University of Zimbabwe

HMTH101 CALCULUS 1
Chapter 2
Author: Department:
Dr J. Mushanyu Mathematics

March 4, 2018
Sequences

Definition 0.0.1. A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement

and formed according to a definite rule.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The sequence
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is written briefly as {un }, e.g., {un } = 2n, where u1 = 2, u2 = 4, u3 = 6 and so
on. The sequence is called finite or infinite according as there are or are not a finite number of
terms.

Recursion Formula or Recurrence Relations

So far we have seen that a sequence {Un } may be defined by giving a formula for {Un } in terms of
n. For example
2n2 − 5n + 4
Un = √ .
n2 + 1
We can also define sequences by giving a relation or formula that connect successive terms of a
sequence and specifying the value or values of the first term or the first and second terms etc. The
formula or relation linking the terms is called a recursion formula or recurrence relation.

Example:
Find the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un

Solution:
2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = =2
u0 1
2 2
u2 = u1+1 = = =1
u1 2
2 2
u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u2 1
You Try It: Define recursively
a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.
Find a6 recursively.

1
0.1 Limits of Sequences

1
Lets consider the sequence un = . The sequence has the terms 1, 21 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 0.1.1. A number L is called the limit of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if
for any positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε
for all integers n > N . We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for
n sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
Example: If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 27 , 10
3
, . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3.
n→∞

If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.

1
Example: Prove that lim = 0.
n→∞ n
   
1  1 1 1 1
Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that  − 0 =   =
 < ε. But n > . So N = .
n n n ε ε
1 1
Taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have, lim = 0.
ε n→∞ n

2
 1
You Try It: Prove that lim = 0 if p ∈ N.
n→0 np

2n − 1 2
Example: Use the definition of a limit to prove that lim = .
n→∞ 3n + 2 3

Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that

         
 2n − 1 2   3(2n − 1) − 2(3n + 2)   6n − 3 − 6n − 4   −7   7 
 − =
 3n + 2 3  
=
  3(3n + 2)   3(3n + 2)   3(3n + 2)  < ε
= = 
3(3n + 2)

7
< ε
3(3n + 2)
7 − 6ε
n > .
9ε
7 − 6ε 7 − 6ε
Take N = . So taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have
 9ε 9ε
 2n − 1 2  2n − 1 2
 3n + 2 − 3  < ε , i.e., n→∞
lim = .
 
3n + 2 3

0.2 Theorems on Limits

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then

n→∞ n→∞

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an A
n→∞
4. lim = = if lim bn = B 6= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞

5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

Proof: We must show that if lim un = l1 and lim un = l2 , then l1 = l2 . By hypothesis, given any
n→∞ n→∞
ε ε
ε > 0, we can find N such that |un − l1 | < when n > N and |un − l2 | < when n > N . Then
2 2
ε ε
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − un + un − l2 | ≤ |l1 − un | + |un − l2 | < + = ε,
2 2
i.e., |l1 −l2 | is less than any positive ε (however small) and so must be zero, i.e., l1 −l2 = 0 =⇒ l1 = l2 .

3
Example: If lim an = A and lim bn = B, prove that lim (an + bn ) = A + B.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find N > 0, such that |(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε
for all n > N . We have

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) + (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|.

ε
By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that |an − A| < for all n > N1 and
2
ε
|bn − B| < for all n > N2 . Then
2
ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < + =ε
2 2
for all n > N where N = max(N1 , N2 ). Hence lim (an + bn ) = A + B.
n→∞

0.3 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and
the sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.

We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M ) such that an > M for all n > N .

Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N .

Example: Prove that (a) lim 32n−1 = ∞ (b) lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: (a) If for each positive number M we can find a positive number
 N such
 that an > M for
1 ln M
all n > N , then 32n−1 > M when (2n − 1) ln 3 > ln M , i.e., n > + 1 . Taking N to be
  2 ln 3
1 ln M
the smallest greater than + 1 , then lim 32n−1 = ∞.
2 ln 3 n→∞

(b) If for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N such that an < −M for all
n > N , i.e., 1 − 2n < −M when 2n − 1 > M or n > 12 (M + 1). Taking N to be the smallest integer
greater than 12 (M + 1), we have lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞

4
0.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A
sequence may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.

If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence {un } is bounded

above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b).

If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The largest lower bound
is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

If m ≤ un ≤ M , the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P . (Every convergent sequence

is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true)

If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is called strictly
increasing. If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it is
strictly decreasing.

Examples: 1. The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing.
2. The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or decreasing.
1
Definition 0.4.1. A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

Examples: un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n.

0.5 Limits of Combination of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2− + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2

 
1 3 1 1
Example: lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2.
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − n5 3+0 3
Example: lim = lim = = .
n→∞ 5n2 + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + 2 − 6
5+0+0 5
n n2

5
 √ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1
Example: lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n n→∞ n+1+ n

0.6 Squeeze Theorem

If lim an = l = lim bn and there exists an N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn , for all n > N , then
n→∞ n→∞
lim cn = l.
n→∞

cos n
Example: Find lim .
n→∞ n

Solution: We know that −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1

1 cos n 1 1 cos n 1 cos n
=⇒ − ≤ ≤ =⇒ − lim ≤ lim ≤ lim =⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
n n n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
cos n
=⇒ lim = 0.
n→∞ n