)] called a function of a function or composite function is continuous at x = a.

Briefly: A continuous function of a continuous function is continuous.

Theorem 4
If f (x) is continuous in a closed interval, it is bounded in the interval.

33